reference for psychology assignment

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APA 7th Referencing

The examples below will help you to understand the basic components of common reference types in the APA 7th style. Refer to the following APA publications for more examples:

• APA Style Reference Quick guide 7th edition A quick guide to three of the most common reference types
• Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Print copies available at the Barr Smith Library
• APA 7 reference examples Examples of references for: periodicals, books, book chapters, edited works, reports, grey literature, conference proceedings, dissertations and unpublished works.

APA 7th Referencing Examples

• Journal article
• Book Chapter
• Artificial Intelligence
• Other APA 7th reference examples

Journal articles:

Here is an example of an APA 7th reference for a journal article :

In-text citation:

(Gold, 2019) or According to Gold (2019) …

In the Reference List:

Description:

Articles are published within Journals.

The author's name is J. Gold . The article title is: Overcoming students' limiting viewpoints via learner & stress mindset teaching interventions . The article was published in The European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences . The article appears in Volume 24, Issue 1, on pages 2805-2821 .

Here is an example of a citation for a book :

(Moran & Toner, 2017) or According to Moran and Toner (2017) …

In the reference list:

The author’s names are A. Moran and J. Toner. The book title is A critical introduction to sport psychology . It was published by Routledge .

Here is an example of a citation for a chapter from a book:

(Shah, 2018) or Shah (2018) advocates ...

The big clue that this is a book chapter citation is the word In . It tells you that the chapter 'Big data analytics in higher education' is in the book Maximizing social science research through publicly accessible data sets, on pages 38-61.

Here is an example of a citation for information from a website :

(Association of Massage Therapists, n.d.) or The Association of Massage Therapists (n.d.) states that ...

The author’s name is the Association of Massage Therapists . The webpage title is Benefits of massage . There is no date given on the webpage. It was retrieved from the URL: http://www.amt.org.au/massage-and- you/benefits-of-massage.html

*Please note that there are various different ways to reference information found on webpages. Refer to the following guides for more examples:

• Victoria University APA 7th Referencing: Webpages

APA Style has provided advice on how to cite ChatGPT.  When you include ChatGPT-generated text in your research or assignment, APA does not consider it  personal communication because there's no human involved. It's more like sharing the output of an algorithm. To give credit for the algorithm's work, create a reference list entry and add an in-text citation for the algorithm's author. This format can be adapted for other generative AI tools.

In-text citation

Parenthetical citation: (Author, 2023)

Example: (OpenAI, 2023)

Narrative citation: Author (2023)

Example : OpenAI (2023)

Reference List

Format : Author. (Year). AI Tool (Version if applicable) [Large language model]. URL

Example : OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

APA specifically suggests that if you have used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, explain how you used them in your methods section or a similar part of your assignment. For literature reviews, essays or other papers, describe how you used the tool in your introduction (if you relied on it heavily) and make sure to include the prompt you used and the generated text in your assignment.

• APA Style Especially useful are the sections Reference Examples, In-text Citations and the APA Style Blog.
• Victoria University APA 7th guide with examples Great resource with lots of examples and information about the APA 7th style
• University of Newcaste Quick Guide to APA 7th Referencing Includes examples of many different APA 7th reference types
• Massey University APA 7th interactive tool
• Wintec Library guide to referencing in APA 7th edition style Great resource for formatting your reference list in APA 7th style
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American Psychological Association (APA) Referencing

The American Psychological Association (APA) style requires two elements: in-text citations throughout your assignment, and a reference list at the end.

1. Throughout the text: In-text citations

Include information about a source within the text of your assignment:

• the name of the author or authors
• the year of publication
• the page number (see below for further information).

In-text citations have two formats: parenthetical and narrative . In parenthetical citations, the author name and publication date appear between parentheses, while in narrative citations, this information is included in the sentence (see the examples below).

Paraphrase of the source in your own words

Encouraging students to memorise information and then testing their memory has been a consistent criterion of pedagogy (Broudy, 1998).

Broudy (1998, p. 8) explains that memorisation does not result in an ability to solve problems.

Quotation (exact words from the source)

The case study demonstrates that “on the common criteria for schooling, our sample citizen has failed because he cannot replicate the necessary skill or apply the relevant principles” (Broudy, 1998, p. 9).

Broudy (1998, p. 9) argues that “on the common criteria for schooling, our sample citizen has failed because he cannot replicate the necessary skill or apply the relevant principles”.

Citations placed at the end of a sentence sit before the concluding punctuation .

2. At the end: References

At the end of the text, include a list of references; a single list of all the sources of information you have cited in your assignment. Begin the reference list on a new page and title it “References”. Centre the title on the page. Each entry should have a hanging indent.

Each list item requires specific bibliographic information. For example, in the case of a book, ‘bibliographical details’ refers to: author/editor, year of publication, title, edition, and publisher, as found in the title pages (some details will vary).

Wolpe, A. (1988). Within school walls . Routledge.

Woods, C. & Griffiths, A. (1995). The real McCoy. Design World, 12 (3), 2-13.

List each item in alphabetical order (by author surname). Titles should be in italics. All of the references included in the list must also be cited in the text.

When to include page numbers When you quote from a source (reproduce material word for word), page numbers are required. When paraphrasing, the APA publications manual 7th edn. (p. 269) suggests it can be useful to provide page numbers, to help the reader locate the information in a long text. However, this is not an essential requirement. Check with your lecturer about their preferences on the inclusion or exclusion of page numbers for paraphrased information in your assignments.

How to cite using APA referencing

APA referencing

• How to cite
• Citing different sources
• Electronic sources
• Broadcast and visual materials
• Example activity
• ^ More support

Scholarly Resources 4 Students | scite.ai 21 May 2024

Discover your Library: Main Library 21 May 2024

Scribbr Referencing Generator

Accurate Harvard, APA, MLA, and Chicago references, verified by experts, trusted by millions.

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When your reference list is complete, export it to Word. We’ll apply the official formatting guidelines automatically.

Lists and folders

Create separate reference lists for each of your assignments to stay organized. You can also group related lists into folders.

Export to Bib(La)TeX

Are you using a LaTex editor like Overleaf? If so, you can easily export your references in Bib(La)TeX format with a single click.

Custom fonts

Change the typeface used for your reference list to match the rest of your document. Options include Times New Roman, Arial, and Calibri.

Industry-standard technology

Scribbr’s Referencing Generator is built using the same citation software (CSL) as Mendeley and Zotero, but with an added layer for improved accuracy.

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Describe or evaluate your sources in annotations, and Scribbr will generate a perfectly formatted annotated bibliography.

Referencing guides

Scribbr’s popular guides and videos will help you understand everything related to finding, evaluating, and referencing sources.

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• Introduction
• Finding sources

Evaluating sources

• Integrating sources

Referencing sources

Tools and resources, a quick guide to working with sources.

Working with sources is an important skill that you’ll need throughout your academic career.

It includes knowing how to find relevant sources, assessing their authority and credibility, and understanding how to integrate sources into your work with proper referencing.

This quick guide will help you get started!

Finding relevant sources

Sources commonly used in academic writing include academic journals, scholarly books, websites, newspapers, and encyclopedias. There are three main places to look for such sources:

• Research databases: Databases can be general or subject-specific. To get started, check out this list of databases by academic discipline . Another good starting point is Google Scholar .
• Your institution’s library: Use your library’s database to narrow down your search using keywords to find relevant articles, books, and newspapers matching your topic.
• Other online resources: Consult popular online sources like websites, blogs, or Wikipedia to find background information. Be sure to carefully evaluate the credibility of those online sources.

When using academic databases or search engines, you can use Boolean operators to refine your results.

Generate Harvard, APA, MLA, and Chicago style references in seconds

Get started

In academic writing, your sources should be credible, up to date, and relevant to your research topic. Useful approaches to evaluating sources include the CRAAP test and lateral reading.

CRAAP is an abbreviation that reminds you of a set of questions to ask yourself when evaluating information.

• Currency: Does the source reflect recent research?
• Relevance: Is the source related to your research topic?
• Authority: Is it a respected publication? Is the author an expert in their field?
• Accuracy: Does the source support its arguments and conclusions with evidence?
• Purpose: What is the author’s intention?

