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• Master’s vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Master's vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Published on November 27, 2020 by Lauren Thomas . Revised on June 1, 2023.

The two most common types of graduate degrees are master’s and doctoral degrees:

• A master’s is a 1–2 year degree that can prepare you for a multitude of careers.
• A PhD, or doctoral degree, takes 3–7 years to complete (depending on the country) and prepares you for a career in academic research.

A master’s is also the necessary first step to a PhD. In the US, the master’s is built into PhD programs, while in most other countries, a separate master’s degree is required before applying for PhDs.

Master’s are far more common than PhDs. In the US, 24 million people have master’s or professional degrees, whereas only 4.5 million have doctorates.

Table of contents

Master’s vs phd at a glance, which is right for you, length of time required, career prospects, costs and salaries, application process, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about master's and phd degrees.

The table below shows the key differences between the two.

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A PhD is right for you if:

• Your goal is to become a professor at a university or some other type of professional researcher.
• You love research and are passionate about discovering the answer to a particular question.
• You are willing to spend years pursuing your research even if you have to put up with a lot of dead ends and roadblocks.

A master’s degree is the better choice if any of the following apply:

• You want to continue studies in your field, but you’re not committed to a career as a professional researcher.
• You want to develop professional skills for a specific career.
• You are willing to pay a higher upfront cost if it means finishing with your degree (and thus being able to work) much faster.
• You want the option to study part-time while working.

The length of time required to complete a PhD or master’s degree varies. Unsurprisingly, PhDs take much longer, usually between 3–7 years. Master’s degrees are usually only 1–2 years.

Length of a master’s

Master’s degrees are usually 2 years, although 1-year master’s degrees also exist, mainly in the UK.

Most of the degree consists of classes and coursework, although many master’s programs include an intensive, semester-long master’s thesis or capstone project in which students bring together all they’ve learned to produce an original piece of work.

Length of a PhD

In the US, a PhD usually takes between 5 and 7 years to complete. The first 2 years are spent on coursework. Students, even those who choose to leave without finishing the program, usually receive a master’s degree at this point.

The next 3–5 years are spent preparing a dissertation —a lengthy piece of writing based on independent research, which aims to make a significant original contribution to one’s field.

Master’s degrees tend to prepare you for a career outside of academia, while PhDs are designed to lead to a career in research.

Careers for master’s graduates

There are two types of master’s degrees: terminal and research-intensive. The career prospects are different for each.

Terminal master’s degrees are intended to prepare students for careers outside of academia. Some degrees, known as professional degrees, specifically prepare students for particular professions; these include the Master of Public Policy (MPP), Master of Business Administration (MBA), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Public Health (MPH) degrees.

Other master’s degrees, usually Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Sciences (MS or MSc) degrees, do not necessarily lead to a specific career, but are intended to be a final degree. Examples include an MS in Communications or MS in Data Analytics.

In research-intensive master’s programs, students take coursework intended to prepare them for writing an original piece of research known as the master’s thesis . Such programs are usually intended to prepare for further study in a doctoral program.

Careers for PhD graduates

As research degrees, PhDs are usually intended to lead to an academic career. A PhD can be thought of like an apprenticeship, where students learn from professional researchers (academics) how to produce their own research.

Most students aspire to become a university professor upon the completion of their degree. However, careers in academia are highly competitive, and the skills learned in a doctoral program often lend themselves well to other types of careers.

Some graduates who find they prefer teaching to producing research go on to be teachers at liberal arts colleges or even secondary schools. Others work in research-intensive careers in the government, private sector, or at think tanks.

Below are a few examples of specific fields and non-academic careers that are common destinations of graduates of those fields.

• Computer Science
• Lab Sciences

Many government jobs, including economists at a country’s central bank, are research-intensive and require a PhD. Think tanks also hire economists to carry out independent research.

In the private sector, economic consulting and technology firms frequently hire PhDs to solve real-world problems that require complex mathematical modeling.

Graduate students from the humanities are sometimes hired by museums, who can make use of their research and writing skills to curate exhibits and run public outreach.

Humanities PhDs are often well-suited to research and grant-writing roles at nonprofits. Since so much of research is funded by grants, PhD students often gain a lot of experience applying for them, which is a useful skill in the nonprofit sector.

There are a wide range of non-academic research jobs for lab scientists with doctorates in subjects like chemistry, biology, ecology and physics.

Many PhD graduates are hired by pharmaceutical companies that need to perform research to create and test their products. Government agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also hire lab scientists to work on research projects.

Job prospects after graduation vary widely based on the field. In fields like management, computer science, statistics, and economics, there’s little underemployment—even graduates from less well-known programs can easily find jobs that pay well and use the skills they’ve gained from the PhD.

However, in other fields, particularly in the humanities, many PhD graduates have difficulty in the job market. Unfortunately, there are far more PhD graduates than assistant professor roles, so many instead take on part-time and low-paid roles as adjunct instructors. Even non-academic careers can sometimes be difficult for PhDs to move into, as they may be seen as “overqualified”  or as lacking in relevant professional experience.

Because career options post-PhD vary so much, you should take the time to figure out what the career prospects are in your field. Doctoral programs often have detailed “placement” records online in which they list the career outcomes of their graduates immediately upon leaving the program. If you can’t find these records, contact the program and ask for them—placement information should play an important role in your choice of PhD program.

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Although PhDs take far longer to complete, students often receive a living stipend in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. Master’s degrees are shorter but less likely to be funded.

Both master’s degrees and PhDs lead to increased salaries upon graduation. While PhDs usually earn a bit more than those with a master’s degree, in some fields, the wages are identical, meaning that no financial benefit is gained from going on to a PhD.

Cost of a master’s

The upfront cost of a master’s degree is usually higher than a doctoral degree due to the lower amount of financial aid available. However, increased salaries also arrive faster than with a doctoral degree, because people graduate much earlier from a master’s program.

Some master’s students do receive stipends for their degrees, usually as compensation for being a teaching or research assistant. In addition, many people complete master’s degrees part time while working full-time, which allows them to fund their living costs as well as tuition.

The cost varies significantly by school and program. Public schools are usually cheaper than private ones. Some master’s degrees, such as MBAs, are notoriously expensive, but also result in much higher wages afterwards that make up for the high cost.

The master’s wage premium , or the extra amount that someone with a master’s degree makes than someone with just a high school diploma, is 23% on average. Many universities provide detailed statistics on the career and salary outcomes of their students. If they do not have this online, you should feel free to contact an administrator of the program and ask.

Cost of a PhD

PhDs, particularly outside the humanities, are usually (though not always) funded, meaning that tuition fees are fully waived and students receive a small living stipend. During the last 3–5 years of a PhD, after finishing their coursework (and sometimes before), students are usually expected to work as graduate instructors or research assistants in exchange for the stipend.

Sometimes students can apply for a fellowship (such as the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Program in the United States) that relieves them of any obligations to be a teaching or research assistant. Doctoral programs in the US tend to be better funded than in the rest of the world.

Sometimes, PhD degrees can be completed part-time, but this is rare. Students are usually expected to devote at least 40 hours a week to their research and work as teaching or research assistants.

The main cost of doctoral programs comes in the form of opportunity cost—all the years that students could be working a regular, full-time job, which usually pays much better than a graduate school stipend.

The average wage premium for PhDs is 26%, which is not much higher than the master’s degree premium.

In the US, the application process is similar for master’s and PhD programs. Both will generally ask for:

• At least one application essay, often called a personal statement or statement of purpose .
• Letters of recommendation .
• A resume or CV .
• Transcripts.
• Writing samples.

Applications for both types of programs also often require a standardized test. PhDs usually require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tries to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative, critical thinking , and analytical writing skills. Many master’s programs require this test as well.

Applying for a master’s

Master’s degrees programs will often ask you to respond to specific essay prompts that may ask you to reflect upon not just your academic background, but also your personal character and future career ambitions.

Northwestern University’s Kellogg Business School requires Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) applicants write two essays, one about a recent time they demonstrated leadership and the second about their personal values.

Who you should ask for your letters of recommendation varies by program. If you are applying to a research-intensive master’s program, then you should choose former professors or research supervisors. For other programs, particularly business school, current work supervisors may be a better choice.

Some professional master’s programs require a specific test. For example, to apply to law school, you must take the Law School Admissions Test, or LSAT. For business school, you must take either the GRE or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT).

Applying for a PhD

When applying for a PhD, your resume should focus more on your research background—you should especially emphasize any publications you’ve authored or presentations that you’ve given.

Similarly, your statement of purpose should discuss research that you’ve participated in, whether as an assistant or the lead author. You should detail what exactly you did in projects you’ve contributed to, whether that’s conducting a literature review, coding regressions, or writing an entire article.

Your letters of recommendations should be from former professors or supervisors who can speak to your abilities and potential as a researcher. A good rule of thumb is to avoid asking for recommendations from anyone who does not themselves have a PhD.

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A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD  with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.

Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.

This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.

In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.

A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.

PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.

In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.

Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.

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What Is a Doctorate Degree?

A doctorate is usually the most advanced degree someone can get in an academic discipline, higher education experts say.

What Is a Doctorate?

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It's unwise to apply to a doctoral program if you don't have a clear idea of how you might use a doctorate in your career.

In many academic disciplines, the most advanced degree one can earn is a doctorate. Doctorate degree-holders are typically regarded as authorities in their fields, and many note that a major reason for pursuing a doctorate is to increase professional credibility.

"If someone wants to be respected as an expert in their chosen field, and also wants to have a wider array of options in research, writing, publishing, teaching, administration, management, and/or private practice, a doctorate is most definitely worth considering," Don Martin, who has a Ph.D. in higher education administration , wrote in an email.

A doctoral degree is a graduate-level credential typically granted after multiple years of graduate school, with the time-to-degree varying depending on the type of doctoral program, experts say.

Earning a doctorate usually requires at least four years of effort and may entail eight years, depending on the complexity of a program's graduation requirements. It also typically requires a dissertation, a lengthy academic paper based on original research that must be vetted and approved by a panel of professors and later successfully defended before them for the doctorate to be granted.

Some jobs require a doctorate, such as certain college professor positions, says Eric Endlich, founder of Top College Consultants, an admissions consulting firm that helps neurodivergent students navigate undergraduate and graduate school admissions.

Endlich earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree, commonly known as a Ph.D., from Boston University in Massachusetts. He focused on psychology and notes that a doctoral degree is generally required to be a licensed psychologist.

"Since a Ph.D. is a research-focused degree, it can be advantageous to those seeking high-level research positions in scientific fields such as astrophysics or biotechnology," he says.

How Long it Takes to Get a Doctorate Degree

Martin, founder and CEO of Grad School Road Map, an organization that helps grad school applicants navigate the admissions process, says obtaining a doctorate is often a lengthy endeavor.

"Typically it can take between four and six years to complete any doctoral program," he says. "If comprehensive examinations and a dissertation are part of the graduation requirements, it may take a year or two longer. There is no standard amount of time – some students take seven to 10 years to finish."

Endlich says doctoral degree hopefuls should be aware that completing a dissertation may take a long time, especially if unexpected hurdles arise.

"My dissertation, for example, involved recruiting college students to complete questionnaires, and it took much longer than I anticipated to recruit enough subjects for my study," he says.

The standards for a dissertation, which include the proposal and research, are rigorous and usually involve a review and approval by a faculty committee, says Hala Madanat, vice president for research and innovation at San Diego State University in California.

"As part of dissertation requirements, some programs will require publication of the research in high-impact peer-reviewed journals," Madanat wrote in an email.

Types of Doctoral Degree Programs

According to professors and administrators of doctoral programs, there are two types of doctorates.

Doctor of Philosophy

A doctor of philosophy degree is designed to prepare people for research careers at a university or in industry, and teach students how to discover new knowledge within their academic discipline. Ph.D. degrees are offered in a wide range of academic subjects, including highly technical fields like biology , physics, math and engineering; social sciences like sociology and economics; and humanities disciplines like philosophy.

A Ph.D. is the most common degree type among tenure-track college and university faculty, who are typically expected to have a doctorate. But academia is not the only path for someone who pursues a Ph.D. It's common for individuals with biology doctorates to work as researchers in the pharmaceutical industry, and many government expert positions also require a Ph.D.

Professional or clinical doctorates

These are designed to give people the practical skills necessary to be influential leaders within a specific industry or employment setting, such as business, psychology , education or nursing . Examples of professional doctoral degrees include a Doctor of Business Administration degree, typically known as a DBA; a Doctor of Education degree, or Ed.D.; and a Doctor of Nursing Practice degree, or DNP.

A law degree, known as a juris doctor or J.D., as well as a Doctor of Medicine degree, or M.D., are also considered professional doctorates.

How to Get a Doctorate

Getting a doctorate is challenging. It ordinarily requires a series of rigorous classes in a field of study and then passage of a qualification exam in order to begin work on a dissertation, which is the final project.

Dissertations are difficult to write, says David Harpool, vice president of graduate and online programs at Newberry College in South Carolina. Some research indicates that only about half of doctoral students go on to finish their degree, and a main reason is that many never finish and successfully defend their dissertation

"Many of them are in programs that permit them to earn a master’s on the way to a doctorate," Harpool, who earned a Ph.D. from Saint Louis University in Missouri and a J.D. from the University of Missouri , wrote in an email. "The transition from mastering a discipline to creating new knowledge (or at least applying new knowledge in a different way), is difficult, even for outstanding students."

