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Essay Writing Guide

Essay Outline

Last updated on: Jun 10, 2023

A Complete Essay Outline - Guidelines and Format

By: Nova A.

13 min read

Reviewed By: Melisa C.

Published on: Jan 15, 2019

To write an effective essay, you need to create a clear and well-organized essay outline. An essay outline will shape the essay’s entire content and determine how successful the essay will be.

In this blog post, we'll be going over the basics of essay outlines and provide a template for you to follow. We will also include a few examples so that you can get an idea about how these outlines look when they are put into practice.

Essay writing is not easy, but it becomes much easier with time, practice, and a detailed essay writing guide. Once you have developed your outline, everything else will come together more smoothly.

The key to success in any area is preparation - take the time now to develop a solid outline and then write your essays!

So, let’s get started!

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What is an Essay Outline?

An essay outline is your essay plan and a roadmap to essay writing. It is the structure of an essay you are about to write. It includes all the main points you have to discuss in each section along with the thesis statement.

Like every house has a map before it is constructed, the same is the importance of an essay outline. You can write an essay without crafting an outline, but you may miss essential information, and it is more time-consuming.

Once the outline is created, there is no chance of missing any important information. Also, it will help you to:

• Organize your thoughts and ideas.
• Understand the information flow.
• Never miss any crucial information or reference.
• Finish your work faster.

These are the reasons if someone asks you why an essay outline is needed. Now there are some points that must be kept in mind before proceeding to craft an essay outline.

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Prewriting Process of Essay Outline

Your teacher may ask you to submit your essay outline before your essay. Therefore, you must know the preliminary guidelines that are necessary before writing an essay outline.

Here are the guidelines:

• You must go through your assignments’ guidelines carefully.
• Understand the purpose of your assignment.
• Know your audience.
• Mark the important point while researching your topic data.
• Select the structure of your essay outline; whether you are going to use a decimal point bullet or a simple one.

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How to Write an Essay Outline in 4 Steps

Creating an essay outline is a crucial step in crafting a well-structured and organized piece of writing. Follow these four simple steps to create an effective outline:

Step 1: Understand the Topic

To begin, thoroughly grasp the essence of your essay topic. 

Break it down into its key components and identify the main ideas you want to convey. This step ensures you have a clear direction and focus for your essay.

Step 2: Brainstorm and Gather Ideas

Let your creativity flow and brainstorm ideas related to your topic. 

Jot down key pieces of information, arguments, and supporting evidence that will strengthen your essay's overall message. Consider different perspectives and potential counterarguments to make your essay well-rounded.

Step 3: Organize Your Thoughts

Now it's time to give structure to your ideas. 

Arrange your main points in a logical order, starting with an attention-grabbing introduction, followed by body paragraphs that present your arguments. 

Finally, tie everything together with a compelling conclusion. Remember to use transitional phrases to create smooth transitions between sections.

Step 4: Add Depth with Subpoints

To add depth and clarity to your essay, incorporate subpoints under each main point. 

These subpoints provide more specific details, evidence, or examples that support your main ideas. They help to further strengthen your arguments and make your essay more convincing.

By following these four steps - you'll be well on your way to creating a clear and compelling essay outline.

Essay Outline Format

It is an easy way for you to write your thoughts in an organized manner. It may seem unnecessary and unimportant, but it is not.

It is one of the most crucial steps for essay writing as it shapes your entire essay and aids the writing process.

An essay outline consists of three main parts:

1. Introduction

The introduction body of your essay should be attention-grabbing. It should be written in such a manner that it attracts the reader’s interest. It should also provide background information about the topic for the readers.

You can use a dramatic tone to grab readers’ attention, but it should connect the audience to your thesis statement.

Here are some points without which your introduction paragraph is incomplete.

To attract the reader with the first few opening lines, we use a hook statement. It helps engage the reader and motivates them to read further. There are different types of hook sentences ranging from quotes, rhetorical questions to anecdotes and statistics, and much more.

Are you struggling to come up with an interesting hook? View these hook examples to get inspired!

A thesis statement is stated at the end of your introduction. It is the most important statement of your entire essay. It summarizes the purpose of the essay in one sentence.