Lateral reading

Lateral reading means comparing your source to other sources. This allows you to:

• Verify evidence
• Contextualize information
• Find potential weaknesses

If a source is using methods or drawing conclusions that are incompatible with other research in its field, it may not be reliable.

Integrating sources into your work

Once you have found information that you want to include in your paper, signal phrases can help you to introduce it. Here are a few examples:

Following the signal phrase, you can choose to quote, paraphrase or summarize the source.

• Quoting : This means including the exact words of another source in your paper. The quoted text must be enclosed in quotation marks or (for longer quotes) presented as a block quote . Quote a source when the meaning is difficult to convey in different words or when you want to analyze the language itself.
• Paraphrasing: This means putting another person’s ideas into your own words. It allows you to integrate sources more smoothly into your text, maintaining a consistent voice. It also shows that you have understood the meaning of the source.
• Summarizing : This means giving an overview of the essential points of a source. Summaries should be much shorter than the original text. You should describe the key points in your own words and not quote from the original text.

Whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, you must include a citation crediting the original author.

Referencing your sources is important because it:

• Allows you to avoid plagiarism
• Establishes the credentials of your sources
• Backs up your arguments with evidence
• Allows your reader to verify the legitimacy of your conclusions

The most common citation styles in the UK are APA, MLA, Harvard, Vancouver, MHRA, and Oscola. Each citation style has specific rules for formatting citations.

Scribbr’s free Reference Generator can generate perfect references and in-text citations in both APA and MLA styles. More citation styles will be available soon!

Scribbr and partners offer tons of tools and resources to make working with sources easier and faster. Take a look at our top picks:

• Reference Generator: Automatically generate Harvard and APA references .
• Plagiarism Checker : Detect plagiarism in your paper using the most accurate Turnitin-powered plagiarism software available to students.
• Proofreading services : Have a human editor improve your writing.
• Knowledge Base : Explore hundreds of articles, bite-sized videos, time-saving templates, and handy checklists that guide you through the process of research, writing, and citation.

Psychology Library Guide: Referencing and the APA Style

• Getting Started
• Looking for Books
• PsycINFO & PsycARTICLES and other psych databases
• How To Follow References
• How To Do A Literature Review
• The Literature Review Demo - a step-by-step guide to the tools and techniques
• Types of Literature Reviews, including "Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide"
• Systematic Reviews Homepage by Tamzyn Suleiman
• Danielle Abrahamse's Search String Design and Search Template
• Research Methodologies
• Aditi's Humanities Referencing Style Guide

Referencing and the APA Style

• New-version RefWorks Demo
• Research Data Management
• Tracking Your Academic Footprint This link opens in a new window
• Mistress Serendipity's Library
• PsycInfo Training videos from the APA site.

Referencing and the APA style

PsycINFO has a brief guide to APA style on its help pages as well as links to the APA's own guide. Here is the text of the PsycInfo guide:

The main scholarly association for academic psychologists in the United States, the American Psychological Association (APA) has developed standardized methods for citing print and electronic sources used in research. Below are instructions according to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition) and http://www.apastyle.org/ .

Instructions

Alphabetize each entry in a works cited list by the first letter, ignoring the articles A, An, and The. Indent subsequent lines of entries one-half inch.

Names : Use initials for first and middle names.

Titles : For articles, chapters and books, capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle and proper nouns. Fully capitalize periodical titles.

Dates : Publication dates use the order year, month day. The access date uses the order month day year. If no publication date is available, use "n.d." in place of date.

The following examples are citations from EBSCO databases. If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Different styles may apply when citing print and other sources.

Journal Article

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. ([Publication year]). [Title of article]. [ Title of journal ], [ Volume number ]([Issue number]), [Page number starts]-[ends]. [Document Object Identifier]

Example: Silva, L. (2007). Epistemological and theoretical challenges for studying power and politics in information systems. Information Systems Journal , 17 (2), 165-183. [Document Object Identifier]

Journal Article w/ No Author

Pattern: [Title of article]. ([Publication year]). [ Title of journal ], [ Volume number ]([Issue number]), [Page number starts]-[ends]. [Document Object Identifier]

Example: Epistemological and theoretical challenges for studying power and politics in information systems. (2007). Information Systems Journal , 17 (2), 165-183. [Document Object Identifier]

Online Magazine Article

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. ([Year], [Month]). [Article Title] [ Title of magazine ], [ Volume number ] ([Issue Number]).

Example: Wood, L. (2007, February). Curiously strong teamwork. Business Week , 4023 .

Magazine Article w/ No Author

Pattern: [Title of article]. ([Year], [Month]). [ Title of magazine ], [ Volume number ] ([Issue Number]).

Example: Curiously strong teamwork. (2007, February). Business Week , 4023 , 90-92.

Online Newspaper Article

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. ([Year], [Month] [Day]). [Title of article]. [ Title of newspaper ].

Example: Bodipo-Memba, A. (2007, February 21). AT&T, GM agrees to $1-billion telecommunications pact. Detroit Free Press .

Online Newspaper Article w/ No Author

Pattern: [Title of article]. ([Year], [Month] [Day])] [ Title of newspaper ].

Example: AT&T, GM agrees to $1-billion telecommunications pact. (2007, February 21). Detroit Free Press .

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. ([Publication year]). [ Title of work ]. [Location]: [Publisher].

Example: Melkman, A. (2006). Strategic customer planning . London, UK: Thorogood.

Online Book Chapter

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. ([Publication year]). [Title of chapter]. In, [ Title of book ] (pp. [Page number starts]-[ends]). [Location]: [Publisher].

Example: Melkman, A. (2006). Introduction, summary and how to get the most out of this book. In, Strategic customer planning (pp. 1-18). London, UK: Thorogood.

ERIC Document

Pattern: [Author last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. [Publication year]. [ Title of Document ]([Document or Report number]). [Place of Publication]: [Publishing Agency Name] (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. [ED# or EJ#]).

Example: Naples, N. A. (2000). Economic restructuring and racialization: Incorporation of Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in the rural midwest. Working Paper. (Report WP-7). California Univ., San Diego, La Jolla: Center for Comparative Immigration Studies. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED466345).

Pattern: [Title of image]. ([Date of creation]).

Example: Bush meets Italian president in Rome. (2005).

Video / Audio

Pattern: [Title of video / audio]. ([Date of creation]).

Example: Presidential and Vice Presidential debates - 1988. (1988).

Pattern: [Producer last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. (Producer) & [Presenter last name], [First initial]. [Middle initial]. (Presenter). ([Publication Year], [Month] [Day]). [ Title of Podcast ] [Type of podcast]. [Country of publication]: [Distributor].

Example: Alper, B. (Producer) & Hayden, E. (Presenter). (2007, March 6). Prevention of HIV infection. Treatment of COPD . [DynaMed Podcast Program]. Ipswich, Massachusetts: EBSCO Publishing.

Conference Paper

Pattern: [Author]. ([Year],). [Title of paper]. In Editor ([First initial, Last name]) (Ed.) [ Title of conference proceedings ] ([page numbers]). [Place of publication]: [Publisher]. [doi:xxx.xxxxxxx]

Example: Kohout, J., Finno, A., & Hart, B. (2010). In Editor E. Fromm (Ed.) Can APA be a Peppered Moth? Evolving in Response to Environmental Change and Prospects for the Association (10-24). Washington, District of Columbia, US: American Psychological Association, Center for Workforce Studies.

Electronic books

Pattern: [Author Last Name]’ [Author first name initials]. ([Date]). [ Book Title ] Retrieved from [URL]

Example: Seaward, B. L. (1999). Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Wellbeing. Retrieved from www.netlibrary.com

Electronic Book-Chapter

Pattern: [Author Last Name]’ [Author first name initials]. ([Date]). [Title of Chapter] In [ Book Title ] (Chapter or Section number) Retrieved from [URL]

Example: Seaward, B. L. (1999). “Managing Stress.” In Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Wellbeing. (Chapter 1) Retrieved from www.netlibrary.com

Pattern: [Author Last Name], [Author First Name Initial]. ([Date of publication[). [ Title of document ]. Retrieved from [http://Web address]

Example: IBM. (n.d.). Green electronics: designing for a smarter planet. Retrieved from http://www.ibm.com/smarterplanet/us/en/green_and_sustainability/article/green_electroni cs.html?re=ussph1.1

These are only basic examples of the APA style. More detailed information is available through the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition) and http://www.apastyle.org/ . In addition, a variety of third-party style guides and web sites can provide further assistance.