Learn about how M.D.-Ph.D. programs

There is a often a "huge shift in culture" at doctoral programs compared to undergraduate or master's level programs, says Angela Warfield, who earned a Ph.D. in English from the University of Iowa.

Doctoral professors and students have more of a collaborative relationship where they function as colleagues, she says. And there's pressure on each student to produce "significant and original research."

Many full-time doctoral students work for the school as researchers or teaching assistants throughout their program, so time management is crucial to avoid burnout. However, the dissertation "is by far the biggest battle," she says. The goal is to avoid an "ABD," she says, meaning "all but dissertation."

"In my writing group, we had two motivational slogans: 'ABD is not a degree,' and 'a good dissertation is a done dissertation,'" Warfield, now the principal consultant and founder of admissions consulting firm Compass Academics, wrote in an email.

How Are Doctorate Admissions Decisions Made?

Admissions standards for doctoral programs vary depending on the type of doctorate, experts say.

The quality of a candidate's research is a distinguishing factor in admissions decisions, Madanat says. Meanwhile, leaders of clinical and professional doctorate programs say that the quality of a prospective student's work experience matters most.

Doctoral programs typically expect students to have a strong undergraduate transcript , excellent letters of recommendation and, in some cases, high scores on the Graduate Record Examination , or GRE, Endlich says.

"The size of the programs may be relatively small, and universities need to be sure that applicants will be able to handle the demands of their programs," he says.

Because professional doctorates often require students to come up with effective solutions to systemic problems, eligibility for these doctorates is often restricted to applicants with extensive first-hand work experience with these problems, according to recipients of professional doctorates.

In contrast, it's common for Ph.D. students to begin their programs immediately after receiving an undergraduate degree. The admissions criteria at Ph.D. programs emphasize undergraduate grades, standardized test scores and research projects , and these programs don't necessarily require work experience.

Admissions decisions may also depend on available funding, says Madanat, who works with doctoral students to provide funding, workshops and faculty support to help their research.

Who Is a Good Fit for a Doctoral Program?

Doctoral degree hopefuls "should be interested in making a deep impact on their field, open-minded, eager to learn, curious, adaptable and self-motivated," Madanat says. "Doctoral programs are best suited for those whose goals are to transform and change the fields they are studying and want to make a difference in the way the world is."

Someone who loves to study a subject in great depth, can work alone or in teams, is highly motivated and wants to develop research skills may be a good candidate for a doctoral program, Endlich says.

Because of the tremendous effort and time investment involved in earning a doctorate, experts say it's foolish to apply to a doctoral program if it's unclear how you might use a doctorate in your career.

"The students are being trained with depth of knowledge in the discipline to prepare them for critical thinking beyond the current state of the field," Madanat says. "Students should consider the reasons that they are pursuing a doctoral degree and whether or not it aligns with their future professional goals, their family circumstances and finances."

Rachel D. Miller, a licensed marriage and family therapist who completed a Ph.D. degree in couples and family therapy at Adler University in Illinois in 2023, says pursuing a doctorate required her to make significant personal sacrifices because she had to take on large student loans and she needed to devote a lot of time and energy to her program. Miller says balancing work, home life and health issues with the demands of a Ph.D. program was difficult.

For some students, the financial component may be hard to overlook, Warfield notes.

"Student debt is no joke, and students pursuing graduate work are likely only compounding undergraduate debt," she says. "They need to really consider the payoff potential of the time and money sacrifice."

To offset costs, some programs are fully funded, waiving tuition and fees and providing an annual stipend. Some offer health insurance and other benefits. Students can also earn money by teaching at the university or through fellowships, but those adding more to their plate should possess strong time management skills, experts say.

"Graduate school, and higher education in general, can be brutal on your physical and mental health," Miller wrote in an email.

But Miller says the time and effort invested in her doctoral program paid off by allowing her to conduct meaningful research into the best way to provide therapy to children affected by high-conflict divorce and domestic violence. She now owns a therapy practice in Chicago.

Miller urges prospective doctoral students to reflect on whether getting a doctorate is necessary for them to achieve their dream job. "Really know yourself. Know your purpose for pursuing it, because that's what's going to help carry you through."

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What Is A PhD Student? A Definition

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All PhD students are conducting some sort of research and many of them will be also teaching and assisting in their departments. Very few PhDs are completed on a  part-time  basis, so most PhD students are studying on a full-time basis. PhD students have often been getting ready to embark on their doctoral studies  for a very long time. While many of them may have taken up paid research positions, but this is not always the case so searching for funding is an on going activity for some PhD students. 

Here we take a look at many of the factors that make up what a PhD student actually is...

They're quite mature...

PhD students are all mature students , as they have already completed undergraduate and postgraduate degrees already. Most PhD students will have done a masters in preparation for starting a PhD , this is often an MPhil or a Masters by Research . All of this previous study means that PhD students have strong study skills and have spent time building academic qualifications in the lead up to their PhD. Many students go straight through an undergraduate and masters level to a PhD, but many other students have already started working, and their PhD is a way to grow an already established career. 

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Mohammad Abdollahi is a 35-year-old Iranian student studying a PhD in Operational Research at the University of Essex. He was delighted when he found out he’d been awarded a Postgrad Solutions Study Bursary worth £500. As an international student coming to the UK with his wife and two children, it has proved to be an invaluable funding resource as he explains. “It was good news and exciting – I was overwhelmed with joy!”

PhD students are always researching

PhDs are all research degrees and most students who are embarking on a PhD have already completed some form of research. The research comes in many forms, such as scientific, sociological, archaeological, medical or historical and this research guided by their PhD supervisor . This is one of the most important relationships during a PhD as it is their guidance that shapes a PhD student's thesis . 

Many PhD students are teaching

Many PhD students will supplement their income by teaching or working as assistants in their department or work at the university. In some institutions it is expected that PhD students will do this and in other universities it is an optional extra that is not required. Teaching responsibilities may include assisting with lectures or tutorials and helping with undergraduate supervision. 

They are mostly full-time students 

This can be one of the big attractions for some undergraduates when they see PhD students still living a student lifestyle. However, most PhD students would not think that their lifestyles are something to aim for and the academic work they need to do does take up most of their time. The vast majority of PhD students are full-time and  part-time PhD students  find it difficult to maintain their studies over the six to eight years it may take to complete their research. They are, however, often very passionate about their studies. 

Some of them are getting paid to study

PhD students select their topic for research in one of two ways. They might decide on their research topic and then find a PhD supervisor or they may apply for one of the many advertised research positions. Searching for a supervisor can be a difficult route, especially if you change institutions between your masters and your PhD. Using the network of contacts you have built up during your previous studies or career is the key to finding a supervisor. The advantage of the second route is that the funding for the research is already in place and the student will receive a stipend as well. 

PhD students do worry about funding

Getting funding in place is a major worry for a large proportion of PhD students and it is often the case that many students start their PhDs without full funding in place. This is often why students might start on a part-time basis. PhD funding can come from a huge range of sources including the  government , grants and scholarships and most students  begin their search  with their university department.

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If you’re nearing the end of college or you’ve completed college, you’ve probably heard the term “graduate school” thrown around by your peers and teachers. In fact, you’ve probably heard all kinds of graduate-school related terms, like “graduate degree,” “Masters,” “PhD,” and more.

But what is a graduate degree? What is a PhD? What is a doctoral degree? What’s a doctorate? We’ll demystify it all here. (Hint: those last three are all the same thing.)

In this article, we’ll discuss what graduate school is, what graduate degrees you can get, and the difference between graduate and professional school. Then we’ll move on to discussing the benefits and drawbacks of graduate school, funding graduate programs, and how to apply to grad school.

What Is Graduate School?

What is grad school? Well, it’s not so much a specific “school” as a catchall term for some types of academic programs.  Graduate degree programs offer advanced training (beyond a bachelor’s degree) in a specific academic discipline. They very much focus on advancing your subject-specific academic knowledge as opposed to preparing you for a specific career or job. Graduate degree programs often include opportunities to complete original research in the field.

There are a few different types of graduate degrees. We’ll review them in the next section.

What Is a Graduate Degree? The 3 Main Types

There are, generally speaking, three kinds of graduate degrees offered by graduate schools: the Master of Arts, the Master of Science, and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). The MA and MS offer additional schooling in a discipline beyond a bachelor’s degree. A PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic field. (Note that this is not true of professional fields—we will discuss the difference in the next section.)

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Master of Arts (MA)

What is a Master’s Degree? The Master of Arts is the typical Master’s graduate program for humanities and social science disciplines. They can be fairly general—for example, an MA in Communication or Anthropology, or even Humanities. They can also be highly specialized, like an MA in Folklore or an MA in History of the Book (a real degree!).

Some MA degrees lead specifically to a PhD, while others stand on their own. There are graduate programs designed for those with no prior academic exposure to a field, while others provide further training to those who studied the discipline (or a closely related one) as undergraduates. Some offer original research opportunities, while others focus more on instruction.

Depending on the specific discipline and program, an MA degree generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. Select fields or disciplines may offer a 3-year Master of Arts.

Master of Science (MS)

The Master of Science is the typical Master’s graduate program for scientific and quantitative disciplines. Like the MA, the MS can be fairly general in its focus, like an MS in Biology or Computer Science. They can also be incredibly specialized, like an MS in Predictive Analytics or Agricultural Economics.

Also like the MA, some are designed for those with bachelor’s degrees in the discipline. Others are designed for those trying to get exposure to a new field. Some more closely focus on the student completing original research, while others focus more on delivering in-depth instruction.

An MS degree also generally lasts 1-2 years for a full-time student. In some select fields/programs, it may take 3 years.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

What is a PhD? PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. The PhD is the most advanced degree in a given academic discipline. It’s also known as a doctorate or a doctoral degree.

As the most advanced degree in an academic field, it’s considered a terminal degree. The Doctor of Philosophy prepares students to do academic work in their discipline —research and teaching—and for positions at universities and research institutions.

PhD programs generally expect students to have some preexisting academic training in the discipline or a related field, usually from the student’s undergraduate degree. Most PhDs will not expect incoming students to have Master’s degrees, although some might. However, students with an MA or MS in the discipline might be able to complete the PhD more quickly because they may not need to complete as much coursework.

Furthermore, most PhD programs do expect applicants to have some form of previous research experience and preferably some academic publishing credits. They may not require the student to have the experience and publishing credits in the same discipline as the PhD, but almost all PhD programs will expect some amount of previous research and academic publication experience.

The structure of a PhD typically involves some amount of preliminary coursework, followed by a written and oral exam in the discipline. Then students will begin research and work on their PhD dissertation, an original research project. Throughout this time, students generally teach and/or work as research assistants to make money.

How many years is a doctorate degree? A PhD can take anywhere from three years (if you have a master’s degree and write extremely fast!) to eight years (if you have a lot of coursework to complete and a particularly obscure dissertation topic). But the time it usually takes to complete a PhD is in the 4-6 year range.

Graduate vs. Professional School

You may notice a huge number of degrees you could pursue after your undergraduate degree missing from the list of degrees above—like the MD, the MBA, the MPH, the MFA, the JD, the MEd, and many others.

This is because those degrees are professional degrees.

So what’s the difference between a graduate degree and a professional degree? A graduate degree provides advanced training in an academic discipline. A professional degree provides advanced training for a specific profession. For example, a JD trains you to become a lawyer. An MD trains you to become a doctor. So while a graduate degree focuses on an academic discipline or area of inquiry, a professional degree focuses on professional training.

We should be clear that these are not hard-and-fast distinctions. The line between what is a graduate program and what is a professional program is not always crystal-clear. Many institutions will refer to some (or all) of their advanced degrees as graduate degrees, without distinguishing between graduate and professional schools.

Additionally, professional degrees can lead to academia, and graduate degrees can lead to professional careers. For example, an MFA can prepare students both for academic teaching and inquiry and for professional careers as artists. While an MPH trains you to work as a public health professional, many MPHs go on to work for research institutions or receive PhDs and go into academia. Many professional schools offer MS or MA degrees (for example, a business school may offer an MS in Business Informatics). Additionally, some graduate schools offer MA or MS degrees that primarily focus on building professional skills and contacts.

Gray areas aside, the general distinction is that professional degrees focus on building career and professional skills, while graduate degrees focus on building your knowledge in a particular discipline and your skill in academic inquiry.

5 Top Benefits of Graduate School

Now that we’ve answered the question, “what is graduate school,” you may find yourself wondering: Is grad school worth it? Should I go to graduate school?

Here are five potential benefits to graduate school:

Preparation to Work in Academia

A major reason to go to graduate school—particularly to earn a PhD—is to position yourself to work in academia. If you want to be a professor at a university, you will need a PhD. For lecturer or researcher positions at small or community colleges, an MA or MS may be sufficient.

But in general, if you want to teach at a college level and work on research in a given discipline, a graduate degree of some kind is pretty much necessary.

