feminist theories in education

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Feminist theory and its use in qualitative research in education.

• Emily Freeman Emily Freeman University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1193
• Published online: 28 August 2019

Feminist theory rose in prominence in educational research during the 1980s and experienced a resurgence in popularity during the late 1990s−2010s. Standpoint epistemologies, intersectionality, and feminist poststructuralism are the most prevalent theories, but feminist researchers often work across feminist theoretical thought. Feminist qualitative research in education encompasses a myriad of methods and methodologies, but projects share a commitment to feminist ethics and theories. Among the commitments are the understanding that knowledge is situated in the subjectivities and lived experiences of both researcher and participants and research is deeply reflexive. Feminist theory informs both research questions and the methodology of a project in addition to serving as a foundation for analysis. The goals of feminist educational research include dismantling systems of oppression, highlighting gender-based disparities, and seeking new ways of constructing knowledge.

• feminist theories
• qualitative research
• educational research
• positionality
• methodology

Introduction

Feminist qualitative research begins with the understanding that all knowledge is situated in the bodies and subjectivities of people, particularly women and historically marginalized groups. Donna Haraway ( 1988 ) wrote,

I am arguing for politics and epistemologies of location, position, and situating, where partiality and not universality is the condition of being heard to make rational knowledge claims. These are claims on people’s lives I’m arguing for the view from a body, always a complex, contradictory, structuring, and structured body, versus the view from above, from nowhere, from simplicity. Only the god trick is forbidden. . . . Feminism is about a critical vision consequent upon a critical positioning in unhomogeneous gendered social space. (p. 589)

By arguing that “politics and epistemologies” are always interpretive and partial, Haraway offered feminist qualitative researchers in education a way to understand all research as potentially political and always interpretive and partial. Because all humans bring their own histories, biases, and subjectivities with them to a research space or project, it is naïve to think that the written product of research could ever be considered neutral, but what does research with a strong commitment to feminism look like in the context of education?

Writing specifically about the ways researchers of both genders can use feminist ethnographic methods while conducting research on schools and schooling, Levinson ( 1998 ) stated, “I define feminist ethnography as intensive qualitative research, aimed toward the description and analysis of the gendered construction and representation of experience, which is informed by a political and intellectual commitment to the empowerment of women and the creation of more equitable arrangements between and among specific, culturally defined genders” (p. 339). The core of Levinson’s definition is helpful for understanding the ways that feminist educational anthropologists engage with schools as gendered and political constructs and the larger questions of feminist qualitative research in education. His message also extends to other forms of feminist qualitative research. By focusing on description, analysis, and representation of gendered constructs, educational researchers can move beyond simple binary analyses to more nuanced understandings of the myriad ways gender operates within educational contexts.

Feminist qualitative research spans the range of qualitative methodologies, but much early research emerged out of the feminist postmodern turn in anthropology (Behar & Gordon, 1995 ), which was a response to male anthropologists who ignored the gendered implications of ethnographic research (e.g., Clifford & Marcus, 1986 ). Historically, most of the work on feminist education was conducted in the 1980s and 1990s, with a resurgence in the late 2010s (Culley & Portuges, 1985 ; DuBois, Kelly, Kennedy, Korsmeyer, & Robinson, 1985 ; Gottesman, 2016 ; Maher & Tetreault, 1994 ; Thayer-Bacon, Stone, & Sprecher, 2013 ). Within this body of research, the majority focuses on higher education (Coffey & Delamont, 2000 ; Digiovanni & Liston, 2005 ; Diller, Houston, Morgan, & Ayim, 1996 ; Gabriel & Smithson, 1990 ; Mayberry & Rose, 1999 ). Even leading journals, such as Feminist Teacher ( 1984 −present), focus mostly on the challenges of teaching about and to women in higher education, although more scholarship on P–12 education has emerged in recent issues.

There is also a large collection of work on the links between gender, achievement, and self-esteem (American Association of University Women, 1992 , 1999 ; Digiovanni & Liston, 2005 ; Gilligan, 1982 ; Hancock, 1989 ; Jackson, Paechter, & Renold, 2010 ; National Coalition for Women and Girls in Education, 2002 ; Orenstein, 1994 ; Pipher, 1994 ; Sadker & Sadker, 1994 ). However, just because research examines gender does not mean that it is feminist. Simply using gender as a category of analysis does not mean the research project is informed by feminist theory, ethics, or methods, but it is often a starting point for researchers who are interested in the complex ways gender is constructed and the ways it operates in education.

This article examines the histories and theories of U.S.–based feminism, the tenets of feminist qualitative research and methodologies, examples of feminist qualitative studies, and the possibilities for feminist qualitative research in education to provide feminist educational researchers context and methods for engaging in transformative and subversive research. Each section provides a brief overview of the major concepts and conversations, along with examples from educational research to highlight the ways feminist theory has informed educational scholarship. Some examples are given limited attention and serve as entry points into a more detailed analysis of a few key examples. While there is a large body of non-Western feminist theory (e.g., the works of Lila Abu-Lughod, Sara Ahmed, Raewyn Connell, Saba Mahmood, Chandra Mohanty, and Gayatri Spivak), much of the educational research using feminist theory draws on Western feminist theory. This article focuses on U.S.–based research to show the ways that the utilization of feminist theory has changed since the 1980s.

Histories, Origins, and Theories of U.S.–Based Feminism

The normative historiography of feminist theory and activism in the United States is broken into three waves. First-wave feminism (1830s−1920s) primarily focused on women’s suffrage and women’s rights to legally exist in public spaces. During this time period, there were major schisms between feminist groups concerning abolition, rights for African American women, and the erasure of marginalized voices from larger feminist debates. The second wave (1960s and 1980s) worked to extend some of the rights won during the first wave. Activists of this time period focused on women’s rights to enter the workforce, sexual harassment, educational equality, and abortion rights. During this wave, colleges and universities started creating women’s studies departments and those scholars provided much of the theoretical work that informs feminist research and activism today. While there were major feminist victories during second-wave feminism, notably Title IX and Roe v. Wade , issues concerning the marginalization of race, sexual orientation, and gender identity led many feminists of color to separate from mainstream white feminist groups. The third wave (1990s to the present) is often characterized as the intersectional wave, as some feminist groups began utilizing Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality ( 1991 ) to understand that oppression operates via multiple categories (e.g., gender, race, class, age, ability) and that intersecting oppressions lead to different lived experiences.

Historians and scholars of feminism argue that dividing feminist activism into three waves flattens and erases the major contributions of women of color and gender-nonconforming people. Thompson ( 2002 ) called this history a history of hegemonic feminism and proposed that we look at the contributions of multiracial feminism when discussing history. Her work, along with that of Allen ( 1984 ) about the indigenous roots of U.S. feminism, raised many questions about the ways that feminism operates within the public and academic spheres. For those who wish to engage in feminist research, it is vital to spend time understanding the historical, theoretical, and political ways that feminism(s) can both liberate and oppress, depending on the scholar’s understandings of, and orientations to, feminist projects.

Standpoint Epistemology

Much of the theoretical work that informs feminist qualitative research today emerged out of second-wave feminist scholarship. Standpoint epistemology, according to Harding ( 1991 , 2004 ), posits that knowledge comes from one’s particular social location, that it is subjective, and the further one is from the hegemonic norm, the clearer one can see oppression. This was a major challenge to androcentric and Enlightenment theories of knowledge because standpoint theory acknowledges that there is no universal understanding of the world. This theory aligns with the second-wave feminist slogan, “The personal is political,” and advocates for a view of knowledge that is produced from the body.

Greene ( 1994 ) wrote from a feminist postmodernist epistemology and attacked Enlightenment thinking by using standpoint theory as her starting point. Her work serves as an example of one way that educational scholars can use standpoint theory in their work. She theorized encounters with “imaginative literature” to help educators conceptualize new ways of using reading and writing in the classroom and called for teachers to think of literature as “a harbinger of the possible.” (Greene, 1994 , p. 218). Greene wrote from an explicitly feminist perspective and moved beyond simple analyses of gender to a larger critique of the ways that knowledge is constructed in classrooms.

Intersectionality

Crenshaw ( 1991 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) challenged and expanded standpoint theory to move it beyond an individual understanding of knowledge to a group-based theory of oppression. Their work, and that of other black and womanist feminists, opened up multiple spaces of possibility for feminist scholars and researchers because it challenged hegemonic feminist thought. For those interested in conducting feminist research in educational settings, their work is especially pertinent because they advocate for feminists to attend to all aspects of oppression rather than flattening them to one of simple gender-based oppression.

Haddix, McArthur, Muhammad, Price-Dennis, and Sealey-Ruiz ( 2016 ), all women-of-color feminist educators, wrote a provocateur piece in a special issue of English Education on black girls’ literacy. The four authors drew on black feminist thought and conducted a virtual kitchen-table conversation. By symbolically representing their conversations as one from the kitchen, this article pays homage to women-of-color feminism and pushes educators who read English Education to reconsider elements of their own subjectivities. Third-wave feminism and black feminism emphasize intersectionality, in that different demographic details like race, class, and gender are inextricably linked in power structures. Intersectionality is an important frame for educational research because identifying the unique experiences, realities, and narratives of those involved in educational systems can highlight the ways that power and oppression operate in society.

Feminist Poststructural Theory

Feminist poststructural theory has greatly informed many feminist projects in educational research. Deconstruction is

a critical practice that aims to ‘dismantle [ déconstruire ] the metaphysical and rhetorical structures that are at work, not in order to reject or discard them, but to reinscribe them in another way,’ (Derrida, quoted in Spivak, 1974 , p. lxxv). Thus, deconstruction is not about tearing down, but about looking at how a structure has been constructed, what holds it together, and what it produces. (St. Pierre, 2000 , p. 482)

Reality, subjectivity, knowledge, and truth are constructed through language and discourse (cultural practices, power relations, etc.), so truth is local and diverse, rather than a universal experience (St. Pierre, 2000 ). Feminist poststructuralist theory may be used to question structural inequality that is maintained in education through dominant discourses.

In Go Be a Writer! Expanding the Curricular Boundaries of Literacy Learning with Children , Kuby and Rucker ( 2016 ) explored early elementary literacy practices using poststructural and posthumanist theories. Their book drew on hours of classroom observations, student interviews and work, and their own musings on ways to de-standardize literacy instruction and curriculum. Through the process of pedagogical documentation, Kuby and Rucker drew on the works of Barad, Deleuze and Guattari, and Derrida to explore the ways they saw children engaging in what they call “literacy desiring(s).” One aim of the book is to find practical and applicable ways to “Disrupt literacy in ways that rewrite the curriculum, the interactions, and the power dynamics of the classroom even begetting a new kind of energy that spirals and bounces and explodes” (Kuby & Rucker, 2016 , p. 5). The second goal of their book is not only to understand what happened in Rucker’s classroom using the theories, but also to unbound the links between “teaching↔learning” (p. 202) and to write with the theories, rather than separating theory from the methodology and classroom enactments (p. 45) because “knowing/being/doing were not separate” (p. 28). This work engages with key tenets of feminist poststructuralist theory and adds to both the theoretical and pedagogical conversations about what counts as a literacy practice.

While the discussion in this section provides an overview of the histories and major feminist theories, it is by no means exhaustive. Scholars who wish to engage in feminist educational research need to spend time doing the work of understanding the various theories and trajectories that constitute feminist work so they are able to ground their projects and theories in a particular tradition that will inform the ethics and methods of research.

Tenets of Feminist Qualitative Research

Why engage in feminist qualitative research.

Evans and Spivak ( 2016 ) stated, “The only real and effective way you can sabotage something this way is when you are working intimately within it.” Feminist researchers are in the classroom and the academy, working intimately within curricular, pedagogical, and methodological constraints that serve neoliberal ideologies, so it is vital to better understand the ways that we can engage in affirmative sabotage to build a more just and equitable world. Spivak’s ( 2014 ) notion of affirmative sabotage has become a cornerstone for understanding feminist qualitative research and teaching. She borrowed and built on Gramsci’s role of the organic intellectual and stated that they/we need to engage in affirmative sabotage to transform the humanities.

I used the term “affirmative sabotage” to gloss on the usual meaning of sabotage: the deliberate ruining of the master’s machine from the inside. Affirmative sabotage doesn’t just ruin; the idea is of entering the discourse that you are criticizing fully, so that you can turn it around from inside. The only real and effective way you can sabotage something this way is when you are working intimately within it. (Evans & Spivak, 2016 )

While Spivak has been mostly concerned with literary education, her writings provide teachers and researchers numerous lines of inquiry into projects that can explode androcentric universal notions of knowledge and resist reproductive heteronormativity.

Spivak’s pedagogical musings center on deconstruction, primarily Derridean notions of deconstruction (Derrida, 2016 ; Jackson & Mazzei, 2012 ; Spivak, 2006 , 2009 , 2012 ) that seek to destabilize existing categories and to call into question previously unquestioned beliefs about the goals of education. Her works provide an excellent starting point for examining the links between feminism and educational research. The desire to create new worlds within classrooms, worlds that are fluid, interpretive, and inclusive in order to interrogate power structures, lies at the core of what it means to be a feminist education researcher. As researchers, we must seriously engage with feminist theory and include it in our research so that feminism is not seen as a dirty word, but as a movement/pedagogy/methodology that seeks the liberation of all (Davis, 2016 ).

Feminist research and feminist teaching are intrinsically linked. As Kerkhoff ( 2015 ) wrote, “Feminist pedagogy requires students to challenge the norms and to question whether existing practices privilege certain groups and marginalize others” (p. 444), and this is exactly what feminist educational research should do. Bailey ( 2001 ) called on teachers, particularly those who identify as feminists, to be activists, “The values of one’s teaching should not be separated sharply from the values one expresses outside the classroom, because teaching is not inherently pure or laboratory practice” (p. 126); however, we have to be careful not to glorify teachers as activists because that leads to the risk of misinterpreting actions. Bailey argued that teaching critical thinking is not enough if it is not coupled with curriculums and pedagogies that are antiheteronormative, antisexist, and antiracist. As Bailey warned, just using feminist theory or identifying as a feminist is not enough. It is very easy to use the language and theories of feminism without being actively feminist in one’s research. There are ethical and methodological issues that feminist scholars must consider when conducting research.

Feminist research requires one to discuss ethics, not as a bureaucratic move, but as a reflexive move that shows the researchers understand that, no matter how much they wish it didn’t, power always plays a role in the process. According to Davies ( 2014 ), “Ethics, as Barad defines it, is a matter of questioning what is being made to matter and how that mattering affects what it is possible to do and to think” (p. 11). In other words, ethics is what is made to matter in a particular time and place.

Davies ( 2016 ) extended her definition of ethics to the interactions one has with others.

This is not ethics as a matter of separate individuals following a set of rules. Ethical practice, as both Barad and Deleuze define it, requires thinking beyond the already known, being open in the moment of the encounter, pausing at the threshold and crossing over. Ethical practice is emergent in encounters with others, in emergent listening with others. It is a matter of questioning what is being made to matter and how that mattering affects what it is possible to do and to think. Ethics is emergent in the intra-active encounters in which knowing, being, and doing (epistemology, ontology, and ethics) are inextricably linked. (Barad, 2007 , p. 83)

The ethics of any project must be negotiated and contested before, during, and after the process of conducting research in conjunction with the participants. Feminist research is highly reflexive and should be conducted in ways that challenge power dynamics between individuals and social institutions. Educational researchers must heed the warning to avoid the “god-trick” (Haraway, 1988 ) and to continually question and re-question the ways we seek to define and present subjugated knowledge (Hesse-Biber, 2012 ).

Positionalities and Reflexivity

According to feminist ethnographer Noelle Stout, “Positionality isn’t meant to be a few sentences at the beginning of a work” (personal communication, April 5, 2016 ). In order to move to new ways of experiencing and studying the world, it is vital that scholars examine the ways that reflexivity and positionality are constructed. In a glorious footnote, Margery Wolf ( 1992 ) related reflexivity in anthropological writing to a bureaucratic procedure (p. 136), and that resonates with how positionality often operates in the field of education.

The current trend in educational research is to include a positionality statement that fixes the identity of the author in a particular place and time and is derived from feminist standpoint theory. Researchers should make their biases and the identities of the authors clear in a text, but there are serious issues with the way that positionality functions as a boundary around the authors. Examining how the researchers exert authority within a text allows the reader the opportunity to determine the intent and philosophy behind the text. If positionality were used in an embedded and reflexive manner, then educational research would be much richer and allow more nuanced views of schools, in addition to being more feminist in nature. The rest of this section briefly discussrs articles that engage with feminist ethics regarding researcher subjectivities and positionality, and two articles are examined in greater depth.

When looking for examples of research that includes deeply reflexive and embedded positionality, one finds that they mostly deal with issues of race, equity, and diversity. The highlighted articles provide examples of positionality statements that are deeply reflexive and represent the ways that feminist researchers can attend to the ethics of being part of a research project. These examples all come from feminist ethnographic projects, but they are applicable to a wide variety of feminist qualitative projects.