APA Manual Shelf Number

Main Library shelf numbers:  (open shelves) 808.06615 PUBL and (reference section)  R 808.06615  PUBL

Publication manual of the American Psychological Association.

6th ed.  Washington, DC : American Psychological Association, c2010.

xviii, 272 p. : ill. ; 26 cm. 

Includes bibliographical references (p. 255-257) and index.

From the Publisher:

With millions of copies sold, the  Publication   Manual  of the  American   Psychological   Association  is the style  manual  of choice for writers, editors, students, educators, and professionals in psychology, sociology, business, economics, nursing, social work, and justice administration, and other disciplines in which effective communication with words and data is fundamental.In addition to providing clear guidance on grammar, the mechanics of writing, and APA style, the  Publication   Manual  offers an authoritative and easy-to-use reference and citation system and comprehensive coverage of the treatment of numbers, metrication, statistical and mathematical data, tables, and figures for use in writing, reports, or presentations. The new edition has been revised and updated to include:The latest guidelines and examples for referencing electronic and online sources; New and revised guidelines for submitting papers electronically; Improved guidelines for avoiding plagiarism; Simplified formatting guidelines for writers using up-to-date word-processing software; All new guidelines for presenting case studies; Improved guidelines for the construction of tables; Updates on copyright and permissions issues for writers. New reference examples for audiovisual media and patents; An expanded and improved index for quick and easy access; Writers, scholars, and professionals will also find: New guidelines on how to choose text, tables, or figures to present data; Guidelines for writing cover letters for submitting articles for  publication , plus a sample letter; Expanded guidelines on the retention of raw data; New advice on establishing written agreements for the use of shared data; New information on the responsibilities of co-authors.

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• Mardigian Library
• Subject Guides

PSYC 101: Introduction to Psychology

• Cite in APA Style
• Online Library Access
• Research Starting Point
• Psychology Databases
• What is Peer-Review?
• Read Psychology Articles
• Select Your Sources
• Avoid Plagiarism
• Subject Pool Alternative Assignment

Help for Writing and Citing in American Psychological Association (APA) Style (7th ed.)

Citations provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each source you use. When you use someone else's words or ideas in your papers, you should create an  In-text citation  within your paper and a  References List citation  at the end of the paper. Each In-text citation should lead to a References List citation, and each References List citation should come from an In-text citation.

Use the   Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.)  (print format) and/or the Concise APA Handbook: 7th Edition   (ebook format)   to correctly cite your sources and format your research papers. 

Help from the American Psychological Association 

Use the American Psychological Association's   APA Style website  for help with formatting your citations and your paper:

• Quick Reference Guide   (for journal articles, books, and book chapters)
• Basic Principles of Citation
• In-Text Citations : explanations and examples of in-text citations and how to handle in-text citations for various numbers of authors  

Student Papers

• Student Paper Setup Guide  (pdf)
• Sample Student Paper  (includes example References list)
• Guide to Putting Together Title Pages  
• Guide to Different Levels of Headings  

References List

• Create an APA Style References List : pdf handout with the basics of putting together your References list
• Basic Principles of Reference List Entries  
• Author : how to format individual/group author names and handle various numbers of authors
• Date : how to format the date and include retrieval dates
• Title : how to format the title and include bracketed descriptions
• Source : how to format the source and include database/DOI information
• Use the  Free DOI Lookup tool   to find the DOIs of journal articles
• How to deal with missing information

References List - Examples :

• Journal Articles
• Books and ebooks
• Book chapters
• Webpage on a website
• Whole website
• Film or Movie
• Course PowerPoint Slides or Lecture Notes
• YouTube videos  and Ted Talks
• Assessments, tests, and measures   (refers to APA 6th ed., but the rules are the same as for 7th ed.)

Why Do We Cite? A Very Brief Introduction

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Psychology: Referencing

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Library workshops, getting started with the library.

Online Library Induction.

Quick Referencing Links

• APA website - Reference examples
• Cite Them Right APA guide
• Cite Them Right Online This link opens in a new window

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Citation, referencing and bibliographies

This section explains the importance of citations and why you need to use them in your essays. Please use the documentation below to improve your understanding of citations. The College has policies on plagiarism and your own department might provide advice on citations and bibliographies, so please check these as well.

Why do I need to cite?

You should provide references when you are:

• directly quoting from the text of another work
• paraphrasing someone else's work, theories or ideas
• using someone else's work when developing your own ideas and arguments
• indirectly referring to the text of other works
• using illustrations, diagrams, tables or figures from other sources

If a fact is regarded as  common knowledge , e.g. dates, events, (The Battle of Hastings was in 1066), you would not be expected to provide a reference. If in doubt, provide a reference.

APA (American Psychological Association) referencing style

This is the citation style used by the American Psychological Association and widely used throughout Psychology. We have print copies of the manual in the library.

Online Guides

• APA website - References guide
• Cite Them Right Online This link opens in a new window This site will help you to reference just about any source. Remember to chose APA from the referencing style options on each page.

Reference Management & Zotero

Reference management systems are time-saving tools that allow you to:

• Collect and store references for the resources you read as you go
• Manage and organise your references for different assignments or modules
• Quickly add in-text citations into your assignments
• Automatically generate a reference list from these in-text citations

Zotero  is an example of a freely available reference management system, and is supported by Goldsmiths Library.

The three videos below will guide you though installing  Zotero , collecting references, and adding these references to your word document.

Zotero Tutorials

• Video 1: Getting Started with Zotero
• Video 2: Adding References
• Video 3: Citations and bibliographies

Plagiarism is cheating and can be defined as "to copy (ideas, passages of text, etc) from someone else’s work and use them as if they were one’s own” (Chambers 21 st  Century Dictionary, 1999)

It is a serious offence whether accidental and unintentional e.g. careless use of copying and pasting or intentional e.g. using essay writing services. Goldsmiths has clear guidelines about plagiarism.  At the very least, a student found guilty of plagiarism can expect to receive a fail for the piece of work, but other, more serious punishments may be given, including dismissal from College in extreme cases.

Avoiding plagiarism

Plagiarism can initially be difficult to understand and many students might not realise what constitutes plagiarism and what doesn’t.

For your assignment you will have done plenty of background reading to help you formulate your own ideas.  When writing, you will discuss what you have learned from your background reading to show how this has influenced your views and arguments. 

To avoid plagiarism the sources you use and refer to must be correctly  cited and referenced .  Although plagiarism is  not just words  (it includes ideas, images, etc), paraphrasing/summarising is an important area to consider. Substituting words in a quotation with synonyms, rearranging the words in a quotation and changing the order of sentences are all examples of plagiarism if references are not provided.

Copyright is an Intellectual Property Right along with Trade Marks, Patents and Designs.  For detailed information, see the IPO's website . UK copyright law is mainly set out in the  Copyright, Design and Patents Act (1988) , though this has been substantially amended by more recent Acts and European Copyright Directives that aim to harmonise copyright across the EU. 

Copyright gives economic  and  moral rights to the creators of works, and provides a legal framework for such works to be used fairly by others.

Copyright is infringed where a whole or ‘substantial part’ of a work has been used without permission and no exceptions to copyright apply.  A ‘substantial part’ of a work is not defined in law and may be quite small. 

Copyright for student work

Students at Goldsmiths own copyright in their own work.  Some colleges and universities do make a claim to copyright in student work and ask students to agree to this when they enrol.

MA course work held by the library is non-published work under the  CPDA 1988  and no copying is permitted. They are also not available for use by members of the public. MA theses held by the library include a cover sheet which states that no copies can be made and is usually signed by the author. 

PhD theses are made available to both students and members of the public in both print and electronic format, held in the library and on the repositories,  Goldsmiths Reasearch Online (GRO)  and  EThOS . For information on the use of copyright material in PhD theses and the copyright itself of a PhD thesis, see here . 