Higher Earning Potential and Expanded Job Prospects (Sometimes)

A graduate degree will often increase your earning potential. More relevant training typically means more pay in that field. You’ll also be eligible for more jobs, like more senior research positions.

However, you shouldn’t assume that a graduate degree will always expand your job prospects and increase your pay. An MA in Middle English may not really lead to much of anything except increased debt, simply because there’s just not a high demand for people with MAs in Middle English. So, that training isn’t likely to be considered valuable enough for you to earn more or be a more attractive job applicant.

Be sure to do some research into the discipline you are interested in so that you have a realistic idea of how it will expand your job prospects and pay, if at all.

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Pivoting Your Skills

Say your undergraduate degree was in English Literature, but now you want to be a sociologist. Getting a master’s degree is a great way to get training in a new discipline you haven’t had much exposure to. Armed with your shiny new master’s degree and associated skills, you’ll be able to work in a field that was previously closed to you.

Get Published

If you need to develop research skills and publish some academic papers, getting an MA or MS can be a good move. This is particularly true if you want to pursue a PhD and need to beef up   your research experience and publication credits. Getting a master’s in a discipline related to your prospective PhD can be a huge help here. It will also help you build contacts to serve as recommendations.

Strengthen an Application to Professional School

In a similar vein, you may want to get an MA or MS to strengthen an application to professional school. Any research and publication credits you amass there, as well as a strong GPA or good recommendations, will help you stand out.

For example, maybe your heart is set on being a doctor but your undergraduate grades aren’t quite at the level you’d like, or you simply want to stand out more. Really excelling in an MS program can boost your application.

2 Potential Drawbacks to Graduate School

We’ve listed the benefits—but don’t put in your application yet. There are also some potential drawbacks to graduate school to consider. We’ll list two of the most major drawbacks here.

Considerable Expenses

Graduate degrees are expensive! Tuition and fees can easily run past $20,000 a semester at a private university, not to mention living expenses. You may have to take out pretty massive loans to cover all of this, so it’s important that you carefully consider how graduate school will increase your earning potential or job prospects. In more esoteric fields, the expense may not ever pay off in realized earnings. This shouldn’t necessarily dissuade you from pursuing a graduate degree but it is something to be aware of.

However, some programs will cover all or most of your tuition. You’ll also most likely be able to work part-time while completing graduate work, which will help offset expenses. For most PhD candidates, and some masters students, part-time work as teaching staff or research assistants is built into the program.

If you’re completing a part-time master’s degree, you can also maintain a full-time job while you complete the coursework.

Finally, keep in mind that the expense of tuition isn’t the only cost—while you’re in graduate school, you could be making a full salary employed in the workforce. In some cases, your PhD might lead to a higher salary, but it’ll take multiple years for you to recover the full salaries that you lost out on while you were in school.

Poor Job Prospects

There are some graduate disciplines that simply don’t lead to many job opportunities. For example, there are far more philosophy PhD graduates than tenure-track positions in university philosophy departments. In fact, academia in general is hyper-competitive, so unless you are attending a top program, getting an academic job at the end may be almost ludicrously difficult.

Especially if you are paying for the graduate degree yourself, if there isn’t much in the way of job offers at the end, the degree may be a poor investment. This is something to research before committing to the course.

Funding: How to Pay for Graduate School

Finding graduate school funding can be difficult. There are, in general, a lot more people who want to go to school than there is money available to fund them. Funding in the forms of grants, fellowships, and scholarships for master’s programs in particular tends to be incredibly competitive. There are few fellowships and scholarships available at this level, though there is more funding available for students in high-demand STEM fields like engineering and computer science.

On the flip side, it’s more likely that you’ll receive partial or full funding for PhD work. But PhD programs are far, far more competitive for admission than master’s programs.

Sometimes you can be admitted to a PhD program without any funding. (This is called a self-funded PhD.) This is not likely to pay off in the long run unless you have some fairly sizable independent income or savings, as you will almost certainly rack up debt in the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The return-on-investment in this case may not be very high, especially given how competitive it is to get a tenure-track position.

Funding for a given program is likely to be some combination of loans, grants and fellowships, and research or teaching positions. Even if you are a fully funded PhD student, you won’t receive a whole lot of money—generally just enough to cover expenses.

In general, people don’t go to graduate school to make the big bucks, but because they have a very intense passion for the discipline.

Applying to Graduate School: How to Get Into Grad School

If you’ve decided to apply to graduate school, what do you need to be a successful candidate? This will of course vary from program to program, but you’ll need a few general qualifications.

Good GRE Score

You’ll need a GRE score that’s reasonably competitive for the programs you’re interested in. (See more on what’s a good GRE score here ). This will usually involve a high score in the more relevant section of the GRE. So for a math or science graduate degree, you’ll need a high Quant score. For a humanities or social sciences degree, you’ll need a high Verbal score.

Relevant Experience and/or Publication Credits

You’ll need to have the requisite relevant experience for admission. For master’s programs, this can take the shape of some kind of work experience, undergraduate experience, research experience, and/or publication credits. However, for PhD programs, you’ll almost certainly need research experience and academic publication credits to be a competitive applicant. The experience and publications won’t necessarily have to be directly within the discipline you are applying in, but you will need them to show that you have academic chops.

Strong Undergraduate Record

A strong undergraduate record makes for a stronger application. Barring that, solid work or research experience and/or strong grades in another master’s or professional degree can also help you get admitted to the program(s) of your choice.

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Good Recommendations

Highly positive recommendations, especially from notable people within the field, can provide a real boost to your application. You want recommenders who can speak to your interest in the field as well as your suitability for academic work. If you’re an undergraduate at the time of application, professors you’ve worked with are the best option. If you’re a recent graduate, a combination of professional and academic recommendations will probably best capture your skills. And if you have been out of school for some time, your recommendations may be primarily professional, which is fine.

Clear Articulation of Your Interests and Goals

It’s also important that your application clearly communicates why you’re interested in further training in the discipline and what you plan to do with that training. If you can articulate a real passion for the field and clear goals, and you can connect those things to elements of the specific program you are applying to, your application will be much stronger.

Summary: What Is Graduate School?

“Graduate school” is a catchall term for academic programs that provide training in a specific academic discipline or field beyond the undergraduate level.

There are three primary kinds of graduate degrees:

• Master of arts degrees typically provide further training in the humanities and social sciences.
• Master of science degrees usually provide further training in the sciences and quantitative fields.
• PhDs, or doctorates in philosophy, provide the most advanced training available in a given academic discipline. PhDs prepare you to work in academia.

Graduate school is different from professional school. Professional school describes academic programs beyond an undergraduate degree that train you to work in a specific professional field. For example, lawyers get JDs, and doctors get MDs. There are some gray areas between graduate and professional school, but the general distinction is that graduate school furthers your knowledge of an academic field and professional school trains you for a specific career or class of careers.

Here are some of the main benefits of graduate school:

• Graduate degrees are necessary for work in academia.
• Some fields may give you higher earning potential and expanded job prospects.
• You can gain skills in a new area or discipline than your undergraduate degree.
• Graduate school can help you get research experience and publication credits.
• A graduate degree can help you strengthen your application to professional school.

Here are some of the main drawbacks to graduate school:

• Graduate school is expensive!
• Some graduate degrees won’t give you expanded job prospects or a better salary, making them a poor investment.

It can be difficult to get funding for graduate school. You are more likely to get funding for a PhD than a master’s degree, but PhDs are also more competitive. Overall, most people don’t go to graduate school specifically because they are looking for a very lucrative career.

 If you want to go to graduate school, here’s how to make yourself a strong applicant:

• Get a good GRE score
• Have relevant experience and/or publication credits
• Have a strong undergraduate record
• Secure glowing recommendations
• Clearly articulate your interests and goals in the discipline

That’s our overview of graduate school, folks!

What’s Next?

What GRE score do you need for graduate school? Check out our expert analysis of average GRE scores by school and average GRE scores by major . Or maybe you don’t need to take the GRE to get into grad school at all!

If you are taking the GRE, you want to maximize your chances of success. So consider when to take the GRE  and how to make a GRE study plan .

Think you may need to retake the GRE ? Here’s a surefire way improve your GRE scores .

Ready to improve your GRE score by 7 points?

Author: Ellen McCammon

Ellen is a public health graduate student and education expert. She has extensive experience mentoring students of all ages to reach their goals and in-depth knowledge on a variety of health topics. View all posts by Ellen McCammon

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What is Graduate School? The Ultimate Guide

Everyone seems to be going to grad school these days. In today’s hyper-competitive job market, an undergraduate degree is often no longer enough, and you’ll need an advanced degree to pursue the career of your dreams.

So what is graduate school exactly? And what do you need to know before choosing a grad course and putting in your application?

Table of Contents

What is Graduate School?

Graduate programs are offered as advanced courses at many universities, as well as dedicated graduate colleges. Before we dive deeper into what is graduate school, let’s first be clear on what a graduate program is.  

W hat is a Graduate Program?

In simple terms, a grad program offers a focused, advanced level of study in a specific professional or academic discipline.

You’ll need to fulfill certain requirements to successfully apply for a graduate program. In most cases , you’ll need to first complete a bachelor’s degree before you can go to grad school. 

Some grad courses have a specific degree as a prerequisite. For example, for a doctorate, you’ll generally need to first complete a master’s degree in that discipline.

Different Graduate Programs

The term “graduate school” can cover different types of courses and a wide array of subjects. 

The main types of graduate programs are:

• Doctorates (also known as PhDs or doctoral degrees) – This is the most advanced type of degree possible and can be undertaken in any academic discipline.
• Master’s degrees – An advanced degree usually lasting two years, which is either designed to lead to a doctorate or as a terminal degree for a particular profession. As with a PhD, a masters can also be in a range of academic disciplines, including a Master of Arts (M.A.), Master of Science (M.S.), and Master of Business Administration (MBA), among many others.
• Professional degrees – These give you the specialist knowledge and skills you need to become a professional in a particular field, such as law or medicine .

How Long is Graduate School?

Graduate degrees vary in length depending on the course, but doctorates are by far the longest. Completing a PhD usually takes between five and seven years, and can take up to eight years. According to the National Center for Science and Engineering Statistics , the median time that students took to finish a doctorate was 5.8 years in 2019.

On the other hand:

• Most law school programs last for three years, with some accelerated two-year courses.
• Business school generally lasts two years, with some one-year accelerated programs available.
• Medical school, dental school, and pharmacy school all take four years, not including residency which doctors must complete after graduation.

How Much Does Grad School Cost?

The cost of grad school can vary widely depending on what course you choose, and whether you choose a public or private institution. According to moneyunder30 , the average tuition for a master’s degree is around $30,000 a year at a public university and $40,000 a year at a private institution. Some courses can be significantly more expensive, though you can apply for grants or financial aid to make the fees more affordable.

Is Grad School Right for Me?

The truth is that grad school simply isn’t for everyone. Although there are many advantages of grad school, it does involve a significant investment of both time and money. It’s important to carefully consider the below factors before deciding to sign up for a graduate program.

Benefits of Going to Grad School

So you have an idea of what graduate school is, but why would you want to go to grad school?

Many people choose a graduate program because the qualification is essential for their career. For example, if you want to become a doctor or a lawyer, you’ll need to go to grad school. Similarly, if you’re interested in becoming an academic, you’re unlikely to be successful if you don’t have a PhD.

Besides advancing your career, attending graduate school has a number of other benefits:

• It allows you to develop high-level research, analytical, and critical thinking skills.
• It gives you excellent networking opportunities that will help you to advance your career.
• Even if not strictly necessary for your chosen career, a graduate degree may give you better opportunities for advancement and higher salaries.
• You’ll be able to pursue your passion about a particular subject.
• There are many part-time and online grad courses that you can balance with your work commitments, and your employer may sponsor you to gain a relevant qualification.

What’s the difference between grad school and college?

Besides the type of degree that you’ll study at graduate school, there are some other key differences between grad school and college.

The meaning of grad school is that the students are typically already graduates – most graduate programs have a bachelor’s degree as a prerequisite. This has certain implications. Firstly, your professors will expect you to meet higher academic standards than they did during your undergraduate degree. Grad school is not just about learning facts and repeating them in exams or papers. Instead, you will be expected to do your own research and come up with your own ideas and theories.

Graduate studies are also more focused. As part of a bachelor’s course, you usually take classes in a range of disciplines to gain entry-level knowledge on many subjects. Grad school is the time to concentrate on one particular topic and dig into it to a much deeper level. This means that you should already be pretty sure of the career you want to pursue, while college allows you to try different things out and explore different study and career options. On the other hand, at grad school you will become an expert in your field of choice.

Finally, graduate schools are typically smaller and more selective than undergraduate colleges. On the upside, you will be part of a smaller, higher-quality cohort of students. This allows for more student interaction, as well as closer attention from your professionals and tutors. However, this also makes grad school generally more difficult to get into compared to college.

What’s the difference between graduate school and professional school?

Graduate courses can be broken down into two main classifications – academic and professional. 

Broadly speaking, for an academic graduate program you will need to create an original and in-depth piece of research. 

On the other hand, professional courses are all about learning the specific skills and knowledge you’ll need for a certain profession. These programs often include work experience such as internships or placements. Some graduate programs are a combination of academic and professional approaches.