The thesis statement tells the readers about the main theme of the essay, and it must be strong and clear. It holds the entire crux of your essay.

Need help creating a strong thesis statement? Check out this guide on thesis statements and learn to write a statement that perfectly captures your main argument!

2. Body Paragraphs

The body paragraphs of an essay are where all the details and evidence come into play. This is where you dive deep into the argument, providing explanations and supporting your ideas with solid evidence. 

If you're writing a persuasive essay, these paragraphs will be the powerhouse that convinces your readers. Similarly, in an argumentative essay, your body paragraphs will work their magic to sway your audience to your side.

Each paragraph should have a topic sentence and no more than one idea. A topic sentence is the crux of the contents of your paragraph. It is essential to keep your reader interested in the essay.

The topic sentence is followed by the supporting points and opinions, which are then justified with strong evidence.

3. Conclusion

When it comes to wrapping up your essay, never underestimate the power of a strong conclusion. Just like the introduction and body paragraphs, the conclusion plays a vital role in providing a sense of closure to your topic. 

To craft an impactful conclusion, it's crucial to summarize the key points discussed in the introduction and body paragraphs. You want to remind your readers of the important information you shared earlier. But keep it concise and to the point. Short, powerful sentences will leave a lasting impression.

Remember, your conclusion shouldn't drag on. Instead, restate your thesis statement and the supporting points you mentioned earlier. And here's a pro tip: go the extra mile and suggest a course of action. It leaves your readers with something to ponder or reflect on.

5 Paragraph Essay Outline Structure

An outline is an essential part of the writing as it helps the writer stay focused. A typical 5 paragraph essay outline example is shown here. This includes:

• State the topic
• Thesis statement
• Introduction
• Explanation
• A conclusion that ties to the thesis
• Summary of the essay
• Restate the thesis statement

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Essay Outline Template

The outline of the essay is the skeleton that you will fill out with the content. Both outline and relevant content are important for a good essay. The content you will add to flesh out the outline should be credible, relevant, and interesting.

The outline structure for the essay is not complex or difficult. No matter which type of essay you write, you either use an alphanumeric structure or a decimal structure for the outline.

Below is an outline sample that you can easily follow for your essay.

Essay Outline Sample

Essay Outline Examples

An essay outline template should follow when you start writing the essay. Every writer should learn how to write an outline for every type of essay and research paper.

Essay outline 4th grade

Essay outline 5th grade

Essay outline high school

Essay outline college

Given below are essay outline examples for different types of essay writing.

Argumentative Essay Outline

An  argumentative essay  is a type of essay that shows both sides of the topic that you are exploring. The argument that presents the basis of the essay should be created by providing evidence and supporting details.

Persuasive Essay Outline

A  persuasive essay  is similar to an argumentative essay. Your job is to provide facts and details to create the argument. In a persuasive essay, you convince your readers of your point of view.

Compare and Contrast Essay Outline

A  compare and contrast essay  explains the similarities and differences between two things. While comparing, you should focus on the differences between two seemingly similar objects. While contrasting, you should focus on the similarities between two different objects.

Narrative Essay Outline

A narrative essay is written to share a story. Normally, a narrative essay is written from a personal point of view in an essay. The basic purpose of the narrative essay is to describe something creatively.

Expository Essay Outline

An  expository essay  is a type of essay that explains, analyzes, and illustrates something for the readers. An expository essay should be unbiased and entirely based on facts. Be sure to use academic resources for your research and cite your sources.

Analytical Essay Outline

An  analytical essay  is written to analyze the topic from a critical point of view. An analytical essay breaks down the content into different parts and explains the topic bit by bit.

Rhetorical Analysis Essay Outline

A rhetorical essay is written to examine the writer or artist’s work and develop a great essay. It also includes the discussion.

Cause and Effect Essay Outline

A  cause and effect essay  describes why something happens and examines the consequences of an occurrence or phenomenon. It is also a type of expository essay.

Informative Essay Outline

An  informative essay  is written to inform the audience about different objects, concepts, people, issues, etc.

The main purpose is to respond to the question with a detailed explanation and inform the target audience about the topic.

Synthesis Essay Outline

A  synthesis essay  requires the writer to describe a certain unique viewpoint about the issue or topic. Create a claim about the topic and use different sources and information to prove it.