Further advice on copyright

Advice can be requested from any organisations that represent copyright holders (many also collect royalties on behalf of members). For example, in the following areas:

  email us

  02079197189

• Last Updated: Mar 26, 2024 11:18 AM
• URL: https://libguides.gold.ac.uk/psychology

• Library Guides

Psychology Research Guide: APA citation

• Is it peer-reviewed? Is is psychological? Is it experimental?
• APA citation

How to cite your work in APA style

• Keep note of your sources as you go along. When you're reading something, don't just copy the URL - you'll need the title, author, date, and publication information. 
• Basic format for in-text citation : (Author, Year, p. 5)
• Basic format for reference page, articles : Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number (issue number), pages. http://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyyy 
• Basic format for reference page, books : Author, A. A. (Year).  Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher.
• The definitive guidelines can be found in the hard-copy  Publication Manual of the American Psychology Association .  You can find it in the library Reference section at call number REF BF76.7 .P83 2010. The  Purdue Owl  is a trustworthy online source for guidelines.
• Many databases have a Cite button that will create a citation for you. These can have errors, so you always need to proofread them. However, in Prof. Koford's experience, the citations generated by library databases, Google Scholar , or WorldCat  are usually more accurate and complete than those generated by websites like Citation Machine. Below is an image of the Cite feature in WorldCat. 

Why bother with citations?

Formatting citations can be tedious. Why should you bother learning to cite correctly? Here are some reasons: 

• Incorrectly citing your sources puts you at risk for unintentional plagiarism, which has serious consequences. 
• When psychologists and other professionals read each other's work, they give less respect and credibility to articles with sloppy citations.
• Professors are training you for professional jobs. Even for those of you who won't need APA style in your careers, it's likely that you will need to follow detailed guidelines and professional conventions of some sort. College is the place to practice doing that. 
• Citations make it possible to find any published work, even if that work is rare, in a different language, or not available online. Citations are maps in the vast universe of published information. 
• Once you learn what an APA citation should look like, writing them can be strangely satisfying. 

Some common citation mistakes

Here are some of the most common citation mistakes that Dr. Sia and Prof. Koford see: 

• Listing a web URL with no other citation information
• Not citing something at all because you're not sure how to cite it. Not citing it at all is MUCH WORSE than citing incorrectly!
• Parenthetical citations that include the author's initials. The initials go in the References, but not in the in-text citation.
• Lack of hanging indents. Items in the References should use a hanging indent. To create one, search the Help menu of your software for hanging indent.
• Article title in quotes - This is a feature of MLA and Chicago styles, but not APA
• Capitalization errors - APA uses sentence case 
• Date in the wrong place - it goes in parentheses, after the author's name
• Author's name spelled out - APA uses initials only

Citing a republished work

Write the later date first - the date of the physical copy you used. In parentheses at the end of the Reference List entry, add a note that says when the original work was published.

Freud, S. (2011). Beyond the pleasure principle . (T. Dufresne, Ed., and G. C. Richter, Trans.) Peterborough, Ont.:

Broadview Editions. (Original work published 1922).

When you cite a republished work in your text, include both dates in the in-text citation: (Freud, 1922/2011).

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is claiming someone else’s intellectual work as your own. It is a very serious breach of academic ethics.

Plagiarism can be either intentional (knowingly copying material) or unintentional (accidentally neglecting to cite a source). Students can be disciplined for plagiarizing even if it was unintentional. 

Most plagiarism happens when students feel desperate and have not given themselves enough time to grapple with the material, seek help, and do the work on their own. 

Professors are shocked and saddened when students plagiarize, because it violates the implicit agreement between professor and student. Learning can only happen if students use their own ideas to complete coursework. 

What can happen if you plagiarize?

• You might receive a zero on an assignment, fail the course, or be sent before a disciplinary panel.
• You will not learn the course content yourself, which wastes the time and money you’ve invested in your education.
• A professor who has caught you plagiarizing is unlikely to write you a letter of reference for jobs or graduate school.
• Plagiarism can ruin reputations, both in college and in the working world. Some high-profile cases are those of Jonah Lehrer and Stephen Ambrose.

How can you avoid plagiarism?

• Cite your sources! Give credit using in-text citations and your reference list. 
• Give yourself plenty of time to complete your assignments. If you are having trouble with an assignment, seek help from your professor, a librarian, Academic Support, or the Student Communication Center. 
• Set up a note-taking system. Gather the citation information for each of your sources, and clearly mark your notes so you can tell the difference between copy-pasted content, summary, and your own thoughts. 

Note-taking and citation help you avoid plagiarism

Before you begin finding sources, make a plan for how and where you will take notes and record your sources. Taking good notes from the beginning will help you avoid plagiarism and properly cite your sources in APA style.

• << Previous: Is it peer-reviewed? Is is psychological? Is it experimental?
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• URL: https://libguides.tlu.edu/psychology

Psychology: Referencing and Writing

• Journals & Databases
• More Resources
• Referencing and Writing
• Research Support
• Indigenous health models
• Kaupapa Māori Research

APA (American Psychological Association)

APA is the main citation/referencing style used in Psychology.

C heck out the library referencing webpage for APA , o r search the APA style website and/or APA style blog .

NB: The latest version (7th edition) of the APA style manual was released in 2020. Please make sure you are clear, consistent and concise using this style.

Guides to academic writing

Research methods books

Thesis writing

Take a look at our Thesis Information: Writing guide for links to resources about writing, structuring, and formatting your thesis.

If you would like an interactive tutorial to help get you started on your thesis journey, you might find these online modules from ProQuest useful.

Options for Managing References

Tips on choosing and using citation styles (also called referencing styles) plus using systems such as EndNote, Zotero and Mendeley.

• Managing Your References Library Guide Information about using EndNote and other reference management software.
• Student EndNote Software Request Form Go through the Student Portal to request to install this software for free!
• EndNote 21 Guide - PC
• EndNote 21 Guide - Mac
• EndNote 20 video clips
• EndNote 20 Guide - PC
• EndNote 20 Guide - Mac
• EndNote X9 Guide - PC
• EndNote X9 Guide - Mac

Citation basics

• What's a citation?
• Reading a citation
• Avoiding plagarism
• Copyright and Intellectual Property at Otago

A 'citation' or 'reference' is a standardised way of acknowledging materials used in your research.

In Psychology, we mainly use the APA style. For more information on that, check out the top box on this page.

For information and resources about the most popular styles, check out our  Citation Styles Guide .

A citation (AKA a 'reference') is not only the way we identify a source of information we have used, it is also a way that we can locate a source of information.

While you are studying, you will need to find and use citations, and create your own references for the information you use.

Parts of a citation include:

• Author(s) or editor(s)
• Title (of book, book chapter, article, webpage, documentary, etc.)
• Date of publication
• Publisher and place of publication (books)
• Page numbers
• Journal title, journal volume and issue (articles)
• And, other elements that are specific to the type of source, e.g. edition of a book, or DOI or URL for online content.

Citations are formatted differently, depending on the referencing style used. Here is a break-down of an example of a journal article citation in the APA (American Psychological Association) style:

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House”. PLoS ONE, 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

• Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R.

The authors are listed first, last name followed by initials.

The year of publication is written after the authors, in brackets.

• Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House”.

The title is next, e.g.; article title, book or book chapter, webpage, documentary, etc.

Next is the name of the wider source if there is one (in APA it is written in italics), e.g.; this is where you would write the title of a journal that an article is found in, or the title of a book that a book chapter is in.

For journal articles, this is where you write the journal number (in italics), followed by the journal issue (in brackets). 

• Article e0193972.

Next, the page numbers, or the article number is written; like it is in this example.

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

Finally, the DOI or an URL is included, because this is how we find the resource online.

NB: Full stops, commas, brackets and italics are all part of the referencing style, and will differ according to the particular style you are using or reading.

Citations will also differ depending on the source of your information, e.g. a webpage won’t have page numbers, or if you are citing a physical book, you would write the publisher last, instead of a DOI or URL.

Citing AKA 'referencing' the ideas and research you use in your assignments is a critical part of all academic work because it:

• Acknowledges how others' work has influenced you thinking.
• Provides evidence for your arguments, and
• Assists other researchers to locate the sources you use.

Citing avoids plagiarism by giving you a way to correctly attribute credit to other authors or researchers.

The University of Otago takes plagiarism seriously . These resources will help you understand what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.