Martinez ( 2016 ) examined how research methods are or are not appropriate for specific contexts. Calderon ( 2016 ) examined autoethnography and the reproduction of “settler colonial understandings of marginalized communities” (p. 5). Similarly, Wissman, Staples, Vasudevan, and Nichols ( 2015 ) discussed how to research with adolescents through engaged participation and collaborative inquiry, and Ceglowski and Makovsky ( 2012 ) discussed the ways researchers can engage in duoethnography with young children.

Abajian ( 2016 ) uncovered the ways military recruiters operate in high schools and paid particular attention to the politics of remaining neutral while also working to subvert school militarization. She wrote,

Because of the sensitive and also controversial nature of my research, it was not possible to have a collaborative process with students, teachers, and parents. Purposefully intervening would have made documentation impossible because that would have (rightfully) aligned me with anti-war and counter-recruitment activists who were usually not welcomed on school campuses (Abajian & Guzman, 2013 ). It was difficult enough to find an administrator who gave me consent to conduct my research within her school, as I had explicitly stated in my participant recruitment letters and consent forms that I was going to research the promotion of post-secondary paths including the military. Hence, any purposeful intervention on my part would have resulted in the termination of my research project. At the same time, my documentation was, in essence, an intervention. I hoped that my presence as an observer positively shaped the context of my observation and also contributed to the larger struggle against the militarization of schools. (p. 26)

Her positionality played a vital role in the creation, implementation, and analysis of military recruitment, but it also forced her into unexpected silences in order to carry out her research. Abajian’s positionality statement brings up many questions about the ways researchers have to use or silence their positionality to further their research, especially if they are working in ostensibly “neutral” and “politically free” zones, such as schools. Her work drew on engaged anthropology (Low & Merry, 2010 ) and critical reflexivity (Duncan-Andrade & Morrell, 2008 ) to highlight how researchers’ subjectivities shape ethnographic projects. Questions of subjectivity and positionality in her work reflect the larger discourses around these topics in feminist theory and qualitative research.

Brown ( 2011 ) provided another example of embedded and reflexive positionality of the articles surveyed. Her entire study engaged with questions about how her positionality influenced the study during the field-work portion of her ethnography on how race and racism operate in ethnographic field-work. This excerpt from her study highlights how she conceived of positionality and how it informed her work and her process.

Next, I provide a brief overview of the research study from which this paper emerged and I follow this with a presentation of four, first-person narratives from key encounters I experienced while doing ethnographic field research. Each of these stories centres the role race played as I negotiated my multiple, complex positionality vis-á-vis different informants and participants in my study. These stories highlight the emotional pressures that race work has on the researcher and the research process, thus reaffirming why one needs to recognise the role race plays, and may play, in research prior to, during, and after conducting one’s study (Milner, 2007 ). I conclude by discussing the implications these insights have on preparing researchers of color to conduct cross-racial qualitative research. (Brown, 2011 , p. 98)

Brown centered the roles of race and subjectivity, both hers and her participants, by focusing her analysis on the four narratives. The researchers highlighted in this section thought deeply about the ethics of their projects and the ways that their positionality informed their choice of methods.

Methods and Challenges

Feminist qualitative research can take many forms, but the most common data collection methods include interviews, observations, and narrative or discourse analysis. For the purposes of this article, methods refer to the tools and techniques researchers use, while methodology refers to the larger philosophical and epistemological approaches to conducting research. It is also important to note that these are not fixed terms, and that there continues to be much debate about what constitutes feminist theory and feminist research methods among feminist qualitative researchers. This section discusses some of the tensions and constraints of using feminist theory in educational research.

Jackson and Mazzei ( 2012 ) called on researchers to think through their data with theory at all stages of the collection and analysis process. They also reminded us that all data collection is partial and informed by the researcher’s own beliefs (Koro-Ljungberg, Löytönen, & Tesar, 2017 ). Interviews are sites of power and critiques because they show the power of stories and serve as a method of worlding, the process of “making a world, turning insight into instrument, through and into a possible act of freedom” (Spivak, 2014 , p. xiii). Interviews allow researchers and participants ways to engage in new ways of understanding past experiences and connecting them to feminist theories. The narratives serve as data, but it is worth noting that the data collected from interviews are “partial, incomplete, and always being re-told and re-membered” (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012 , p. 3), much like the lived experiences of both researcher and participant.

Research, data collection, and interpretation are not neutral endeavors, particularly with interviews (Jackson & Mazzei, 2009 ; Mazzei, 2007 , 2013 ). Since education research emerged out of educational psychology (Lather, 1991 ; St. Pierre, 2016 ), historically there has been an emphasis on generalizability and positivist data collection methods. Most feminist research makes no claims of generalizability or truth; indeed, to do so would negate the hyperpersonal and particular nature of this type of research (Love, 2017 ). St. Pierre ( 2016 ) viewed the lack of generalizability as an asset of feminist and poststructural research, rather than a limitation, because it creates a space of resistance against positivist research methodologies.

Denzin and Giardina ( 2016 ) urged researchers to “consider an alternative mode of thinking about the critical turn in qualitative inquiry and posit the following suggestion: perhaps it is time we turned away from ‘methodology’ altogether ” (p. 5, italics original). Despite the contention over the term critical among some feminist scholars (e.g. Ellsworth, 1989 ), their suggestion is valid and has been picked up by feminist and poststructural scholars who examine the tensions between following a strict research method/ology and the theoretical systems out of which they operate because precision in method obscures the messy and human nature of research (Koro-Ljungberg, 2016 ; Koro-Ljungberg et al., 2017 ; Love, 2017 ; St. Pierre & Pillow, 2000 ). Feminist qualitative researchers should seek to complicate the question of what method and methodology mean when conducting feminist research (Lather, 1991 ), due to the feminist emphasis on reflexive and situated research methods (Hesse-Biber, 2012 ).

Examples of Feminist Qualitative Research in Education

A complete overview of the literature is not possible here, due to considerations of length, but the articles and books selected represent the various debates within feminist educational research. They also show how research preoccupations have changed over the course of feminist work in education. The literature review is divided into three broad categories: Power, canons, and gender; feminist pedagogies, curriculums, and classrooms; and teacher education, identities, and knowledge. Each section provides a broad overview of the literature to demonstrate the breadth of work using feminist theory, with some examples more deeply explicated to describe how feminist theories inform the scholarship.

Power, Canons, and Gender

The literature in this category contests disciplinary practices that are androcentric in both content and form, while asserting the value of using feminist knowledge to construct knowledge. The majority of the work was written in the 1980s and supported the creation of feminist ways of knowing, particularly via the creation of women’s studies programs or courses in existing departments that centered female voices and experiences.

Questioning the canon has long been a focus of feminist scholarship, as has the attempt to subvert its power in the disciplines. Bezucha ( 1985 ) focused on the ways that departments of history resist the inclusion of both women and feminism in the historical canon. Similarly, Miller ( 1985 ) discussed feminism as subversion when seeking to expand the canon of French literature in higher education.

Lauter and Dieterich ( 1972 ) examined a report by ERIC, “Women’s Place in Academe,” a collection of articles about the discrepancies by gender in jobs and tenure-track positions and the lack of inclusion of women authors in literature classes. They also found that women were relegated to “softer” disciplines and that feminist knowledge was not acknowledged as valid work. Culley and Portuges ( 1985 ) expanded the focus beyond disciplines to the larger structures of higher education and noted the varies ways that professors subvert from within their disciplines. DuBois et al. ( 1985 ) chronicled the development of feminist scholarship in the disciplines of anthropology, education, history, literature, and philosophy. They explained that the institutions of higher education often prevent feminist scholars from working across disciplines in an attempt to keep them separate. Raymond ( 1985 ) also critiqued the academy for not encouraging relationships across disciplines and offered the development of women’s, gender, and feminist studies as one solution to greater interdisciplinary work.

Parson ( 2016 ) examined the ways that STEM syllabi reinforce gendered norms in higher education. She specifically looked at eight syllabi from math, chemistry, biology, physics, and geology classes to determine how modal verbs showing stance, pronouns, intertextuality, interdiscursivity, and gender showed power relations in higher education. She framed the study through poststructuralist feminist critical discourse analysis to uncover “the ways that gendered practices that favor men are represented and replicated in the syllabus” (p. 103). She found that all the syllabi positioned knowledge as something that is, rather than something that can be co-constructed. Additionally, the syllabi also favored individual and masculine notions of what it means to learn by stressing the competitive and difficult nature of the classroom and content.

When reading newer work on feminism in higher education and the construction of knowledge, it is easy to feel that, while the conversations might have shifted somewhat, the challenge of conducting interdisciplinary feminist work in institutions of higher education remains as present as it was during the creation of women’s and gender studies departments. The articles all point to the fact that simply including women’s and marginalized voices in the academy does not erase or mitigate the larger issues of gender discrimination and androcentricity within the silos of the academy.

Feminist Pedagogies, Curricula, and Classrooms

This category of literature has many similarities to the previous one, but all the works focus more specifically on questions of curriculum and pedagogy. A review of the literature shows that the earliest conversations were about the role of women in academia and knowledge construction, and this selection builds on that work to emphasize the ways that feminism can influence the events within classes and expands the focus to more levels of education.

Rich ( 1985 ) explained that curriculum in higher education courses needs to validate gender identities while resisting patriarchal canons. Maher ( 1985 ) narrowed the focus to a critique of the lecture as a pedagogical technique that reinforces androcentric ways of learning and knowing. She called for classes in higher education to be “collaborative, cooperative, and interactive” (p. 30), a cry that still echoes across many college campuses today, especially from students in large lecture-based courses. Maher and Tetreault ( 1994 ) provided a collection of essays that are rooted in feminist classroom practice and moved from the classroom into theoretical possibilities for feminist education. Warren ( 1998 ) recommended using Peggy McIntosh’s five phases of curriculum development ( 1990 ) and extending it to include feminist pedagogies that challenge patriarchal ways of teaching. Exploring the relational encounters that exist in feminist classrooms, Sánchez-Pardo ( 2017 ) discussed the ethics of pedagogy as a politics of visibility and investigated the ways that democratic classrooms relate to feminist classrooms.

While all of the previously cited literature is U.S.–based, the next two works focus on the ways that feminist pedagogies and curriculum operate in a European context. Weiner ( 1994 ) used autobiography and narrative methodologies to provide an introduction to how feminism has influenced educational research and pedagogy in Britain. Revelles-Benavente and Ramos ( 2017 ) collected a series of studies about how situated feminist knowledge challenges the problems of neoliberal education across Europe. These two, among many European feminist works, demonstrate the range of scholarship and show the trans-Atlantic links between how feminism has been received in educational settings. However, much more work needs to be done in looking at the broader global context, and particularly by feminist scholars who come from non-Western contexts.

The following literature moves us into P–12 classrooms. DiGiovanni and Liston ( 2005 ) called for a new research agenda in K–5 education that explores the hidden curriculums surrounding gender and gender identity. One source of the hidden curriculum is classroom literature, which both Davies ( 2003 ) and Vandergrift ( 1995 ) discussed in their works. Davies ( 2003 ) used feminist ethnography to understand how children who were exposed to feminist picture books talked about gender and gender roles. Vandergrift ( 1995 ) presented a theoretical piece that explored the ways picture books reinforce or resist canons. She laid out a future research agenda using reader response theory to better comprehend how young children question gender in literature. Willinsky ( 1987 ) explored the ways that dictionary definitions reinforced constructions of gender. He looked at the definitions of the words clitoris, penis , and vagina in six school dictionaries and then compared them with A Feminist Dictionary to see how the definitions varied across texts. He found a stark difference in the treatment of the words vagina and penis ; definitions of the word vagina were treated as medical or anatomical and devoid of sexuality, while definitions of the term penis were linked to sex (p. 151).

Weisner ( 2004 ) addressed middle school classrooms and highlighted the various ways her school discouraged unconventional and feminist ways of teaching. She also brought up issues of silence, on the part of both teachers and students, regarding sexuality. By including students in the curriculum planning process, Weisner provided more possibilities for challenging power in classrooms. Wallace ( 1999 ) returned to the realm of higher education and pushed literature professors to expand pedagogy to be about more than just the texts that are read. She challenged the metaphoric dichotomy of classrooms as places of love or battlefields; in doing so, she “advocate[d] active ignorance and attention to resistances” (p. 194) as a method of subverting transference from students to teachers.

The works discussed in this section cover topics ranging from the place of women in curriculum to the gendered encounters teachers and students have with curriculums and pedagogies. They offer current feminist scholars many directions for future research, particularly in the arena of P–12 education.

Teacher Education, Identities, and Knowledge

The third subset of literature examines the ways that teachers exist in classrooms and some possibilities for feminist teacher education. The majority of the literature in this section starts from the premise that the teachers are engaged in feminist projects. The selections concerning teacher education offer critiques of existing heteropatriarchal normative teacher education and include possibilities for weaving feminism and feminist pedagogies into the education of preservice teachers.

Holzman ( 1986 ) explored the role of multicultural teaching and how it can challenge systematic oppression; however, she complicated the process with her personal narrative of being a lesbian and working to find a place within the school for her sexual identity. She questioned how teachers can protect their identities while also engaging in the fight for justice and equity. Hoffman ( 1985 ) discussed the ways teacher power operates in the classroom and how to balance the personal and political while still engaging in disciplinary curriculums. She contended that teachers can work from personal knowledge and connect it to the larger curricular concerns of their discipline. Golden ( 1998 ) used teacher narratives to unpack how teachers can become radicalized in the higher education classroom when faced with unrelenting patriarchal and heteronormative messages.

Extending this work, Bailey ( 2001 ) discussed teachers as activists within the classroom. She focused on three aspects of teaching: integrity with regard to relationships, course content, and teaching strategies. She concluded that teachers cannot separate their values from their profession. Simon ( 2007 ) conducted a case study of a secondary teacher and communities of inquiry to see how they impacted her work in the classroom. The teacher, Laura, explicitly tied her inquiry activities to activist teacher education and critical pedagogy, “For this study, inquiry is fundamental to critical pedagogy, shaped by power and ideology, relationships within and outside of the classroom, as well as teachers’ and students’ autochthonous histories and epistemologies” (Simon, 2007 , p. 47). Laura’s experiences during her teacher education program continued during her years in the classroom, leading her to create a larger activism-oriented teacher organization.

Collecting educational autobiographies from 17 college-level feminist professors, Maher and Tetreault ( 1994 ) worried that educators often conflated “the experience and values of white middle-class women like ourselves for gendered universals” (p. 15). They complicated the idea of a democratic feminist teacher, raised issues regarding the problematic ways hegemonic feminism flattens experience to that of just white women, and pushed feminist professors to pay particular attention to the intersections of race, class, gender, and sexuality when teaching.

Cheira ( 2017 ) called for gender-conscious teaching and literature-based teaching to confront the gender stereotypes she encountered in Portuguese secondary schools. Papoulis and Smith ( 1992 ) conducted summer sessions where teachers experienced writing activities they could teach their students. Conceptualized as an experiential professional development course, the article revolved around an incident where the seminar was reading Emily Dickinson and the men in the course asked the two female instructors why they had to read feminist literature and the conversations that arose. The stories the women told tie into Papoulis and Smith’s call for teacher educators to interrogate their underlying beliefs and ideologies about gender, race, and class, so they are able to foster communities of study that can purposefully and consciously address feminist inquiry.

McWilliam ( 1994 ) collected stories of preservice teachers in Australia to understand how feminism can influence teacher education. She explored how textual practices affect how preservice teachers understand teaching and their role. Robertson ( 1994 ) tackled the issue of teacher education and challenged teachers to move beyond the two metaphors of banking and midwifery when discussing feminist ways of teaching. She called for teacher educators to use feminist pedagogies within schools of education so that preservice teachers experience a feminist education. Maher and Rathbone ( 1986 ) explored the scholarship on women’s and girls’ educational experiences and used their findings to call for changes in teacher education. They argued that schools reinforce the notion that female qualities are inferior due to androcentric curriculums and ways of showing knowledge. Justice-oriented teacher education is a more recent iteration of this debate, and Jones and Hughes ( 2016 ) called for community-based practices to expand the traditional definitions of schooling and education. They called for preservice teachers to be conversant with, and open to, feminist storylines that defy existing gendered, raced, and classed stereotypes.

Bieler ( 2010 ) drew on feminist and critical definitions of dialogue (e.g., those by Bakhtin, Freire, Ellsworth, hooks, and Burbules) to reframe mentoring discourse in university supervision and dialogic praxis. She concluded by calling on university supervisors to change their methods of working with preservice teachers to “Explicitly and transparently cultivat[e] dialogic praxis-oriented mentoring relationships so that the newest members of our field can ‘feel their own strength at last,’ as Homer’s Telemachus aspired to do” (Bieler, 2010 , p. 422).

Johnson ( 2004 ) also examined the role of teacher educators, but she focused on the bodies and sexualities of preservice teachers. She explored the dynamics of sexual tension in secondary classrooms, the role of the body in teaching, and concerns about clothing when teaching. She explicitly worked to resist and undermine Cartesian dualities and, instead, explored the erotic power of teaching and seducing students into a love of subject matter. “But empowered women threaten the patriarchal structure of this society. Therefore, women have been acculturated to distrust erotic power” (Johnson, 2004 , p. 7). Like Bieler ( 2010 ), Johnson ( 2004 ) concluded that, “Teacher educators could play a role in creating a space within the larger framework of teacher education discourse such that bodily knowledge is considered along with pedagogical and content knowledge as a necessary component of teacher training and professional development” (p. 24). The articles about teacher education all sought to provoke questions about how we engage in the preparation and continuing development of educators.

