reading skills as a research sources

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Reading Research Effectively
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Reading a Scholarly Article or Research Paper

Identifying a research problem to investigate usually requires a preliminary search for and critical review of the literature in order to gain an understanding about how scholars have examined a topic. Scholars rarely structure research studies in a way that can be followed like a story; they are complex and detail-intensive and often written in a descriptive and conclusive narrative form. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, journal articles and stand-alone research reports are generally organized in a consistent format that makes it easier to compare and contrast studies and to interpret their contents.

General Reading Strategies

W hen you first read an article or research paper, focus on asking specific questions about each section. This strategy can help with overall comprehension and with understanding how the content relates [or does not relate] to the problem you want to investigate. As you review more and more studies, the process of understanding and critically evaluating the research will become easier because the content of what you review will begin to coalescence around common themes and patterns of analysis. Below are recommendations on how to read each section of a research paper effectively. Note that the sections to read are out of order from how you will find them organized in a journal article or research paper.

1.  Abstract

The abstract summarizes the background, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions of a scholarly article or research paper. Use the abstract to filter out sources that may have appeared useful when you began searching for information but, in reality, are not relevant. Questions to consider when reading the abstract are:

• Is this study related to my question or area of research?
• What is this study about and why is it being done ?
• What is the working hypothesis or underlying thesis?
• What is the primary finding of the study?
• Are there words or terminology that I can use to either narrow or broaden the parameters of my search for more information?

2.  Introduction

If, after reading the abstract, you believe the paper may be useful, focus on examining the research problem and identifying the questions the author is trying to address. This information is usually located within the first few paragraphs of the introduction or in the concluding paragraph. Look for information about how and in what way this relates to what you are investigating. In addition to the research problem, the introduction should provide the main argument and theoretical framework of the study and, in the last paragraphs of the introduction, describe what the author(s) intend to accomplish. Questions to consider when reading the introduction include:

• What is this study trying to prove or disprove?
• What is the author(s) trying to test or demonstrate?
• What do we already know about this topic and what gaps does this study try to fill or contribute a new understanding to the research problem?
• Why should I care about what is being investigated?
• Will this study tell me anything new related to the research problem I am investigating?

3.  Literature Review

The literature review describes and critically evaluates what is already known about a topic. Read the literature review to obtain a big picture perspective about how the topic has been studied and to begin the process of seeing where your potential study fits within the domain of prior research. Questions to consider when reading the literature review include:

• W hat other research has been conducted about this topic and what are the main themes that have emerged?
• What does prior research reveal about what is already known about the topic and what remains to be discovered?
• What have been the most important past findings about the research problem?
• How has prior research led the author(s) to conduct this particular study?
• Is there any prior research that is unique or groundbreaking?
• Are there any studies I could use as a model for designing and organizing my own study?

4.  Discussion/Conclusion

The discussion and conclusion are usually the last two sections of text in a scholarly article or research report. They reveal how the author(s) interpreted the findings of their research and presented recommendations or courses of action based on those findings. Often in the conclusion, the author(s) highlight recommendations for further research that can be used to develop your own study. Questions to consider when reading the discussion and conclusion sections include:

• What is the overall meaning of the study and why is this important? [i.e., how have the author(s) addressed the " So What? " question].
• What do you find to be the most important ways that the findings have been interpreted?
• What are the weaknesses in their argument?
• Do you believe conclusions about the significance of the study and its findings are valid?
• What limitations of the study do the author(s) describe and how might this help formulate my own research?
• Does the conclusion contain any recommendations for future research?

5.  Methods/Methodology

The methods section describes the materials, techniques, and procedures for gathering information used to examine the research problem. If what you have read so far closely supports your understanding of the topic, then move on to examining how the author(s) gathered information during the research process. Questions to consider when reading the methods section include:

• Did the study use qualitative [based on interviews, observations, content analysis], quantitative [based on statistical analysis], or a mixed-methods approach to examining the research problem?
• What was the type of information or data used?
• Could this method of analysis be repeated and can I adopt the same approach?
• Is enough information available to repeat the study or should new data be found to expand or improve understanding of the research problem?

6.  Results

After reading the above sections, you should have a clear understanding of the general findings of the study. Therefore, read the results section to identify how key findings were discussed in relation to the research problem. If any non-textual elements [e.g., graphs, charts, tables, etc.] are confusing, focus on the explanations about them in the text. Questions to consider when reading the results section include:

• W hat did the author(s) find and how did they find it?
• Does the author(s) highlight any findings as most significant?
• Are the results presented in a factual and unbiased way?
• Does the analysis of results in the discussion section agree with how the results are presented?
• Is all the data present and did the author(s) adequately address gaps?
• What conclusions do you formulate from this data and does it match with the author's conclusions?

7.  References

The references list the sources used by the author(s) to document what prior research and information was used when conducting the study. After reviewing the article or research paper, use the references to identify additional sources of information on the topic and to examine critically how these sources supported the overall research agenda. Questions to consider when reading the references include:

• Do the sources cited by the author(s) reflect a diversity of disciplinary viewpoints, i.e., are the sources all from a particular field of study or do the sources reflect multiple areas of study?
• Are there any unique or interesting sources that could be incorporated into my study?
• What other authors are respected in this field, i.e., who has multiple works cited or is cited most often by others?
• What other research should I review to clarify any remaining issues or that I need more information about?

NOTE :  A final strategy in reviewing research is to copy and paste the title of the source [journal article, book, research report] into Google Scholar . If it appears, look for a "cited by" followed by a hyperlinked number [e.g., Cited by 45]. This number indicates how many times the study has been subsequently cited in other, more recently published works. This strategy, known as citation tracking, can be an effective means of expanding your review of pertinent literature based on a study you have found useful and how scholars have cited it. The same strategies described above can be applied to reading articles you find in the list of cited by references.