• Academic Integrity and Academic Misconduct Information

Information about academic misconduct, including definitions.

Definition of plagiarism and information on how to avoid it.

• Where to seek advice

Identifies a range of support services and resources.

It is a good idea to have a basic understanding of what copyright is and how it pertains to what we do at University.

For information, explore the following linked websites:

• Copyright at Otago
• Copyright Information for Thesis Students
• Creating and sharing ideas in a connected world

Developing writing skills / support with writing

• University of Otago resources
• Other resources

Student Learning Development can help you develop your skills in the following:

• Study Skills
• Writing and Language Development
• Stats and Math
• Research and Thesis Writing Development
• Scientific Writing Resource / Duke University Graduate School

A free, online course in scientific writing that teaches how to write effectively in the sciences. It is structured in three lessons, with each containing principles, examples, and a worksheet for you to complete.

• Writing the Scientific Paper / Writing @ Columbia State University

A concise section-by-section guide to writing a scientific paper, including examples and some links to further resources.

• Academic Writing @ Online Writing Lab (OWL)

This is a more general resource on academic writing from Purdue University. It has useful sections on; conciseness, paragraphs, using logic, and varying your sentences.

Multimedia research support

• Watch this 2 minute video ‘ How to Write a Literature Review ’ from University of California San Diego Psychology department. You might also want to check out some of their other short research support videos on their YouTube channel .
• Scribbr’s YouTube channel has playlists of short videos providing research support, including using APA, writing a literature review, and avoiding plagiarism.
• The University of Melbourne has  created multiple videos providing research support and advice. Check out their channel to find short videos on academic writing and referencing.

Guides to writing for Psychology

Reference management tools

Reference management software helps you store, organise, and correctly cite all your research information with ease.   They include EndNote, Mendeley, & Zotero, all of which you can currently access for free.

Check out the Managing Your References guide for  support with these different tools. There are also some good help resources for EndNote on this library guide web page .

The University endorses and supports the use of EndNote software, and provides it to you for free. For EndNote troubleshooting, contact your Subject Librarian or Student IT .

IT resources for research

The University provides us with different software to help with research, mostly for free. Check out their website for more details .

And click here to find out about IT training courses.

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• Last Updated: May 9, 2024 10:56 AM
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Psychology: Citing references

• Key resources
• Citing references

Psychology generally uses the APA7  style of referencing. For posters APA or Vancouver can be used.  (Please note: Undergraduates who started their course before January 2020 can use the APA6 style)

For general information on referencing, including an explanation of different citation systems, and guidance on citing specific types of publication, see our Citing references guide .

For help with citing specific types of publication contact your subject librarian, Sally Smith .

For advice on using references in your work, and how to use them to support your arguments, consult the guidance on the Study Advice website or make an appointment with them.

Referencing styles

• General guidance

Psychology generally uses  APA7  but, for poster assignments, either APA7 or Vancouver can be used.

Undergraduate students who started their course before January 2020 can use APA6 rather than APA7

Whichever style you use the key thing to remember is to always cite your references in the same style for any one assignment.

You can use APA7 for any assignment.

For guidance on how to cite using APA7 you can use the following:

• screencast on APA7 (includes general information on APA7 and how to cite the four most common types of publication)  
• online guide produced by  Purdue University (for general guidance and how to cite many specific types of publication)  
• the full APA7 manual (only available in print): Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 7th edition (for guidance on how to cite types of publications not included in the Purdue guide) Copies located in the Library at 808.06615-AME 

If you're doing a poster assignment you can use the Vancouver style for your references rather than APA, if you prefer. Because Vancouver is a numbered style citations in the text take up less space.

For guidance on how to cite using Vancouver you can use the following:

Guidelines and a printable guide

If you're an undergraduate and you started your course at Reading before January 2020 you can continue to use APA6 if you prefer.

For guidance on how to cite using APA6 you can use the following:

• online guide from Purdue University (for general guidance and how to cite many specific types of publication)  
• the full APA6 manual (only available in print): Publication manual of the American Psychological Association 6th edition (for guidance on how to cite types of publications not included in the Purdue guide) Copies located in the Library at 808.06615-AME 

Find out more on our   EndNote webpages:

• Library guide to EndNote Information on using EndNote and Endnote online, and details of training sessions.

For information on other options for electronic management of your references see our guide to Managing references:

• Managing references An overview of different systems for managing your references.

Get help from your liaison librarian

• << Previous: Websites
• Last Updated: Apr 23, 2024 2:19 PM
• URL: https://libguides.reading.ac.uk/psychology

• MJC Library & Learning Center
• Research Guides

PSYCH 104 - Introduction to Social Psychology

• APA Style, 7th Edition
• Understand Your Topic
• Find Articles
• Find Scholarly Web Sites
• Evaluate Sources

APA Tutorial

Formatting your paper, headings organize your paper (2.27), video tutorials, reference list format (9.43).

• Elements of a Reference

Reference Examples (Chapter 10)

Dois and urls (9.34-9.36), in-text citations.

• In-Text Citations Format
• In-Text Citations for Specific Source Types

NoodleTools

What is apa style.

APA style was created by social and behavioral scientists to standardize scientific writing. APA style is most often used in:

• psychology,
• social sciences (sociology, business), and

If you're taking courses in any of these areas, be prepared to use APA style.

For in-depth guidance on using this citation style, refer to Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed. We have several copies available at the MJC Library at the call number  BF 76.7 .P83 2020 .

APA Style, 7th ed.

In October 2019, the American Psychological Association made radical changes its style, especially with regard to the format and citation rules for students writing academic papers. Use this guide to learn how to format and cite your papers using APA Style, 7th edition.

You can start by viewing the  video tutorial .

For help on all aspects of formatting your paper in APA Style, see   The Essentials  page on the APA Style website.

• sans serif fonts such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, or
• serif fonts such as 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, or normal (10-point) Computer Modern (the default font for LaTeX)
• There are exceptions for the  title page ,  tables ,  figures ,  footnotes , and  displayed equations .
• Margins :  Use 1-in. margins on every side of the page.
• Align the text of an APA Style  paper to the left margin . Leave the right margin uneven, or “ragged.”
• Do not use full justification for student papers.
• Do not insert hyphens (manual breaks) in words at the end of line. However, it is acceptable if your word-processing program automatically inserts breaks in long hyperlinks (such as in a DOI or URL in a reference list entry).
• Indent the first line of each paragraph of text 0.5 in . from the left margin. Use the tab key or the automatic paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program to achieve the indentation (the default setting is likely already 0.5 in.). Do not use the space bar to create indentation. 
• There are exceptions for the  title page ,  section labels ,  abstract ,  block quotations ,  headings ,  tables and figures ,  reference list , and  appendices .

Paper Elements

Student papers generally include, at a minimum: 

• Title Page (2.3)
• Text (2.11)
• References  (2.12)

Student papers may include additional elements such as tables and figures depending on the assignment. So, please check with your teacher!

Student papers generally  DO NOT  include the following unless your teacher specifically requests it:

• Running head
• Author note

For complete information on the  order of pages , see the APA Style website.

Number your pages consecutively starting with page 1. Each section begins on a new page. Put the pages in the following order:

• Page 1: Title page
• Page 2: Abstract (if your teacher requires an abstract)
• Page 3: Text 
• References begin on a new page after the last page of text
• Footnotes begin on a new page after the references (if your teacher requires footnotes)
• Tables begin each on a new page after the footnotes (if your teacher requires tables) 
• Figures begin on a new page after the tables (if your teacher requires figures)
• Appendices begin on a new page after the tables and/or figures (if your teacher requires appendices)

Sample Papers With Built-In Instructions

To see what your paper should look like, check out these sample papers with built-in instructions.

APA Style uses five (5) levels of headings to help you organize your paper and allow your audience to identify its key points easily. Levels of headings establish the hierarchy of your sections just like you did in your paper outline.

APA tells us to use "only the number of headings necessary to differentiate distinct section in your paper." Therefore, the number of heading levels you create depends on the length and complexity of your paper.

See the chart below for instructions on formatting your headings:

Use Word to Format Your Paper:

Use Google Docs to Format Your Paper:

Placement:  The reference list  appears at the end of the paper, on its own page(s). If your research paper ends on page 8, your References begin on page 9.