Academic disciplines include:

• Sciences, such as chemistry, physics, and biology
• Social sciences, such as psychology , sociology, and anthropology
• The humanities, such as history , art, and languages

Professional disciplines include:

Essentially, a professional school is a type of grad school. However, some people make the distinction between the two, classifying only advanced academic studies as graduate school, and the rest as professional school. It’s really only a question of terminology – both are advanced courses which share a number of characteristics and advantages!

How to Prepare for Graduate School

Once you’ve decided that grad school is the way you want to go, you’ll need to choose where you want to study. More importantly, you’ll need to put in an application and have it accepted!

How to Choose the Right Graduate School for You

There is a huge range of different graduate courses and programs available, so how do you choose the right one for you? These questions should help you to narrow down your search and find a grad school that will give you the skills, knowledge, and qualifications you need to build your dream career.

What is the school’s reputation?

Choosing a grad school with a strong reputation is critically important. Not only does a good reputation reflect a high standard of teaching and facilities, but your qualification will be highly regarded by future employers. Before deciding on a grad school, be sure to do some research into their reputation.

Public versus private school

Public graduate schools receive public funding so are generally much cheaper than private schools, which rely on tuition fees to run. However, this is not a hard and fast rule – some private schools can be cheaper than certain public schools.

How big is the school?

Private schools typically have smaller class sizes, meaning you’ll get more attention for your professors and build relationships with other students. On the other hand, larger schools can offer better networking opportunities.

Do you want an academic or professional grad course?

Whether you choose a professional or academic graduate course will depend largely on the future career you want. However, you should also consider the way these courses are run. Academic graduate courses usually involve a high degree of research, and often you’ll need to create an in-depth dissertation.

On the other hand, professional grad courses focus more on skill building and typically include a work experience component. Think about which style of learning you prefer, and which is more likely to make you successful.

How to Apply for Grad School

Graduate programs are smaller and more selective than their undergraduate counterparts, and therefore look for a higher level of applicant. Of course, applying for an undergraduate course at Harvard or Stanford will be tougher than some grad schools. However, generally speaking you will have to work harder on your grad school application than did for your undergraduate course.

Applying for grad school usually requires:

• A competitive admissions test or entry exam
• A strong academic record demonstrated through excellent academic transcripts
• Recommendations from academic or professional referees
• Writing a statement of purpose showing why you want to take the course
• An application fee (in addition to the course fees)

The exact requirements will depend on the course and the institution you choose. Some grad schools will also ask for a sample of your academic writing, an example of project work, your portfolio, or your resume/CV. Be sure to check these with the grad school you want to apply to, and give yourself plenty of time to get your application together ahead of the deadline!

In fact, you should give yourself at least one academic year to research graduate courses and pull together everything you’ll need for your application. So if you want to go straight from college to grad school, it’s a good idea to start this process at the end of your junior year.

Final Thoughts

We hope you now have all the answers to the question: “what is graduate school?” and how to make the best decisions to set yourself up for a brighter future. 

Although going to grad school is not for everyone, it can provide you with invaluable skills, in-depth knowledge, and qualifications — and lets you pursue your dream career!

If you’re interested in learning more, check out our top tips for getting into Ivy League grad school and our guide on how many grad schools you should apply to .

The GradCafe Editor

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Difference Between Undergraduate, Graduate and Postgraduate

Jennifer Finetti Aug 12, 2022

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As a high school student , you’ve probably started thinking about college. Maybe you even started to do research and narrow down your options. You may have come across the following terms: undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate degrees.

So, what is the difference between undergraduate and graduate and postgraduate?

Read on to learn more! 

What is an undergraduate degree?

After students finish high school, they get an undergraduate degree. An undergraduate degree refers to either a bachelor’s degree or an associate’s degree. When people talk about going to college or university , they are talking about getting an undergraduate degree.

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How many years is an undergraduate degree?

There are two levels of undergraduate degrees: associate degrees and bachelor’s degrees. An associate degree requires 2 years to complete, and typically is earned at a community college . A bachelor’s degree requires completion of four years of study.

Students interested in earning a bachelor’s degree can either complete their entire degree at a four-year college or university OR they can attend a community college for their first two years, and then transfer to a university for their final two years.

What is a graduate degree?

After a student gets their undergraduate degree, they have two options. They may either get a job or continue with their studies. If they choose to continue with their studies, they pursue a graduate degree.

A graduate degree is any degree that is above a bachelor’s degree. This includes a master’s degree or doctoral degree . Master’s degrees take around 2-3 years to complete. Doctoral degrees take around 5-6 years.

Graduate degrees are typically more narrowly-focused than an undergraduate degree. This enables students to dive more deeply into their specific career interest, gaining the knowledge and expertise needed in their chosen field. Oftentimes, a student must have a graduate degree to get a job. Somebody seeking a career as a clinical social worker, must have their Master’s of Social Work.

You don’t have to get a graduate degree right after you finish your undergraduate degree. Many students take a break after their undergraduate degree and decide to work or travel instead. It’s common to see mature students in their late 20s and 30s (and even older) who decide to go back to school to get a graduate degree later in life.

To get accepted into graduate school, you must have a bachelor’s degree. This means that you must graduate from a 4-year undergraduate college or university. A student can only pursue a graduate degree if they already have a bachelor’s degree.

What is a postgraduate degree?

Students get confused with the term “postgraduate degree.” There actually isn’t a real difference between the two. Postgraduate is used interchangeably with graduate. Like a graduate degree, postgraduate refers to the range of higher degrees past the undergraduate degree. This includes both master’s degrees and Phds .

Difference between undergraduate and graduate and postgraduate

Undergraduate degree programs and graduate degree programs are very different from one another. Undergraduate programs help students gain basic knowledge in a major , or even in a few majors. Students must take a variety of courses, and not only courses relating to their major. They usually spend the first few years fulfilling general course requirements.  

Graduate programs are very different. You go to graduate school to learn something very specific. So, all the courses you take relate to your field of study.

Another big difference between the two is switching majors. In undergraduate programs, students aren’t always sure what they want to major in . Even if they choose a specific major, they may end up changing it. Undergraduate programs allow students to switch majors. It is also fairly easy to transfer to another school for any given reason.

Because graduate programs are so specific, it’s not easy to switch your field of study. You would have to fulfill new requirements and go through the application process all over again.

Another big difference is class size. Undergraduate classes tend to be much larger than graduate classes. In graduate programs, class sizes are much smaller.

Because of the difference in class size, teacher-student interaction also differs. In undergraduate programs, there isn’t much room to interact with your professors. There are also fewer opportunities to participate in class.

Graduate programs are more intimate and thus, more dynamic. Students have more opportunities to participate in class discussions. They also have more opportunities to work with their professors.

To get accepted into an undergraduate program, students must take the SAT or ACT . Other requirements include a minimum GPA , letters of recommendation  and personal statements . Colleges and universities all have their own requirements.

Many graduate programs require students to take an entrance exam such as the GRE, or specialized entrance exams for law school or medical school. Not all graduate programs require an entrance exam, so be sure to check the requirements for the program you are applying for.

Graduate programs also typically require that certain undergraduate classes be completed prior to applying, so you’ll want to check to be sure that you have completed any required courses. Sometimes graduate programs will allow you to complete missing prerequisites while enrolled in your graduate degree program.  

Final thoughts

Whether you have already started your bachelor’s degree or you’re still in high school, it’s nice to get an idea of what your options are. This can help you plan the classes you want to take in college or university and make the most of your degree.

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As a parent who recently helped her own kids embark on their college journeys, Jennifer approaches the transition from high school to college from a unique perspective. She truly enjoys engaging with students – helping them to build the confidence, knowledge, and insight needed to pursue their educational and career goals, while also empowering them with the strategies and skills needed to access scholarships and financial aid that can help limit college costs. She understands the importance of ensuring access to the edtech tools and resources that can make this process easier and more equitable - this drive to support underserved populations is what drew her to ScholarshipOwl. Jennifer has coached students from around the world, as well as in-person with local students in her own community. Her areas of focus include career exploration, major selection, college search and selection, college application assistance, financial aid and scholarship consultation, essay review and feedback, and more. She works with students who are at the top of their class, as well as those who are struggling. She firmly believes that all students, regardless of their circumstances, can succeed if they stay focused and work hard in school. Jennifer earned her MA in Counseling Psychology from National University, and her BA in Psychology from University of California, Santa Cruz.

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What Does It Mean to Be A Graduate Student?

I often ask myself “What does it mean to be a graduate student?” Belonging to a research group focused on identity and motivation, I reflected on what this means to me within the context of my first year in an engineering education doctoral program.

The goal of a doctoral graduate student is to attain a Ph.D. by successfully defending their thesis work within a specific area of study that adds to the body of knowledge within their field. This doctoral process is different for each individual student, within each distinct department, at every college, for all universities, and within every single discipline of study.

Translation: Everyone will have a different graduate school experience and that is okay.

Graduate student duties and responsibilities include:

• attend classes,
• teach undergraduates,
• run laboratories,
• meet with an advisor,
• collaborate with research groups,
• apply for grants and fellowships,
• host prospective students,
• assist visiting scholars,
• interact with peers,
• participate in department activities,
• join committees,
• affiliate with professional and/or academic associations,
• understand various research methods,
• carry out experiments,
• develop models,
• read [a considerable amount of] books and journals,
• write [a substantial amount of] papers,
• submit work to peer-reviewed journals,
• present at conferences,
• build an impressive curriculum vitae,
• craft a thesis,
• search for jobs,
• maintain physical and mental health,
• take care of non-academic obligations such as family or work commitments,
• while simultaneously conducting research .

Translation: There are many things going on at once and it is up to us to find the right balance.

Graduate school should not be viewed as undergraduate 2.0 or as an extension of a baccalaureate degree. Courses are more specialized. Class sizes are smaller, which facilitates discussion. Readings are more numerous and lengthier. Assignments are more nebulous. Some graduate experiences are more like apprenticeships. Faculty advisors are there to facilitate, but the student designs their own educational experience.

Translation: Graduate students are expected to have more ownership over their education. Cultivate your education wisely and with purpose.

Graduate scholars are neither students nor workers, but some rare hybrid of the two. To operate in this ill-defined state requires a new level of independence, one that can be foreign to graduate students. Learning to manage oneself to optimize effectiveness is the most valuable skill to master. As a graduate student, it is important to understand the difference between independence and isolation. If a student feels isolated, they will not perform at their best and blame themselves for their lack of progress. This imposter syndrome will slowly cripple the individual’s motivation and make it even more difficult to advance. Graduate students should be reminded that they are not excepted to have all the answers in isolation but instead are entrusted with the autonomy to discovery answers (right or wrong) along the independent journey that is graduate school.

Translation: Understand the difference between independence and isolation and embrace being the mythical creature known as “Graduate Student.”

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• PLoS Comput Biol
• v.17(8); 2021 Aug

Ten simple rules for aspiring graduate students

Andrea i. luppi.

1 Division of Anaesthesia, School of Clinical Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

2 Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Charlotte Coco Newton

Lynde folsom.

3 Department of Psychology and Centre for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America

Elisa Galliano

4 Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Rafael Romero-Garcia

5 Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom

Introduction

Several supervillains have higher degrees—why don’t you? There can be a variety of reasons for wanting to go to grad school and for applying to a particular school and program. But often, one can only tell apart good and bad reasons from hindsight. Failing at something is perhaps the best way to know what can go wrong and what advice would have been useful when considering graduate school applications. We should know one of us started grad school 4 separate times, and another learned what a PhD was only after having started one. One of us lost 2 supervisors before even starting to write her thesis, and yet another accepted a PhD offer from the lab where she was working, without considering any alternatives; finally, one of us had applied to graduate schools for 5 years (with 19 rejections) before finally landing a PhD offer from their dream school. We hope that our hard-earned lessons will help you to avoid some of the pitfalls that we ourselves fell prey to. In this article, we address how to choose a graduate program, how to apply strategically, and some of the key challenges that may arise along the way toward graduate school. Conveniently, our advice can be summarized as 10 simple rules … so here they are.

Wait, you might think, there is already a PLOS Computational Biology article entitled “Ten Simple Rules for Graduate Students” [ 1 ]. Indeed, to foreshadow the Conclusions of this article, you should read that article! However, there are a number of important challenges that are specific to aspiring grad students: Should you attend graduate school in the first place? If so, what degree should you pursue? How to choose the right institution—or even the right country? Nowadays, an increasing number of countries across the world have established competitive graduate programs with English as the official language, aiming to attract international talent: Such a dazzling variety can be seemingly overwhelming. And, even once these choices are made, how does an aspiring graduate student become an admitted graduate student?

In other words, the excellent advice in “Ten Simple Rules for Graduate Students” [ 1 ] is primarily about being a grad student—whereas the article you are now reading is intended to help you in figuring out whether, where, and how to become a graduate student in the first place. So this is not a reboot of the 2007 article; it is a prequel.