Reading Tip

Specific Reading Strategies

Effectively reading scholarly research is an acquired skill that involves attention to detail and an ability to comprehend complex ideas, data, and theoretical concepts in a way that applies logically to the research problem you are investigating. Here are some specific reading strategies to consider.

As You are Reading

• Focus on information that is most relevant to the research problem; skim over the other parts.
• As noted above, read content out of order! This isn't a novel; you want to start with the spoiler to quickly assess the relevance of the study.
• Think critically about what you read and seek to build your own arguments; not everything may be entirely valid, examined effectively, or thoroughly investigated.
• Look up the definitions of unfamiliar words, concepts, or terminology. A good scholarly source is Credo Reference .

Taking notes as you read will save time when you go back to examine your sources. Here are some suggestions:

• Mark or highlight important text as you read [e.g., you can use the highlight text  feature in a PDF document]
• Take notes in the margins [e.g., Adobe Reader offers pop-up sticky notes].
• Highlight important quotations; consider using different colors to differentiate between quotes and other types of important text.
• Summarize key points about the study at the end of the paper. To save time, these can be in the form of a concise bulleted list of statements [e.g., intro has provides historical background; lit review has important sources; good conclusions].

Write down thoughts that come to mind that may help clarify your understanding of the research problem. Here are some examples of questions to ask yourself:

• Do I understand all of the terminology and key concepts?
• Do I understand the parts of this study most relevant to my topic?
• What specific problem does the research address and why is it important?
• Are there any issues or perspectives the author(s) did not consider?
• Do I have any reason to question the validity or reliability of this research?
• How do the findings relate to my research interests and to other works which I have read?

Adapted from text originally created by Holly Burt, Behavioral Sciences Librarian, USC Libraries, April 2018.

Another Reading Tip

When is it Important to Read the Entire Article or Research Paper

Laubepin argues, "Very few articles in a field are so important that every word needs to be read carefully." However, this implies that some studies are worth reading carefully. As painful and time-consuming as it may seem, there are valid reasons for reading a study in its entirety from beginning to end. Here are some examples:

• Studies Published Very Recently .  The author(s) of a recent, well written study will provide a survey of the most important or impactful prior research in the literature review section. This can establish an understanding of how scholars in the past addressed the research problem. In addition, the most recently published sources will highlight what is currently known and what gaps in understanding currently exist about a topic, usually in the form of the need for further research in the conclusion .
• Surveys of the Research Problem .  Some papers provide a comprehensive analytical overview of the research problem. Reading this type of study can help you understand underlying issues and discover why scholars have chosen to investigate the topic. This is particularly important if the study was published very recently because the author(s) should cite all or most of the key prior research on the topic. Note that, if it is a long-standing problem, there may be studies that specifically review the literature to identify gaps that remain. These studies often include the word review in their title [e.g., Hügel, Stephan, and Anna R. Davies. "Public Participation, Engagement, and Climate Change Adaptation: A Review of the Research Literature." Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 11 (July-August 2020): https://doi.org/10.1002/ wcc.645].
• Highly Cited .  If you keep coming across the same citation to a study while you are reviewing the literature, this implies it was foundational in establishing an understanding of the research problem or the study had a significant impact within the literature [positive or negative]. Carefully reading a highly cited source can help you understand how the topic emerged and motivated scholars to further investigate the problem. It also could be a study you need to cite as foundational in your own paper to demonstrate to the reader that you understand the roots of the problem.
• Historical Overview .  Knowing the historical background of a research problem may not be the focus of your analysis. Nevertheless, carefully reading a study that provides a thorough description and analysis of the history behind an event, issue, or phenomenon can add important context to understanding the topic and what aspect of the problem you may want to examine further.
• Innovative Methodological Design .  Some studies are significant and worth reading in their entirety because the author(s) designed a unique or innovative approach to researching the problem. This may justify reading the entire study because it can motivate you to think creatively about pursuing an alternative or non-traditional approach to examining your topic of interest. These types of studies are generally easy to identify because they are often cited in others works because of their unique approach to studying the research problem.
• Cross-disciplinary Approach .  R eviewing studies produced outside of your discipline is an essential component of investigating research problems in the social and behavioral sciences. Consider reading a study that was conducted by author(s) based in a different discipline [e.g., an anthropologist studying political cultures; a study of hiring practices in companies published in a sociology journal]. This approach can generate a new understanding or a unique perspective about the topic . If you are not sure how to search for studies published in a discipline outside of your major or of the course you are taking, contact a librarian for assistance.

Laubepin, Frederique. How to Read (and Understand) a Social Science Journal Article . Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ISPSR), 2013; Shon, Phillip Chong Ho. How to Read Journal Articles in the Social Sciences: A Very Practical Guide for Students . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015; Lockhart, Tara, and Mary Soliday. "The Critical Place of Reading in Writing Transfer (and Beyond): A Report of Student Experiences." Pedagogy 16 (2016): 23-37; Maguire, Moira, Ann Everitt Reynolds, and Brid Delahunt. "Reading to Be: The Role of Academic Reading in Emergent Academic and Professional Student Identities." Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice 17 (2020): 5-12.

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• Last Updated: May 9, 2024 11:05 AM
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Reading and Research Strategy Guide

• Prereading Strategies

Reading Critically

Research strategies.

• SQ3R Reading
• KWL Reading

Interpretive Reading

Effective reading and research strategies are vital components of academic success, especially since they can improve comprehension and retention. Active reading is one of the key strategies you’re likely to learn - engaging readers by asking questions, making connections, and reflecting upon material they read.

Active reading has been shown to improve comprehension and retention by encouraging readers to actively think through what they are reading. Asking questions, making inferences, asking for clarification of material being presented, or simply reflecting upon it afterward are all proven methods of helping individuals connect new information with existing knowledge more readily. This type of active engagement with literature helps readers retain important details long-term.

Active strategies like asking questions, drawing connections, and reflecting can aid comprehension and retention. Practical tips such as discussing reading with others or taking breaks may further deepen understanding. Finally, changing reading speed as necessary may prove especially helpful when dealing with longer or more complex texts.