Heading:  Place the section label References  in bold at the top of the page, centered.

Arrangement:  Alphabetize entries by author's last name. If source has no named author, alphabetize by the title, ignoring A, An, or The. (9.44-9.48)

Spacing:  Like the rest of the APA paper, the reference list is double-spaced throughout. Be sure NOT to add extra spaces between citations.

Indentation:  To make citations easier to scan, add a  hanging indent  of 0.5 in. to any citation that runs more than one line. Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word processing program to create your hanging indent.  

See Sample References Page (from APA Sample Student Paper):

Elements of Reference List Entries: (Chapter 9)

References generally have four elements, each of which has a corresponding question for you to answer:

• Author:   Who is responsible for this work? (9.7-9.12)
• Date:   When was this work published? (9.13-9.17)
• Title:   What is this work called? (9.18-9.22)
• Source:   Where can I retrieve this work? (9.23-9.37)

By using these four elements and answering these four questions, you should be able to create a citation for any type of source.

For complete information on all of these elements, checkout the APA Style website.

This infographic shows the first page of a journal article. The locations of the reference elements are highlighted with different colors and callouts, and the same colors are used in the reference list entry to show how the entry corresponds to the source.

To create your references, you'll simple look for these elements in your source and put them together in your reference list entry.

American Psychological Association.  Example of where to find reference information for a journal article  [Infographic]. APA Style Center. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/basic-principles

Below you'll find two printable handouts showing APA citation examples. The first is an abbreviated list created by MJC Librarians. The second, which is more comprehensive, is from the APA Style website. Feel free to print these for your convenience or use the links to reference examples below:

• APA Citation Examples Created by MJC Librarians for you.
• Common References Examples (APA Handout) Printable handout from the American Psychological Association.
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Edited Book Chapter
• Webpage on a Website

Classroom or Intranet Sources

• Classroom Course Pack Materials
• How to Cite ChatGPT
• Dictionary Entry
• Government Report
• Legal References (Laws & Cases)
• TED Talk References
• Religious Works
• Open Educational Resources (OER)
• Archival Documents and Collections

You can view the entire Reference Examples website below and view a helpful guide to finding useful APA style topics easily:

• APA Style: Reference Examples
• Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website
• Missing Reference Information

Sometimes you won't be able to find all the elements required for your reference. In that case, see the  instructions in Table 9.1 of the APA style manual in section 9.4 or the APA Style website below:

• Direct Quotation of Material Without Page Numbers

The DOI or URL is the final component of a reference list entry. Because so much scholarship is available and/or retrieved online, most reference list entries end with either a DOI or a URL.

• A  DOI  is a unique alphanumeric string that identifies content and provides a persistent link to its location on the internet. DOIs can be found in database records and the reference lists of published works.
• A  URL  specifies the location of digital information on the internet and can be found in the address bar of your internet browser. URLs in references should link directly to the cited work when possible.

When to Include DOIs and URLs:

• Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI, regardless of whether you used the online version or the print version.
• If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI.
• For works without DOIs from websites (not including academic research databases), provide a URL in the reference (as long as the URL will work for readers).
• For works without DOIs from most academic research databases, do not include a URL or database information in the reference because these works are widely available. The reference should be the same as the reference for a print version of the work.
• For works from databases that publish original, proprietary material available only in that database (such as the UpToDate database) or for works of limited circulation in databases (such as monographs in the ERIC database), include the name of the database or archive and the URL of the work. If the URL requires a login or is session-specific (meaning it will not resolve for readers), provide the URL of the database or archive home page or login page instead of the URL for the work. (See APA Section 9.30 for more information). 
• If the URL is no longer working or no longer provides readers access to the content you intend to cite, try to find an archived version using the Internet Archive , then use the archived URL. If there is no archived URL, do not use that resource.

Format of DOIs and URLs:

Your DOI should look like this: 

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251

Follow these guidelines from the APA Style website.

APA Style uses the  author–date citation system , in which a brief in-text citation points your reader to the full reference list entry at the end of your paper. The in-text citation appears within the body of the paper and briefly identifies the cited work by its author and date of publication. This method enables your reader to locate the corresponding entry in the alphabetical reference list at the end of your paper.

Each work you cite  must  appear in the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix) except for the following (See APA, 8.4):

• Personal communications (8.9)
• General mentions of entire websites, whole periodicals (8.22), and common software and apps (10.10) in the text do not require a citation or reference list entry.
• The source of an epigraph does not usually appear in the reference list (8.35)
• Quotations from your research participants do not need citations or reference list entries (8.36)
• References included in a statistical meta-analysis, which are marked with an asterisk in the reference list, may be cited in the text (or not) at the author’s discretion. This exception is relevant only to authors who are conducting a meta-analysis (9.52).

Formatting Your In-Text Citations

Parenthetical and Narrative Citations: ( See APA Section  8.11)

In APA style you use the author-date citation system for citing references within your paper. You incorporate these references using either a  parenthetical   or a  narrative  style.

Parenthetical Citations

• In parenthetical citations, the author name and publication date appear in parentheses, separated by a comma. (Jones, 2018)
• A parenthetical citation can appear within or at the end of a sentence.
• When the parenthetical citation is at the end of the sentence, put the period or other end punctuation after the closing parenthesis.
• If there is no author, use the first few words of the reference list entry, usually the "Title" of the source: ("Autism," 2008) See APA 8.14
• When quoting, always provide the author, year, and specific page citation or paragraph number for nonpaginated materials in the text (Santa Barbara, 2010, p. 243).  See APA 8.13
• For most citations, the parenthetical reference is placed BEFORE the punctuation: Magnesium can be effective in treating PMS (Haggerty, 2012).

Narrative Citations 

In narrative citations, the author name or title of your source appears within your text and the publication date appears in parentheses immediately after the author name. 

• Santa Barbara (2010) noted a decline in the approval of disciplinary spanking of 26 percentage points from 1968 to 1994.

In-Text Citation Checklist

• In-Text Citation Checklist Use this useful checklist from the American Psychological Association to ensure that you've created your in-text citations correctly.

In-Text Citations for Specific Types of Sources

Quotations from Research Participants

Personal Communications

Secondary Sources  

Use NoodleTools to Cite Your Sources  

NoodleTools can help you create your references and your in-text citations.

• NoodleTools Express No sign in required . When you need one or two quick citations in MLA, APA, or Chicago style, simply generate them in NoodleTools Express then copy and paste what you need into your document. Note: Citations are not saved and cannot be exported to a word processor using NoodleTools Express.
• NoodleTools (Login Full Database) This link opens in a new window Create and organize your research notes, share and collaborate on research projects, compose and error check citations, and complete your list of works cited in MLA, APA, or Chicago style using the full version of NoodleTools. You'll need to Create a Personal ID and password the first time you use NoodleTools.

See How to Use NoodleTools Express to Create a Citation in APA Format

Additional NoodleTools Help

• NoodleTools Help Desk Look up questions and answers on the NoodleTools Web site
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• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 2:04 PM
• URL: https://libguides.mjc.edu/SocialPsychology

Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 and CC BY-NC 4.0 Licenses .

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Before you write your essay, it’s important to analyse the task and understand exactly what the essay question is asking. Your lecturer may give you some advice – pay attention to this as it will help you plan your answer.

Next conduct preliminary reading based on your lecture notes. At this stage, it’s not crucial to have a robust understanding of key theories or studies, but you should at least have a general “gist” of the literature.

After reading, plan a response to the task. This plan could be in the form of a mind map, a summary table, or by writing a core statement (which encompasses the entire argument of your essay in just a few sentences).

After writing your plan, conduct supplementary reading, refine your plan, and make it more detailed.

It is tempting to skip these preliminary steps and write the first draft while reading at the same time. However, reading and planning will make the essay writing process easier, quicker, and ensure a higher quality essay is produced.

Components of a Good Essay

Now, let us look at what constitutes a good essay in psychology. There are a number of important features.