Rule 1: Choose who you want to be

Not all grad students are pursuing a doctorate, and not all those who are, are working toward a PhD ( Box 1 ). As an article in PLOS Computational Biology , we expect that many readers may be considering a PhD or master’s degree in the sciences—but medical school, law school, and other advanced degrees can be substantially different from a PhD (just as a science PhD may be substantially different from a humanities PhD). Although we hope that much the advice in this article will be broadly applicable, we note that it is primarily written from the perspective of biological science PhD and master’s degrees.

Box 1. Grad school ≠ doctorate ≠ PhD.

• Graduate (grad) school: Any institution offering postgraduate degrees (i.e., requiring an undergraduate degree), such as doctorates and master’s degrees. Note that in the United States, law school and medical school are graduate schools, whereas in other countries, they are not, since medicine and law courses begin as undergraduate degrees.
• Doctorate: Any postgraduate degree conferring the title of “doctor.” This includes the PhD (“Philosophiae Doctor,” Latin for “doctor of philosophy”), but also the MD (doctor of medicine, typically granted by a medical school) and the JD (“Juris Doctor,” doctor of law, typically granted by a law school), among others.
• PhD: A postgraduate doctoral degree (sometimes instead abbreviated as DPhil) involving the completion of a substantial body of research in a specific academic discipline, conducted during several years of training under the supervision of an expert in the field. A PhD is a near-universal prerequisite for a career as a professor or PI.

So, a “graduate student” may be studying for a PhD or another type of doctorate, or, more broadly, any other kind of postgraduate degree, e.g., a master’s degree.

So the first rule for aspiring grad students is to know what kind of grad student you are aspiring to be. And in reality, nobody aspires to be “a graduate student.” An undergraduate degree is education—part of your development as a well-rounded individual, and, therefore, arguably worth pursuing for its own sake. Graduate school, we would argue, is professional training: a means to an end. Those who attend medical school or law school don’t do so to be there: They do so to one day practice medicine or law. A master’s degree is a way to expand one’s skills and credentials in preparation for future study or employment, whether by deepening expertise in a familiar area or branching out to a new field. And a PhD is—in its broadest sense—a training toward independent thought and research. Although a PhD is a prerequisite for a career as a professor or principal investigator (PI), academia is by far not the only option for PhD holders—or even the most likely (see other articles in the Ten Simple Rules series on this topic). Therefore, consider carefully what is your end goal, as that is the fundamental determinant of what kind of graduate degree you should pursue—if any at all. Above all, be honest with yourself.

Rule 2: Identify gaps to fill

If graduate school is a means to an end, then the right program (and degree type) for you is the one that best bridges the gap between who you are and who you want to be. This is, fundamentally, your reason for attending graduate school: You need to fill some gap in knowledge, skill, or qualification (broadly understood). So, perform a “gap analysis” [ 2 ]: Identify the gaps in your training, skills, knowledge, and credentials that you need to fill—letting this guide your choice of graduate program and where to pursue it. For example, a master’s degree can be focused on coursework and/or research, and a conversion course to change fields will be different from a specialization course in your field of interest—choosing between these options will benefit from an understanding of what gaps in your training you need to fill. Note that this does not need to be extremely specific: “I want to learn to do innovative research,” “I want to investigate cancer biology,” or “I want to acquire the qualification X that will allow me to apply to my dream job Y” may suffice as reasons for pursuing a graduate degree. This being said, the more specific your understanding of what you want to get out of graduate school, the more you will be able to narrow down on the right program.

In particular, PhD programs can vary substantially not just in their length (see below) but also in what they offer: Some require a choice of supervisor from the outset; others involve “rotations” in different labs (short periods of research intended to familiarize a student with a lab’s techniques, scientific questions, and environment, and help in the choice of supervisor). Some will involve coursework, others won’t. Working as a teaching assistant is typically a requirement in some countries (e.g., the US), but not in others. Be sure to look beyond a program’s label: For interdisciplinary fields such as neuroscience, programs and departments don’t always have “neuroscience” in the title, but neuroscientists can be found in departments ranging from medicine to psychology, engineering, and beyond; indeed, many institutions have interdepartmental programs for fields such as neuroscience, systems biology, or biomedical sciences. Be sure you understand what you need, and find a program that fills those gaps—ideally without filling your time with additional requirements you don’t need. These obligations will consume much of your time, so take seriously how you would like your time spent while in grad school.

If going for a PhD, you will also need to be able to identify another kind of gap: gaps in your field that you can fill with your research. Doctoral programs and institutions differ in when (and whether) they require their students to come up with a research proposal: In many cases, this is right at the point of application. In other cases, it is after completion of various qualifying exams. In yet other cases, the PhD funding is tied to a specific project set by the PI from the start. Of course, part of PhD training is about developing the required skills to find such gaps and learn to fill them: This is a valuable set of skills, and, indeed, acquiring them can be a worthy reason for embarking on a PhD program. Nevertheless, we would argue that it is helpful to have a burning “big picture” question that you want answered, and, ideally, a specific hypothesis that drives your learning and gives it direction [ 1 ]—while being aware that research questions naturally evolve as the research itself takes place and as a function of the lab’s direction. Keep track of the questions that spark your curiosity (literally, jot them down in a journal!): among them may lie the topic of your dissertation.

Rule 3: Find a mentor who can help you fill those gaps

The idea of a PhD is based on the model of apprenticeship: You train under a recognized master of the profession for many years to learn their ways. However, academic research is driven by curiosity and passion (or so we would hope), and even in the same department, each individual will differ in what they are enthusiastic about. So, when you apply to a PhD program, ensure that there is at least 1 faculty member (and ideally more) whose interests you share and whose ways you wish to learn: not just their research techniques, but also their broader approach to science, mentoring, and academic life [ 3 – 5 ]. Note that this advice does not just apply to PhD applicants, but also to those wishing to pursue a master’s degree that is fully or heavily research based.

In addition to the hands-on versus hands-off continuum in supervision style, consider also academic seniority: Although your supervisor’s standing will be important in helping you get a job after graduate school [ 6 ], senior academics often have more demands on their time and may have less time to mentor individual students (especially if they run large labs). In contrast, a junior PI with a smaller lab may have more time and more recent experience with hands-on research and is likely to have more at stake in your success—but they may be less well connected and less experienced at managing a lab. Proactively considering the trade-offs between these aspects, and matching them to your own preferences, will help to ensure that you get the mentor that’s right for you [ 1 ].

Pay attention to where graduate students are on a supervisor’s papers: Do they get first-author publications, or are they relegated to the acknowledgments? Where do they end up after grad school—and how does that match with where you would like to end up? Contacting former students is a great way to find out about the lab’s culture: You can think of this as getting (informal) references on the supervisor, just as they are getting references on you from former mentors (more on this below).

Some programs require you to apply to work with a specific supervisor from the outset, whereas in other cases, the choice of lab is made later (especially for programs with a component of rotations, which can involve faculty from different departments). Rotations can be invaluable to “try out” a lab’s culture and a supervisor’s management style, but do not blindly assume that in any given institution there will be someone that you will enjoy working with: rather, make sure of it from the moment of application. Be aware that academics can move institutions, retire, or fail to get tenure: So, if possible, ensure that there is more than 1 faculty member whose lab you would be excited to join.

Do not be afraid to email your prospective supervisors and pitch an idea to them: You never know if spare funding or open-ended positions are available. Write a polite and concise email, tailored to the individual recipient and demonstrating your engagement with their specific research. Generic or copy-pasted emails will get you nowhere, but academics will appreciate genuine interest in their work.

Rule 4: Fit over fame: Do not just choose where you want to “have gone”

Whether this ought to be the case or not, it is hard to deny that holding a degree from a prestigious institution will contribute to your “star power” and subsequent job prospects [ 6 , 7 ]—whether in academia or elsewhere. However, choosing a less suitable program just because of the school’s name will likely do you a disservice. Passion and the right environment breed excellence [ 1 , 8 ], and excellence shines on any CV, no matter where it was achieved.

A good fit (broadly defined—more on this below) will be key to keep you motivated throughout your graduate studies, because each step will feel like a step in the right direction: The direction of the goal that led you to attend graduate school in the first place. In contrast, a poor fit will sap your energy and motivation, potentially leading to burnout [ 9 , 10 ]. This is especially true for doctoral degrees, which typically take many years of intense and sustained effort ( Box 1 ). Of course, no program is ever perfect, and you will have to “make the best of the courses you have at hand” [ 11 ] to some extent. However, if there is a systematic misalignment between your program and your personal goals and interests, you run the risk of losing your enthusiasm even for the things that brought you to grad school in the first place. So, make sure that your chosen program sparks your enthusiasm and that the department, lab, and mentor will share and nourish this enthusiasm.

Of course, we acknowledge that it is not feasible to thoroughly research every faculty member from every program at every possible institution. Knowing what kind of program would suit your training needs (Rule 2) can be a good way to quickly narrow down your options (see also Rule 5 below about the importance of location). Likewise, if you already know what topic you want to pursue for your research, this can help to focus your search. Nevertheless, trade-offs between the depth and breadth of your search will inevitably emerge. While there is no one-size-fits-all approach, we would argue that the importance of fit means that it is advisable to make fewer but more carefully crafted applications (see also Rule 7 below).

Rule 5: Choose a place where you can see yourself living

This is the other side of the “fit” question in Rule 4: You go to grad school to experience both professional and personal growth, so choosing a place where you can see yourself (and your family, if you have one) living and thriving for a number of years is key. Does the institution foster an inclusive community while respecting and welcoming diversity? More simply, will you feel safe and supported enough to be your fully creative and engaged self?

More broadly, consider also the geographical aspects: climate, culture, language, recreational and sport opportunities, proximity to nature or to big cities, and distance from home: Will you have access to what you need to de-stress and replenish your mental resources [ 5 ]? What kind of healthcare will be available, and will you be able to afford it? These are just some of the considerations that should factor into your decision, as well as job opportunities for your partner, availability of childcare, and the opportunity to settle permanently, if applicable to your situation. Likewise, law and medicine qualifications differ by countries, so the place where you attend graduate school may have a large impact on where you will be able to practice your profession. In summary, do not overlook the placement of the program in the world, beyond academia.

Rule 6: Time is money—Invest both wisely

Although scholarships and other sources of funding can be available to cover the living expenses of a single student ( Box 2 ), grad students are not known for living in luxury. So treat the decision to attend graduate school for what it is: a multiyear financial investment, for which you need to plan accordingly. Consider carefully (and well in advance!) the available funding options—both within and outside of the specific institution (e.g., government scholarships; Box 2 ).

Box 2. Funding your graduate studies.

Graduate students typically need funding to cover (i) tuition fees; and (ii) living expenses (which may include health insurance and other costs). Although self-funding (e.g., through loans) can be an option, funding for a PhD or master’s degree can also come from different sources.

• Scholarship/fellowship/award: Although the name can vary by country and institution, this is when some entity pays for your tuition fees and/or living expenses. Many countries have some funding of this kind available, and so do many universities—often on a competitive basis and with specific eligibility criteria. Charitable foundations are another potential source of this kind of funding.
• Studentship/pre-funded project: A department or individual researcher may have secured funding for a PhD student to work on a specific research project, for example, as part of a grant they obtained.
• Research/teaching assistantship: Tuition and/or stipend are provided in exchange for services rendered to the department, such as assisting with teaching duties, or working as a laboratory technician/assistant alongside one’s PhD work.

Note that legal status of your funding (e.g., taxable versus tax free) can vary by country; likewise, in some countries, graduate students who perform research or contribute to teaching activities are classed as employees, whereas in other countries, they are not. Finally, some countries allow international students to work outside of campus while enrolled on a graduate course, whereas others do not or have limits.

It is also important to be aware that the cost of a graduate degree can vary enormously by country, institution, and degree type: Some countries have minimal or even no fees (e.g., tuition fees in several West European ones countries are less than $1,000 USD per year); others can have price tags of several tens of thousands of USD. Note that despite their shorter duration, the cost for master’s degrees can exceed that of PhDs, sometimes by a substantial margin.

In particular, PhDs can vary considerably in duration, with US PhDs taking sometimes twice as long as the same qualification in other countries (e.g., 6 to 7 years, or even longer in the humanities, compared with 3 to 4 years in many other countries). If what you want from a PhD is learning to carry out independent research, and credentials that demonstrate it, then a shorter PhD should suffice to achieve this. A longer PhD will give you more time to carry out long-term projects and accumulate publications, which may be desirable if a career in academia is your end goal—although this can be made up through longer postdoctoral training. The length of your permanence in graduate school(s) will have important financial implications: As the old adage goes, “time is money” [ 11 ]. So be aware of the differences, then choose what most suits your needs and aspirations.

Consider also whether you need a master’s degree first. In many countries, higher education is organized in a 3 tiers system: Undergraduate studies are followed by a master’s degree (often 2-year long), and only then a student becomes eligible to apply for a PhD. However, this is not always the case: In the United Kingdom, for instance, it is often possible to skip the second step and obtain a PhD within 3 years of finishing one’s undergraduate degree. Moreover, several countries offer integrated master’s-plus-PhD programs. Besides fulfilling eligibility requirements, one needs to consider that a master’s degree (or working as a lab manager/research assistant) can be a great way to try out life in a new place (see Rule 5 for the importance of this) and assess whether you truly enjoy the day-to-day aspects of life as a grad student. However, beware of using the master’s route as an excuse to simply put off committing to a PhD: Being honest with yourself is your best policy [ 6 ]. On the other hand, a master’s degree can represent a valuable investment also for those who have no intention of pursuing a PhD afterwards, in terms of acquiring desirable skill and qualifications—but beware that a shorter duration may not always translate to lower cost ( Box 2 ).