Reading for comprehension requires practice, but there are numerous practical strategies for doing it effectively. One such strategy is discussing reading material with others in order to gain new perspectives and deepen understanding. Also, taking short breaks while reading can help keep focus and prevent burnout. And taking notes while reading can also aid readers by helping retain key information better.

Changes to reading speed are another powerful strategy that can aid comprehension. At first, it may be advantageous to skim quickly over material to quickly gain an overview before returning more slowly to sections that need extra focus; this approach may prove especially helpful with longer or more complex texts as it enables readers to process it in manageable chunks. This guide can help you with reading strategies to help you plan for college and help you read more efficiently while pursing your college degree .

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Prereading strategies: how to maximize your reading material.

When it comes to reading, some people jump right in with both feet, while others opt for more strategic approaches, such as prereading strategies that can help them understand and retain what they read. Here are some effective prereading techniques to consider.

Before diving in to read, take some time to review text features such as headings, subheadings, and illustrations to gain an idea of what lies ahead. This will give you a basic understanding of what you’re about to read and what to expect from the text.

Recalling prior knowledge before reading can help create an initial framework for understanding text and make connections between what you already know and what is to come. This is especially helpful when reading textbooks or other works in which chapters may build upon previously learned information.

Establishing a clear purpose and expectations for reading can help keep you engaged during the reading process. You can ask yourself questions such as, "What am I hoping to gain from this text?" and "What knowledge or understanding do I already possess about its subject?"

One of the easiest and most efficient ways to comprehend what you are reading is to focus on each paragraph's main point. Search for words or phrases that reveal its topic sentence or use headings as guides in identifying this key concept.

Converting headings into questions can help keep you engaged and focused while reading and allows you to connect the text more closely to either your life experience or previously studied texts, making reading even more meaningful. Try making connections between what you are reading and your life experiences to make reading more personal.

After each page or section, take a moment to summarize what you have read. This can help ensure you retain information while reinforcing understanding. Creating an outline or concept map will also allow you to visually organize information while synthesizing multiple ideas into an easy-to-understand structure.

Pre-reading strategies can help you focus, organize, and retain information while reading. Implement them to get the most out of your reading material and become an insightful and proficient reader.

Critical reading is an integral skill that entails dissecting written material with greater insight and comprehension. Reading to gain understanding requires approaching a text from different perspectives - moving beyond its surface-level meaning to reveal hidden themes, biases, and assumptions. One way to enhance reading comprehension is by altering the text, engaging more actively with reading by questioning author messages, drawing connections among different ideas, or applying your prior knowledge in order to deepen understanding. No matter if it be journal articles, scientific literature, or news reports, creating effective reading strategies will enable you to become an adept reader.

Reading for Understanding

Teaching readers to comprehend is at the core of any successful reading instruction. Simply decoding individual words on a page won't do; to fully engage with text, they must comprehend its meaning behind those words and fully appreciate its context.

To better comprehend what you are reading, it’s vitally important to engage actively with the text. This may involve setting targets for what information you want from reading, making notes as you go along, underlining key points with highlighter pens when necessary, or writing summaries in margins - these strategies all serve to focus your attention on what's most vital while making retention simpler.

On top of employing these individual strategies, discussing reading material with others can be very helpful to gain multiple viewpoints on it and gain deeper understanding of its contents - this may uncover insights you might otherwise miss on your own!

Other effective reading strategies for comprehension include beginning by reading something that provides an overall view of a topic first, rather than diving straight into complex or technical material. Breaking reading up into short bursts of no more than twenty minutes at a time, with regular breaks between, can help you maintain focus and reduce mental fatigue, while changing speed while taking notes along the way allows readers to engage with texts more fully.

Reading comprehension is key for successful reading instruction. By actively engaging with text, setting targets, gaining multiple perspectives, and employing effective strategies, readers can improve their ability to comprehend what they read while also making the most out of their reading experiences.

Effective research strategies are key for anyone attempting to gain information and expand their understanding on any given subject matter. Selecting relevant information is the foundation of an effective research process. First, you must locate credible information sources relevant to your research question or topic. Journals can be invaluable tools in conducting research as they offer access to up to date and high-quality literature. When looking for sources, you should utilize all available resources such as academic databases, books, and online sources in your research process; critical reading skills are also key! Critical readers take an analytical approach to reading information by questioning its legitimacy, evaluating sources, and exploring alternative viewpoints. Employing critical reading can help researchers gain greater insight into their subject matter.

Selecting Relevant Information

Selecting information relevant to your research and reading is of utmost importance when conducting studies or gathering knowledge for research purposes. In order to select what will most effectively serve your needs, it's essential that a few key criteria be considered before choosing suitable sources.

First, establish the purpose or goal for reading or researching. Understanding why you're doing it will allow you to quickly filter out unnecessary information while keeping a keen eye on what matters.

Next, leverage your prior knowledge of the subject matter. This can help you quickly identify relevant information and assess source reliability - for instance, if researching something familiar such as politics, you may already possess an idea of which sources may be reliable and which aren't.

Consider the reliability and expertise of your sources when making decisions based on information gleaned from various sources. Look for authoritative figures with expertise in your chosen subject area while being wary of sources with hidden agendas that may distort their perspective.

At the forefront of selecting relevant information is making sure it's current. Information can quickly become outdated, making it important to find the newest sources. When gathering this type of data, it's advisable to note their dates so you can quickly assess whether they still provide accurate results or have become outdated.

Once you've amassed all the information required for your research, it’s critical that it is organized and manageable. You can take notes or print articles you find online. You should label your files clearly, making note of identifying information like ISBN or website addresses. Review your files regularly for anything which won't prove beneficial and remove anything unlikely to be used to keep all research organized and manageable.

By considering your purpose, evaluating sources for reliability and expertise, and keeping information current and manageable, you can select the most relevant and useful data for research or reading purposes.