Teacher identity and teacher education constitute how teachers construct knowledge, as both students and teachers. The works in this section raise issues of what identities are “acceptable” in the classroom, ways teachers and teacher educators can disrupt oppressive storylines and practices, and the challenges of utilizing feminist pedagogies without falling into hegemonic feminist practices.

Possibilities for Feminist Qualitative Research

Spivak ( 2012 ) believed that “gender is our first instrument of abstraction” (p. 30) and is often overlooked in a desire to understand political, curricular, or cultural moments. More work needs to be done to center gender and intersecting identities in educational research. One way is by using feminist qualitative methods. Classrooms and educational systems need to be examined through their gendered components, and the ways students operate within and negotiate systems of power and oppression need to be explored. We need to see if and how teachers are actively challenging patriarchal and heteronormative curriculums and to learn new methods for engaging in affirmative sabotage (Spivak, 2014 ). Given the historical emphasis on higher education, more work is needed regarding P–12 education, because it is in P–12 classrooms that affirmative sabotage may be the most necessary to subvert systems of oppression.

In order to engage in affirmative sabotage, it is vital that qualitative researchers who wish to use feminist theory spend time grappling with the complexity and multiplicity of feminist theory. It is only by doing this thought work that researchers will be able to understand the ongoing debates within feminist theory and to use it in a way that leads to a more equitable and just world. Simply using feminist theory because it may be trendy ignores the very real political nature of feminist activism. Researchers need to consider which theories they draw on and why they use those theories in their projects. One way of doing this is to explicitly think with theory (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012 ) at all stages of the research project and to consider which voices are being heard and which are being silenced (Gilligan, 2011 ; Spivak, 1988 ) in educational research. More consideration also needs to be given to non-U.S. and non-Western feminist theories and research to expand our understanding of education and schooling.

Paying close attention to feminist debates about method and methodology provides another possibility for qualitative research. The very process of challenging positivist research methods opens up new spaces and places for feminist qualitative research in education. It also allows researchers room to explore subjectivities that are often marginalized. When researchers engage in the deeply reflexive work that feminist research requires, it leads to acts of affirmative sabotage within the academy. These discussions create the spaces that lead to new visions and new worlds. Spivak ( 2006 ) once declared, “I am helpless before the fact that all my essays these days seem to end with projects for future work” (p. 35), but this is precisely the beauty of feminist qualitative research. We are setting ourselves and other feminist researchers up for future work, future questions, and actively changing the nature of qualitative research.

Acknowledgements

Dr. George Noblit provided the author with the opportunity to think deeply about qualitative methods and to write this article, for which the author is extremely grateful. Dr. Lynda Stone and Dr. Tanya Shields are thanked for encouraging the author’s passion for feminist theory and for providing many hours of fruitful conversation and book lists. A final thank you is owed to the author’s partner, Ben Skelton, for hours of listening to her talk about feminist methods, for always being a first reader, and for taking care of their infant while the author finished writing this article.

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Feminist Theory

Jo Ann Arinder

Feminist theory falls under the umbrella of critical theory, which in general have the purpose of destabilizing systems of power and oppression. Feminist theory will be discussed here as a theory with a lower case ‘t’, however this is not meant to imply that it is not a Theory or cannot be used as one, only to acknowledge that for some it may be a sub-genre of Critical Theory, while for others it stands alone. According to Egbert and Sanden (2020), some scholars see critical paradigms as extensions of the interpretivist, but there is also an emphasis on oppression and lived experience grounded in subjectivist epistemology.

The purpose of using a feminist lens is to enable the discovery of how people interact within systems and possibly offer solutions to confront and eradicate oppressive systems and structures. Feminist theory considers the lived experience of any person/people, not just women, with an emphasis on oppression.  While there may not be a consensus on where feminist theory fits as a theory or paradigm, disruption of oppression is a core tenant of feminist work. As hooks (2000) states, “Simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression. I liked this definition because it does not imply that men were the enemy” (p. viii).

Previous Studies

Marxism and socialism are key components in the heritage.of feminist theory. The origins of feminist theory can be found in the 18th century with growth in the 1970s’ and 1980s’ equality movements. According to Burton (2014), feminist theory has its roots in Marxism but specifically looks to Engles’ (1884) work as one possible starting point. Burton (2014) notes that, “Origin of the Family and commentaries on it were central texts to the feminist movement in its early years because of the felt need to understand the origins and subsequent development of the subordination of the female sex” (p. 2). Work in feminist theory, including research regarding gender equality, is ongoing.

Gender equality continues to be an issue today, and research into gender equality in education is still moving feminist theory forward. For example, Pincock’s (2017) study discusses the impact of repressive norms on the education of girls in Tanzania. The author states that, “…considerations of what empowerment looks like in relation to one’s sexuality are particularly important in relation to schooling for teenage girls as a route to expanding their agency” (p. 909). This consideration can be extended to any oppressed group within an educational setting and is not an area of inquiry relegated to the oppression of only female students. For example, non-binary students face oppression within educational systems and even male students can face barriers, and students are often still led towards what are considered “gender appropriate” studies. This creates a system of oppression that requires active work to disrupt.

Looking at representation in the literature used in education is another area of inquiry in feminist research. For example, Earles (2017) focused on physical educational settings to explore relationships “between gendered literary characters and stories and the normative and marginal responses produced by children” (p. 369). In this research, Earles found evidence to support that a contradiction between the literature and children’s lived experiences exists. The author suggests that educators can help to continue the reduction of oppressive gender norms through careful selection of literature and spaces to allow learners opportunities for appropriate discussions about these inconsistencies.

In another study, Mackie (1999) explored incorporating feminist theory into evaluation research. Mackie was evaluating curriculum created for English language learners that recognized the dual realities of some students, also known as the intersectionality of identity, and concluded that this recognition empowered students. Mackie noted that valuing experience and identity created a potential for change on an individual and community level and “Feminist and other types of critical teaching and research provide needed balance to TESL and applied linguistics” (p. 571).Further, Bierema and Cseh (2003) used a feminist research framework to examine previously ignored structural inequalities that affect the lives of women working in the field of human resources.

Model of Feminist Theory

Figure 1 presents a model of feminist theory that begins with the belief that systems exist that oppress and work against individuals. The model then shows that oppression is based on intersecting identities that can create discrimination and exclusion. The model indicates the idea that, through knowledge and action, oppressive systems can be disrupted to support change and understanding.

The core concepts in feminist theory are sex, gender, race, discrimination, equality, difference, and choice. There are systems and structures in place that work against individuals based on these qualities and against equality and equity. Research in critical paradigms requires the belief that, through the exploration of these existing conditions in the current social order, truths can be revealed. More important, however, this exploration can simultaneously build awareness of oppressive systems and create spaces for diverse voices to speak for themselves (Egbert & Sanden, 2019).

Constructs 

Feminism is concerned with the constructs of intersectionality, dimensions of social life, social inequality, and social transformation. Through feminist research, lasting contributions have been made to understanding the complexities and changes in the gendered division of labor. Men and women should be politically, economically, and socially equal and this theory does not subscribe to differences or similarities between men, nor does it refer to excluding men or only furthering women’s causes. Feminist theory works to support change and understanding through acknowledging and disrupting power and oppression.

Proposition 

Feminist theory proposes that when power and oppression are acknowledged and disrupted, understanding, advocacy, and change can occur.

Using the Model

There are many potential ways to utilize this model in research and practice. First, teachers and students can consider what systems of power exist in their classroom, school, or district. They can question how these systems are working to create discrimination and exclusion. By considering existing social structures, they can acknowledge barriers and issues inherit to the system. Once these issues are acknowledged, they can be disrupted so that change and understanding can begin. This may manifest, for example, as considering how past colonialism has oppressed learners of English as a second or foreign language.

The use of feminist theory in the classroom can ensure that the classroom is created, in advance, to consider barriers to learning faced by learners due to sex, gender, difference, race, or ability. This can help to reduce oppression created by systemic issues. In the case of the English language classroom, learners may be facing oppression based on their native language or country of origin. Facing these barriers in and out of the classroom can affect learners’ access to education. Considering these barriers in planning and including efforts to mitigate the issues and barriers faced by learners is a use of feminist theory.

Feminist research is interested in disrupting systems of oppression or barriers created from these systems with a goal of creating change. All research can include feminist theory when the research adds to efforts to work against and advocate to eliminate the power and oppression that exists within systems or structures that, in particular, oppress women. An examination of education in general could be useful since education is a field typically dominated by women; however, women are not often in leadership roles in the field. In the same way, using feminist theory for an examination into the lack of people of color and male teachers represented in education might also be useful. Action research is another area that can use feminist theory. Action research is often conducted in the pursuit of establishing changes that are discovered during a project. Feminism and action research are both concerned with creating change, which makes them a natural pairing.

Pre-existing beliefs about what feminism means can make including it in classroom practice or research challenging. Understanding that feminism is about reducing oppression for everyone and sharing that definition can reduce this challenge. hooks (2000) said that, “A male who has divested of male privilege, who has embraced feminist politics, is a worthy comrade in struggle, in no way a threat to feminism, whereas a female who remains wedded to sexist thinking and behavior infiltrating feminist movement is a dangerous threat”(p. 12). As Angela Davis noted during a speech at Western Washington University in 2017, “Everything is a feminist issue.” Feminist theory is about questioning existing structures and whether they are creating barriers for anyone. An interest in the reduction of barriers is feminist. Anyone can believe in the need to eliminate oppression and work as teachers or researchers to actively to disrupt systems of oppression.

Bierema, L. L., & Cseh, M. (2003). Evaluating AHRD research using a feminist research framework.  Human Resource Development Quarterly ,  14 (1), 5–26.

Burton, C. (2014).   Subordination: Feminism and social theory . Routledge.

Earles, J. (2017). Reading gender: A feminist, queer approach to children’s literature and children’s discursive agency.  Gender and Education, 29 (3), 369–388.

Egbert, J., & Sanden, S. (2019).  Foundations of education research: Understanding theoretical components . Taylor & Francis.

Hooks, B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics . South End Press.

Mackie, A. (1999). Possibilities for feminism in ESL education and research.  TESOL  Quarterly, 33 (3), 566-573.

Pincock, K. (2018). School, sexuality and problematic girlhoods: Reframing ‘empowerment’ discourse.  Third World Quarterly, 39 (5), 906-919.

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A Guide to Feminist Pedagogy

• [framework for this guide]
• Rooted in Epistemology
• Construction of Knowledge
• The Role of Experience & Emotions
• Critical View of Power & Authority
• The Complexity of Identity
• The Importance of Community
• Course Design
• Learning Environment
• A Few Examples
• Works Cited
• How We Wrote It

Introduction to This Guide

Feminist pedagogy is not a toolbox, a collection of strategies, a list of practices, or a specific classroom arrangement.  It is an overarching philosophy—a theory of teaching and learning that integrates feminist values with related theories and research on teaching and learning.

It begins with our beliefs and motivations:   why do we teach? why do students learn? what are the goals of learning? We know that the consequences of our motives for teaching and learning are significant: Keith Trigwell and Mike Prosser have shown that the instructor’s intentions in teaching (“why the person adopts a particular strategy”) have a greater impact on student learning than the instructor’s actual strategies for teaching (“what the person does”) (78). Their research has shown that approaches to teaching that are purposefully focused on the students and aimed at changing conceptual frameworks lead to deeper learning practices than teacher-centered, information-driven approaches (Trigwell 98). The implications are that the instructor’s fundamental beliefs and values about teaching, learning, and knowledge-making matter .

In this guide, we explain some of the fundamental beliefs, values, and intentions behind feminist pedagogy to inform a deliberate application in specific classrooms –any and all classrooms, as feminist pedagogy can inform any disciplinary context. (For a more focused exploration of feminist pedagogy specifically within the women’s studies classroom, see Holly Hassel and Nerissa Nelson’s “A Signature Feminist Pedagogy: Connection and Transformation in Women’s Studies.”)

This guide is not a primer on feminism, though, so we begin having assumed the following:

We live within a patriarchy, a term which we define—following the work of Allan Johnson—as a society that’s structure is “male-dominated, male-centered, and male-identified” (5). For more, read Allan Johnson’s Gender Knot , particularly chapter one, “Where are we?” and   chapter two, “Patriarchy, the System: An It, Not a He, a Them, or an Us.” Differences exist “between and among groups” of people based on lived experiences that are informed by the complex interactions between “history, culture, power, and ideology” (McLaren 43). For more, read Peter McLaren’s taxonomy of approaches to difference . The concept of “woman” does not exist in isolation from other identities. Rather, identity is “intersectional,” a term that recognizes the interlocking and inextricable relationship between different aspects of identity and systems of oppression. For more, read Kimberlé Crenshaw’s “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.”  

How This Guide Was Written

-- See how composition process matched our subject matter.

-- Learn about the eight authors of this guide.

Module 9: Religion and Education

Reading: feminist theory on education, feminist theory.

Some 1903 female graduates of Western University.

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. Like many other institutions of society, educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. Almost two-thirds of the world’s 862 million illiterate people are women, and the illiteracy rate among women is expected to increase in many regions, especially in several African and Asian countries (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2007).

Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn’t until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education (and its resultant benefits) across the world.

• Introduction to Sociology 2e. Authored by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/02040312-72c8-441e-a685-20e9333f3e1d/Introduction_to_Sociology_2e . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]
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Feminist Views on the Role of Education

Last updated 26 Nov 2019

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Feminist sociologists have large areas of agreement with functionalists and Marxists in so far as they see the education system as transmitting a particular set of norms and values into the pupils. However, instead of seeing these as either a neutral value consensus or the values of the ruling class and capitalism, feminists see the education system as transmitting patriarchal values.

For example, Heaton and Lawson (1996) argued that the hidden curriculum taught patriarchal values in schools. They noted traditional family structures in textbooks (along with many other gender stereotypes, subjects aimed towards specific genders, gender divisions in PE and sport and the gender division of labour in schools (predominantly female teachers and male managers).

Liberal feminists would point out these remaining issues of patriarchy in education while also acknowledging significant strides towards equality in the education system. In the 1940s and 50s, under the tripartite system, boys had a lower pass rate for the 11+ than girls (essentially institutionally failing girls in order to ensure more boys can succeed) and some subjects being specifically for one gender or the other used to be institutional rather than based on apparent preference. Today, once subjects become optional, there are quite clear gender preferences for one subject or another, but all subjects are open to all pupils. Perhaps the biggest change, since the 1980s, is that girls now outperform boys in education so if the system is a patriarchal one, designed to favour boys, it is singularly failing. However, Michelle Stanworth (1983), for instance, noted that there will still higher expectations of boys and teachers would be more likely to recommend boys apply for higher education than girls at the same academic level.

Radical feminists argue that the education system is still fundamentally patriarchal and continues to marginalise and oppress women. It does this through some of the processes already noted (reinforcing patriarchal ideology through the formal and hidden curriculum and normalising the marginalisation and oppression of women so that by the time girls leave school they see it as normal and natural rather than as patriarchal oppression). Radical feminist research has also looked at sexual harassment in education and how it is not treated as seriously as other forms of bullying (e.g. Kat Banyard, 2011).

Black and difference feminists point out how not all girls have the same experience in education and that minority-ethnic girls are often victims of specific stereotyping and assumptions. For example, teachers might assume that Muslim girls have different aspirations in relation to career and family from their peers. There have been studies of the specific school experiences of black girls, which we will consider in more detail in future sections.

Where feminists acknowledge that there has been a great deal of improvement for girls in education, they would point to feminism itself as being one of the main reasons for this. Sue Sharpe (1996) found that London schoolgirls in the 1970s had completely different priorities and aspirations from similar girls in 1996. She found that while in the 1970s girls’ priorities were marriage and family, in the 1990s this had switched dramatically to career. While there are a number of potential reasons for this, legislative changes such as the 1970 Equal Pay Act and the 1976 Sex Discrimination Act are likely to have played their part, hence supporting a liberal feminist perspective).

What all feminists agree on is that the education system does work as an agent of secondary socialisation which teaches girls and boys what are seen as universal norms and values and gender scripts that are actually those of contemporary patriarchy and that girls and boys learning these values prevents social change and challenges to patriarchy.

Evaluating feminist views on the role of education

Two features of contemporary education, at least in the UK, which critics of feminist views on education often point out are: 1) education is an increasingly female-dominated sector (most teachers are women, an increasing number of managers are women because they are drawn from the available teachers) and 2) the education system is increasingly resulting in female success and male underperformance. If this is a system designed to ensure men are in the top positions in society and women are marginalised into a domestic role, then it would appear to be failing. The education system is sending more and more girls into higher education (Michelle Stanworth’s research on this is now out of date).

However, while there is clearly some truth in these criticisms, it is still clear that there is a glass ceiling and a gender pay gap so the education system might be creating lots of highly-qualified girls, they are still losing out to their male peers when it comes to top jobs and higher incomes. They are also still more likely to take time off for child-rearing, work part time and to carry out the majority of housework tasks. Feminists point out that the education system largely normalises this (alongside other agents of socialisation such as the family and the media) and so even highly-qualified women often accept this as inevitable or normal. At the same time men are socialised to also consider this normal.