Rule 7: Your admission should be a win for everyone

Graduate school admissions are not just an investment on your part: When a program accepts a graduate student, the department and the broader institution are committing to many years’ worth of support for your development and research. More concretely, faculty members are committing to have you as their junior colleague for many years. Mentor–mentee relationships often last even beyond the end of graduate school, sometimes spanning decades. Students can have a substantial impact on a lab’s research direction, but also on the broader departmental and campus culture (from open science practices to public engagement), in virtue of their personality, contribution to teaching, and involvement in departmental or student committees.

So, it is wise to demonstrate your appreciation for these subtler but crucial aspects of what goes into an admissions decision. When writing your statement of motivation (see Box 3 and Rule 8), don’t only tell the committee why that program is right for you. Instead, be sure to also demonstrate why they should want you to join their department and community. Are you collaborative and helpful, the kind of colleague who can support and inspire those around them? Cohort composition can be an important factor in determining who will be admitted: You need to convince the admissions committee that you will contribute to the success and thriving of other people in your cohort and your lab and to the broader community of the department. In other words, convince them that they want to have you around, not just that you want to be around them!

Box 3. Components of a typical graduate application package.

The requirements for application can vary by country and institution, and we recommend that you check them well in advance. For instance, some institutions may require standardized testing such as the Graduate Record Exam [ 12 ], and you will need to arrange for those to be completed before the application deadline. Here, we focus on some aspects that tend to be common across many countries, institutions, and degrees.

• Statement of purpose/motivation statement/letter of intent: This is a document, typically in essay style, where the applicant conveys their suitability for the program and institution, drawing on their own personal interests and trajectory.
• Research proposal: Typically required for PhDs that involve directly joining a lab to work on a specific project defined by the applicant. This document outlines the rationale for the project and how the applicant intends to address it. Typically, when a research proposal is required, the applicant also needs to have identified a relevant supervisor to develop the research proposal together (as a necessary but not sufficient condition for admission).
• Curriculum vitae/resume: A comprehensive but succinctly written list of the applicant’s education and employment history (classes taken and grades) and achievements—often accompanied by official degree transcripts.
• Recommendation letters/letters of support: Letters from former employers or academic advisors detailing why (and whether) the applicant is suitable for the position and how they rank in relation to their peer cohort.
• Interview: Shortlisted candidates may be invited (in person or online) to 1 or more interviews, which may also include a campus visit or other orientation activities. Interviews may be with a panel or a single faculty member and may involve a presentation by the candidate (e.g., of a project that they have been involved with in the past, of the research project that they proposed for the PhD, or a paper that the interview panel has selected).
• Bureaucracy: International applicants often face additional hurdles that can be costly and time consuming. Although this will be country specific, 2 common requirements include visas and language tests (if you are not a native speaker of English and/or the local language). We emphasize the need to consider these aspects well in advance to give yourself the time to prepare and meet the requirements.

Rule 8: Show, don’t tell: Build synergy between CV and motivation statement

Your statement of purpose or motivation is a major factor to getting an interview for grad school and your first real opportunity to show who you are and what you want. Being an academic is a multifaceted profession that encompasses not only research but also teaching, leadership, teamwork, and communication. What unique experiences, skills, and perspectives do you bring to the role? Get into the mindset that you are the asset they want, and demonstrate it with specific examples. Your statement is also an excellent way to show that you are serious about the department’s investment in you, by showing that you have already invested time and effort in them. So, don’t just copy web page slogans, spend time to research the program and department and how you fit within it thoroughly, and let this be reflected in a targeted, well-polished statement (Rules 7–9 from “Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Postdoctoral Fellowship” will come to your aid here [ 13 ]). Tell your own story, not what you think the assessors want to read.

A near-universal principle of successful statements is “show, don’t tell”—especially if you are writing for a panel of academics, who are trained to abhor unsubstantiated claims. Anyone can type the words “I am hardworking and motivated,” but not everyone can provide evidence of hard-won achievements, adversities overcome, or lessons learned from failure and having the grit to get back up [ 14 ]. So let the facts speak for themselves.

Beware, though: Your statement should not be redundant with your CV, which the admissions committee will also have. Instead, aim to build synergy between statement and CV. The statement is your own description of your academic arc and of how it leads to grad school as the logical next step. It’s your chance to guide the committee’s interpretation of your CV and provide context: What are the most salient elements, and what do they say about how you meet the criteria for becoming a successful graduate student? How competitive was that prize you won, and what qualities does it reflect? How did you manage to do well in your classes while also being a high-performing athlete? You can think of your CV as the Results section of a paper, providing the facts and evidence, and your statement as the Discussion [ 15 ]. An evidence-based statement will also help you to steer clear of both arrogance and false modesty, neither of which will serve you well.

Finally, identify carefully who could write a good letter of recommendation for you. Good letters will build on your specific personal arc and add evidence of your abilities and suitability as a graduate student, so choose writers who (i) know you well; and (ii) can speak from a position of authority about your strengths as a future academic/lawyer/clinician. Be sure to send them your CV and motivation statement (with plenty of time!), so that they can write targeted recommendations that enhance the synergy of your entire application package.

Rule 9: Make the most of your interviews

Based on our experience with graduate school interviews across many institutions and countries, we suggest that the criterion for determining whether an interview went well should not be whether you get an offer in the end, but rather whether you had a good conversation. The faculty may seek to push you, to see how you respond to an intellectual challenge—not unlike a departmental seminar. Of course, you are applying to become a student, so it is okay to admit that you don’t know something—it’s a chance to demonstrate your genuine desire to find out the answer. However, being genuine does not mean being unprepared: Practice mock interviews, and if possible, find out who will be interviewing you, and become familiar with their interests and perspectives to make sure you can have an engaging conversation. And remember: You’re interviewing them too, as you are also trying to assess if this is the program that you want to attend. So don’t lose sight of this objective.

Likewise, this may be your chance to meet other applicants and current graduate students: Your peers who may become future friends and collaborators will be an important determinant of your experience in graduate school. Above all, remember: An interview is a chance to spend time with the undivided attention of some leading experts in your subject, talking about your field of interest. So try to enjoy this opportunity!

Rule 10: Learn to fail, and learn from failure

Realize that grad school applications are themselves part of learning how to be an academic. A PhD application is a request for an institution to invest time and money in you, so that you can pursue a topic you’re passionate about. At its core, this is the cornerstone of an academic’s life: a grant proposal (even more so in cases where a specific research proposal is required as part of the application).

Like with grant applications, you are competing for a limited number of resources with many well-qualified people, and many of them will be just as talented and motivated as you (and they may even have read this very article!). Like grantmakers, admissions committees have to make very difficult decisions: Departmental politics come into play, as does the overall composition of the cohort. In the end, admissions committees consist of human beings, who can be tired or hungry and even—dare we say it—make mistakes. Sometimes, with graduate applications, failure really isn’t about you.

Failure is the bread and butter of a researcher’s life [ 16 ]. So be prepared for failure, and plan accordingly: Play the numbers game (but make sure you only apply for places that you genuinely want to take!), and set up backup options that you can fall back to while you prepare for the next round of applications. Beyond the sting of rejection, there may be a lesson to be learned and an occasion to improve. Solicit feedback, then revise and recycle your application [ 13 , 15 ]: Remember, all of your next applications will be better as a result of each single rejection!

Knowing how to turn failure into growth is itself a skill that needs to be cultivated, and it will be invaluable in any career path. So learn to fail well: Find a way to learn from your mistakes, to make better mistakes tomorrow. And remember that in the end, you only need 1 successful application—even if it comes after 19 rejections.

Conclusions

We hope the rules outlined here will help you decide whether to go to graduate school, and, if so, where and how to apply. If you get that coveted letter that says “Congratulations”—go celebrate! But then, before you start, make sure you set aside some time to read “Ten Simple Rules for Graduate Students” [ 1 ] and “Ten Simple Rules for Finishing Your PhD” [ 17 ] and learn about the potential opportunities and pitfalls facing you in your next career step. Many articles in the “Ten simple rules” series are designed with that preparation in mind, so take advantage of these resources. There isn’t (yet) an article with “Ten simple rules for learning to fail”—but this article itself is the fruit of our failures, leading us to realize what we wish we had known when we were aspiring grad students. Following the 10 simple rules laid out here won’t protect you from failure, but it will allow you to avoid some of the classic failure modes—leaving you free to fail in more interesting and informative ways. Welcome to grad school!

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the mentorship of Emmanuel Stamatakis and David Menon, Joshua Buckholtz and Joshua Greene, Katie Warnaby, Tim Vogels, Everton Agnes, Kate Nation, MaryAnn Noonan, Nicola Byrom, Abbie Pringle, Dennis Chan, Russell Poldrack, Chris De Zeeuw, Freek Hoebeek, Edward Bullmore, and John Suckling. We also wish to thank Helena Gellersen, Hanna Tolle, Robert Chavez, Marcio Morales, and Sydney Cash for insightful discussions about graduate school and broader career advice, as well as the aspiring graduate students who attended our workshops about graduate school applications, whose questions helped to shape the advice in this paper. Finally, we are grateful to Dervila Glynn and Cambridge Neuroscience for giving us the occasion to meet and for their continuous and invaluable support.

Funding Statement

The authors acknowledge the support of the Gates Cambridge Trust [AIL], Cancer Research UK [RRG], Alzheimer’s Society [CCN], Merck [CCN], and the Isaac Newton Trust [EG]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

• Guide to Applying for Graduate School

The process of preparing for and applying to a PhD program can be overwhelming. The University of Pennsylvania has created this webpage to help prospective PhD students think through the process so you can put together a strong application.

A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) is the highest degree one may obtain within a particular field of study. This ranges from studies in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields; Social Science fields such as Education, Economics, Political Science, and Sociology; as well as Humanities fields such as English, History, Music, Philosophy, and more. The PhD degree aims to prepare people to think critically, develop research, and produce scholarship that may be used for further research or implementation. The PhD historically prepared students to take on faculty roles in colleges and universities, and that is still the goal for many students pursuing the PhD. However, today the PhD is a sought-after degree in many other industries including pharmaceutical research, arts organizations and other nonprofits, publishing, government policy, big tech, finance, and more.

• Who can apply to a PhD program?  PhD education is available to people from various educational, occupational, socioeconomic, and demographic backgrounds.
• Who should get a PhD?  People interested in uncovering new ideas, solutions, or processes within a specific area of study through conducting independent research.
• Why is it important for diverse candidates to become PhD holders?  Our world thrives on heterogeneous ideas and experiences, which is why it is indispensable to include students with diverse perspectives in our PhD programs. These students will generate important and original research.

Most PhD programs are fully funded, meaning that for a specific number of years, the program will pay for your tuition and fees and health insurance, as well as provide you with a stipend for living expenses. The structure of this funding varies by field. Below is an outline of general funding information as well as trends according to field of study.

• Funding packages provided by educational institution.
• Funding packages provided through faculty research grants: Many STEM fields fund students through research grants awarded to faculty. In these cases, students perform research alongside the faculty. 
• Teaching Assistantships or Research Assistantships: Part-time service that provides teaching and research training opportunities within your area of study.
• Fellowships: Internal or external merit-based funding. Some fellowships require an application while others are given via nomination. Educational institutions typically have a resource listing fellowship opportunities. Winning a competitive fellowship looks good on your resume.
• Grants: Requires an application with supporting materials of either your grades, scholarly work, and/or anticipated research. These are available through internal and external means. Grants greatly vary so be sure to always understand the requirements. Educational institutions typically have a resource listing grant opportunities. Winning a competitive grant looks good on your resume.
• Employment: For example, serving as a residential advisor, on-campus jobs, etc. Some PhD programs restrict additional employment, so be sure to check before applying for jobs.
• The funding opportunities described here often can be combined.

Choosing a school or program that provides the most potential funding may be a challenging decision. The value of the same amount of funding will differ depending on the cost of living in different geographic locations. Admitted applicants should investigate cost-of-living tools (available on the web) and be sure to understand how their funding will be structured. Ask questions when you are admitted, such as: 

• Could you share more about your program’s funding mechanism?
• For how long is funding guaranteed? How does that compare to the average time-to-completion? Historically, what percentage of students have received funding beyond the guaranteed funding package?
• Does funding cover tuition, fees, books, health insurance?
• Does the funding rely on teaching, research, or other service? How much and for how long? 

Choosing a program for your studies is a personal decision that should reflect not only your research interests, but your work style, and interests outside of the classroom. Here we have identified five key tips to consider when selecting schools. 