Literary Analysis Essay Outline

A  literary analysis essay  is written to analyze and examine a novel, book, play, or any other piece of literature. The writer analyzes the different devices such as the ideas, characters, plot, theme, tone, etc., to deliver his message.

Definition Essay Outline

A  definition essay  requires students to pick a particular concept, term, or idea and define it in their own words and according to their understanding.

Descriptive Essay Outline

A  descriptive essay  is a type of essay written to describe a person, place, object, or event. The writer must describe the topic so that the reader can visualize it using their five senses.

Evaluation Essay Outline

Problem Solution Essay Outline

In a problem-solution essay, you are given a problem as a topic and you have to suggest multiple solutions on it.

Scholarship Essay Outline

A  scholarship essay  is required at the time of admission when you are applying for a scholarship. Scholarship essays must be written in a way that should stand alone to help you get a scholarship.

Reflective Essay Outline

A reflective essay  is written to express your own thoughts and point of view regarding a specific topic.

Getting started on your essay? Give this comprehensive essay writing guide a read to make sure you write an effective essay!

With this complete guide, now you understand how to create an outline for your essay successfully. However, if you still can’t write an effective essay, then the best option is to consult a professional academic writing service.

Essay writing is a dull and boring task for some people. So why not get some help instead of wasting your time and effort?  5StarEssays.com is here to help you. All your  do my essay for me  requests are managed by professional essay writers.

Place your order now, and our team of expert academic writers will help you.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the three types of outlines.

Here are the three types of essay outline;

• Working outline
• Speaking outline
• Full-sentence outline

All three types are different from each other and are used for different purposes.

What does a full-sentence outline look like?

A full sentence outline contains full sentences at each level of the essay’s outline. It is similar to an alphanumeric outline and it is a commonly used essay outline.

What is a traditional outline format?

A traditional essay outline begins with writing down all the important points in one place and listing them down and adding sub-topics to them. Besides, it will also include evidence and proof that you will use to back your arguments.

What is the benefit of using a traditional outline format and an informal outline format?

A traditional outline format helps the students in listing down all the important details in one palace while an informal outline will help you coming up with new ideas and highlighting important points

As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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4 Essay Outline Templates That Will Simplify Your Writing Process

Have you ever put together a piece of furniture (or maybe stood by and watched someone else do it)? The task was made a lot easier thanks to the instructions that came in the box. The piece of furniture didn't exactly build itself just because it came with instructions, but without these instructions the task would be nearly impossible to complete.

You can think of an outline for your essay kind of like a set of instructions. Although you still have to put in quite a bit of effort while you're building/writing it, the instructions will help guide you through the entire process so that you don't have to go in there completely blind.

An essay outline is especially helpful for those who are novice writers, but even the old pros use outlines. The prolific William Faulkner was known to use an outline, and he wrote a timeline out for his novel A Fable on his office walls , which can be still seen on display at his home Rowan Oak in Oxford, Mississippi. Now we're not advocating for anyone to write on their walls (sorry to all the moms out there!), but his method was effective because he was able to visualize his timeline and organize his writing around it.

When you are assigned an essay, you might be tempted to wait until the last minute and just write something out really quickly. But without a concrete plan or knowing what it is that you're going to say, you might find yourself hovering over a computer with a blank page and a blinking cursor in the middle of the night. Nobody wants to be in that position, so let's aim to plan ahead, shall we?

Why you should use an outline for everything you write

Have you ever heard the phrase "great ideas take time"? No amazing writer in the history of the universe just started typing one day and then had his or her writing magically turned into a book. Great writing requires great planning. Even if a writer didn't physically write down her timeline, she had a general idea of what she was going to write about before she started typing. Of course, there is such a thing as being inspired and acting on that inspiration (but let's be honest, your history essay isn't probably going to spark that kind of creativity in you).

So, because we are writing a very structured piece with a somewhat predictable layout, it's always best to use an outline. After you do your required research for your topic, an outline will help you to keep all of the points you want to make organized so that you don't skip any important pieces of information and so you can stay on track.

How do you write an outline?