• Hidden curriculum
• Radical Feminism

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27 Feminist Philosophy and Education

Nel Noddings is Lee Jacks Professor of Education Emerita, Stanford University. Her latest books are Critical Lessons: What Our Schools Should Teach (2006) and When School Reform Goes Wrong (2007).

• Published: 02 January 2010
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This article examines feminist approaches to the philosophy of education. It suggests that the philosophy of education should be an ideal domain for the analysis and application of feminist philosophy. It discusses John Dewey's opinion that there is a sense in which philosophy is the philosophy of education and that our schools should be mini-societies that reflect our best conception of what our larger society should be. It highlights the efforts of feminists to upgrade first generation ideas on liberal feminism.

Over the last thirty years, feminist philosophy has grown in quantity, if not in influence. Its growth has followed (roughly) the three generations of feminist thought described by Julia Kristeva ( 1982 ). In the first, emphasis is placed on women's oppression, and equality with men is the main goal. In the second, concentration is on women's agency, and questions are raised about uncritical assimilation into the male world. In the third, feminist philosophers critique previous generations of thought, and suggest new (or defend old) patterns of thought. These categories are better interpreted as centers of concentration than as “generations” because we find them scattered across the decades of activity in feminism. In what follows, I use this structure to organize the chapter. I use the last section to concentrate on feminist critiques in philosophy of education.

1. Women's Oppression

Feminist scholars treat a great variety of topics, but the issue of women's oppression and long struggle for equality is of central importance. It may, indeed, be regarded as the defining feature of feminism. The history of feminist philosophy confirms this interest, but it also reveals conflicts that have arisen from feminist commitments. A pessimist might describe the pursuit of feminist philosophy as a no‐win project. In fact, Margaret Urban Walker ( 2005 ) has recently made comments to that effect. A woman who chooses to do feminist philosophy may find herself rejected as a philosopher.

There have always been women philosophers. (See the four‐volume history of women philosophers edited by Mary Ellen Waithe, 1987 , 1989, 1991, 1995; see also a special issue on American women philosophers in Hypatia , Spring 2004 .) But for the most part, they have been ignored in their own period, co‐opted by male writers, and discarded entirely over time. Walker comments on the fate of Diotima, reputedly the teacher of Socrates: “she did not just disappear from the history of philosophy. She was reduced to a figment of that great man's imagination” (2005, p. 155). We will probably never know whether Diotima was a real person.

For today's women philosophers, a conflict arises in the choice to do feminist philosophy. Walker says of it, “It is a kind of philosophy, not a female or feminine activity,” and it “is a method, not a topic” (2005, p. 157). But there is little agreement on this. Some women philosophers are analytic philosophers, and for them feminist philosophy is more a set of topics than a method. (See the special issue of Hypatia devoted to analytic feminism, Fall 2005 .) Clearly, there are also feminist existentialists and pragmatists as well. Insofar as it is a method in itself—like, say, existentialism or pragmatism—it runs the same risk as other methods, that of relative isolation as a specialty, but the risk is enormously increased by the fact that most of its practitioners are women.

There are, however, excellent examples of feminist philosophy as method. One of the best known is “standpoint epistemology” (Harding 1996 ; Hartsock 1983 ; Hekman 1997 ). As method, standpoint epistemology holds that we get nearer to a true objectivity if we look at phenomena and situations through a variety of perspectives. We should give up the faulty, largely fictitious notion of a neutral or universal perspective. As one perspective in the category of standpoint epistemology, feminist epistemology looks at the world through the eyes of women. This does not in itself imply a loss of “objectivity” because it admits at the outset that, to achieve objectivity (if that is possible), we need the perspectives of all stake holders.

Still, there are problems. In educational philosophy, Barbara Thayer‐Bacon ( 2000 ) has given a useful and persuasive account of standpoint theory and the difficulties it faces. In particular, it risks re‐inscribing some of the features found so objectionable in traditional philosophy, such as privileging certain voices within the feminist community. How can anyone speak from the standpoint of all women? It is an open question whether these difficulties can be avoided. For present purposes, feminist standpoint epistemology offers an example of feminist philosophy as method . It is not a set of topics.

There is some risk, too, in rejecting the notion that feminist philosophy is a female activity. Thirty years ago, as feminist theory got a new start, feminist scholars often talked about solidarity with other women; they pledged themselves to interdisciplinary work within academe and to social efforts in the larger community. However, this is not the way to get ahead in universities, and women scholars had to blend their feminist work with approved specialties in other fields. They were challenged with the question: Are you a scholar or an activist? Answering that question changed the tone of feminist studies.

An important element of solidarity has remained among feminist philosophers within the academy. Black feminists have contributed to both liberal and radical feminist philosophy. (See, for example, Patricia Hill Collins 1990 , 1995 ; also the essays by Kimberle Williams Crenshaw and bell hooks in Meyers 1997 .) Their work has influenced the direction of discussions not only on race and equality but also on family, community, and schooling (Walker 1996 ).

The struggle with the question—scholar or activist?—helps to explain why so much feminist philosophy falls into the category of social or political philosophy. Much of this work has helped to keep the original feminist commitment alive. Alison Jaggar, for example, has described feminism as political philosophy. She notes that “feminist political philosophers…use both traditional and nontraditional categories in attempting to describe and evaluate women's experience” (1983, p. 7). Issues concerning childbirth, love, maternal work, childcare, and sexuality are brought into philosophical discourse. “By seeking to extend the traditional domain of political philosophy, contemporary feminism challenges both existing political theories and our conception of political philosophy itself” (Jaggar 1983 , p. 7). This line of thinking remains strong today. Feminist philosophers may, for example, identify themselves as Marxist, liberal, radical, or socialist (Tuana and Tong 1995 ).

The effects of this work have been felt across disciplinary lines. Feminist theologians, nursing theorists, historians, psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, and legal theorists have all contributed to the analysis of human life as embodied in women (Noddings 1990 ). However, the real social effects seem to emerge primarily from the social sciences. In a recent comprehensive work on women's well‐being, there is no sign of influence from feminist philosophy (Bianchi, Casper, and King 2005 ), and a check of the indexes of books in political philosophy often reveals mention of “children's rights” or “families” but rarely anything on women, feminism, or bodies of any sort.

That said, there does appear to be a revival of interest in creatural existence within philosophy, and philosophers of education have contributed to this literature (O'Loughlin 2006 ). One feature of this revival is increased attention to emotions and everyday life in education (Boler 1999 ; Noddings 2003b ). Questions have been raised about the traditional curriculum and why it is virtually devoid of topics that have been central to women's lives (Martin 1984 , 1985 , 1992 ; Noddings 1992/2005 , 2006a ).

Feminist philosophy has also exerted considerable influence through critiques of traditional philosophy. Susan Moller Okin ( 1979 ) has given us accounts of male philosophers who supported women's equality and of others who spoke powerfully against it. Her critique of Rousseau is especially important for educators. For years, it was not unusual for philosophers of education to extol Rousseau as the philosopher of freedom and his Emile as the book that describes an appropriate education for free citizens. However, one could hardly hold this view unreservedly after reading Book 5 of Emile . In that book, Rousseau advocates an education for Sophie that should keep her subservient to Emile. She is not to think for herself, and she is to be both sexually alluring and chaste—“both virgin and prostitute” (Okin 1979 , p. 101).

Critiques of science have also been prominent in feminist philosophy. The most convincing acknowledge the enormous success of science while noting its domination by males and male thinking. Evelyn Fox Keller puts it well in describing two different discourses on science: “One an increasingly radical critique that fails to account for the effectiveness of science, and the other a justification that draws confidence from that effectiveness to maintain a traditional, and essentially unchanged, philosophy of science” (1985, p. 6).

From this perspective, several goals for feminist philosophy of science might be established: (1) to open scientific fields to women; (2) to show how science might be improved by expanding its methods; (3) to transform the scientific description of women and women's experience; and (4) to encourage interdisciplinary work within the sciences and between science and the humanities.

Jane Roland Martin ( 1985 ), concentrating specifically on education in her critiques, also gives us a devastating evaluation of Rousseau's recommendations for women's education. In addition to critiques of Rousseau, Plato, Wollstonecraft, Beecher, and Gilman, Martin is particularly interested in the connection between feminist theory and philosophy of education. If we are serious about education for human life, why in our curriculum planning do we persist in ignoring topics and activities central to female lives?

I, too, have discussed this question (Noddings 1992/2005 , 2006a ). For example, I have offered an analysis of evil from the perspective of women (Noddings 1989 ). It is clear, however, that this is a woman's view and not that of all women. Women have suffered for centuries under a succession of myths fabricated by men, myths blaming the origin of evil on women—on Pandora, Eve, witches, and lamias. Ridding religion of these pernicious myths is crucially important (Daly 1974 ), and philosophers and educators should give more attention to the sort of religious education that might accomplish this (Noddings 1993 ). Moreover, without the distraction and mystification of theological views of evil, we might look more clearly at the human condition and work toward the reduction of moral evil.

Feminist commitment to the alleviation of suffering and the elimination of oppression has led quite naturally to a concern for the welfare of other oppressed groups. Feminist philosophers are actively engaged in the identification and analysis of the oppression experienced by racial minorities, the disabled, and homosexuals. See, for example, special issues of Hypatia devoted to race: 22, no. 2 (Spring 2007 ); to maternal bodies 21, no. 1 (Winter 2006 ).

This is commendable, but it triggers another conflict for feminists. If we work for the elimination of such a wide range of oppression, will we thereby dilute efforts to improve the condition of women as a specific group? This was the dilemma faced by feminists during and after the Civil War. Having worked hard for the abolition of slavery, feminists were then betrayed when politicians decided to push for the voting rights of black men and postpone consideration of women's suffrage (Ward and Burns 1999 ). Neither Elizabeth Cady Stanton nor Susan B. Anthony lived to see the justice they had worked for so many years to achieve.

Most feminists today defend decisions to work against all forms of oppression. They do this in full knowledge that even today women earn only 75 percent of what equally qualified men earn for roughly the same work, and we still do most of the housework and childcare. Women are still discriminated against in religious institutions that would collapse without their support. Of all groups, perhaps, women are the most complicit in our own oppression. The reason for this docility is probably that there are rewards as well as penalties in women's subservience, and many white women in the Western world—certainly most of those writing about oppression—are reasonably well‐off economically. When others are suffering so much more obviously, it is hard to push one's own case, but this is a continuing dilemma for feminists.

Still another dilemma for feminists trying to overcome women's oppression is the question of how to fit into the world created by men. Much of feminist philosophy has its roots in liberal philosophy, and one of its main aims is to achieve equality for women. In education, there has been a steady and largely successful campaign to increase the participation of women at all levels of education but, again, the outcomes are not all rosy. Insisting on the inclusion of women in social studies texts, for example, has resulted in an “add women and stir” approach. The test for inclusion seems to be whether any woman, however obscure, has contributed anything to the activities dominated by men. This is very different from changing the curriculum to include tasks and interests traditionally associated with women. The male‐structured curriculum remains, and women are fitted into paragraphs here and there.

This observation reminds us of a deeper, more lasting conflict. The problem was posed in the 1930s by Virginia Woolf. On the one hand, Woolf wanted to increase opportunities for women in the public world. She prescribed a “room of one's own” for women writers, and confessed to killing that obsequious creature, the Angel in the House. But she worried about the sort of world women would perpetuate if they joined the procession of educated men:

Do we wish to join that procession, or don't we? On what terms shall we join the procession? Above all, where is it leading us, the procession of educated men?…What is this “civilization”? What are these ceremonies and why should we take part in them? What are these professions and why should we make money out of them? Where in short is it leading us, the procession of the sons of educated men? (1938/1966, pp. 62–63)

Her questions still trouble us.

2. Women's Agency

Although women have suffered (and still suffer) oppression, they have also exercised agency, and historians have led the way in bringing attention to women's agency (Beard 1946/1962 ; Kerber 1997 ). In philosophy, women's agency often appears in views that develop a distinctive way of approaching social problems. Taking Woolf's questions seriously, these views seek a transformation of the society in which women will be equal partners and citizens (Offen 1988 ).

The ethic of care (Held 1995 ; Noddings 1984/2003 ) is an example of feminist philosophy that recognizes the dignity and moral importance of women's traditional work and uses it to articulate an alternative approach to moral life and thought. Relation, response to needs, familial care, and social responsibility were all elements of eighteenth‐and nineteenth‐century women's movements. Wollstonecraft ( 1792/1975 ) argued for the rights of women (particularly with respect to education), partly on the grounds that women would be better wives and mothers if they had better education. Similarly, Ellen Key (see Offen 1988 ) argued for state support for all mothers, and the great suffragists of Britain and the United States often emphasized women's sensitivity to human need as a reason to accord voting rights to women. Besides the standard suffragist arguments for extending the vote (equality, representation), advocates argued strongly that the moral orientation of women would bring a more humane and sensitive approach to public life. Most of us today reject the idea that women are morally superior to men, just as we reject the centuries‐old claim that preceded it: that women are morally inferior because of some lack in reasoning power. But, that caveat aside, it is a fact that there is a measurable gap between men and women on social issues; women, in general, do vote more liberally on social issues than men. Still, neither the utopian improvement predicted by feminists nor the rational disaster predicted by misogynists has come to pass.

Formal articulation of an ethic of care began in the 1980s—in psychology (Gilligan 1982 ), philosophy (Noddings 1984 / 2003 ), nursing (Watson 1979 ), and sociology (Waerness 1984 ). Interestingly, none of these writers seemed aware of each other's work at the time of initial writing. An intellectual history of caring and care ethics cannot be undertaken here, but it is important to note that the work was interdisciplinary from the start. By the late 1980s, scholars writing on the ethic of care recognized and drew on one another's work.

My own work was strongly influenced by the relational philosophy of Martin Buber ( 1958 / 1970 , 1965 ), and it was some time after the publication of Caring ( 1984 / 2003 ) that I became aware of feminist connections. In contrast, Sara Ruddick ( 1989 ) acknowledges the influence of many feminists, among them Jean Baker Miller ( 1976 ), Nancy Chodorow ( 1978 ), Adrienne Rich ( 1976 ), Dorothy Dinnerstein ( 1976 ), Iris Murdoch ( 1970 ), and Simone Weil ( 1977 ).

The publication of Gilligan's In a Different Voice ( 1982 ) triggered a wide range of debate. Questions were asked about the gender differences suggested by the study, and a lively debate arose over the perceived conflict between justice and caring. Both Ruddick and I explicitly stated that men are capable of caring and of maternal thinking, and Gilligan was careful to point out that, although the care‐response was discovered in interviews with women, this did not imply that it is the exclusive property of women. Some of us now think that we were too quick to downplay gender differences and that much more should be done in this area.

Current thinking acknowledges the need for both justice and caring (Katz, Noddings, and Strike 1999 ; Tronto 1993 ), but interesting questions remain. Which is primary? Must they be applied in different domains? Are they reasonably applied in phases? I have argued that caring provides the foundation for a sense of justice (Noddings 2002b ), and Okin's critique of Rawls implies a similar claim (Okin 1989 ). We can ask also whether decisions made using principles of justice leave important human concerns unfinished. For example, if the firing of a teacher is justified on principle, is there no further moral obligation to that teacher? I have argued that, in many such cases, caring picks up where justice leaves off.

A division of application by domain—public or private sphere—is not convincing. Feminist philosophers have shown both that caring is useful in the public domain and that justice is applicable in the private domain (Held 1993 ; Tronto 1993 ). The key point for application of caring‐for is direct contact between the carer and the cared‐for. This requirement limits both opportunity and obligation. If we are not in a position to receive the response of the cared‐for, there can be no caring relation. However, we can care‐about others when there is no direct contact, and this caring‐about may be guided by principles of justice. But it must be guided also by the intention to establish or maintain conditions under which caring‐for can take place.

For the past few years, a lively discussion has been conducted over the connection between care ethics and virtue ethics (Noddings 2000 , 2006b ; Sander‐Staudt 2006 ; Slote 2000 ). The two are similar in several respects. Both put little emphasis on rules and principles as guides to moral action. Virtue ethics looks to the character of moral agents; care ethics depends on an ethical ideal of caring that is constructed over years of acting as one‐caring. But a difference emerges even here. Care ethics puts emphasis on natural caring that requires no moral effort on the part of carers. In natural caring, we respond as carers because we are genuinely moved by the needs of the cared‐for and want to respond to them. Effort—sometimes great effort—may be required in meeting the needs, but no moral effort is required as motivation.

When the motivation of natural caring fails, ethical caring must be summoned, and how effectively this can be done depends on the strength of the ideal of caring present in the carer. On this, care ethics and virtue ethics agree; only the terminology differs. However, another difference appears. An agent acting on ethical caring may act as though she would act in natural caring, but she has an additional task and that is to exercise whatever virtues are needed to restore conditions that will support natural caring. Virtually all of us prefer to be cared‐for, or treated well, out of love or concern. We are made uneasy by generous acts done out of duty or righteousness. Ethical caring is admirable, even necessary, but it poses a risk to caring relations. The carer's attention is too concentrated on herself.