The SQ3R Reading Method

The SQ3R Reading Method is a popular and effective technique used to improve reading comprehension and retention. SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review; these are the five steps that form this approach aimed at improving comprehension. Rather than passively taking in material and comprehending it all on one go, the goal of SQ3R is not simply reading material but actively engaging with it for full understanding and retention.

What is the SQ3R Reading Method?

Have you ever found yourself reading but unable to comprehend or retain the content? Unfortunately, this can be an everyday struggle that many face - particularly academic or professional environments where reading comprehension is vitally important. But there is a solution: SQ3R Reading Method can help. The SQ3R Reading Method is an effective strategy for increasing reading comprehension and retaining information. The five-step plan comprises Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review stages.

Survey is the initial step, in which readers examine a text visually by scanning headings, subheadings, and images to form an overall idea of its subject matter. This allows readers to develop an effective mental map that aids understanding and retention.

Question is the second step, in which readers engage with texts by actively interrogating them through inquiry. This encourages critical thinking and improves reading comprehension; by asking pertinent inquiries a reader will become better equipped to analyze and comprehend a text.

Step three of the SQ3R Reading Method requires readers to go deep, reading each concept thoroughly in their text. This requires concentration and focus from readers - this step being key in terms of its success.

Recite is the fourth step, in which readers use an interactive learning style by discussing text aloud as though teaching it to someone else. This step reinforces comprehension and retention as readers can use what they just learned immediately.

Review is the final and fifth step, focused on summarizing and reviewing key points of a text to reinforce what has been learned while long-term retention of information is attained.

The SQ3R Reading Method is an effective technique for reading comprehension and retention. Following this process is a holistic approach that helps to ensure that readers comprehend and remember what they read. Regular practice with this technique can lead to increased proficiency and become an essential skill in becoming a more successful reader.

The KWL Reading Method

The KWL Reading Method is an active reading strategy commonly utilized in classrooms to engage and focus students while reading. The acronym stands for "What I Know, Want to Know, and Learned." Students using this strategy activate prior knowledge, set goals for themselves as readers, and reflect upon what they have gained through reading. Here we will explain more about what the KWL Reading Method entails as well as provide advice on how you can utilize it effectively for reading practice.

What is the KWL Reading Method?

The KWL Reading Method is an efficient strategy for active reading that encourages readers to tackle challenging texts. Using three simple columns, readers can keep track of what they already know, what they would like to learn and what has been gained after reading.

“K” stands for what is already known to the reader about a topic - this could include any prior knowledge or experience that they already possess on this subject matter. "W" stands for what the reader wants to learn - possibly an inventory of questions related to said topic that the reader wants answered. Finally, "L" represents what has been learned or gained through reading.

This method can be especially helpful in academic settings where students are expected to read and comprehend complex texts. By engaging actively with a text using the KWL method, readers can retain key pieces of information more effectively and measure their learning progress more easily.

You start by recording what you know about a subject and record their ideas in the K column of a KWL Reading Method chart. This helps activate prior knowledge and make connections to what's written in the text before you begin listing questions or things you want to learn in the W column of the chart. This helps guide your reading and draw attention to relevant information in text. Upon finishing reading the text, you should record what you’ve learned by recording it in the L column. No matter your reading level , this tool can help to summarize and assess whether learning objectives have been fulfilled.

Overall, the KWL Reading Method is an effective strategy for active reading that can be implemented across academic and nonacademic environments alike. By engaging with challenging texts and monitoring their learning progress, readers can improve their retention of information, critical thinking skills, and overall reading comprehension.

Interpretive reading is another effective method of deepening comprehension and analyzing texts. Where literal reading merely seeks to comprehend surface-level meaning of texts, interpretive reading aims at unpacking authorial intent, tone, and any hidden messages contained therein.

To develop this skill, readers must actively read and question a text's purpose in relation to their background knowledge or the world. Doing this requires engaging with multiple layers of meaning within the text while critically analyzing its contents - all while paying close attention to word choice, sentence structure, themes, and symbols used by authors to fully grasp their message.

Once readers understand the meaning of a text, it’s important for them to consider its wider implications and how it fits within a larger context. This involves investigating its relationship to historical, social, and economic factors, as well as understanding why an author's message may still be applicable beyond immediate context.

Interpretive reading is a fundamental skill necessary to understanding and appreciating complex texts such as literary works, academic articles, and other forms of writing. By dissecting the author’s intent and message beyond what appears on the surface, readers can uncover deeper meanings and insights that lead to greater comprehension of what the author intended.

Interpretive reading is an invaluable method of comprehension and analysis, providing readers with access to the full depth and complexity of texts. By paying close attention to an author's intent, tone, and subtextual messages, they can broaden their own comprehension while connecting more intimately with the writing.

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Some sample reading goals: 

To find a paper topic or write a paper;

To have a comment for discussion;

To supplement ideas from lecture;

To understand a particular concept;

To memorize material for an exam;

To research for an assignment;

To enjoy the process (i.e., reading for pleasure!).

Seeing Textbook Reading in a New Light Students often come into college with negative associations surrounding textbook reading. It can be dry, dense, and draining; and in high school, sometimes we're left to our textbooks as a last resort for learning material.

A supportive resource : In college, textbooks can be a fantastic supportive resource. Some of your faculty may have authored their own for the specific course you're in!

Textbooks can provide:

A fresh voice through which to absorb material. Especially when it comes to challenging concepts, this can be a great asset in your quest for that "a-ha" moment.

The chance to “preview” lecture material, priming your mind for the big ideas you'll be exposed to in class.

The chance to review material, making sense of the finer points after class.

A resource that is accessible any time, whether it's while you are studying for an exam, writing a paper, or completing a homework assignment. 

Textbook reading is similar to and different from other kinds of reading . Some things to keep in mind as you experiment with its use:

Is it best to read the textbook before class or after?