• Ask about which programs are strong in your area of interest, which have high completion rates, and which have career outcomes that align with your goals. 
• Explore the websites of the professional academic associations in the field(s) that interest you. Many will have a directory of doctoral programs and other resources for graduate students. For example, see the American Economic Association’s list of graduate programs and their preparing for graduate school page .
• Conduct a general internet search with terms related to your research interest.
• Determine your geographic and personal preferences. Does the area meet your community needs? Is it important that the university aligns with your sociopolitical values? Do you prefer a large city or a smaller/college town? Is there a particular region(s) that has better access to resources needed to conduct your research?
• Access your current or former university career center. These services are often still available for former students!
• As you narrow your choices, try to identify at least 3 faculty in the programs of interest with whom you’d like to study. Also note how many of them have tenure. If relevant, research which of those faculty are taking on advisees in your year of matriculation.
• Read articles from faculty with similar research interests.
• Note the number of awards, publications, and service activities of faculty.
• Identify research opportunities funded by both your program and university at large.
• Connect with current and former students in the program for informational interviews.
• Connect with campus Diversity Offices.
• Whenever possible, before submitting your applications, make an appointment to visit the campuses and department(s) that interest you.
• Use  LinkedIn  to see what graduates of your program are doing and how they are involved in their communities.
• Estimate your feasible cost of living by geographic location and compare to the funding package offered.
• Consider availability of health insurance, childcare, housing, transportation, and other fringe benefits.
• Connect with a local bank or your prospective university’s financial services office for budgeting, savings, and other financial wellness advice.
• Your First Year in a Ph.D. Program
• What Does Academic Success Mean and How to Achieve it?  (STEM)
• Pathways to Science  (STEM)
• 7 Advantages PhDs Have Over Other Job Candidates  (Industry)
• During your undergraduate/master’s education, you should pursue coursework and/or research that will prepare you for the higher expectations of a PhD program; for example, taking a research methods course, pursuing a summer research experience, or conducting research with a professor at your home institution.
• Identify instructors who could write a letter of recommendation. Share with those instructors your interest in doctoral studies; faculty can be excellent resources for advice as well as recommendations!
• Experiences outside of higher education can also strengthen your PhD application. These may range from project management to volunteer work.
• Develop soft or hard skills. A soft skill that is most useful from the first day of your PhD program is networking. This is necessary not only for meeting other students but also to find collaborators with similar research interests and selecting faculty for your dissertation committee. Learning how to negotiate will also serve you well when approaching collaborative projects. Hard skills related to your field might include learning statistical analysis software, economic theory, a foreign language, or search engine optimization. In short, identify a few soft and hard skills that you can familiarize yourself with prior to your program’s start date.
• Finally, prepare by identifying leading researchers and practitioners in your field, exploring peer-reviewed literature and/or publications, and gain familiarity with research methods.
• Be sure to address all the specific questions/topics in the statement prompt. 
• Clearly state why you want to pursue a PhD.
• Propose your research interest.
• Identify the faculty you’d like to study under. 
• Discuss the unique qualities/experiences you offer to the program/school.
• Outline what you hope to do with your degree.
• Ask for recommendation letters early in the process, at least 2-4 weeks before the deadline. A good letter takes time to write!
• Provide recommenders with your resume, information about the program, your statement of purpose and/or information about your research interests and research goals.
• Consider your current/former instructors, supervisors, colleagues. These should be people who can speak to your work ethic, academic abilities, and research interests.
• Test scores (i.e. TOFEL, GRE, GMAT, etc.) may or may not be required.
• All transcripts including those for coursework completed abroad and transfer credits. Some programs require official transcripts, which take longer to procure.
• Resume/Curriculum Vitae (CV)
• Writing sample (field dependent): Include a graduate-level sample and update any statements, statistics, etc. as needed. It is highly encouraged that you edit your previous work.
• Diversity statement: Many institutions offer an optional short statement where students can expand on their diverse backgrounds and experiences that may contribute to the diversity interests/efforts of the school.
• Typically, PhD applications are due 10-12 months in advance of the program’s start date (i.e. apply in November to start the following September). A good rule of thumb is to begin your application process 6 months before the deadline. 
• The availability of reduced application fees or fee waivers varies and sometimes depends on financial status and/or experiences (AmeriCorps, National Society of Black Engineers, attending certain conferences, etc.). If you are interested in a reduced fee or waiver, reach out to the program coordinator for details.
• Dress professionally, even if the interview is virtual. You don’t necessarily need to wear a suit but dress pants/skirt and a blouse/button down shirt would be appropriate.  
• Develop an engaging elevator pitch, a 30-60 second summary of your research interests and what you hope to gain by becoming a student at that particular university. Practice your pitch with a career counselor, faculty advisor, or friends, and ask for honest feedback.
• Prepare 2-3 questions to ask during the interview. These could include questions about program expectations, the experience and success of their PhD students, and (academic/financial/mental health) support for PhD students.
• Some interview programs will include multiple activities including a social event. Be sure to maintain a professional attitude: do not drink too much and keep conversation on academic/professional topics.
• This is also your opportunity to decide whether this campus is a good fit for you.
• Academia Insider  is a good resource. 

Unlike undergraduate and master’s level education, coursework is just one component of the degree. A PhD comes with additional expectations: you must independently conduct scholarly research in your field of study, train in specific activities such as teaching or lab/field research, pass “milestone” requirements along the way, such as comprehensive exams, and complete the process by writing a dissertation. Furthermore, some fields require you to write multiple articles (number varies by field/program) for conference presentation and/or peer-reviewed publication.

There are other important elements as well:

• Student/Advisor relationship. This is one of the most valuable relationships you can have as a PhD student. Your faculty advisor not only assists you with learning how to approach your research topic, but also typically serves as the lead supervisor of your dissertation research and writing, and ideally mentors you throughout the PhD experience. The selection process of choosing your advisor varies so be sure to know what is expected of you as a student and what is expected of the faculty member. Whenever possible, it is important to align your personality and work style with that of your faculty advisor. Many universities publish expectations for the PhD student/faculty advisor relationship;  AMP’ed  is Penn’s guide.
• Other relationships: Your faculty advisor is far from the only important person during your PhD career. Other faculty members will also serve on your dissertation committee and be potential mentors. Other students in your program can also provide good advice and guidance along the way.
• Coursework: Most programs have a number of required courses all students must take regardless of research interests. Once you have finished this requirement, the classes you choose should closely align with your research topic. Choose courses that will help you learn more about your dissertation topic and research methods. It is a good idea to discuss elective course selection with your advisor. 
• The dissertation is a large-scale, written document that explores a narrow research topic of your choice. It is the final step before receiving your degree and must be presented and “defended” to your dissertation committee (made up of faculty members) for approval. Defending means that you have to answer in-depth questions about your topic. While this might sound daunting, the dissertation is simply a demonstration of all the knowledge and expertise you have acquired through your PhD education. 
• Networking comes in many forms and includes connections with your fellow classmates, faculty members, and scholarly community. Formal networking events typically take place at academic conferences, where scholars and students present research. Increasing your academic circle will not only allow you to have study buddies, but offer you the opportunity to collaborate on articles or even gain employment. Your school’s career center can provide best practices for effective networking. 

Explore  graduate programs at the University of Pennsylvania  and click on the programs that interest you to learn more about admissions and academic requirements.

Upcoming Penn recruitment events include:

• Fontaine Fellows Recruitment Dinner (by invitation only): Friday, March 22, 2024
• IDDEAS@Wharton  (Introduction to Diversity in Doctoral Education and Scholarship): April 18-19, 2024. Deadline to apply is January 31.
• DEEPenn STEM  (Diversity Equity Engagement at Penn in STEM): October 11-13, 2024. Application opens in March 2024.
• DivE In Weekend  (Diversity & Equity Initiative for Mind Research): Fall 2024

National conferences to explore:

• The Leadership Alliance  supports students into research careers
• McNair Scholar Conferences
• SACNAS , the largest multidisciplinary and multicultural STEM diversity event in the U.S.
• ABRCMS , the annual biomedical research conference for minoritized scientists
• The PhD Project  for students interested in business PhD programs

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Can 'graduate student' refer to a PhD student?

• Thread starter Afshin81
• Start date Aug 27, 2016

Senior Member

• Aug 27, 2016

This is the definition of 'graduate student' found in Cambridge dictionary: a student who is studying for a degree that is higher than the one received after four years of study at a college or university The first impression is that it refers to a master's student (a student studying at a college or university for a master's degree). Can it be used to refer to a PhD student too? Thanks  

post mod (English Only / Latin)

In the US, a graduate student may be studying for either a master's degree or a PhD. (Many programs require a master's degree as the first step towards a PhD.)  

Cagey said: In the US, a graduate student may be studying for either a master's degree or a PhD. (Many programs require a master's degree as the first step towards a PhD.) Click to expand...

Yes, we can and do (in the US).  

Cagey said: Yes, we can and do (in the US). Click to expand...

PhD Student Goals: Objectives Of A Graduate PhD Program

Embarking on a PhD journey is more than a pursuit of higher education; it’s a transformative experience with specific objectives.

This article delves into the core goals of a PhD student within a graduate program. We explore the multifaceted objectives, from:

• Developing specialised knowledge and research skills,
• Contributing to academic discourse and
• Preparing for future leadership roles.

Understanding these aims not only clarifies the purpose of a PhD program but also helps you to maximise your academic and professional growth during this pivotal stage.

Develop Knowledge And Skills In Research

As a PhD student, you’re in a unique setting where developing research skills is not just a goal but a necessity. In this role, you’re not just a learner but also a budding scholar.

The objective? To not only grasp your chosen area but to contribute to it significantly.

Think of your PhD program as a journey to mastery. You start with a solid knowledge base, but that’s just the beginning. You need to advance this knowledge and apply it in actual research. This is where your ability to conduct research effectively comes into play.

Your dissertation is a major part of this journey. It’s not just a long paper; it’s a demonstration of your capacity to identify a significant research question and answer it.

This process hones your ability to evaluate, collect, and analyse data, whether it’s qualitative or quantitative.

But it’s not all about solitary study. Engaging with the academic community is crucial. As a PhD student, you will regularly:

• Have meetings with your supervisor,
• Presenting at conferences, and c
• Cntributing to journals and publications.

These activities help you communicate your ideas, receive feedback, and fine-tune your research approach.

In the wider world of academia, your role extends beyond the university. You’ll find yourself at conferences, maybe even pursuing grants. These experiences not only enhance your educational journey but also prepare you for future leadership roles in higher education or R&D.

Advance Scientific Knowledge 

As a PhD student, your main aim is to push the boundaries of knowledge in your area of specialisation. You’re not just absorbing existing information; you’re creating new insights.

This means diving deep into uncharted territories of your subject. It’s a challenging but exhilarating part of being in higher education.

Your role as a researcher is to conduct research that’s both significant and original. Take the example of a PhD student in genetics. They might explore unknown aspects of genetic markers in a particular ethnic group, contributing valuable data to the field.

This kind of research not only broadens the knowledge base but can also lead to important discoveries that impact practices.

Your PhD journey involves developing a methodology that suits your research question. This could mean employing both qualitative and quantitative methods. You will spend many time to:

• Collect data,
• Evaluate it, and then
• Communicate your findings through academic papers and conference presentations. 

Develop Role As An Ethical Researcher

Developing as an ethical researcher is a crucial aspect of your PhD journey. It’s about doing research that’s not only innovative but also responsible. You’re not just aiming to graduate; you’re aiming to contribute to academia ethically.

Ethics in research is more than following guidelines. It’s about understanding the impact of your work. Take a PhD student in clinical psychology, for example.

They must ensure their research methods don’t harm participants. This involves obtaining informed consent and protecting their confidentiality.

Your university and faculty play a big role in this learning process. They provide a framework of ethics which you must understand and implement in your work.

This includes regular meetings with your supervisor, where you can discuss ethical dilemmas and solutions. It’s not just about what you research, but how you conduct that research.

As a PhD student, you also learn to evaluate the cultural and social implications of your research. This means being aware of how your findings could affect different:

• Ethnic group,
• Social groups, or
• Stakeholders in the issue you are researching.

It’s a significant part of being a competent and ethical researcher.

Graduate From A PhD Program

Finally, every PhD students’ goal is to actually graduate from the program. Graduating with a PhD degree is more than just an academic achievement; it’s a milestone in your journey as a scholar.

You start as a student with a goal, and through hard work, you emerge as an expert in your field. This journey is not just about earning a title; it’s about becoming a leader in your area of specialisation.

Your dissertation is a key component of this process. It’s where you demonstrate your ability to conduct significant research.

Imagine a PhD student in environmental science, researching sustainable energy solutions. Their thesis not only contributes to their field but also showcases their competence as a researcher.

Regular meetings with your supervisor, presenting at conferences, and publishing papers are steps in this journey. They’re not just tasks; they’re opportunities to hone your skills.

These experiences prepare you to communicate your research effectively, an essential skill for any academic or professional setting.

Learning Objectives Of A PhD Student

A PhD program is a journey of academic and personal growth, with objectives that extend beyond obtaining a degree. It prepares you for a life of inquiry, innovation, and leadership in their chosen fields. 

By mastering research skills, contributing to scholarly discourse, and developing professionally, you set the stage for significant future contributions.

This journey, though challenging, equips you with the tools and mindset necessary for success in academia and beyond, embodying the true essence of scholarly excellence.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

Thank you for visiting Academia Insider.