Both care ethics and virtue ethics recognize caring as a virtue, but care ethics anchors the virtue in the caring relation. Someone who regularly establishes caring relations may be said to exhibit the virtue of caring. He or she may rightly be said to be a caring person. In a caring relation, both carer and cared‐for contribute. The cared‐for must recognize the efforts of the carer as caring in order to complete the relation. No matter how great the carer's efforts, if the cared‐for does not recognize those efforts, there is no caring relation. This does not mean that the would‐be carer deserves no moral credit for her efforts. It means that something has gone wrong; it may be the fault of the carer, of the cared‐for, or of the situation in which they find themselves. In teaching, the situation is often at fault. Teachers try to care, and students claim that they want care, but there are no caring relations (Noddings 2006b ). I'll return to this problem in the last section, when we look at the contributions of philosophy of education to feminist philosophy.

Care ethics and virtue ethics also agree that it is impossible for any moral agent to care for everyone. An early criticism of my version of caring claimed that it was provincial, too tightly tied to the inner or family circle. This arose mainly through a misunderstanding. I said—and still insist—that we cannot care‐for everyone; caring‐for requires direct contact, some means of receiving a response of recognition from the cared‐for. But this does not mean that we cannot care‐about strangers and people at a distance, and I believe that we often have an obligation to care‐about others. Slote ( 1998 ) approaches this difficult problem by prescribing “balanced caring”—caring‐for (and caring‐about) those close to us and also for distant others whose needs have come to our attention. Care ethics speaks of caring‐for in direct encounters and caring‐about in cases where no direct encounter is possible. But once again, care ethicists are guided by the perceived need to work toward conditions under which caring‐for can flourish. It is not enough, for example, to pay for food that may or may not reach the hungry. We must somehow evaluate the effects of our efforts, and even getting food to the hungry is not enough; we have to ask what might be done to establish conditions under which fewer such emergencies will occur. Probably, virtue and care ethicists are largely in agreement on this.

Some critics argue that care theory needs to say more about the obligation to care (Engster 2005 ). This is true, but it must be done with caution. Slote ( 1998 ) handles this problem carefully in his discussion of balanced caring. Attempts to define the distribution of our caring duties more closely may actually warp the underlying conception of care. Caring as a moral orientation, described phenomenologically, contains an embedded concept of obligation—to respond to those who address us. It is—like every thoughtful conception of obligation—loaded with conflicts, and these should be discussed, but there can be no formula (within care theory) to eliminate them.

Recently, some writers have argued that caring should be redefined as a practice. As such, it can be said to have particular aims (Engster 2005 ). This strikes some of us as dangerous, because what is actually done by carers differs not only across cultures but, more basically, across situations and individuals (Okin 2003 ). In the attempt to redefine caring as a practice instead of a moral orientation, the deepest contributions of care theory may inadvertently be lost. Caring may be reduced to caregiving or caretaking.

This move—to describe caring as a practice—may indeed aggravate fears expressed earlier by feminist critics who worried that an emphasis on caring valorizes a genderized virtue and may thus lead to the continued exploitation of women. This objection to care ethics was raised early on at an APA symposium on Caring. Thoughtful comments along these lines were made by Claudia Card, Barbara Houston, and Sarah Hoagland (see the account in Hypatia 5, no.1 [Spring 1990 ]). It seemed to be answered by clarifying caring as a moral orientation, not simply a series of caregiving acts. But another answer is to teach boys as well as girls to engage in the practices associated with caring so that the orientation may develop in both. Feminist philosophers rightly want to avoid an Aristotelian position on virtue—one that separates male and female virtues, elevating the male over the female. This concern illustrates again a persistent difference between liberal feminism and the more radical feminism of care theory. With Virginia Woolf, we are ambivalent about joining the procession of educated men without changing the destination of the procession.

Part of the debate between virtue ethics and care ethics appears in discussions of Confucianism. Again, there are striking similarities. Both put great emphasis on relationships (Herr 2003 ; Star 2002 ). But the requirements of caring in Confucianism are governed more by formal relationships than by the encounter, address, and response of care ethics. Daniel Star notes “that Confucian ethics is better thought of as a virtue ethics than a care ethics” ( 2002 , p. 98). He argues strongly for the distinctiveness of care ethics. In contrast, Chenyang Li ( 1994 ) supports some virtue ethicists in analyzing care ethics as a type of virtue ethics. Henry Rosemont ( 1997 ), too, declares that Confucian ethics is compatible with feminist ethics, primarily because of their common interest in social relationships. Probably most care theorists agree with Star that the difference in approaches to relationships makes the two ethics distinct.

One important similarity between Confucian and care ethics is their emphasis on the motivational importance of emotion or feeling. The work of Mencius underscores the basic role of commiseration in moral life. His famous example of the response of observers to the plight of a child about to fall into a well is meant to illustrate how “good” human beings react directly to perceived need. They do not consult principles, nor do they refer to formal relationships; they leap to save the child.

3. Critiques and Applications in Philosophy of Education

Philosophy of education should be an ideal domain for the analysis and application of feminist philosophy. As Dewey pointed out years ago, there is a sense in which philosophy is philosophy of education, and he also suggested that our schools should be mini‐societies that reflect our best conception of what our larger society should be. For an introduction to feminist philosophy of education, readers might consult the volume edited by Lynda Stone ( 1994 ). This collection of classic pieces includes work on self and identity, education and schooling, knowledge and curriculum, teaching and pedagogy, and diversity and multiculturalism.

Woolf's concern about joining the procession of educated men is especially pertinent in education itself. It seems clear that educators and policymakers have addressed the concern with an enthusiastic endorsement of women's inclusion in the affairs of men. Most of our colleges and universities are now co‐educational, and in high school girls now outnumber boys in advanced mathematics classes. These seem to be positive steps, and liberal feminists see much to celebrate. Radical feminists and care theorists, however, express some reservations.

Liberal feminists are concerned, of course, by the continuing wage gap between women and men, and they deplore the paucity of women at the highest levels of business and government. They are also troubled by the sexism and violence suffered by women in the military. Their basic mission is to achieve equality in the man‐made world.

Feminist philosophers of education have raised questions about the single‐minded drive for equality. When the curriculum is constructed entirely around the knowledge arising from male experience, women are excluded even if they are allowed to participate (Martin 1982 ). The traditional activities and concerns of women do not appear in the curriculum. Where, for example, do we find parenting, making a home, love, marriage, and caregiving? Educators have long regarded such topics as nonintellectual—things to be learned with ease at home—but feminist philosophers of education have pointed out that these topics can be as intellectually challenging as any others and have the added merit of addressing the problems of real life (Noddings 1984 / 2003 , 2003 , 2006a ). We are not even close to achieving a gender‐inclusive curriculum.

How should gender be treated in educational theory and practice? (On this question, see the probing analyses in Diller, Houston, Morgan, and Ayim, 1996 .) A gender‐blind approach would, by default to the status quo, be an approach constructed by and for males—technically open to both males and females without discrimination. Thinking of this sort led to questions about why women lagged behind men in mathematics and science. The accepted answer was discrimination , and the remedy was to encourage—even push—young women to take more math and science courses in high school and college. Policymakers and educators, eager to escape the charge of discrimination, did not think to ask what young women are interested in, what they want to do. At the secondary‐school level, the goal has been accomplished; more girls than boys are taking advanced math classes. However, girls still score significantly lower on the math SAT, and they now score somewhat lower on the verbal SAT as well.

A worry arises that girls are being pushed into subjects that may not hold great interest for them and discouraged from following occupational lines at which they might excel. This is not a simple matter. Thoughtful people welcome expanding opportunities for girls, but “opportunity” sometimes becomes “coercion.” It is one thing to encourage girls who are interested and talented in mathematics; it is quite another to suggest that intelligent girls are “too good” for literature, early childhood education, or social work.

A fundamental problem, as Morwenna Griffiths ( 2006 ) has pointed out, is a hegemonic masculinity. That hegemony continues to dominate educational thought and practice, as it dominates all of public life. Consider, for example, the everyday matter of dress. It is entirely acceptable today for a woman to wear pants suits in professional settings. It is close to unthinkable for a man to appear at the office in skirt, blouse, pearls, and high heels. It is more acceptable for a woman to act like a man than for a man to act like a woman. The goal should not be to reverse this hegemony, nor should it be to forge a gender‐neutral society. The philosophical problem is to analyze attributes of both traditions, identify what is humanly excellent in each, and suggest ways in which we can learn from one another. Some work along these lines has been discussed by Rhoads and Calderone ( 2007 ) with respect to gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgendered students, but not with respect to women as a dominated group.

Seeking a healthy convergence, we might return to concerns about the career opportunities proffered to high school students. Policymakers worried that girls were “lagging behind” boys in mathematics, but they expressed no concern that boys rarely choose careers in the so‐called caring professions. Nor is there great concern that salaries in those professions continue to lag behind those in the traditionally male professions. The issues here are complicated, but the initial impetus for feminist studies in academe—solidarity with our sisters—seems to have been lost or, at least, weakened. Now it is to the advantage of successful women to have poorly paid women clean their houses and care for their children.

A problem that can be identified in much of the preceding discussion is the conundrum of difference. Physical differences exist. But gender , in contrast to sex, is a social construct, and difference in the context of gender has always been defined as difference from the masculine norm. Difference, as Catherine MacKinnon ( 1987 ) has so forcefully argued, is a sign of and a product of dominance. However, there are gender differences that are products of centuries of cultural evolution, and some of these—extended maternal love, for example—are rooted in biology. Thus, it might be wiser to work toward the elimination of unfounded hierarchy in discussions of difference than to ignore difference entirely. When a difference is identified, it is beneficial to ask whether each element has its place or whether one is likely to contribute more to human well‐being. MacKinnon is right that, historically, gender differences have been decided a priori in favor of males. Not nearly enough work is being done by philosophers of education on the conceptual problems associated with gender differences.

Feminist philosophy of education has had some influence through care ethics on moral education. It might be expected that because of the similarities between care ethics and virtue ethics, moral education from the care perspective would have much in common with character education (Noddings and Slote 2003 ). The potential is there (see Slote, this volume). What stands in the way is character education's longstanding practice of trying to teach the virtues directly. First, since the time of Socrates, doubts have been raised about the possibility of doing this. But, second, care theory probes beneath the surface of the named virtues to find what supports them. For example, I have asked the question: Are the virtues always virtuous? (Noddings 2002a ). Slote ( 1992 ) is also interested in what lies behind the various virtues, but his purpose is primarily to develop a stronger foundation for virtue ethics. We agree (I think) that the underlying test for a virtuous act is its intention, coupled with its effect in bringing harm or good to other people.

One model of moral education based on care ethics involves modeling, dialogue, practice, and confirmation (Noddings 1984 / 2003 , 2002a ). The first element, modeling, is common in most schemes of moral education. Teachers must show , in their own conduct, the ways in which they want students to behave. Dialogue has several purposes. It is through dialogue that teachers come to know their students, and it is in dialogue that teachers raise questions, suggest possibilities, and guide students toward moral thinking. Practice gives students opportunities to employ the moral knowledge and skills discussed. Dialogue and practice working together may be considered acts of induction as Martin Hoffman ( 2000 ) has described it. The purpose is to develop a capacity for empathy (see Slote, this volume) or, as expressed by care theorists, for engrossment or receptive attention. Finally, the care model posits confirmation , a teacher's continuing efforts to help students realize their own best selves.

The first three elements have been widely accepted in moral education (Charney 1992 ; Stengel and Tom 2006 ; Watson 2003 ), but confirmation is rarely mentioned. I have described confirmation as “one of the loveliest ideas in moral life” (Noddings 2006a , p. 113). To recognize in another a better self struggling to realize itself is indeed a lovely act. But confirmation cannot be done by formula; it is not a strategy. To confirm another, we need to know that other reasonably well. It requires the establishment of caring relations. Philosophers of education are now giving considerable attention to the importance of relations in teaching (Bingham and Sidorkin 2004 ; Johnston 2006 ; Sidorkin 2002 ; Thayer‐Bacon 2000 ).

Summing up what we have reviewed in feminist philosophy and philosophy of education—and with the understanding that reasonable people may differ on what they see in looking at the field—it seems that feminists are concentrating now on upgrading “first generation” ideas on liberal feminism and equality. Radical feminism and agency are still discussed, but much attention seems to be directed at equality in professional life, multicultural problems, and problems of sexual minorities. This is much needed work, but the trend is reminiscent of what happened to mid‐nineteenth‐century feminists: a morally driven delay in the development of feminist ideas that might transform the whole social/political domain.

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159 Reading: Feminist Theory on Education

Feminist theory.

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. Like many other institutions of society, educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. Almost two-thirds of the world’s 862 million illiterate people are women, and the illiteracy rate among women is expected to increase in many regions, especially in several African and Asian countries (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2007).

Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn’t until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education (and its resultant benefits) across the world.

Introductory Sociology Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Review article
• Open access
• Published: 22 November 2021

Feminist trends in distance and hybrid higher education: a scoping review

• Rocío Jiménez-Cortés   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1622-5805 1 &
• Luisa Aires 2  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  18 , Article number:  60 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Higher distance education models can be described from the theoretical and practical foundation of feminist pedagogy. The objective of this work is to know what feminist approaches are identified in the pedagogical models adopted by distance and hybrid education at the University and what curricular characteristics they have. The scoping review is carried out on a total of 126 journals bringing together 60 indexed, 30 specialized in gender and 6 in education. The final sample is made up of 10 papers that meet the established inclusion criteria. The review method is based on three phases of collection, description, and analysis with different tasks and the PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) protocol is followed. The results obtained from mixed methodology applied show three perspectives that set trends in distance and hybrid higher education models from feminist approaches: (a) feminist-pragmatist, (b) eco-dialogical feminist and (c) intersectional-technofeminist. These trends show the application of feminist principles to curriculum design and their implementation in distance and hybrid higher education.

Introduction

There is little scientific literature that addresses distance education in intersection with feminist pedagogy (Koseoglu, 2020 ). The scientific literature (Koseoglu et al., 2020 ; Migueliz et al., 2020 ) points to the need to develop more studies from a critical perspective that help to overcome this gap in knowledge, helping to deepen the theoretical and practical interactions between feminist perspectives and distance education models. These interactions between both fields of knowledge have been classified as “conflictive relationships” (Aneja, 2017 , p. 851). According to Herman and Kirkup ( 2017 ) we would contend that feminist pedagogy as generally understood has a particular historical location and new theoretical approaches need to be developed to take account of modern technology-mediated learning environments as well as new practices of learning design.

The scientific literature has pointed out limitations in the incorporation of traditional feminist pedagogy into distance education, but it also points out that it can open new opportunities for equality (Patterson, 2009 ). Murray et al. ( 2013 ) suggest that feminist pedagogy can mitigate inequalities related to conventional gender structures by constituting the basis for the design of learning and approaching distance training from a constructivist perspective centered on the learner.

For Lambert ( 2019 ) one of the main issues of concern for higher education institutions is to expand and guarantee the equitable participation of students in online distance education, but research has yet to develop conceptual models that guide the development of the plan of studies. According to Lambert ( 2019 ), studies often develop recommendations synthesized from interviews with staff and students and offer information on what higher education institutions can do to be more supportive and equitable in online participation. However, while the recommendations can help universities plan and structure their services in a better way, they are not finely grained enough to guide the design of curriculum (Lambert, 2019 , p. 162). An example is the study of Nyaruwata ( 2018 ). In this study feminist theory was chosen to help the researcher understand how dual mode enhances equal access to higher education. Specifically, feminist theory helped to understand how the provision of conventional and online distance learning modes of learning increased access to higher education.

In this sense, feminist pedagogy can be an opportunity. Chick and Hassel ( 2019 , p. 198) explain that if we do not make an effort to show what feminist pedagogy consists of and the benefits it brings, “it will remain a concept understood only by feminist educators, misunderstood by our colleagues, and invisible to our students. Furthermore, failing to outline the many ways feminist pedagogy is applicable to online environments will ensure that myths and misconceptions about online teaching flourish and that only the worst versions of online pedagogy persist”.

Online, hybrid and HyFlex models in higher education

Distance education (DE) and hybrid education has evolved alongside social, educational, and technological changes. In the last decades and, above all, in digital acceleration times that we live in, distance education models had acquired multiple facets and had become more complex.

In distance and hybrid education, pedagogy and technology play a critical role. And the “distance”, more than geographical, is psychological, social, and cultural-historical (Herman & Kirkup, 2017 ). The overcoming of distance, through mediated technological practices founded in pedagogical principles, led to the development of a wide range of educational possibilities.

In line with Bates ( 2020 ), it is crucial differentiating criteria that distinguish online distance education from blended education and, within the scope of blended education, differentiating hybrid and HyFlex education. If online distance education models, a form of distance learning, privilege time and space flexibility, assure learning autonomy via the Internet, blended learning models can range from the digitization of in-person learning contexts to the design of new courses that promote flexible learning, recombining in-person and online modes of learning.