Active reading is everything, apply the sq3r method., don’t forget to recite and review..

If you find yourself struggling through the readings for a course, you can ask the course instructor for guidance. Some ways to ask for help are: "How would you recommend I go about approaching the reading for this course?" or "Is there a way for me to check whether I am getting what I should be out of the readings?" 

Marking Text

Marking text – making marginal notes – helps with reading comprehension by keeping you focused and facilitating connections across readings. It also helps you find important information when reviewing for an exam or preparing to write an essay. The next time you’re reading, write notes in the margins as you go or, if you prefer, make notes on a separate sheet of paper. 

Your marginal notes will vary depending on the type of reading. Some possible areas of focus:

What themes do you see in the reading that relate to class discussions?

What themes do you see in the reading that you have seen in other readings?

What questions does the reading raise in your mind?

What does the reading make you want to research more?

Where do you see contradictions within the reading or in relation to other readings for the course?

Can you connect themes or events to your own experiences?

Your notes don’t have to be long. You can just write two or three words to jog your memory. For example, if you notice that a book has a theme relating to friendship, you can just write, “pp. 52-53 Theme: Friendship.” If you need to remind yourself of the details later in the semester, you can re-read that part of the text more closely. 

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If you are looking for help with developing best practices and using strategies for some of the tips discussed above, come to an ARC workshop on reading!

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Doing Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy

Student resources, reading research.

This chapter offers a grounding in the key research skill of reading research papers from a critical and affirmative stance. There is an emphasis on reading papers as a means of developing an appreciation of the diversity of research questions, methodologies and techniques that exist within the contemporary psychotherapy research literature. A further aim of the chapter is to explore strategies for finding interesting and relevant research papers.

The following learning activities offer starting points for developing critical reading skills:

PART 1. Reading Research Papers

Step 1.  Read through  this worksheet to support the development of skills in critically analysing a research paper and familiarise yourself with basic principles of critical analysis. 

Step 2.  Read the following  research paper , and make notes on its strengths and weaknesses, in accordance with the questions in the worksheet.

Step 3.  After (not before!) you have completed the previous step, read John McLeod’s notes on the  Stephenson & Hale (2020) paper . Compare your perception of the paper with the analyses of your colleagues.

Step 4.  Read the  list of further questions to consider when critically analysing a research paper. Add to this list any additional questions that seem relevant to you, or that emerged when you were working on Stephenson & Hale (2020).

Step 5.  Here are two additional papers to analyse, generated by a Google Scholar ‘cited by’ and ‘related articles’ search on the Stephenson & Hale (2020) article:

Rayner, M., & Vitali, D. (2016). Short-term existential psychotherapy in primary care: A quantitative report.  Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 56(4), 357 – 372. 

You are now in a position to go further, by including conclusions and insights arising from a comparison of this paper and Stephenson & Hale (2020).

Rayner, M., & Vitali, D. (2018). Existential experimentation: structure and principles for a short-term psychological therapy.  Journal of Humanistic Psychology , 58(2), 194 – 213.

This more detailed understanding of a key aspect (i.e., the intervention) of these two studies makes it possible to consider other important questions, such as: 

• How appropriate is the CORE outcome measure, as a tool for evaluating the effectiveness of existential therapy?
• What other methods of data collection, or research designs, might be appropriate?
• How would you describe existential therapy, if you were helping prospective clients to choose between this and CBT?
• What kind of rationale for existential therapy would be credible for health service managers and policy-makers – and what kind of research might be convincing to such stakeholders?

Step 6.  Repeat this process, on a research topic that is particularly relevant to your own interests, or a topic that has been agreed by the members of your learning group. To get started, all you need is one relatively recent study. You can then work forwards and backwards, using the reference list in the article, Google Scholar, and search tools available through your university or college library or your workplace.

PART 2. Reviewing the research literature

In any research project, it is necessary to contextualise the proposed study by providing a rationale that shows how it builds on previous knowledge. This requires carrying out some kind of review of previous research. The extent and level of detail of such a review can vary widely. 

A useful source of learning about the process of reviewing the research literature is to read published reviews.  Doing Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy  (4 th  edn.) does not highlight completing a published review as part of the core skills set of a novice or practitioner researcher, because such research ‘products’ are too demanding for that stage of development as a researcher. However, reading reviews, and becoming a connoisseur of reviews, make it possible to appreciate the skills and strategies involved in conducting a high-quality review, as a basis for deciding which of them might be feasible or relevant to one’s own project.

The following sources provide an overview of some of the main types of review that have been implemented:

Munn, Z., Peters, M. D., Stern, C., Tufanaru, C., McArthur, A., & Aromataris, E. (2018). Systematic review or scoping review? Guidance for authors when choosing between a systematic or scoping review approach.  BMC Medical Research Methodology , 18(1), 1 – 7. 

A scoping review is basically a careful trawl of the research literature, to map and classify existing evidence. By contrast, a systematic review seeks to provide a rigorous answer to a specific question. This paper provides a clear explanation of this distinction. 

Access to several downloadable scoping reviews of research is available at the following sites:

https://www.bacp.co.uk/events-and-resources/research/publications/   (British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy)

https://www.pacfa.org.au/Portal/Publications-and-Research/Pub.aspx   (Psychotherapy and Counselling Federation of Australia)

McPherson, S., Wicks, C., & Tercelli, I. (2020). Patient experiences of psychological therapy for depression: a qualitative metasynthesis.  BMC Psychiatry , 20(1), 1 – 18. 

This review is a good example of what is possible with qualitative metasynthesis (or meta-analysis).  When reading it, pay particular attention to how these reviewers have handled the challenging task of comparing and making sense of different themes that have been identified in different studies.

It can be hard to conduct a systematic review on very large numbers of studies, because of the density and complexity of information that is available. A key strategy in such contexts is to identify a subset of studies that have examined a specific aspect of the topic.