• Global Structure – structure the material to allow for a logical sequence of ideas. Each paragraph / statement should follow sensibly from its predecessor. The essay should “flow”. The introduction, main body and conclusion should all be linked.
• Each paragraph should comprise a main theme, which is illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).
• Knowledge and Understanding – recognize, recall, and show understanding of a range of scientific material that accurately reflects the main theoretical perspectives.
• Critical Evaluation – arguments should be supported by appropriate evidence and/or theory from the literature. Evidence of independent thinking, insight, and evaluation of the evidence.
• Quality of Written Communication – writing clearly and succinctly with appropriate use of paragraphs, spelling, and grammar. All sources are referenced accurately and in line with APA guidelines.

In the main body of the essay, every paragraph should demonstrate both knowledge and critical evaluation.

There should also be an appropriate balance between these two essay components. Try to aim for about a 60/40 split if possible.

Most students make the mistake of writing too much knowledge and not enough evaluation (which is the difficult bit).

It is best to structure your essay according to key themes. Themes are illustrated and developed through a number of points (supported by evidence).

Choose relevant points only, ones that most reveal the theme or help to make a convincing and interesting argument.

Knowledge and Understanding

Remember that an essay is simply a discussion / argument on paper. Don’t make the mistake of writing all the information you know regarding a particular topic.

You need to be concise, and clearly articulate your argument. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences.

Each paragraph should have a purpose / theme, and make a number of points – which need to be support by high quality evidence. Be clear why each point is is relevant to the argument. It would be useful at the beginning of each paragraph if you explicitly outlined the theme being discussed (.e.g. cognitive development, social development etc.).

Try not to overuse quotations in your essays. It is more appropriate to use original content to demonstrate your understanding.

Psychology is a science so you must support your ideas with evidence (not your own personal opinion). If you are discussing a theory or research study make sure you cite the source of the information.

Note this is not the author of a textbook you have read – but the original source / author(s) of the theory or research study.

For example:

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e. there is a critical period.

Maslow (1943) stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.

As a general rule, make sure there is at least one citation (i.e. name of psychologist and date of publication) in each paragraph.

Remember to answer the essay question. Underline the keywords in the essay title. Don’t make the mistake of simply writing everything you know of a particular topic, be selective. Each paragraph in your essay should contribute to answering the essay question.

Critical Evaluation

In simple terms, this means outlining the strengths and limitations of a theory or research study.

There are many ways you can critically evaluate:

Methodological evaluation of research

Is the study valid / reliable ? Is the sample biased, or can we generalize the findings to other populations? What are the strengths and limitations of the method used and data obtained?

Be careful to ensure that any methodological criticisms are justified and not trite.

Rather than hunting for weaknesses in every study; only highlight limitations that make you doubt the conclusions that the authors have drawn – e.g., where an alternative explanation might be equally likely because something hasn’t been adequately controlled.

Compare or contrast different theories

Outline how the theories are similar and how they differ. This could be two (or more) theories of personality / memory / child development etc. Also try to communicate the value of the theory / study.

Debates or perspectives

Refer to debates such as nature or nurture, reductionism vs. holism, or the perspectives in psychology . For example, would they agree or disagree with a theory or the findings of the study?

What are the ethical issues of the research?

Does a study involve ethical issues such as deception, privacy, psychological or physical harm?

Gender bias

If research is biased towards men or women it does not provide a clear view of the behavior that has been studied. A dominantly male perspective is known as an androcentric bias.

Cultural bias

Is the theory / study ethnocentric? Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise. In some texts, over 90% of studies have US participants, who are predominantly white and middle class.

Does the theory or study being discussed judge other cultures by Western standards?

Animal Research

This raises the issue of whether it’s morally and/or scientifically right to use animals. The main criterion is that benefits must outweigh costs. But benefits are almost always to humans and costs to animals.

Animal research also raises the issue of extrapolation. Can we generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy & physiology is different from humans?

The PEC System

It is very important to elaborate on your evaluation. Don’t just write a shopping list of brief (one or two sentence) evaluation points.

Instead, make sure you expand on your points, remember, quality of evaluation is most important than quantity.

When you are writing an evaluation paragraph, use the PEC system.

• Make your P oint.
• E xplain how and why the point is relevant.
• Discuss the C onsequences / implications of the theory or study. Are they positive or negative?

For Example

• Point: It is argued that psychoanalytic therapy is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority.
• Explain: Because psychoanalytic therapy involves talking and gaining insight, and is costly and time-consuming, it is argued that it is only of benefit to an articulate, intelligent, affluent minority. Evidence suggests psychoanalytic therapy works best if the client is motivated and has a positive attitude.
• Consequences: A depressed client’s apathy, flat emotional state, and lack of motivation limit the appropriateness of psychoanalytic therapy for depression.

Furthermore, the levels of dependency of depressed clients mean that transference is more likely to develop.

Using Research Studies in your Essays

Research studies can either be knowledge or evaluation.

• If you refer to the procedures and findings of a study, this shows knowledge and understanding.
• If you comment on what the studies shows, and what it supports and challenges about the theory in question, this shows evaluation.

Writing an Introduction

It is often best to write your introduction when you have finished the main body of the essay, so that you have a good understanding of the topic area.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your introduction.

Ideally, the introduction should;

Identify the subject of the essay and define the key terms. Highlight the major issues which “lie behind” the question. Let the reader know how you will focus your essay by identifying the main themes to be discussed. “Signpost” the essay’s key argument, (and, if possible, how this argument is structured).

Introductions are very important as first impressions count and they can create a h alo effect in the mind of the lecturer grading your essay. If you start off well then you are more likely to be forgiven for the odd mistake later one.

Writing a Conclusion

So many students either forget to write a conclusion or fail to give it the attention it deserves.

If there is a word count for your essay try to devote 10% of this to your conclusion.

Ideally the conclusion should summarize the key themes / arguments of your essay. State the take home message – don’t sit on the fence, instead weigh up the evidence presented in the essay and make a decision which side of the argument has more support.

Also, you might like to suggest what future research may need to be conducted and why (read the discussion section of journal articles for this).

Don”t include new information / arguments (only information discussed in the main body of the essay).

If you are unsure of what to write read the essay question and answer it in one paragraph.

Points that unite or embrace several themes can be used to great effect as part of your conclusion.

The Importance of Flow

Obviously, what you write is important, but how you communicate your ideas / arguments has a significant influence on your overall grade. Most students may have similar information / content in their essays, but the better students communicate this information concisely and articulately.

When you have finished the first draft of your essay you must check if it “flows”. This is an important feature of quality of communication (along with spelling and grammar).

This means that the paragraphs follow a logical order (like the chapters in a novel). Have a global structure with themes arranged in a way that allows for a logical sequence of ideas. You might want to rearrange (cut and paste) paragraphs to a different position in your essay if they don”t appear to fit in with the essay structure.

To improve the flow of your essay make sure the last sentence of one paragraph links to first sentence of the next paragraph. This will help the essay flow and make it easier to read.

Finally, only repeat citations when it is unclear which study / theory you are discussing. Repeating citations unnecessarily disrupts the flow of an essay.

Referencing

The reference section is the list of all the sources cited in the essay (in alphabetical order). It is not a bibliography (a list of the books you used).

In simple terms every time you cite/refer to a name (and date) of a psychologist you need to reference the original source of the information.

If you have been using textbooks this is easy as the references are usually at the back of the book and you can just copy them down. If you have been using websites, then you may have a problem as they might not provide a reference section for you to copy.

References need to be set out APA style :

Author, A. A. (year). Title of work . Location: Publisher.

Journal Articles

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (year). Article title. Journal Title, volume number (issue number), page numbers

A simple way to write your reference section is use Google scholar . Just type the name and date of the psychologist in the search box and click on the “cite” link.

Next, copy and paste the APA reference into the reference section of your essay.

Once again, remember that references need to be in alphabetical order according to surname.

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Referencing

Referencing shows the breadth of your research and provides details of the sources that you have used to support your arguments and conclusions.

By acknowledging the sources used in your work, you will also avoid plagiarism.

All reference styles are made up of two parts - the in text citation and the full reference.

Depending on the style the citation may be the author's surname and date of publication or a number assigned to each source as it is used.

It is important to keep track of your sources as you research so you can show all the work you have done and acknowledge where you are using the ideas of others as evidence.

Which referencing style should I use?

For most assignments, Psychology students will use APA 7th edition . You can find guidance on this style using Cite Them Right.