The beauty of an outline is that no one will be seeing your outline — unless, of course, your teacher is making you turn it in beforehand so that he or she can review it before you turn in your paper. However, even if your teacher is reviewing the outline before you turn in your essay, it's doubtful that he or she will grade too harshly on how you organize your thoughts. The main idea is that your teacher wants to see that you're putting in some thought before you write the essay.

Because there's not as much pressure to make an outline sound "nice" and be grammatically correct, you can get out your thoughts quicker and easier. You can use a piece of scratch paper for an outline and just jot down a few points or you can get really intricate by creating a writing outline on the computer. Whatever way you want to write your outline is fine — just make sure you're doing it. Generally, in an outline you will need to have an idea of what your thesis statement will be, how your body paragraphs will support your thesis statement, and how you are going to wrap everything up in a conclusion at the end.

Still a little unsure of how to start? We've provided some examples below of what an outline will look like for a few different types of essays. Remember that these outlines are just samples. They aren't necessarily something set in stone that you can't adapt for your particular assignment or idea.

The argumentative essay

The argumentative essay is as old as writing is. The idea of an argumentative is — you guessed it — to establish an argument and provide evidence of why your claim is correct . You will collect evidence in defense of your argument and evaluate it.

Here is a sample of what an argumentative essay outline might look like:

• General background information about your topic
• Thesis statement
• Supporting fact
• Your response to this claim
• Reiterate arguments made in thesis statement
• Why this essay matters (ideas for future research, why it's especially relevant now, possible applications, etc.)

Expository essay outline

Expository essays often get confused with argumentative essays, but the main difference is that the writer's opinions and emotions are completely left out of an expository essay. The objective of an expository essay is to investigate a topic and present an argument in an unbiased way, but to still arrive at a conclusion. Because of this subtle difference, it's important to have a solid outline to get you started on your writing.

• The presentation of the topic
• Your thesis statement
• Supporting evidence
• Transition sentence
• Reiterate the points with an overview of the main points you discussed throughout the paper.
• Offer solutions, insight into why this topic matters, and what future topics could be expanded upon in a future paper.

Reflective essay outline

Reflective papers are a fun exercise where you get to write about a particular experience in your life and to discuss what lessons you learned from it. First-person essays are a really popular genre right now and are designed to make people from all different backgrounds reflect on a common human experience like receiving your first kiss, failing at something, or triumphing over obstacles. Because reflective essays are a little bit less rigid writing than a traditional classroom essay, the structure is definitely not set in stone. Feel free to play around with what makes sense for your particular story and experience.

• A really great hook that will have the audience want to keep reading on (an example from the great writer David Sedaris , I always told myself that when I hit fifty I was going to discover opera, not just casually but full force: studying the composers, learning Italian, maybe even buying a cape.
• A brief little tease of what the story is going to be about. You'll probably need one to two sentences tops.
• What happened initially?
• Who were the key players?
• What obstacle did you have to overcome?
• Describe the obstacle/problem in more detail
• What role did the key players have?
• What happened at the end?
• Was everything tied up neatly or not?
• Summary of the events
• What lesson did you learn? Or, maybe, what was the lesson you learned much later on in life?

Compare and contrast essay outline

We compare and contrast things all the time in "real" life. We analyze what kind of healthcare plan we want, what major to pick, what phone we want, what career we want to pursue, etc. Having the skills to analyze two (or more) items and discovering what the facts are about them so that you can make an educated decision on which to pick are pretty crucial.

A compare and contrast essay gives us the building blocks to understand how to make these decisions with real-life applications — and they can be pretty fun too. Although these compare and contrast essays don't have as complicated of a structure as an expository or an argumentative essay, it's still important to plan out how you're going to tackle this type of essay. Here's an idea of what a compare and contrast outline might look like:

• A brief introduction to the topic and what Point A and Point B are
• Your thesis statement (which will contain some sort of equivalence or dissonance between Point A and Point B)
• Claim 1 about Point A
• Claim 2 about Point A
• Claim 3 about Point A
• Claim 1 about Point B
• Claim 2 about Point B
• Claim 3 about Point B
• What is similar between these two points?
• What is dissimilar?
• What comparisons can be made?
• What conclusions can we draw about comparing these two points?
• Any further research required or suggested for the future?
• Is there a third thing that we should be comparing these two points to?