The majority of reviews restrict themselves to establishing what is known – the facts of the matter – in as credible, unbiased and comprehensive a manner a possible. However, many reviews also make suggestions for further research (e.g., filling in the gaps, or concentrating on using research techniques that are associated with the most valid or reliable findings). In addition, some reviews are used to build theoretical understanding. 

de Haan, A. M., Boon, A. E., de Jong, J. T., & Vermeiren, R. R. (2018). A review of mental health treatment dropout by ethnic minority youth.  Transcultural Psychiatry , 55(1), 3 – 30. 

This is a typical example of a review of quantitative studies. This particular review zooms in on that literature by applying two filters: age and ethnic minority status.

Miller, C. E., Townsend, M. L., Day, N. J., & Grenyer, B. F. (2020). Measuring the shadows: A systematic review of chronic emptiness in borderline personality disorder.  PloS One , 15(7), e0233970. 

This is even more highly focused in examining research on a single characteristic (chronic emptiness) of the experience of individuals seeking help for a specific problem.

Fernee, C. R., Gabrielsen, L. E., Andersen, A. J., & Mesel, T. (2017). Unpacking the black box of wilderness therapy: A realist synthesis.  Qualitative Health Research , 27(1), 114 – 129. 

Realist synthesis is a review approach that aims to develop a theoretical model of an area of practice. As well as providing an example of using the review process to develop a theoretical model, this article illustrates how a good review can be used to consolidate knowledge and provide a platform for further research in an area where relatively few studies have been published. 

Welcome to Student Learning Te Taiako

Reading and research skills.

Research and reading are an important part of academic study. Our tips can help you save time and improve your critical thinking.

Research involves searching for and sifting through a huge body of information using academic sources in libraries, the internet and other places. It is important you research and read effectively in order to maximise the limited time you have preparing for an assignment.

Researching effectively

Before conducting research, you should:

• carefully analyse the assignment, essay or report question and make sure you understand what it requires you to do.
• brainstorm/mindmap what you know about the topic already. You may like to refer to your lecture notes and course readings.
• develop a direction for your research.
• pdf 119.9KB Analysing the question
• pdf 118.8KB Instructional words
• pdf 2.0MB Effective reading
• Start your research early! Locating books and articles always takes longer than you think. There is also the possibility that what you want is not available.
• Reference lists or bibliographies in your course readings may provide some useful sources.
• Make sure what you've found is relevant. Skim abstracts, table of contents, introduction and conclusion and check them against the assignment question.
• Beware of internet sources—they may not be reliable.
• Library databases are subject specific. They provide the bibliographic details, abstracts or even full-text of journal articles and other related publications. Ask a librarian which databases are suitable for your subject.
• Keep a detailed bibliographic record of the sources you've found.
• Ask a librarian or lecturer/tutor for help if you don't know where to start, or are not sure if you are on the right track.

If you are new to Victoria University of Wellington, you should join a library tour and attend a library tutorial before you need to do an assignment, essay or report. Library tours are offered during orientation and throughout the academic year. Online tutorials on how to find Library resources are available. You can also contact the librarians if you want a face-to-face session.

If you are a postgraduate student, also check out the Student Learning Postgraduate seminars and self-help guides offered by the library.

Reading Effectively

It is sometimes difficult to read effectively when you have a busy work load.

Make it easier

• Find an easier article first to get some background familiarity to a topic.
• Read the abstract, introduction, discussion and conclusions to get a general overview.
• Read the article fast first—then more slowly.

Read at different speeds

The SQ3R method (Survey, Question, Read, Recall, Review) is very useful for effective reading.

Be an effective reader

• Read so you don't have to read again.
• Scan the article before you read, and ask 'why am I reading this material?' 'What is the writer's main point?' 'What evidence does the writer give?' 'What is the writer's conclusion?' 'Do I agree? If not, why not?' These questions will help you compare the different views or opinions of the author with your own.
• Read a short section for 5 to 10 minutes and STOP. Think about what you read. What did I read? What don't I understand? Read the next section.
• Underline—decide what is important or write margin notes. Read critically and evaluate objectively; start by refusing to accept everything you see in print.
• Take notes or make a mindmap. Use examples or put information in a diagram to gain a deeper understanding of the text.
• Talk about the article with someone.

Thinking critically

One of the most important skills at Victoria University of Wellington is critical thinking. The University aims to produce students who can think for themselves; people who can find out the facts or the theory and then apply those facts or theory to problems. It is not good enough just to understand and know lecture material and readings. You need to be able to think critically about the material, evaluate it, and apply it.

In an essay you wouldn't just write facts. You need to give an opinion or create an argument about the topic and support your argument with material from your research and your reading.

You might need to learn new skills to do this type of study successfully. Start by refusing to accept everything you see in print. Compare what the reading says with what others have said and with your own experience. Note your disagreement, agreement, objections, or comparisons in the margins. Interact with the author. Be sceptical.

Here are some questions to consider as you read:

• Is the author an expert? What is their background? What is their purpose?
• What perspective do they come from?
• Is the author’s argument clear and well put?
• Is there a bias?
• What is the source of evidence? How reliable is it?
• If research is used how reliable are the research methods?
• Are there gaps in the research?
• How does the author use information from other sources?
• Are materials sourced?
• How well does the author support their thesis, conclusions, and recommendations? Balance? Logic?
• Do ideas flow clearly?
• Is there information left out?
• Are there other authors/ research/ articles to compare with?
• How do these ideas link to lectures, own experience?

Writing 10: College Reading and Composition (49-Downey)

• Pre-Activities
• 4/9/24 In-Person Session Info
• An Overview of the Process
• Keywords - Poll Questions
• Information Privilege

Step 3 - Find Research & Information Sources

Video: three search strategies, how to search - basic skills, step 3 - pause to reflect.

• Database Searching
• Final Search Tip
• 4. Read & Evaluate
• Citing Your Sources
• Annotated bibliographies
• Tech & More Help
• Your Feedback

24/7 Chat With a Librarian

How & where to search.