Within the blended models, we highlight the hybrid and HyFlex models. The HyFlex models provide students the opportunity to combine different learning models, according to their personal agenda (Bates, 2020 ). For He et al. ( 2015 ) the most important challenges to HyFlex design and implementation is ensuring that online students can be (and are encouraged to be) engaged in interactive learning experiences that lead to the achievement of important learning outcomes. For Beatty ( 2019 ) HyFlex courses are characterised by a mixture of online and face-to-face learning components. In particular, students are allowed to choose to complete any part of the course in online and/or face-to-face mode.

For Herman et al. ( 2019 ) in examining flexibility, they found very little evidence of programmes that were able to support student choice in flexibility of the blend, something that has been hailed as a potential benefit for blended learning. There is also evidence that the use of blended learning can be used to support programmes of learning targeted at women.

From critical digital pedagogy to feminist digital pedagogy

Critical digital pedagogy is an emerging concept in education (Bontly et al., 2017 ). For these authors critical digital pedagogy is the intersection of critical cultural pedagogy, culturally responsive pedagogy, and digital pedagogy. According to Rodríguez and Denoyelles ( 2014 ) the objectives of critical digital pedagogy are: (a) to make the environments more dialogical, inclusive, and student-centered, (b) to make online learning experiences more adapted to the student, c) to make the students can express in a richer way what they have learned autonomously. These goals are common to feminist pedagogy.

However, other objectives and characteristics identify feminist digital pedagogy. For Aneja ( 2017 , p. 852), the main objective of feminist pedagogy that shows more resistance on the digital plane is “to establish personal contact, and its lack of space for validation of individual, subjective experiences which may emerge in synchronous, participatory classroom discussions”. For Cox et al ( 2021 ), radical compassion for their students is practiced from feminist pedagogy, doing everything possible to alleviate the burdens of their students, promote their safety and well-being.

There are authors who insist such as Chick and Hassel ( 2009 ) and Rodríguez and Denoyelles ( 2014 ) that the embodiment of feminist pedagogy within the digital realm is indispensable and that we must critically consider how the technology selected mediates the experiences of learners. A selection of pedagogical principles enables this challenge to be addressed. The key pedagogical principles that guide the structure of courses or training actions from critical digital pedagogy are: (a) breaking of the hierarchy (teachers and students jointly establish the study plan) (Hutchinson, 2021 ; Rodríguez & Denoyelles, 2014 ), (b) participatory learning (focused on interests and goals of the students) (Rodríguez & Denoyelles, 2014 ), the curriculum represents women’s interests, needs (Koseoglu, 2020 ), (c) social construction of knowledge, which implies developing a sense of community and working in networks and support teams (Rodríguez & Denoyelles, 2014 ), the curriculum provide social connectedness and opportunities for networking (Koseoglu, 2020 ), (d) centering emotion, (implies emotional attention not only cognitive of the students and the development of the pedagogy of care) (Hutchinson, 2021 ), (e) the curriculum is based on “established bodies of knowledge that reflect a female point of view” and ways of delivery (Koseoglu, 2020 ) and the curriculum is designed for the imaginary self-directed and independent learner (Koseoglu, 2020 ).

There are specific studies that suggest that there should not be a "one size fits all" model for blended learning and that further research is required so that distance education models can be adapted to the specific needs of groups of students (Herman et al., 2019 ).

Challenges for distance and hybrid higher education from a feminist digital pedagogy

Rethinking Transactional Distance Theory. For Moore ( 1997 , p. 22) the transactional distance (DTT), is "a psychological and communications space to be crossed, a space of potential misunderstanding". Bolliger and Halupa ( 2018 , p. 209) collect the criticism of Kang and Gyorke (2008, cit. in Bolliger & Halupa, 2018 ), about Moore's DTT that does not address the critical social characteristics of students. These authors introduce the idea derived from Leontiev and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of "sociocultural position" to revise the traditional Transactional Distance Theory that is controversial for feminist pedagogy. According to their considerations, technology serves as the artifact that mediates transactions between students, as well as with the teacher in online learning. In addition, culture and history are critical components that provide the foundation for the way students interact in online courses. Herman and Kirkup ( 2017 , p. 784) argue that:

The solution to the problems of transactional distance is not always to create the opportunity for more interaction between people if that interaction brings unequal power with it. The stress on the importance of group learning in some distance learning models can imply that students perhaps have a greater obligation for the learning of fellow students than they have for themselves and their own comfort, and it can ignore the gendered or other power dynamics, even within an online learning environment.

Various authors such as Aneja ( 2017 ) argue that feminist contributions have already reviewed transactional distance and that it is overcome by the fact that physical and virtual distance are intertwined and merged into a single interaction experience sustained.

Avoid reinforcement and polarization of existing gender roles

International literature has indicated that distance education can be a way of empowering women (Afolayan, 2015 ; Amin et al., 2020 ; Anbalagan, 2018 ). However, as Lazou and Bainbridge ( 2019 ) indicates, although there is a promising trend regarding the number of women enrolling in higher education online, there are four important variables identified and analyzed as challenges that are disempowering them, namely: (a) the conflict of roles; (b) investment of time; (c) domestic affairs and relationships; and (d) the design of the learning and tutoring structure. The work of Lazou and Bainbridge ( 2019 ) concludes that these barriers can be overcome to the extent that a feminist pedagogy is the basis for designing learning and for offering support and encouragement through a constructivist approach centered on the student.

Research still requires progress to identify what factors limit women from distance education (Murray et al., 2013 ). Distance university studies can be a claim for women due to its flexibility, and that is, its training offer can be interpreted as an opportunity for women. However, as indicated by Murray et al. ( 2013 ) distance education facilitates personal development and allows greater choice, but also perpetuates conventional gender structures by facilitating women to remain in the private sphere. And in this sense, it is necessary to review if a feminist pedagogy can be “an accomplice of the relegation of women” to the home (Murray et al., 2013 , p. 344) due to the offer of distance education. For Aneja ( 2017 ) offline inequities (such as gender, race, and class) may remain not neutralized in the virtual world, drawing attention to the need for permanent vigilance from the ethics of care and care pedagogies.

Hyflex models in higher education and challenges for feminist digital pedagogy

The global pandemic has forced many teachers to practice the HyFlex models. Among them, feminist educators have experimented with the development of feminist pedagogical principles in these teaching models (Moorhouse & Tiet, 2021 ). One of the main challenges is to incorporate flexibility into the design. In a systematic review of the blended learning literature, Boelens et al. ( 2017 ) suggest that this is a key challenge in designing blended learning. That is, how to incorporate flexibility. When examining flexibility, they found very little evidence of programs that were able to support students' choice in combination with flexibility, something that has been hailed as a potential benefit for blended learning. Flexibility has risks when choice leads to inequities. For Binnewies, and Wang ( 2019 ) it implies how to ensure that online students are not at a disadvantage with respect to opportunities for interaction and knowledge acquisition.

For these authors, despite the benefits of greater flexibility especially for adult learning, HyFlex comes with another unique challenge, in addition to those inherent in individual online and face-to-face instruction. First, students should have the same learning opportunities in any mode and should not be disadvantaged by choosing one mode over the other. Specifically, students must have equitable access to learning resources, tools to complete learning tasks, and learning support. We lack comparative studies from a gender perspective regarding the benefits for men and women of HyFlex models. However, the HyFlex models could represent a solution to the need for feminist pedagogy of face-to-face contact for the construction of knowledge in a dialogic way compared to an exclusively online modality. This aspect is the one that has been most resistant for digital feminist pedagogy (Aneja, 2017 ).

Materiality of the platforms from a culturally critical approach

Digital technologies and teaching and learning platforms used in higher education can limit the feminist response and reproduce dominant structures and discourses that reinscribe power relations along the axes of gender, race, sexuality, nationality, and class (De Hertogh, et al., 2019 ). For these authors, study centered in materiality of platforms can and will lead to nuanced conversations, major breakups, and productive interventions.

Shivers et al. ( 2019 ) emphasize the interconnectedness of technological practices and gender, race, class, and sexuality, as well as their co-constitution and conformation with each other. These authors constantly examine the intersections of identities related to race and culture, in their work to build technologies and platforms that reflect the communicative strengths and practices of linguistically and ethnically diverse communities.

Objective and research questions

Our research is specifically concerned with conducting a scoping review of scientific contributions that address this intersection between feminist pedagogy and distance education to delimit trends and theoretical-practical approaches that allow providing keys for the design of the curriculum in distance and hybrids educational models. The results will allow progress in the emerging critical digital pedagogy from a feminist approach. Therefore, the following research questions are posed:

What feminist perspectives are identified in the cases of distance and hybrid higher education?

What are the curricular characteristics of these distance and hybrid education models?

These questions are the object of interest in this work and to address them we undertake a scoping review of scientific literature that analyzes specific cases in the international context.

The objective of this work is to know what feminist approaches are identified in the pedagogical models adopted by distance and hybrid education at the University and what curricular characteristics they have.

The study presents a scoping review of case studies published in the last 5 years (2015–2020) that show online and hybrid teaching practices at their intersection with feminist pedagogy.

We indicate the number of sources of evidence examined evaluated for eligibility, and included in the review, with reasons for exclusions at each stage, using a flow diagram following the guide adapted from Trico et al. ( 2018 ) for scoping review (PRISMA-ScR) and based on recommendations of Peters et al., ( 2020a , 2020b , p. 2125) for scoping review. The flow chart is made in accordance with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses) guidelines (Moher et al., 2009 ). For Peters et al. ( 2020b ) the flowchart should clearly detail the review decision process, stating the search results, elimination of duplicate citations, source selection, full retrieval, and additions from a third search and presentation of final abstract.

Search strategy and selection procedure

According to Peters et al., ( 2020a , 2020b ) additional sources should be detailed, such as manual searching for specific journals, including journal names and years searched. Searching for a scoping review can be quite iterative as reviewers become more familiar with the evidence base. Taking these considerations into account three review phases are carried out: (a) a total of 60 journals indexed with the SCOPUS are reviewed in the fields of “gender studies” (18 journals) and “e-learning” (42 journals), thus as 6 feminist journals with peer review not indexed in SCOPUS but of special relevance to the topic (the focus and scope criteria are followed for their selection, discarding those that are generalist or that deal with fields such as philosophy or economics); (b) the database ERIC is reviewed, due to their exclusively educational nature.

According to Peters et al., ( 2020a , 2020b ) additional keywords and sources, and potentially useful search terms, can be discovered and incorporated into the search strategy. The combined search terms used "feminist" AND “pedagogy” AND "digital" and "higher education" and "case study".

The inclusion criteria imply that the contributions include illustrations and/or case studies, are specifically developed in Higher Education and analyze courses, programs or subjects raised from online or hybrid models. Empirical research works from a gender perspective and with results disaggregated by sex, which highlight differences between men and women in higher education practices, are discarded (see more exclusion criteria in Fig.  1 ). The selection is carried out following a method in three stages, leaving the sample made up of 10 papers.

Review PRISMA flow chart (modified after Moher et al., 2009 , p. 8) and based on recommendations for Peters et al., ( 2020a , 2020b , p. 2125) for scoping review

The search strategy has been carried out exhaustively following an adaptation of Appendix 11.1 JBI template source of evidence details, characteristics, and results extraction instrument (Peters et al., 2020b ) (Table 1 ).

Data extraction process and analytical procedure

The method used to guide this scoping review forms a structure of three sequential stages aimed at the collection, description and analysis of feminist trends and approaches in open and distance education, through a series of specific tasks that are described in Fig.  2 . The collection phase includes four tasks that complete the sampling of key cases from the scientific literature, the description phase involves three tasks through which the approach of each case is deepened thematically and finally the analysis allows apply a series of techniques to treat the information and cover the research objective.

Stages and specific tasks

Cases characteristics

Following the improved recommendations of Levac et al., ( 2010 , pp. 4–8) a numerical summary and a qualitative thematic analysis are incorporated.

The specific analytical procedures involve a qualitative exploratory analysis using the MAXQDA v.2021 software and a hierarchical cluster analysis, cross tables and analyzes based on the contingency coefficient with SPSS v.26. Qualitative and quantitative processes are combined in a sequential design.

The exploratory study with MAXQDA makes it possible to establish and determine the emerging category system by first applying a thematic analysis that combines inductive and deductive processes. To do this, the analysis that allows the word cloud to be extracted from all the documents is applied, it proceeds with segment autocoding and the debugging and elimination of superfluous words. Second, the MAXDICTIO tool is used for each document looking for combinations of words (classificatory expressions) resulting in the delimitation of key constructs. This process allows to develop the system until reaching the theoretical saturation. Emerging hypotheses related to emerging codes and their relationships are contrasted using visual tools such as the code relationship matrix. Based on this procedure, a definitive system of categories is established that is used as an observational grid for each document (Table 2 ).

The refined category system is applied as an observational grid to each case. In this way, the measurement of the constructs (feminist principles and sense of student’s participation) is made operational on a Likert-type scale with a notation system indicating 1. The trait is not observed, or it is observed in a minimal way, 2. It is observed of moderate form, 3. It is observed in a high and explicit way. A hierarchical cluster analysis is performed (after a collinearity study) following Ward's method, and the Euclidean distance (Vilà-Baños et al., 2014 ), as well as comparison of means for group description and cluster validation with one-way ANOVA and calculation of eta squared for effect size. Cluster graph is generated through factorial analysis (identifying 2 factors with varimax rotation). As the correlation matrix is not defined positive, this means that its determinant is 0, with which there is collinearity between the variables considered, which does not make it necessary to check the sphericity of the variables (by means of the Bartlett test), nor the calculation of the KMO coefficient.

Results and discussion

Question one: what feminist perspectives are identified in the cases of distance and hybrid higher education.

The application of cluster analysis generates three feminist approaches in distance higher education.

Feminist approaches in distance higher education, finding three well differentiated groups. While the cases in group 1 focus on empowerment (M = 2.75, F = 0.700, p = 0.528, η 2  = 0.167) and participation as an opportunity to Access (M = 1.75, F = 1.718, p = . 247, η 2  = 0.329); those in group 2 focus on two feminist principles such as voices (M = 3, F = 8167, p = 0.015, η 2  = 0.700) and dialogue and community (M = 3, F = 7.827, p = . 016, η 2  = 0.691), and the students' sense of participation as a means of transformation and empowerment (M = 2.75, F = 0.457, p = 0.651, η 2  = 0.115); in group 3 the body (M = 3, F = 6.300, P = 0.027, η 2  = 0.643), the lives (M = 3, F = 2.100, p = 0.193, η 2  = 0.375), intersectionality (M = 3, F = 38.033, p = 0.000, η 2  = 0.916) and participation as a form of expression of diverse and embodied experience (M = 3, F = 24.500, p = 0.001, η 2  = 0.875). The ANOVA test shows that the differences found are significant in the five variables involved and, in the others, an intermediate effect size is observed and high (according to Cohen´s criteria). Its practical significance is maintained given the sample size, the object of study of maximum specificity and the type of review study. Table 3 shows the sample results split into three clusters Table 3 . Results split into three clusters, exploratory ANOVA and effect size.

The interpretation of the most characteristic features of each approach allows us to name the clusters. Cluster 1, named as Feminist-pragmatist perspective , includes cases 1, 2, 6 and 9. The cluster 2 named as Eco-dialogical feminist perspective includes cases 3, 7, 8 and 10. And the cluster 3 named Intersectional-technofeminist perspective includes cases 4 and 5 (see Fig.  3 ). These theoretical perspectives are included in two tendencies that characterize the models of higher education at a distance.

Cluster dispersion and cases

Trend 1 (factor 1) aimed at offering an embodied online learning experience and trend 2 (factor 2) aimed at empowering women as an opportunity to access distance education (see Table 4 ). These two trends explain 67.34% of the variance.

Cluster 1: feminist-pragmatist perspective

This perspective highlights the usefulness of distance education for women due to its flexible nature and focuses on the empowerment opportunity provided by distance education models. The opportunity to access higher education at a distance becomes the main value and meaning of participation in these training models, especially in very specific countries and cultural contexts. Nyaruwata ( 2018 ) presents the successes and challenges faced in implementing the dual-mode strategy in higher education in the context of feminist theory. Her work focuses on a case study design at Women's University in Africa.

However, most dual-mode universities have not stressed the need to expand access to HE by women; as a result, in most of these universities, specifics the majority of the students are still men. Thus, development of most dual-mode institutions is not influenced by feminist theory, which advocates gender equality at all levels of life (Case 6, p. 197)

This perspective includes cases (1, 2, 6 and 9) (mainly hybrid models) oriented to a distance education model focused on the search for empowerment. In case 1, the bases of the didactic methodologies that contribute to creating an empowered learning space are observed, as well as the foundation of case 2.

The synonymous nature of feminist pedagogy with the networked learning ideologies that focuses on the connections, relationships and collaborations makes it ideal for creating an empowered learning space that was required for the workshop (Case 1, p. 246). Feminist principles in e-learning are needed to take account of power relations between learners and students, empower users (Case 2, p. 42).

In general, there is a clearly determined interest in international politics to democratize distance education and make it accessible to certain vulnerable groups. For example, this is expressed by Aneja ( 2017 ) when referring to the master's program in India, Women's & Gender Studies (MAWGS), the need for which is justified in the democratization mandate of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in general and by Specific institutional needs to obey policies for the empowerment of women and for breaking digital gaps.