Need help with your outline?

If after reviewing these guidelines or examining these sample outlines you're still a little bit unsure about how to incorporate an outline into your particular essay, be sure to ask your instructor for more guidance.

And, if you need another pair of eyes to look over your paper after it's been written, be sure to check out the services of our professional editors. Our expert editors can help you to polish up your paper, ensure that all of your citations have been made according to the style guide, and give you direction if the essay needs to be revised or rearranged in any way.

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An essay outline notes template is used as a tool to help organize thoughts and ideas before writing an essay. It helps to structure the essay and ensure that all necessary points are covered.

The essay outline notes template is typically filed by the individual or student who is using it to organize their thoughts and plan their essay.

Q: What is an essay outline? A: An essay outline is a framework or plan that organizes the main points and supporting details of an essay.

Q: Why is an essay outline important? A: An essay outline helps to structure the content and ideas of an essay, making it easier to write and understand.

Q: What are the key components of an essay outline? A: The key components of an essay outline include the introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion.

Q: What should be included in the introduction of an essay outline? A: The introduction should provide the background information, thesis statement, and a brief overview of the main points.

Q: What should be included in the body paragraphs of an essay outline? A: The body paragraphs should include the main points and supporting details, each presented in a separate paragraph.

Q: What should be included in the conclusion of an essay outline? A: The conclusion should summarize the main points and restate the thesis statement, providing a sense of closure to the essay.

Q: How can an essay outline be created? A: An essay outline can be created by brainstorming ideas, organizing them into main points and supporting details, and arranging them in a logical order.

Q: What are the benefits of using an essay outline? A: Using an essay outline helps to save time, improve the organization of ideas, and ensure that all necessary information is included in the essay.

Q: Can an essay outline be modified during the writing process? A: Yes, an essay outline can be modified and adjusted as needed during the writing process to accommodate changes or new ideas that arise.

Q: Are there different types of essay outlines? A: Yes, there are different types of essay outlines, such as the alphanumeric outline, the decimal outline, and the full-sentence outline.

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'All Eyes on Rafah' image shared by millions on Instagram following Israeli airstrike

An image calling for people to pay attention to Israel’s ongoing war in Gaza has drawn more than 44 million shares on Instagram in less than 48 hours, highlighting a renewed social media push by supporters of Palestinians following a deadly Israeli airstrike .

The image depicts tents in a camp arranged to spell out “All Eyes on Rafah,” an area in the south of Gaza filled with refugee tent camps where local officials said at least 45 civilians died after an Israeli strike on Sunday.

Israel Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu told the country’s parliament in Hebrew that the casualties were a “tragic mishap”; his office presented clarifying comments in English that translated the phrase as “tragic incident.”

The image has been shared primarily through Instagram’s Stories feature, with influencers, athletes and celebrities — including “Bridgerton” star Nicola Coughlan, singer-songwriter Kehlani and one of India’s top actors, Varun Dhawan — posting the image.

Instagram has emerged in recent months as a crucial outlet for Palestinian journalists and supporters of Palestinians despite efforts by its owner, Meta, to limit the spread of political content — echoing the broader rise of news content on the platform .

While the “All Eyes on Rafah” image has spread quickly, video from Rafah posted by Palestinian journalists has been restricted and in some cases removed from social media for depicting the graphic aftermath of Israeli strikes. Two of three Instagram posts showing burned and grievously injured and dead bodies after the recent strike were removed, and one had a sensitive content filter for “graphic or violent content” placed in front of it. The images were verified by NBC News. An Instagram spokesperson said the company removed the content due to its violent and graphic nature, which it said violated the platform's policies.

The “All Eyes on Rafah” image does not portray the violence actually occurring on the ground, while it does echo the other content that has repeatedly gone viral and been endorsed by highly followed people on social media over the past eight months. 

“The trend of posting ‘All Eyes on Rafah’ has been something that has been building for a little while,” said Matt Navarra, a social media consultant and industry analyst. “We’ve seen quite a lot of influencers and celebrities and widely followed people on multiple platforms, not just Instagram, that are sharing the sentiment of this message or an almost identical version of it, which will amp up the reach and visibility across many platforms.”