Finding information requires a lot of skills that you may not be aware that you have or that you are developing. Use this page to learn strategies for  HOW  to find the most relevant information to meet your needs. 

Use the sub-pages to learn  WHERE  to search for research on your topic or question.

Check out information in  Step 5  about Citation Trails to learn how to discover additional citations to relevant works to help you answer your research question.

If you want to review search strategies, this video covers three which you can apply in your database searches. (3:04).

You can use these basic search techniques with almost any search interface -- from library catalogs, to search engines, to library databases!

Searching is as easy as 1, 2, 3!

1. and or, and not (boolean operators/operadores lógicos).

Boolean Operators are also sometimes called Logical Operators and they perform specific functions to your search. Not all databases require the use of AND and OR in capital letters, but we recommend that you use them in all caps as a habit. 

AND narrows your search

Use AND in between different concepts to ensure these different concepts appear together in your search results. The Venn diagram to the right represents the idea of the search results occurring ONLY in the narrow place where the two concepts overlap. 

• EXAMPLE: microplastics AND oceans AND recycling

OR broadens your search

If you're not sure what is the best keyword to use, you can include multiple keywords connected with OR to search them all. OR means that at least one of these keywords will show up in your search. The graphic to the right implies that any of these concepts (or all of them) can be included in your search results. 

• EXAMPLE: microplastic* OR plastic litter OR nanoplastic*

The NOT operator will exclude something from your search.

• EXAMPLE: depression NOT economic

Using AND, OR, and NOT in a Search

Depending on the database, you may have a single search box or you may have an advanced search screen with multiple boxes. You can use the logical operators AND, OR, and NOT in either situation. In a single box, you can use parentheses () to isolate your terms, but if you have multiple boxes, you do not need to use parentheses. 

Here is an example of a search in each scenario using either parentheses or individual boxes to isolate the similar concepts like cow, cattle, and livestock.

Single Search Box

Multiple Search Boxes (called the "Advanced Search" screen in most databases)

These searches using AND and OR regardless of whether you use a single box with () or multiple boxes, should produce the same results in this database. Follow this permalink to see this search's results in the database .

2. Phrase Searching

Put quotation marks around a known phrase to search for an exact match. Be careful to only use quotation marks around a known phrase so that you don't accidentally miss relevant results.

• EXAMPLE: " Body dysmorphic disorder "

3. Truncation / Wildcard

Use the wildcard symbol, an asterisk (*) to find variations of the same root word.

• EXAMPLE: Comput* will find Computer, Computers, Computation

Pause to Reflect

As researchers, we should approach the evidence we find with an open mind. Research should broaden or inform our perspectives, and not confirm our own biases. If your research is just a collection of cherry-picked quotes, you may need to go back to the library catalog,  UC Library Search , or the  article databases  to gather more information and other perspectives to consider. 

• << Previous: Information Privilege
• Next: Database Searching >>
• Last Updated: Apr 29, 2024 11:33 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/wri-010-downey

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Meditation: a simple, fast way to reduce stress.

Meditation can wipe away the day's stress, bringing with it inner peace. See how you can easily learn to practice meditation whenever you need it most.

If stress has you anxious, tense and worried, you might try meditation. Spending even a few minutes in meditation can help restore your calm and inner peace.

Anyone can practice meditation. It's simple and doesn't cost much. And you don't need any special equipment.

You can practice meditation wherever you are. You can meditate when you're out for a walk, riding the bus, waiting at the doctor's office or even in the middle of a business meeting.

Understanding meditation

Meditation has been around for thousands of years. Early meditation was meant to help deepen understanding of the sacred and mystical forces of life. These days, meditation is most often used to relax and lower stress.

Meditation is a type of mind-body complementary medicine. Meditation can help you relax deeply and calm your mind.

During meditation, you focus on one thing. You get rid of the stream of thoughts that may be crowding your mind and causing stress. This process can lead to better physical and emotional well-being.

Benefits of meditation

Meditation can give you a sense of calm, peace and balance that can benefit your emotional well-being and your overall health. You also can use it to relax and cope with stress by focusing on something that calms you. Meditation can help you learn to stay centered and keep inner peace.

These benefits don't end when your meditation session ends. Meditation can help take you more calmly through your day. And meditation may help you manage symptoms of some medical conditions.

Meditation and emotional and physical well-being

When you meditate, you may clear away the information overload that builds up every day and contributes to your stress.

The emotional and physical benefits of meditation can include:

• Giving you a new way to look at things that cause stress.
• Building skills to manage your stress.
• Making you more self-aware.
• Focusing on the present.
• Reducing negative feelings.
• Helping you be more creative.
• Helping you be more patient.
• Lowering resting heart rate.
• Lowering resting blood pressure.
• Helping you sleep better.

Meditation and illness

Meditation also might help if you have a medical condition. This is most often true if you have a condition that stress makes worse.

A lot of research shows that meditation is good for health. But some experts believe there's not enough research to prove that meditation helps.

With that in mind, some research suggests that meditation may help people manage symptoms of conditions such as:

• Chronic pain.
• Depression.
• Heart disease.
• High blood pressure.
• Irritable bowel syndrome.
• Sleep problems.
• Tension headaches.

Be sure to talk to your healthcare professional about the pros and cons of using meditation if you have any of these or other health conditions. Sometimes, meditation might worsen symptoms linked to some mental health conditions.

Meditation doesn't replace medical treatment. But it may help to add it to other treatments.

Types of meditation

Meditation is an umbrella term for the many ways to get to a relaxed state. There are many types of meditation and ways to relax that use parts of meditation. All share the same goal of gaining inner peace.

Ways to meditate can include:

Guided meditation. This is sometimes called guided imagery or visualization. With this method of meditation, you form mental images of places or things that help you relax.

You try to use as many senses as you can. These include things you can smell, see, hear and feel. You may be led through this process by a guide or teacher.