However, the referencing style can depend on the module so before you start,  always check your module handbook and assignment guideline or ask your tutor.

Cite Them Right

Cite Them Right will help you to reference just about any source you might need to use and understand how to avoid plagiarism. It also includes a  Referencing tutorial to help you develop your skills.

Cite them Right includes extensive guidance as well as examples of the Harvard, APA 7th edition, IEEE, OSCOLA, Vancouver and Chicago referencing styles. To see the correct format, just select the type of source you want to reference and then filter the results by referencing style.

• Cite Them Right Key referencing resource for GCU students - browse for your referencing style, search for a particular type of reference or complete tutorials on referencing and plagiarism.
• Cite Them Right: Referencing Tutorial Find out about the principles behind referencing and how to acknowledge the information sources that you use.

Referencing - a video introduction 

New to referencing? Watch this short video for an overview of how to reference using the Cite Them Right Harvard style. Use the chapter function to jump to the section you need.

Keeping track of sources

Reference management software helps you to keep track of your research, create bibliographies or reference lists and share these with others. There are many different reference management products available, free and paid for.

GCU Library subscribes to and provides support for RefWorks.

• RefWorks page Help with RefWorks and log in

Main features of RefWorks

• Enables you to import references from most online databases and organise these using folders, and create bibliographies for use in your research.
• RefWorks Quick Cite and the RCM add in for Word allow you to add citations, footnotes and bibliographies to the essay or article as you are writing.
• Save to RefWorks imports a website directly from the browser as a reference.

The RefWorks pages on our website include help with setting up a RefWorks account and learning how to use RefWorks.

Please note:  When generating a bibliography or reference list using RefWorks, make sure you choose the output style. For most students this will be  Cite Them Right, 11th edition - Harvard . If you're not sure which style to use, check your module handbook.

For further help with using RefWorks contact a librarian.

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Psychology: Reference Sources

• Reference Sources
• Books & E-Books
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• Clinical and Counseling Psychology
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Welcome to the Psychology Guide. Here you will find links to reference books, websites, databases, writing tools and tests that are commonly used in psychological research. Please email Jane and Katie if you have any questions or suggestions for this guide. 

Clinical & Diagnostic Manuals

• Supplement to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-5, October 2018 & February 2020. This supplement includes ICD-10-CM Coding. Please check the website (https://psychiatryonline.org) for subsequent updates.

7th Edition Publication Manual (2020)

• APA Style from the American Psychological Association
• OWL - Online Writing Lab At Purdue - APA

National Institute of Mental Health

The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) is the lead federal agency for research on mental disorders. 

• National Institute of Mental Health - Home Includes: mental health topics, statistics, fact sheets, clinical trials, news, and recommendations on where to go to for help.
• National Institute of Mental Health - Topic Finder Organized by: Health Topics, Populations, and Research.

Writing and Research Guides

• Oxford Bibliographies Online This link opens in a new window This resource combines the best features of annotated bibliography with discipline-specific encyclopedic articles. It is the perfect entry into the seminal literature on your chosen topic. The database includes multiple subjects, so use the Advanced Search option to limit your search to Psychology. Citations are linked to full text when available.

Dictionaries & Encyclopedias

• The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science by W. Edward Craighead (Editor); Charles B. Nemeroff (Editor) Call Number: E-book Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2004. 3rd edition

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Psychology Reference Sources

• Development
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Subject Guide

General Reference Sources

Search the  SPU catalog  for more sources on this topic. 

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Referencing

Referencing is an important aspect of psychological reports/journals. The reference section of a journal includes full details of any sources, such as journal articles or books, that are used when writing a report. There is a set format depending on whether the information comes from a book, journal article etc. and there are different conventions for references (e.g. Harvard, APA, etc.)

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Introduction to Psychology

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Benjamin, L., Henry, K., & McMahon, L. (2005). Inez Beverly Prosser and the education of African Americans.  Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences ,  41 , 43–62. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jhbs.20058

Betancourt, H., & López, S. R. (1993). The study of culture, ethnicity, and race in American psychology.  American Psychologist ,  48 , 629–637.

Black, S. R., Spence, S. A., & Omari, S. R. (2004). Contributions of African Americans to the field of psychology.  Journal of Black Studies ,  35 , 40–64.

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Calkins, M. W. (1906). A reconciliation between structural and functional psychology.  Psychological Review ,  13 , 61–81.

Carlson, N. R. (2013).  Physiology of Behavior  (11th ed.). Pearson.

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Knekt, P. P., et al. (2008). Randomized trial on the effectiveness of long- and short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy and solution-focused therapy on psychiatric symptoms during a 3-year follow-up.  Psychological Medicine: A Journal of Research In Psychiatry And The Allied Sciences ,  38 , 689–703.

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Nicolas, S., & Ferrand, L. (1999). Wundt’s laboratory at Leipzig in 1891.  History of Psychology ,  2 , 194–203.

Norcross, J. C. (n.d.) Clinical versus counseling psychology: What’s the diff? http://www.csun.edu/~hcpsy002/Clinical%20Versus%20Counseling%20Psychology.pdf

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Psychological Research

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American Psychological Association. (n.d.).  Research with animals in psychology.  https://www.apa.org/research/responsible/research-animals.pdf

Arnett, J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American.  American Psychologist, 63 (7) ,  602–614.

Aschwanden, C. (2018, December 6). Psychology’s replication crisis has made the field better.  FiveThirtyEight . https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/psychologys-replication-crisis-has-made-the-field-better/

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Barton, B. A., Eldridge, A. L., Thompson, D., Affenito, S. G., Striegel-Moore, R. H., Franko, D. L., . . . Crockett, S. J. (2005). The relationship of breakfast and cereal consumption to nutrient intake and body mass index: The national heart, lung, and blood institute growth and health study.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105 (9), 1383–1389. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2005.06.003

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Man or bear? Hypothetical question sparks conversation about women's safety

Women explain why they would feel safer encountering a bear in the forest than a man they didn't know. the hypothetical has sparked a broader discussion about why women fear men..

If you were alone in the woods, would you rather encounter a bear or a man? Answers to that hypothetical question have sparked a debate about why the vast majority say they would feel more comfortable choosing a bear.

The topic has been hotly discussed for weeks as men and women chimed in with their thoughts all over social media.

Screenshot HQ , a TikTok account, started the conversation, asking a group of women whether they would rather run into a man they didn't know or a bear in the forest. Out of the seven women interviewed for the piece, only one picked a man.

"Bear. Man is scary," one of the women responds.

A number of women echoed the responses given in the original video, writing in the comments that they, too, would pick a bear over a man. The hypothetical has people split, with some expressing their sadness over the state of the world and others cracking jokes. Some men were flabbergasted.

Here's what we know.

A bear is the safer choice, no doubt about it, many say

There were a lot of responses, more than 65,000, under the original post. Many wrote that they understood why the women would choose a bear.

"No one’s gonna ask me if I led the bear on or give me a pamphlet on bear attack prevention tips," @celestiallystunning wrote.

@Brennduhh wrote: "When I die leave my body in the woods, the wolves will be gentler than any man."

"I know a bear's intentions," another woman wrote. "I don't know a man's intentions. no matter how nice they are."

Other TikTok users took it one step further, posing the hypothetical question to loved ones. Meredith Steele, who goes by @babiesofsteele , asked her husband last week whether he would rather have their daughter encounter a bear or a man in the woods. Her husband said he "didn't like either option" but said he was leaning toward the bear.

"Maybe it's a friendly bear," he says.

Diana, another TikTok user , asked her sister-in-law what she would choose and was left speechless.

"I asked her the question, you know, just for giggles. She was like, 'You know, I would rather it be a bear because if the bear attacks me, and I make it out of the woods, everybody’s gonna believe me and have sympathy for me," she said. "But if a man attacks me and I make it out, I’m gonna spend my whole life trying to get people to believe me and have sympathy for me.'"

Bear vs. man debate stirs the pot, woman and some men at odds

The hypothetical has caused some tension, with some women arguing that men will never truly understand what it's like to be a woman or the inherent dangers at play.

Social media users answered this question for themselves, producing memes, spoken word poetry and skits in the days and weeks since.

So, what would you choose?