The image also appears to be one of the first pieces of viral activist iconography to have been created by artificial intelligence. Marc Owen Jones, an associate professor of Middle East studies at Hamad Bin Khalifa University in Qatar who studies misinformation, said the image “definitely looks” AI-generated. 

Among the signs the image was AI-generated are that it does not appear photorealistic, it includes unusual shadows, and the tent camp pictured is unnaturally sprawling and symmetrical — a sign of pattern repetition that is common in AI generation.

Pro-Palestinian activism on social media has surged at various points since Israel began its assault on Gaza after the terrorist attacks of Oct. 7, in which over 1,100 people were killed and over 200 were taken hostage. Most recently, a mass blocking campaign targeting celebrities who have not vocally supported Palestinians gained some traction. Pro-Israel social media activity has also spiked at times, sparked most recently by university campus protests related to the war. Some people with large platforms have vocally supported Israeli civilians, which has sometimes led to backlash against them .

Starting Sunday, Israeli forces advanced on Rafah in both land and air offensives despite global outcry about the ensuing civilian casualties. Palestinians inside the tent camp reported dozens of deaths , including those of young children, some caused by fires that blazed through the camp. An Israeli official told NBC News that the fire was caused by a fuel tank explosion after one of Israel’s airstrikes hit it. 

The account that initially posted the “All Eyes on Rafah” image on Instagram did not immediately respond to a request for comment. 

Meta, Instagram’s parent company, has opened its moderation policy board up to debates over whether popular pro-Palestinian rhetoric like “from the river to the sea” constitutes policy violations, while it has also announced efforts to limit the spread of political speech on its platforms. On Meta’s Facebook, AI images have gotten hundreds of millions of engagements . 

Navarra said the image highlights how activists can use AI to create content that can both communicate messages while abiding by platforms’ rules. By putting text in images itself, they may dodge any keyword detection moderation applied to image captions. AI-generated content can also be created very quickly, compared with traditional digital art methods that take much longer.

“It’s possibly circumventing some of the automated moderation on the platform, because it’s an AI-generated image and there isn’t anything in there that is massively dangerous or controversial,” Navarra said about the “All Eyes on Rafah” image. “It’s interesting to see that this cut through.”

Responding to the image, several highly-followed pro-Israel Instagram creators also posted images and infographics. One AI-generated image asked "Where were your eyes on October 7?" The state of Israel's Instagram account posted an image Wednesday with the text "All Eyes On Instagram," claiming that the "Where were your eyes on October 7?" image was being censored on the platform.

Kat Tenbarge is a tech and culture reporter for NBC News Digital. She can be reached at [email protected]

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[Text] MainNote 主笔记模板 通用笔记模版 简约清晰风格 Main note template, common note template, simple and clear style #772

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Jackhanyuan oct 31, 2023.

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Jackhanyuan oct 31, 2023 author, rhydderch dec 8, 2023.

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Jiiron dec 12, 2023, jackhanyuan jan 20, 2024 author, drvinodg2000 feb 14, 2024.

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Guest Essay

Will Roy Cohn Save Donald Trump’s Hide One Last Time?

By Kai Bird

Mr. Bird is the director of the Leon Levy Center for Biography. He is working on a biography of Roy Cohn.

Sitting still for hours on end in a chilly, drab courtroom, unable to speak his mind, forced to listen to people say objectionable things about him, Donald Trump at a defense table in Manhattan’s Criminal Court may seem as far from his usual domain — the cheering crowds and the trappings of wealth — as could be imagined.

But it was in another courthouse just down the street that Mr. Trump’s wily mentor, Roy Cohn, pulled off one of his greatest legal feats. It was Mr. Cohn who taught Mr. Trump how to manipulate the law, and other people, to his advantage. His ghost now hovers over the former president’s entire legal outlook, influencing proceedings in ways large and small. The outcome in this case may be the final verdict on Mr. Cohn’s brilliant, sinister strategies.

Mr. Trump always admired Mr. Cohn’s bravado and belligerence; Mr. Cohn’s whole worldview seemed to validate the young developer’s crassest instincts. “If you need somebody to get vicious,” Mr. Trump once said, “hire Roy Cohn.” His legal strategy boiled down to: Delay and deny. Don’t hesitate to attack the judge and prosecutor (“I don’t care what the law is; tell me who the judge is” was his most famous line). Address the press every chance you get. And intimidate and ridicule witnesses.