• Mantra meditation. In this type of meditation, you repeat a calming word, thought or phrase to keep out unwanted thoughts.

Mindfulness meditation. This type of meditation is based on being mindful. This means being more aware of the present.

In mindfulness meditation, you focus on one thing, such as the flow of your breath. You can notice your thoughts and feelings. But let them pass without judging them.

• Qigong. This practice most often combines meditation, relaxation, movement and breathing exercises to restore and maintain balance. Qigong (CHEE-gung) is part of Chinese medicine.
• Tai chi. This is a form of gentle Chinese martial arts training. In tai chi (TIE-CHEE), you do a series of postures or movements in a slow, graceful way. And you do deep breathing with the movements.
• Yoga. You do a series of postures with controlled breathing. This helps give you a more flexible body and a calm mind. To do the poses, you need to balance and focus. That helps you to focus less on your busy day and more on the moment.

Parts of meditation

Each type of meditation may include certain features to help you meditate. These may vary depending on whose guidance you follow or who's teaching a class. Some of the most common features in meditation include:

Focused attention. Focusing your attention is one of the most important elements of meditation.

Focusing your attention is what helps free your mind from the many things that cause stress and worry. You can focus your attention on things such as a certain object, an image, a mantra or even your breathing.

• Relaxed breathing. This technique involves deep, even-paced breathing using the muscle between your chest and your belly, called the diaphragm muscle, to expand your lungs. The purpose is to slow your breathing, take in more oxygen, and reduce the use of shoulder, neck and upper chest muscles while breathing so that you breathe better.

A quiet setting. If you're a beginner, meditation may be easier if you're in a quiet spot. Aim to have fewer things that can distract you, including no television, computers or cellphones.

As you get more skilled at meditation, you may be able to do it anywhere. This includes high-stress places, such as a traffic jam, a stressful work meeting or a long line at the grocery store. This is when you can get the most out of meditation.

• A comfortable position. You can practice meditation whether you're sitting, lying down, walking, or in other positions or activities. Just try to be comfortable so that you can get the most out of your meditation. Aim to keep good posture during meditation.
• Open attitude. Let thoughts pass through your mind without judging them.

Everyday ways to practice meditation

Don't let the thought of meditating the "right" way add to your stress. If you choose to, you can attend special meditation centers or group classes led by trained instructors. But you also can practice meditation easily on your own. There are apps to use too.

And you can make meditation as formal or informal as you like. Some people build meditation into their daily routine. For example, they may start and end each day with an hour of meditation. But all you really need is a few minutes a day for meditation.

Here are some ways you can practice meditation on your own, whenever you choose:

Breathe deeply. This is good for beginners because breathing is a natural function.

Focus all your attention on your breathing. Feel your breath and listen to it as you inhale and exhale through your nostrils. Breathe deeply and slowly. When your mind wanders, gently return your focus to your breathing.

Scan your body. When using this technique, focus attention on each part of your body. Become aware of how your body feels. That might be pain, tension, warmth or relaxation.

Mix body scanning with breathing exercises and think about breathing heat or relaxation into and out of the parts of your body.

• Repeat a mantra. You can create your own mantra. It can be religious or not. Examples of religious mantras include the Jesus Prayer in the Christian tradition, the holy name of God in Judaism, or the om mantra of Hinduism, Buddhism and other Eastern religions.

Walk and meditate. Meditating while walking is a good and healthy way to relax. You can use this technique anywhere you're walking, such as in a forest, on a city sidewalk or at the mall.

When you use this method, slow your walking pace so that you can focus on each movement of your legs or feet. Don't focus on where you're going. Focus on your legs and feet. Repeat action words in your mind such as "lifting," "moving" and "placing" as you lift each foot, move your leg forward and place your foot on the ground. Focus on the sights, sounds and smells around you.

Pray. Prayer is the best known and most widely used type of meditation. Spoken and written prayers are found in most faith traditions.

You can pray using your own words or read prayers written by others. Check the self-help section of your local bookstore for examples. Talk with your rabbi, priest, pastor or other spiritual leader about possible resources.

Read and reflect. Many people report that they benefit from reading poems or sacred texts and taking a few moments to think about their meaning.

You also can listen to sacred music, spoken words, or any music that relaxes or inspires you. You may want to write your thoughts in a journal or discuss them with a friend or spiritual leader.

• Focus your love and kindness. In this type of meditation, you think of others with feelings of love, compassion and kindness. This can help increase how connected you feel to others.

Building your meditation skills

Don't judge how you meditate. That can increase your stress. Meditation takes practice.

It's common for your mind to wander during meditation, no matter how long you've been practicing meditation. If you're meditating to calm your mind and your mind wanders, slowly return to what you're focusing on.

Try out ways to meditate to find out what types of meditation work best for you and what you enjoy doing. Adapt meditation to your needs as you go. Remember, there's no right way or wrong way to meditate. What matters is that meditation helps you reduce your stress and feel better overall.

Related information

• Relaxation techniques: Try these steps to lower stress - Related information Relaxation techniques: Try these steps to lower stress
• Stress relievers: Tips to tame stress - Related information Stress relievers: Tips to tame stress
• Video: Need to relax? Take a break for meditation - Related information Video: Need to relax? Take a break for meditation

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• Meditation: In depth. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. https://nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• Mindfulness meditation: A research-proven way to reduce stress. American Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/topics/mindfulness/meditation. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• AskMayoExpert. Meditation. Mayo Clinic. 2021.
• Papadakis MA, et al., eds. Meditation. In: Current Medical Diagnosis & Treatment 2022. 61st ed. McGraw Hill; 2022. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com. Accessed Dec. 23, 2021.
• Hilton L, et al. Mindfulness meditation for chronic pain: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2017; doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9844-2.
• Seaward BL. Meditation. In: Essentials of Managing Stress. 5th ed. Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2021.
• Seaward BL. Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-Being. 9th ed. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2018.

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