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• Year of Graduate Study (G-Year)
• Introduction

Harvard Griffin GSAS strives to provide students with timely, accurate, and clear information. If you need help understanding a specific policy, please contact the office that administers that policy.

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• Year of Graduate Study (G-Year)

G10 Enrollment Cap

Adjustment to g-year.

• Related Contacts and Forms

A student’s time in graduate study is measured by G-Year, which refers to the number of years of graduate study. For example, a student in their first year is a G1, in their second year a G2, and so on. Both the Registrar’s Office and academic programs track G-Year, which may diverge if the academic program approves an adjustment.

PhD candidates who have not completed the requirements for their degree by their 10th year of study will be  withdrawn . Once the dissertation is complete, withdrawn students may apply for  readmission  to register for the purpose of receiving the degree.

• Exceptions may be made for students with special circumstances. For more information, students should contact their program, which may confer with the  Office of Student Affairs  to review particular circumstances.
• Exceptions to being withdrawn require a letter from the advisor, endorsed by the DGS, to Harvard Griffin GSAS Student Affairs explaining the:  1. Progress the student has made  2. Reason for exception (i.e., why student should remain enrolled)  3. Plan for completion with detailed timeline and departmental effort/support.

A program may grant a student a G-Year adjustment to their Departmental G-Year in certain circumstances; students should reach out to their program for more information. If approved, the adjustment will apply to the G10 enrollment cap and, if applicable, to when the student invokes guaranteed teaching and applies for a dissertation completion fellowship. G-Year adjustments are not accompanied by additional funding but are aimed at providing students more time to meet academic deadlines/milestones by delaying them one year, such as: 

• In department X, "general exams should be taken at the end of the third year.” A student in Registrar G4 (cumulative-time), who has been adjusted to a Departmental G3, will have approximately one extra year to complete their general exams.
• In department Y, students "must submit their prospectus by the end of their G4 year.” A student in Registrar G5 (cumulative-time), who has been adjusted to a Departmental G4, will have approximately one extra year to submit their prospectus. 

Please contact your financial aid officer to discuss your specific situation.

Students who desire a change in their department G-Year based on a reason below should contact their program to submit a formal request; the program will confer with the Office of Student Affairs. A leave of absence may not be necessary to receive an adjustment for a medically documented illness, childbirth or major family-related issues, or other disruptions.

Disruption Caused by the Covid-19 Pandemic

An adjustment of one year can be made to the department G-year for students whose academic progress has been impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic .

Delayed Start due to Visa Processing

An adjustment of one year to the department G-Year can be made if a student experiences delays outside of their control in visa processing, which delayed the start of their graduate work. This does not apply to students who have been approved to defer for one year.

Medically Documented Illness

An adjustment of one year to the department G-Year can be made for a medically documented illness. Documentation must be submitted to the Disability Access Office (DAO) providing an explanation of the illness signed by the attending physician. Contact the DAO for more details.

Childbirth or Major Family-Related Issues

An adjustment of one year can be made for childbirth or other major family-related interruptions of timely progress to the degree.

Active Military Service

An adjustment to the department G-Year can be made for the years a student is on active military service.

Coordinated Degree Program

An adjustment to the department G-Year can be made for the years in which a Harvard Griffin GSAS student is participating in the MD/PhD or JD/PhD Coordinated Program.

Beginning a Doctor of Philosophy Program from a Harvard Griffin GSAS Master’s Program

Students entering a PhD program from a Harvard Griffin GSAS master’s program will start as a G1 Departmental G-Year. Their Registrar G-Year will still reflect as a G2 or G3, depending on how long their master's program was, simply to track their cumulative time with Harvard Griffin GSAS. 

Other Disruptions

An adjustment to the department G-Year may be considered for students who suffer disruptions to their academic progress due to circumstances beyond their control. Please consult with the   the Office of Student Affairs . Documentation may be requested.

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Hajim School of Engineering & Applied Sciences

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

News & events, graduate student news, congratulations to ece phd student, frank cwitkowitz, a graduate research symposium winner.

April 1, 2024

The Hajim School’s graduate students did a terrific job showcasing their scientific findings last week at the third annual Graduate Research Symposium . The event, hosted by the office of Graduate Education and Postdoctoral Affairs, featured a poster session with $300 awards for the best presentations in four disciplines.

There was a three-way tie in this year’s engineering and math category: Frank Cwitkowitz , Electrical and Computer Engineering, PhD, Toward Fully Self-Supervised Multi-Pitch Estimation; Tyler Mason , Chemical Engineering, PhD, Minimizing Outgassing from High-Power Vacuum Transmission Lines; and Chloe Zhang , Biomedical Engineering, PhD, Towards Quantifying Cerebral Blood Flow of Patients Undergoing Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygen (ECMO) with Diffuse Correlation Spectroscopy (DCS) and Speckle Contrast Optical Spectroscopy (SCOS).

Congratulations and thank you to all students who presented their fascinating work.

Hajim Highlights 0401

College of Agriculture & Natural Resources Department of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences

Introducing 1st year phd student siavash heshmati, international graduate student, dr grace fleming seed science lab.

Dept of Plant, Soil and Microbial Sciences - April 07, 2024

Sia is turning his lifelong curiosity about seeds into a PhD project

Siavash Heshmati, or Sia, arrived last August to study seed science with Dr. Grace Fleming.

Sia studied crop science for his BSc in his hometown Karaj and got his MSc in Tehran. After graduation he worked as a research assistant in Tehran until COVID-19 shut everything down. At that moment, Sia decided to make the most of it, and began to study English more intensely than he ever had: watching and re-watching “Friends” and listening to instructive podcasts for hours each day. And looking toward a PhD in CSS at MSU.

Sia learned of Dr. Fleming from literature references. He received his documentation 90 days after he traveled to Armenia for his visa interview, and he was on his way to the other side of the planet.

Sia recalls seeing his mother sprouting wheat and lentil seeds in a damp towel during the Nowruz ritual.  While studying seed germination at the university, he came across a reference to the seed sprouting ritual he’d seen in his home. When he arrived at MSU, Sia spoke with students who studied crop science here, and “we figured out that we all took the same classes! All developed here,” at MSU the flagship agriculture institution.  “So even though it’s physically very far from my home, I felt very connected,” Sia said

 Sia is collecting preliminary data to begin his PhD project, in which he will examine what happens inside seeds using transcriptomics and genomics in different conditions, including cold temperatures, hydration regimes, hormone treatments and custom coatings—moving from agronomy to the molecular scale.

He  comes to the lab daily to observe changes: Noting differences in seed treatments side-by-side. Some changes can be observed in just a few hours. “Using hydroprime, we have lowered the temperature of germination from 10 degrees C to 4 degrees C.”

Sia enjoys improving language skills as much as lab skills; he recently gave a talk at the Corteva symposium in Indianapolis. “It was a real challenge, but I really appreciate the opportunity.”

During our conversation, Sia told me about this delightful  podcast episode , featuring Dr Grace Fleming 

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Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory

2024 phd graduate – modeler and data analyst.

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Are you an expert in developing physics-based acoustic or electromagnetic wave propagation models?

Are you passionate about designing and testing prototype sensors?

If you are graduating with a PhD in Physics, Engineering, or Applied Mathematics and want to work in acoustic or electromagnetic sensors and systems, we’d love to have you join our team!

We are seeking a Modeler and Data Analyst to help us design, prototype, and test novel sonar and electromagnetic systems and concepts. As a member of our team, you will contribute to advancing U.S. Navy capabilities through sensor system performance prediction and assessment. You will be joining a hardworking team of physicists, engineers, and mathematicians who take new acoustic and electromagnetic sensor systems from concept to reality in support of U.S. homeland security. We are passionate about understanding physical phenomena and how they may be utilized. Our team is committed to solving new and evolving challenges as we strive to foster a collaborative environment of continuous learning.

As a member of our team… • Your primary responsibility will be to conduct sensor system performance modeling for undersea warfare projects

• You will develop, maintain, and extend models of underwater acoustic or electromagnetic propagation and system performance

• You will analyze sonar or electromagnetic system data

• You will document and present results

You meet our minimum qualifications for the job if you… • Have a PhD in Physics, Engineering, or Applied Mathematics • Have knowledge of acoustic or electromagnetic wave propagation • Are proficient in MATLAB or Python

• Are able to obtain an Interim Secret level security clearance by your start date and can ultimately obtain a Top Secret level clearance. If selected, you will be subject to a government security clearance investigation and must meet the requirements for access to classified information. Eligibility requirements include U.S. citizenship.

You’ll go above and beyond our minimum requirements if you… • Have experience in collecting sonar data and comparing to model predictions • Have experience with electromagnetic sensors

• Are familiar with acoustic source and receiver technology • Have experience using high performance computing or software development best practices

Why work at APL?

The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) brings world-class expertise to our nation’s most critical defense, security, space and science challenges. While we are dedicated to solving complex challenges and pioneering new technologies, what makes us truly outstanding is our culture. We offer a vibrant, welcoming atmosphere where you can bring your authentic self to work, continue to grow, and build strong connections with inspiring teammates.

At APL, we celebrate our differences and encourage creativity and bold, new ideas. Our employees enjoy generous benefits, including a robust education assistance program, unparalleled retirement contributions, and a healthy work/life balance. APL’s campus is located in the Baltimore-Washington metro area. Learn more about our career opportunities at www.jhuapl.edu/careers.

APL is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, creed, color, religion, sex, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, national origin, age, physical or mental disability, genetic information, veteran status, occupation, marital or familial status, political opinion, personal appearance, or any other characteristic protected by applicable law.

APL is committed to promoting an innovative environment that embraces diversity, encourages creativity, and supports inclusion of new ideas. In doing so, we are committed to providing reasonable accommodation to individuals of all abilities, including those with disabilities. If you require a reasonable accommodation to participate in any part of the hiring process, please contact [email protected]. Only by ensuring that everyone’s voice is heard are we empowered to be bold, do great things, and make the world a better place.

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Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory

2024 phd graduate – optical/electrical/computer engineering – imaging systems.

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Are you passionate about optical sensing, computer vision, and/or all things imaging?

Are you searching for an opportunity to apply your engineering skills in a creative and collaborative laboratory environment?

Would you love to engage in meaningful, hands-on work with an employer that prioritizes impact, innovation, and personal development?

If so, we are looking for someone like you to join our team at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL)!

We are seeking a creative PhD new graduate to join the Imaging Systems Group. As a member of our team, you will contribute to critical system development and experimental efforts. You will be joining a diverse team committed to crafting an environment of innovation.

As a member of our team…

• Your primary responsibility will be to develop, evaluate, and deploy imaging system hardware, algorithms, and/or software.
• You will assist in the brainstorming and development of new initiatives/concepts in optical imaging through internal research and development (IR&D) efforts.
• You will capture technical contributions in internal me/reports and conference/journal papers, and present findings and recommendations at internal and external forums.
• You will support field integration and testing activities of developed systems.

Minimum requirements for your role include…

• Have a PhD in electrical/computer engineering, optical engineering, imaging science, computer vision, or equivalent.
• Have demonstrated the ability to work both independently and as part of a multidisciplinary team and possess strong interpersonal, speaking, and technical writing skills.
• Are able to obtain an Interim Secret Clearance by your start date and can ultimately obtain a Secret security clearance. If selected, you will be subject to a government security clearance investigation and must meet the requirements for access to classified information. Eligibility requirements include U.S. citizenship.

You will go above and beyond our minimum requirements if you…

• Have a intern experience in electrical/computer engineering, optical engineering, imaging science, computer vision, or similar.
• Have an active Secret level security clearance.

Why work at APL?

The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) brings world-class expertise to our nation’s most critical defense, security, space, and science challenges. While we are dedicated to solving complex challenges and pioneering new technologies, what makes us truly outstanding is our culture. We offer a vibrant, welcoming atmosphere where you can bring your authentic self to work, continue to grow, and build strong connections with inspiring teammates.

At APL, we celebrate our differences and encourage creativity and bold, new ideas. Our employees enjoy generous benefits, including a robust education assistance program, unparalleled retirement contributions, and a healthy work/life balance. APL’s campus is located in the Baltimore-Washington metro area. Learn more about our career opportunities at http://www.jhuapl.edu/careers.

APL is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer. All qualified applicants will receive consideration for employment without regard to race, creed, color, religion, sex, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, national origin, age, physical or mental disability, genetic information, veteran status, occupation, marital or familial status, political opinion, personal appearance, or any other characteristic protected by applicable law.

APL is committed to promoting an innovative environment that embraces diversity, encourages creativity, and supports inclusion of new ideas. In doing so, we are committed to providing reasonable accommodation to individuals of all abilities, including those with disabilities. If you require a reasonable accommodation to participate in any part of the hiring process, please contact [email protected]. Only by ensuring that everyone’s voice is heard are we empowered to be bold, do great things, and make the world a better place.

We respectfully acknowledge the University of Arizona is on the land and territories of Indigenous peoples. Today, Arizona is home to 22 federally recognized tribes, with Tucson being home to the O'odham and the Yaqui. Committed to diversity and inclusion, the University strives to build sustainable relationships with sovereign Native Nations and Indigenous communities through education offerings, partnerships, and community service.