Mr. Trump’s lawyers have aggressively sought every delay possible and called for mistrials or new judges on a regular basis. Of the four criminal proceedings Mr. Trump faces, the one wrapping up now is probably the only case that will be heard before Election Day — and if Mr. Trump wins a second term, all bets are off. He attacked Justice Juan Merchan and witnesses so many times that he has been placed under gag orders — and then fined, when he repeatedly failed to honor them. And as for litigating a case through the media, Mr. Trump went Mr. Cohn one better: He founded his own social media organization, Truth Social, and litigates his cases there.

In the Manhattan case, the defense attorney Todd Blanche went for the jugular when cross-examining Mr. Trump’s former fixer, Michael Cohen, shouting , “The jury doesn’t want to hear what you think happened!” and invoking a disparaging remark that Mr. Cohen had made — about Mr. Blanche himself — with such fidelity that Justice Merchan rebuked him for his profanity. Later, the attorney Susan Necheles sought to shame Stormy Daniels, a porn star, accusing her of “selling” herself and having “a lot of experience making phony stories about sex appear to be real.”

Most recently we learned that the former president would not be taking the witness stand and exposing himself to cross-examination, choosing instead to let a stream of prominent Republicans visitors make his case for him on the courthouse steps. That is the strategy that Mr. Cohn lived by.

Roy Cohn was indicted four times by Manhattan’s legendary prosecutor Robert Morgenthau. “I said to him, ‘Roy, just tell me one thing,’” Mr. Trump wrote in “The Art of the Deal.” “‘Did you really do all that stuff?’ He looked at me and smiled. ‘What the hell do you think?’ he said. I never really knew.” The most notorious of these cases involved charges of conspiracy, extortion, blackmail and bribing a former city appraiser inside the Foley Square courthouse. The trial dragged on for 11 weeks.

Mr. Cohn filed a formal affidavit of prejudice against the judge, asking him to recuse himself from the case. Mr. Cohn also claimed that the indictment should be dismissed because it was the result of a “personal vendetta” against him by Mr. Morgenthau. Both motions were denied, but they served to delay the prosecution’s case.

On Dec. 8, 1969, the last day of the proceedings, Mr. Cohn’s lawyer, Joseph Brill, was about to make his summation when he complained of chest pains and was rushed to a hospital. The court adjourned, not knowing what would happen next.

The following afternoon, Mr. Cohn, dressed in a monogrammed shirt and a dark-blue suit with thin stripes, astonished the judge and prosecutors by announcing that he was prepared to make his own summation.

It was an ingenious strategy that in effect allowed him to testify on his own behalf — which he had avoided doing — without having to submit to a cross-examination.

He spoke, brilliantly and without notes, for an hour that day, then for an extraordinary seven hours the next day. Peter King, who would go on to serve as a member of New York’s congressional delegation, was there as a young lawyer in Mr. Cohn’s firm. “It was effective, low-key,” he told me last week. “It was emotional, but in a quiet way. No histrionics. He was like the ultimate perfect summation.” By the end, one female juror was weeping , overcome with emotion.

It took the jury a mere four hours to declare him not guilty. Mr. Cohn turned to the assembled reporters and said simply, “God bless America.”

Mr. Trump has found his own ways to communicate to the jury without submitting to cross-examination, closing his eyes to shut out testimony he cannot abide and even audibly cursing at one point while Stormy Daniels was on the stand.

Of all the lessons Mr. Trump learned from his mentor, the value of treating people transactionally may have been the most important. The former president has run through countless lawyers in his decades of legal proceedings. Many were discarded. Some were not paid. But he held Mr. Cohn in high regard and took his lessons to heart. In 1981, he gave his mentor a pair of huge diamond cuff links as a gesture of profound gratitude. Years later, a friend of Mr. Cohn’s had them appraised. They were worthless fakes.

Kai Bird is the director of the Leon Levy Center for Biography and a co-author with Martin J. Sherwin of “American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer.” He is working on a biography of Roy Cohn.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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