Cluster 2: eco-dialogical feminist perspective

This perspective includes cases 3, 7, 8 and 10 (mainly online models) and is aimed both at empowerment and at generating in students a diverse and embodied experience linked to their experiences. The feminist principles that characterize distance higher education models are voices, dialogue, and the creation of community. This is how Mathews ( 2019 ) explains it:

The author empowered students by analyzing processes and experiences such as applying for jobs, professionalization, and workplace expectations, using as many authentic situations as possible to illustrate concepts (Case 3, p. 201).

From this perspective, distance higher education focuses on the experiences of students and tries to create an open learning community where mutual exchange and empathy are valued. Students must not only take responsibility for their own learning progress, but also support each other in jointly creating the content and context of learning. It is a model that is open to the community:

Specific examples of assignments, strategies, and communications that reinforced principles outlined above emphasized active learning, diversity, and respect. The first assignment of the course asked students to record a short video introducing themselves, with the instructor’s own video as an example. This promoted the ability to see one another and to establish community (Case 3, p. 201)

Contact with others constitutes a basic tool for the collective work of ideas and the generation of knowledge as a continuous and dynamic process. This perspective requires distance education models to confront voices and requires collaboration in carrying out work in university classrooms. This is how Chung ( 2016 ) explains it:

Each student voices an individual opinion, depending on whether she is a housewife with children, a wife in a two-income household, a childcare instructor, a daycare center director, a civil servant and so on. However, hearing each other’s opinions gives students practice in arriving at a consensus (Case 10, p. 380)

This dialogic feminist perspective seeks to raise awareness about social inequalities, including gender discrimination:

After hearing lectures on “motherhood ideology” and “patriarchal family ideology” it is not infrequent for students to present contradictory opinions, as seen in such comments such as “I gained a new appreciation for my mother’s sacrifices” an “Our society is based on the extended family, and we’ve always lived according to nature. (Case 10, p. 381)

The models that incorporate this perspective focus on the collaborative construction of knowledge and use specific resources in virtual spaces that are usually used to generate confrontational discourses and debates. Student participation is key to learning. Interaction and dialogue start from one's own experience and is reconstructed in contact with other voices through intertwined dialogues as ways of promoting collaborative knowledge and stimulating participation (Aneja, 2017 ).

Community engagement is observed in the collaboration of professionals, experts, or entities from the environment in virtual spaces. In such a way that they act as training resources and as elements for dialogue, support, and interaction in the process of active construction of learning. The distance higher education proposals that use social networks and asynchronous forums offer opportunities to students due to their flexibility and possibilities for interaction and collaborative dynamics (Murray et al., 2013 ). In this sense, from this perspective the theory of transactional distance is reconceptualized where culture and history are critical components that provide the foundation for the way students interact in online courses. Specifically, from this perspective, online models of distance education would be concerned with being sensitive to the "sociocultural position" (Bolliger & Halupa, 2018 ).

Cluster 3: intersectional technofeminist perspective

The cases that are grouped in this perspective are 4 and 5 (an online model and another hybrid). Both are characterized by conceiving distance education aimed at living an embodied experience based on personal experiences, authentic situations, and particular positions.

Feminist pedagogy from this perspective highlights three principles: body, lives, and intersectionality.

Hertogh et al. ( 2019 ) discuss the application of a feminist lens and a feminist ethic to the study of technologies and objects. For these authors, this also means questioning the gender implications embedded within the materiality of those objects, and therefore the materiality of such proposed studies and theoretical frameworks. This perspective is related to techno-feminism as a theoretical framework that academics can use to critique the socio-technological problems that contribute to oppression and inequality and initiate creative and activist possibilities for the breakdown of these oppressive structures. This translates into distance higher education proposals based on the pedagogy of care. Thus, in case 4, Hutchinson and Novotny ( 2018 , p. 113) argue that “a feminist surveillance as care pedagogy teaches professional writing students a user-centered design practice that supports consent and user agency, and resists ubiquitous, non-consensual surveillance of user’s bodies.”

This framework offers an explicitly feminist approach to addressing the current collection of bodily data in wearable health technologies. (…) The critique portion of the framework actively interrogates the rhetorical interplay between what a mobile health app hosted on a wearable technology promises and what it does when it collects information off the body. (Case 4, p. 113)

Shivers et al. ( 2019 ) argue that Wajcman ( 2004 ) offered techno-feminism as an approach to understand the ways in which technology generates and is a consequence of gender relations. This implies that applying a feminist perspective changes our understanding of what technology is, which means expanding the concept to include not only artifacts but also the cultures and practices associated with technologies. From this perspective the affective, the material and the semiotic are intertwined, the feminist materialist critique assumes (Staunæs & Brogger, 2020 ). These aspects are observed in distance higher education practices where participation as a form of expression of diverse and embodied experience: To later advocate for more critical approaches to wearables, students must first feel how their bodies are involved in digital spaces. (Case 4, p. 118).

For Clinnin and Manthey ( 2019 ), techno-feminists examine how incarnated and culturally situated rhetorical subjects produce, circulate, and give meaning to discursive texts, with special emphasis on intersectional identity. The fact that the theoretical frameworks underlying distance education account for diverse identities will provide a new way of rethinking differences and proposing critical interventions in distance higher education. This techno-feminist approach with intersectional analytics has become a flourishing subfield of posthumanism (De Hertogh et al., 2019 ) and that we see reflected in the proposals for distance higher education. As Shivers et al. ( 2019 ) by placing intersectional feminism at the core of the framework of experiences, an awareness is generated about the interactions that community members experience between the use of language, cultural practices, positions of power and the use of technology.

Question 2: what are the curricular characteristics of these distance and hybrid education models?

The curricular characteristics of the analyzed cases are defined based on three categories identified in the qualitative analysis: (a) the role of feminist educators, (b) the sense of content and materials, and (c) the methodological strategies.

The role of feminist educators

In relation to the role of feminist educators, feminist pedagogy (also the feminist pedagogy online) lacks rigid roles of power or hierarchy between the instructor and the students. Educators adopt the role of facilitators of experiences, reflections, and ways of thinking as the main resources for learning. The hierarchy break is observed more highly in online models (50%) compared to hybrid models (25%). However, the differences are not significant (C.C. = 0.298, p = 0.615).

The feminist educators have a speech characterized by creating a sense of community. For Vivakaran and Maraimalai ( 2019 ) the Distributed Open Collaborative Courses (DOCC) can be considered as a recent initiative to bring the ideologies of feminist pedagogy in the virtual sphere. The synonymous nature of feminist pedagogy with networked learning ideologies that focuses on connections, relationships, and collaborations makes it ideal for creating an empowered learning space that especially characterizes online models (83.3%) compared to hybrid models (25%). However, these differences are not significant (C.C. = 0.522, p = 0.153). For Cox et al. ( 2021 ) the feminist digital pedagogies foster accessible and inclusive online environments, create interpersonal connections, and embrace the innovative possibilities that technology affords. For these authors, the educators practice radical care and compassion for their students, doing everything they can to ease their students’ burdens, promote their safety and well-being, and help them survive the semester.

Also, the provision of routes for participants to receive other specialized help is a more characteristic feature of online models (50%) compared to hybrid models (25%). However, these differences are not significant (C.C. = 0.277, p = 0.659). In these models, teachers look for people with experiences that allow them to offer students a diverse perspective on the content. In addition, they fulfill the function of acting as references for training. This is how case 9 shows it:

‘Visiting experts’ from industry were invited to question and answer sessions in an asynchronous online forum. This all demonstrates that role models can be successfully presented at a distance through texts, audio, and video and that engaging synchronously and face-to-face with them is not a necessary requirement. (Case 9, p. 789).

It is characteristic that feminist educators incorporate social networks such as LinkedIn to provide a sense of community and specialized advice to students:

It could indicate a shortcoming of the platform used for communication (LinkedIn), and points to the need for an alternative mechanism for participants to share the expertise, opinions and perspectives they develop during the project and beyond (Case 2, p. 56)

The development of skills in the creation of networks, security, and trust, can be observed both in online models (50%) and in hybrid models (50%). About security, studies such as the one by Kyoto and Mwangi ( 2009 ) question the possibility of creating a secure online space. These authors wonder about the forms of creation and who has the power and authority to create it. On the contrary, the flexible adaptation of the learning environment to meet needs is observed more in the hybrid models analyzed (50%) compared to the online models (16.7%). However, these differences are not significant (C.C. = 0.378, p = 0.435).

The sense of content and materials

Feminist praxis reinforces the idea of social engagement. The training contents are based on personal experience but seek to explore larger structural problems. This process that leads to contextualize life experiences in the context of major structural problems is controversial for students. Although in specific models in feminist content this aspect is more present. As seen in case 7:

Many of the MAWGS courses provoke critical engagements with received knowledge systems, ‘eye-openers’ in the words of one learner (…) At the level of content, normative institutions, such as marriage, family, and motherhood, are interrogated from a cross-cultural, feminist perspective (Case 7, p. 861)

In case 5 analyzed, it is observed that Ringrose ( 2018 ) uses digital platforms like Twitter to investigate power, privilege, and positionality. For Couture and Ladenson ( 2017 ), the concepts involved in gender studies, and more specifically those of intersectionality and the understanding of structural problems related to privilege and oppression, are especially controversial for first-year students.

Different approaches are appreciated in the cases and models analyzed.

Distance education models use content and materials that have the power of personal transformation. Content and reference materials with the power of transformation promote reflection on different facets of life. In this sense, the case 9 shows the characteristics of these materials with very different formats:

The ‘Return to SET’ course materials included stories of nine women returners, and illustrated their experiences using audio clips and photos, covering practical as well as psychological/emotional issues that they had encountered. (Case 9, p. 789).

This transformative characteristic of content and materials is highly observed in 80% of the cases analyzed that correspond to online models compared to 20% of the cases that correspond to hybrid models. However, the differences are not significant (C.C. 0.378, p = 0.197).

In these distance education models sensitive to feminist pedagogy; the contents and materials are co-produced. Collective collaboration in its elaboration is a characteristic of feminist pedagogy in distance higher education. In this sense, we observe in case 5 that refers to an online model how students collaboratively create digital content:

Maria's course modeled care when students acted as caregivers for the larger community, teaching their peers about surveillance as care through a series of co-created products, including digital health safety workshops and web content. (Case 5, p. 118)

However, in the cases analyzed, the co-creation of content in the hybrid education models (66.7%) is observed to a high degree compared to the online education models (33.3%). However, these differences are not significant (C.C. 0.336, p = 0.260).

The methodological strategies

In the different cases analyzed, the use of diverse methodological strategies such as asynchronous forums, synchronous forums, social media, brainstorming, collaborative idealizations, selfies, and problem solving is identified. The methodological strategies are aimed at developing self-regulation skills in students to help them take control of their learning process, promoting self-directed learning and supporting reflection and metacognition. Only from reflection on lives does consciousness develop. This aspect is key for the methodological strategies in the different models of distance higher education as indicated by Chung ( 2016 ) (Case 10):

Open the door to the possibility of other lives and lead to awakening for change. As seen in the following examples, selected from comments posted on the student bulletin board, the course often leads students to reflect on their lives, make new commitments, and gain new understanding about themselves (Case 10, p. 380)

The cases analyzed show a methodological engagement to the epistemologies of doing, as observed in case 8:

Whatever the technology, if we focus these explorations through an engagement with epistemologies of doing, class, access, literacy, and multiple cultures of entry, the next moments in learning through digital technologies. (Case 8, p. 137).

The development of novel methodological strategies such as the use of selfies for the creation of meanings and the use of the body and personal representation as an emerging form of social exchange in distance higher education (Gajjala et al., 2017 ).

Limitations

Among the limitations that we can highlight, it is possible that not all the relevant studies have been identified, since the scoping reviews do not pretend to be as exhaustive or complete. It may be that the review may have missed some relevant studies. This limitation can be attributed to database selection (i.e. searching other databases may have identified additional relevant studies), exclusion of gray literature from the search, time limitations, or exclusion of studies published in a language other than English.

Publication bias can especially occur. Publication bias occurs when results of published studies are systematically different from results of unpublished studies.

Conclusions

This scoping review shows feminist trends in distance education and suggests progress in reconciling both areas. Feminist pedagogy makes its way into higher education through online and hybrid models and can create a space for reflection and research around the possibilities of HyFlex models.

The influence of feminist pedagogy as a critical digital pedagogy in distance and hybrid education models is shown in the identification of three perspectives: (a) a Feminist-pragmatist perspective that seeks the empowerment of women and considers access as an opportunity in relation to democratizing guidelines distance higher education. This perspective is akin to hybrid models; (b) an Eco-dialogical feminist perspective , which points to the need for critical construction of knowledge through dialogue in virtual environments and which addresses the challenge of revising the traditional theory of transactional distance. Contact with others constitutes a fundamental tool for the collective work of ideas and the generation of knowledge as a continuous and dynamic process. The adoption of this perspective in distance education implies the revision of the transactional distance theory from the introduction of the concept of “sociocultural position”. And (c) an Intersectional technofeminist perspective concerned with the techno-pedagogical design of technological platforms and applications, the possibilities of digital technologies from a critical analysis of the materiality of the objects involved in distance education and sexed bodies in virtual environments learning from the intersectional character (gender, race, class …) of the learner. From this perspective, distance education models address the challenge of the materiality of the platforms that limit uses, and place conditions apply a culturally critical approach to how such data implies bodies and their cultural histories.

This scoping review makes it possible to characterize the feminist pedagogy in distance and hybrid higher education. In this sense, it shows the adaptation of the roles of feminist educators in online and hybrid models and the efforts to implement the curriculum from feminist principles, taking experience as the main content and working from the traditional breakdown of hierarchies of power in the classrooms.

The bases of collaborative learning for the co-construction of knowledge with others, the creation of a sense of community and the reference to experts in the classroom opens new channels in distance and hybrid higher education from the personal lives to the social and political world from different feminist approaches.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the LE@D—Laboratory of Distance Education and E-Learning, (University Aberta, Portugal) and the University of Seville (Spain) for the opportunity to work together.

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Department of Research Methods and Diagnosis in Education, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Seville, Seville, Spain

Rocío Jiménez-Cortés

Department of Education and Distance Learning (DEED), Universidade Aberta, Lisboa, Portugal

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RJ conceived of the presented idea. RJ y LA developed the theory and RJ performed the computations. RJ verified the analytical methods. LA supervised the findings of this work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Jiménez-Cortés, R., Aires, L. Feminist trends in distance and hybrid higher education: a scoping review. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 18 , 60 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-021-00297-4

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Feminist theory and the study of gender and education

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This paper considers the three main Western feminist theoretical frameworks — liberal, socialist and radical — and their educational applications. Examples of studies using each approach are discussed. Liberal feminists writing about education use concepts of equal opportunities, socialization, sex roles and discrimination. Their strategies involve altering socialization practices, changing attitudes and making use of relevant legislation. Critics of the liberal school point to conceptual limitations and the liberal reluctance to confront power and patriarchy. Socialist feminists analyze the role of the school in the perpetuation of gender divisions under capitalism. Major concepts are socio-cultural reproduction and to a lesser extent acceptance of and resistance to gender-based patterns of behaviour. So far socialist-feminist educational writing is mainly theoretical rather than practical and has therefore been criticized for its over-determinism and insufficient empiric foundation. Radical feminists in education have concentrated mainly on the male monopolization of knowledge and culture and on sexual politics in schools. Strategies involve putting women's and girls' concerns first, through separate-sex groups when necessary. Critics argue that radical feminism tends towards biological reductionism, description rather than explanation and also contains methodological weaknesses. Mutual criticism of perspectives seems less destructive in educational writing than in some other categories of feminist scholarship. All the theoretical frameworks are subject to the same pressures including the oppressive power of structures, the resilience of individuals, and the tension between universality (how women are the same) and diversity (how women differ on attributes like class and race).

Zusammenfassung

In diesem Artikel werden die hauptsächlich im Westen vertretenen feministischen Ansätze und deren Anwendungen im Erziehungssystem untersucht, d.h. der liberale, der sozialistische und der radikale Feminismus. Beispiele aus Studien, die jeweils einem dieser Ansätze folgen, werden angeführt. In liberalfeministischen Schriften zur Erziehung werden Konzepte wie Chancengleichheit, Sozialisation, Geschlechterrollen und Diskriminierung erörtert. Deren Strategien besagen, daß Sozialisationspraktiken zu ändern, Haltungen abzuwandeln und diesbezügliche Gesetze anzuwenden sind. Kritik an der liberalen Schule macht aufmerksam auf die begrifflichen Einengungen und auf den Widerwillen, Macht und Patriarchat zu konfrontieren. Sozialistische Feministinnen untersuchen die Rolle der Schule beim Reproduzieren geschlechtsspezifischer Aufteilungen im Kapitalismus. Kernbegriffe sind sozio-kulturelles Reproduzieren und in geringerem Maße Anpassung und Widerstand im Hinblick auf geschlechtsspezifische Verhaltensformen. Sozialistisch-feministisch begründete pädagogische Schriften blieben bis jetzt eher theoretisch als praktisch orientiert und deswegen werden sie wegen ihrer Überdetermination und ihrer unzureichenden empirischen Basis kritisiert. Radikale Feministinnen haben sich hauptsächlich auf das Männermonopol von Wissen und Kultur sowie sexualpolitische Einstellungen im Schulalltag konzentriert. Ihre Strategien zielen darauf ab, die Bedürfnisse der Mädchen und Frauen an erster Stelle zu sehen, und wenn nötig, dies durch Trennung der Geschlechter in Gruppen zu erreichen. Kritiker behaupten, daß der radikale Feminismus zu biologischem Reduktionismus sowie zur Beschreibung eher als Erklärung neigt und methodologische Schwächen aufweist. Wechselseitige Kritik an den Perspektiven scheint in den erziehungswissenschaftlichen Schriften weniger destruktiv als in einigen anderen kategorien der feministischen Forschung zu sein. Sämtlichen theoretischen Ansätzen sind Zwänge einschließlich der oppressiven Gewalt der Strukturen, der Widerstandskraft einzelner sowie der Spannung zwischen Universalität (inwieweit sich Frauen gleichen) und der Unterschiedlichkeit (inwieweit sich Frauen durch Merkmale wie Klasse und Rasse unterscheiden) gemeinsam.

Cet article examine les trois grandes théories féministes occidentales — le féminisme libéral, socialiste et radical — et leurs applications éducatives. On analyse quelques études se basant sur chacune de ces approches. Les textes des féministes libérales portant sur l'éducation emploient les concepts d'égalité des chances, de socialisation, de rôle et de discrimination des sexes. Leurs stratégies englobent une modification des pratiques de socialisation, un changement d'attitudes et l'usage d'une législation. Les critiques de ce courant libéral mettent en évidence les restrictions conceptuelles et les hésitations à affronter le pouvoir et le patriarchat. Les féministes socialistes analysent le rôle de l'école dans la reproduction de la distinction des sexes dans le système capitaliste. Les concepts majeurs concernent la reproduction socio-culturelle et, à un degré moindre, les codes et la résistance des sexes. Les textes des féministes socialistes relatifs à l'éducation restent encore de nos jours plutôt théoriques que pratiques. Ils ont été critiqués pour leur surdéterminisme et leur manque de connaissances fondamentales en matière de recherche pédagogique. Les féministes radicales se sont principalement concentrées, dans le domaine de l'éducation, sur la monopolisation par l'homme du savoir et de la culture, sur la politique sexuelle de la vie de tous les jours dans les écoles. Leurs stratégies consistent tout d'abord à faire valoir les intérêts des femmes et des filles grâce à l'établissement de groupes séparés de garçons et de filles s'il le faut. Selon les critiques, le féminisme radical tend vers un réductionisme biologique, une description plutôt qu'une explication et une faiblesse méthodologique. La critique mutuelle entre ces différentes perspectives semble moins destructive dans les textes relatifs à l'éducation que dans d'autres catégories de sciences féministes. Toutes ces théories partagent certains dilemmes, incluant l'accent relatif qui doit être placé sur le pouvoir oppressif des structures et la souplesse des individus, et sur la tension entre l'universalité (ce en quoi les femmes sont les mêmes) et la diversité (ce qui fait qu'elles diffèrent selon des caractéristiques telles leur classe sociale et leur race).

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Acker, S. Feminist theory and the study of gender and education. Int Rev Educ 33 , 419–435 (1987). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00615157

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Feminist Theory in Sociology: Deinition, Types & Principles

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Feminist theory is a major branch of sociology. It is a set of structural conflict approaches which views society as a conflict between men and women. There is the belief that women are oppressed and/or disadvantaged by various social institutions.

Feminist theory aims to highlight the social problems and issues that are experienced by women. Some of the key areas of focus include discrimination on the basis of sex and gender, objectification, economic inequality, power, gender role, and stereotypes.

Feminists share a common goal in support of equality for men and women. Although all feminists strive for gender equality, there are various ways to approach this theory.

Some of the general features of feminism include:

An awareness that there are inequalities between men and women based on power and status.

These inequalities can create conflict between men and women.

Gender roles and inequalities are usually socially constructed.

An awareness of the importance of patriarchy: a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women.

Goals of Feminism

The perspectives and experiences of women and girls have historically been excluded from social theory and social science.

Thus, feminist theory aims to focus on the interactions and issues women face in society and culture, so half the population is not left out.

Feminism in general means the belief in the social, economic, and political equality of the sexes.

The different branches of feminism may disagree on several things and have varying values. Despite this, there are usually basic principles that all feminists support:

1. Increasing gender equality

Feminist theories recognize that women’s experiences are not only different from men’s but are unequal.

Feminists will oppose laws and cultural norms that mean women earn a lower income and have less educational and career opportunities than men.

2. Ending gender oppression

Gender oppression goes further than gender inequality. Oppression means that not only are women different from or unequal to men, but they are actively subordinated, exploited, and even abused by men.

2. Ending structural oppression

Feminist theories posit that gender inequality and oppression are the result of capitalism and patriarchy in which men dominate.

4. Expanding human choice

Feminists believe that both men and women should have the freedom to express themselves and develop their interests, even if this goes against cultural norms.

5. Ending sexual violence

Feminists recognize that many women suffer sexual violence and that actions should be taken to address this.

6. Promoting sexual freedom

Having sexual freedom means that women have control over their own sexuality and reproduction.

This can include ending the stigma of being promiscuous and ensuring that everyone has access to safe abortions.

The Waves of Feminism

The history of modern feminism can be divided into four parts which are termed ‘ waves .’ Each wave marks a specific cultural period in which specific feminist issues are brought to light.

First wave feminism

The first wave of feminism is believed to have started with the ‘Women’s Suffrage Movement’ in New York in 1848 under the leadership of Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Those involved in this feminist movement were known as suffragettes. The main aim of this movement was to allow women to vote. During this time, members of the suffrage movement engaged in social campaigns that expressed dissatisfaction with women’s limited rights to work, education, property, and social agency, among others.

Emmeline Pankhurst was considered the leader of the suffragettes in Britain and was regarded as one of the most important figures in the movement. She founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU), a group known for employing militant tactics in their struggle for equality.

Despite the first wave of feminism being mostly active in the United States and Western Europe, it led to international law changes regarding the right for women to vote.

It is worth noting that even after this first wave, in some countries, mostly white women from privileged backgrounds were permitted to vote, with black and minority ethnic individuals being granted this right later on.

Second wave feminism

Second-wave feminism started somewhere in the 1960s after the chaos of the Second World War.

French feminist author Simone de Beauvoir published a book in 1949 entitled ‘The Second Sex’ which outlined the definitions of womanhood and how women have historically been treated as second to men.

She determined that ‘one is not born but becomes a woman’. This book is thought to have been foundational for setting the tone for the next wave of women’s rights activism.

Feminism during this period was focused on the social roles in women’s work and family environment. It broadened the debate to include a wider range of issues such as sexuality, family, reproductive rights, legal inequalities, and divorce law.

From this wave, the movement toward women’s rights included the signing of the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which stipulated that women could no longer be paid less than men for comparable work.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 included a section which prevents employers from discriminating against employees on the basis of sex, race, religion, or national origin. Likewise, the famous Roe v. Wade decision protected a woman’s right to have an abortion from 1973.

Third wave feminism

The third wave of feminism is harder to pinpoint but it was thought to have taken off in the 1990s. Early activism in this wave involved fighting against workplace sexual harassment and working to increase the number of women in positions of power.

The work of Kimberlé Crenshaw in the 1980s is thought to have been the root. She coined the term ‘intersectionality’ to describe the ways in which different forms of oppression intersect, such as how a black woman is oppressed in two ways: for being a woman and for being black.

Since there was not a clear goal with third-wave feminism as there was with previous waves, there is no single piece of legislation or major social change that belongs to the wave.

Fourth wave feminism

Many believe that there is now a fourth wave of feminism, which began around 2012.

It is likely that the wave sparked after allegations of sexual abuse and harassment, specifically of celebrities, which gave birth to campaigns such as Everyday Sexism Project by Laura Bates and the #MeToo movement.

With the rise of the internet and social platforms, feminist issues such as discrimination, harassment, body shaming, and misogyny can be widely discussed with the emergence of new feminists.

Fourth-wave feminism is digitally driven and has become more inclusive to include those of any sexual orientation, ethnicity, and trans individuals.

Types of Feminism

Liberal feminism.

Liberal feminism is rooted in classic liberal thought and these feminists believe that equality should be brought about through education and policy changes. They see gender inequalities as rooted in the attitudes of social and cultural institutions, so they aim to change the system from within.

Liberal feminists argue that women have the same capacity for moral reasoning and agency as men, but that the patriarchy has denied them the opportunity to practice this. Due to the patriarchy, these feminists believe that women have been pushed to remain in the privacy of their household and thus have been excluded from participating in public life.

Liberal feminists focus mainly on protecting equal opportunities for women through legislation. The Equal Rights Amendment

in 1972 was impactful for liberal feminists which enforced equality on account of sex.

Marxist feminism

Marxist feminism evolved from the ideas of Karl Marx, who claimed capitalism was to blame for promoting patriarchy, meaning that power is held in the hands of a small number of men.

Marxist feminists believe that capitalism is the cause of women’s oppression and that this oppression in turn, helps to reinforce capitalism. These feminists believe that women are exploited for their unpaid labor (maintaining the household and childcare) and that capitalism reinforces that women are a reserve for the work force and they must create the next generation of workers.

According to Marxist feminists, the system and traditional family can only be replaced by a socialist revolution that creates a government to meet the needs of the family.

Radical feminism

Radical feminists posit that power is key to gender oppression. They argue that being a woman is a positive thing but that this is not acknowledged in patriarchal societies.

The main belief of radical feminists is that equality can only be achieved through gender separation and political lesbianism. They think the patriarchy can be defeated if women recognize their own value and strength, establish trust with other women, and form female-based separatist networks in the private and public spheres.

Intersectional feminism

Intersectional feminism believes that other feminist theories create an incorrect acceptance of women’s oppression based on the experiences of mostly Western, middle-class, white women.

For instance, while they may acknowledge that the work of the suffragette movement was influential, the voting rights of the working-class or minority ethnic groups were forgotten at this time.

Intersectionality considers that gender, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, and others, are not separate, but are interwoven and can bring about different levels of oppression.

This type of feminism offers insight that not all women experience oppression in the same way. For instance, the wage gap shows that women of color and men of color are penalized relative to the earnings of white men.

Feminist theory is important since it helps to address and better understand unequal and oppressive gender relations. It promotes the goal of equality and justice while providing more opportunities for women.

True feminism benefits men too and is not only applicable to women. It allows men to be who they want to be, without being tied down to their own gender roles and stereotypes.

Through feminism, men are encouraged to be free to express themselves in a way which may be considered ‘typically feminine’ such as crying when they are upset.

In this way, men’s mental health can benefit from feminism since the shame associated with talking about their emotions can be lifted without feeling the expectation to ‘man up’ and keep their feeling buried.

With the development of intersectionality, feminism does not just focus on gendered power and oppression, but on how this might intersect with race, sexuality, social class, disability, religion, and others.

Without feminism, women would have significantly less rights. More women have the right to vote, work, have equal pay, access to health care, reproductive rights, and protection from violence. While every country has its own laws and legislature, there would have been less progress in changing these without the feminist movement.

Feminist theory is also self-critical in that it recognizes that it may not have been applicable to everyone in the past. It is understood that it was not inclusive and so evolved and may still go on to evolve over time. Feminism is not a static movement, but fluid in the way it can change and adjust to suit modern times.

Some critics suggest that a main weakness of feminist theory is that it is from a woman-centered viewpoint. While the theories also mention issues which are not strictly related to women, it is argued that men and women view the world differently.

Some may call feminist theory redundant in modern day since women have the opportunity to work now, so the nature of family life has inevitably changed in response.

However, a counterpoint to this is that many women in certain cultures are still not given the right to work. Likewise, having access to work does not eradicate the other feminist issues that are still prevalent.

Some feminists may go too far into a stage where they are man-hating which causes more harm than good. It can make men feel unwelcome to feminism if they are being blamed for patriarchal oppression and inequalities that they are not directly responsible for.

Other women may not want to identify as a feminist either if they have the impression that feminists are man-haters but they themselves like men.

There are criticisms even between feminists, with some having values that can lead to others having a negative view of feminists as a whole.

For instance, radical feminists often receive criticism for ignoring race, social class, sexual orientation, and the presence of more than two genders. Thus, there are aspects of feminism which are not inclusive.

What is the main goal of feminism?

The goal of feminism is to reach social, political, and economic equality of the sexes. Feminists aim to challenge the systemic inequalities women face on a daily basis, change laws and legislature which oppress women, put an end to sexism and exploitation of women, and raise awareness of women’s issues.

However, the different types of feminists may have distinct goals within their movement and between each other.

How was feminist theory founded?

Although many early writings could be characterized as feminism or embodying the experiences of women, the history of Western feminist theory usually begins with the works of Mary Wollstonecraft.

Wollstonecraft was one of the first feminist writers, responsible for her publications such as ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’, published in 1792.

How does feminist theory relate to education?

Feminist theory helps us understand gender differences in education, gender socialization, and how the education system may be easier for boys to navigate than girls.

Many feminists believe education is an agent of secondary socialization that helps enforce patriarchy.

Feminist theory aims to promote educational opportunities for girls. It assures that they should not limit their educational aspirations because they may go against what is traditionally expected of them.

What are feminist sociologists view on family roles and relationships?

Some feminists view the function of the  nuclear family  as a place where patriarchal values are learned by individuals, which in turn add to the patriarchal society.

Young girls may be socialized to believe that inequality and oppression are a normal part of being a woman. Boys are socialized to believe they are superior and have authority over women.

Feminists often believe that the nuclear family teaches children gender roles which translates to gender roles in wider society.

For instance, girls may learn to accept that being a housewife is the only possible or acceptable role for women. Some feminists also believe that the  division of labor  is unequal in nuclear families, with women and girls accepting subservient roles in the household.

How does feminist theory relate to crime?

Feminists recognize that there is a disproportionate amount of violence and crime against women and that the reason may be due to the inequalities and oppression that women face.

Suppose the patriarchy posits that men are more powerful. In that case, this can lead them to abuse this power over women, resulting in harassment, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, and even murder of women.

Feminists point out that there is a lot of systemic sexism in the justice system which needs to be tackled. Female victims of sexual abuse from men may often feel as if they are the ones put on trial and even experience blame for what happened to them.

Thus, many women do not report their sexual abuse for fear of not being believed or taken seriously in a system that favors men.

Therefore, many feminists would aim to fix the system so that fewer men commit these crimes and that there is proper justice for women who experience violence from men.

How far would sociologists agree that feminism has changed marriage?

Feminists often believe that the meaning of marriage is deeply rooted in  patriarchy  and gender inequality. In modern times, it would, therefore, not make sense for a woman to get married unless she has a partner willing to overturn a lot of the traditional and sexist values of marriage.

Most feminists believe that women should have the choice over whether they want to get married or even be in a relationship. Marriage for feminists can be; however, they want it to be, including their vows and values that make them and their partners equal.

A study found that having a feminist partner was linked to healthier heterosexual relationships for women (Rudman & Phelan, 2007).

They also found that men with feminist partners reported more stable relationships and greater sexual satisfaction, suggesting that feminism may predict happier relationships.

There are  differences between radical and liberal feminism  regarding ideas about the private sphere. Liberal feminists are generally not against heterosexual marriage and having children, as long as this is what the woman wants.

If the woman is treated as an equal by their partner and chooses how to raise their family, this is a feminist choice.

Even in modern marriage, radical feminists argue that women married to men are under patriarchal rule and are still made to complete much of the unpaid labor in the household compared to their husbands.

What is meant by the term malestream?

Feminists use the term malestream to highlight the need for more inclusive research methodologies and theoretical perspectives that better represent and address the experiences and issues of women and other marginalized groups.

It’s a call to move beyond the male-centric biases in various academic disciplines, including sociology.

Armstrong, E. (2020). Marxist and Socialist Feminisms.  Companion to Feminist Studies , 35-52.

Bates, L. (2016).  Everyday sexism: The project that inspired a worldwide movement . Macmillan.

Crenshaw, K. W. (2006). Intersectionality, identity politics and violence against women of color.  Kvinder, kön & forskning , (2-3).

Malinowska, A. (2020). Waves of Feminism.  The International Encyclopedia of Gender, Media, and Communication,  1, 1-7.

Oxley, J. C. (2011). Liberal feminism.  Just the Arguments,  100, 258262.

Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2007). The interpersonal power of feminism: Is feminism good for romantic relationships?.  Sex Roles, 57 (11), 787-799.

Srivastava, K., Chaudhury, S., Bhat, P. S., & Sahu, S. (2017). Misogyny, feminism, and sexual harassment.  Industrial psychiatry journal, 26( 2), 111.

Thompson, D. (2001).  Radical feminism today . Sage.

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11.23: Reading: Feminist Theory on Education

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Feminist Theory

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. Like many other institutions of society, educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. Almost two-thirds of the world’s 862 million illiterate people are women, and the illiteracy rate among women is expected to increase in many regions, especially in several African and Asian countries (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2007).

Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn’t until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education (and its resultant benefits) across the world.

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