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Does time management work? A meta-analysis

1 Concordia University, Sir George Williams Campus, Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Aïda Faber

2 FSA Ulaval, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

Alexandra Panaccio

Associated data.

All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Does time management work? We conducted a meta-analysis to assess the impact of time management on performance and well-being. Results show that time management is moderately related to job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Time management also shows a moderate, negative relationship with distress. Interestingly, individual differences and contextual factors have a much weaker association with time management, with the notable exception of conscientiousness. The extremely weak correlation with gender was unexpected: women seem to manage time better than men, but the difference is very slight. Further, we found that the link between time management and job performance seems to increase over the years: time management is more likely to get people a positive performance review at work today than in the early 1990s. The link between time management and gender, too, seems to intensify: women’s time management scores have been on the rise for the past few decades. We also note that time management seems to enhance wellbeing—in particular, life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does performance. This challenges the common perception that time management first and foremost enhances work performance, and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct.

Introduction

Stand-up comedian George Carlin once quipped that in the future a “time machine will be built, but no one will have time to use it” [ 1 ]. Portentously, booksellers now carry one-minute bedtime stories for time-starved parents [ 2 ] and people increasingly speed-watch videos and speed-listen to audio books [ 3 – 5 ]. These behaviors are symptomatic of an increasingly harried society suffering from chronic time poverty [ 6 ]. Work is intensifying—in 1965 about 50% of workers took breaks; in 2003, less than 2% [ 7 ]. Leisure, too, is intensifying: people strive to consume music, social media, vacations, and other leisure activities ever more efficiently [ 8 – 11 ].

In this frantic context, time management is often touted as a panacea for time pressure. Media outlets routinely extol the virtues of time management. Employers, educators, parents, and politicians exhort employees, students, children, and citizens to embrace more efficient ways to use time [ 12 – 16 ]. In light of this, it is not surprising that from 1960 to 2008 the frequency of books mentioning time management shot up by more than 2,700% [ 17 ].

Time management is defined as “a form of decision making used by individuals to structure, protect, and adapt their time to changing conditions” [ 18 ]. This means time management, as it is generally portrayed in the literature, comprises three components: structuring, protecting, and adapting time. Well-established time management measures reflect these concepts. Structuring time, for instance, is captured in such items as “Do you have a daily routine which you follow?” and “Do your main activities during the day fit together in a structured way?” [ 19 ]. Protecting time is reflected in items such as “Do you often find yourself doing things which interfere with your schoolwork simply because you hate to say ‘No’ to people?” [ 20 ]. And adapting time to changing conditions is seen in such items as “Uses waiting time” and “Evaluates daily schedule” [ 21 ].

Research has, furthermore, addressed several important aspects of time management, such as its relationship with work-life balance [ 22 ], whether gender differences in time management ability develop in early childhood [ 23 ], and whether organizations that encourage employees to manage their time experience less stress and turnover [ 24 ]. Despite the phenomenal popularity of this topic, however, academic research has yet to address some fundamental questions [ 25 – 27 ].

A critical gap in time management research is the question of whether time management works [ 28 , 29 ]. For instance, studies on the relationship between time management and job performance reveal mixed findings [ 30 , 31 ]. Furthermore, scholars’ attempts to synthesize the literature have so far been qualitative, precluding a quantitative overall assessment [ 18 , 32 , 33 ]. To tackle this gap in our understanding of time management, we conducted a meta-analysis. In addressing the question of whether time management works, we first clarify the criteria for effectiveness. In line with previous reviews, we find that virtually all studies focus on two broad outcomes: performance and wellbeing [ 32 ].

Overall, results suggest that time management enhances job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. Interestingly, individual differences (e.g., gender, age) and contextual factors (e.g., job autonomy, workload) were much less related to time management ability, with the notable exception of personality and, in particular, conscientiousness. Furthermore, the link between time management and job performance seems to grow stronger over the years, perhaps reflecting the growing need to manage time in increasingly autonomous and flexible jobs [ 34 – 37 ].

Overall, our findings provide academics, policymakers, and the general audience with better information to assess the value of time management. This information is all the more useful amid the growing doubts about the effectiveness of time management [ 38 ]. We elaborate on the contributions and implications of our findings in the discussion section.

What does it mean to say that time management works?

In the din of current debates over productivity, reduced workweeks, and flexible hours, time management comes to the fore as a major talking point. Given its popularity, it would seem rather pointless to question its effectiveness. Indeed, time management’s effectiveness is often taken for granted, presumably because time management offers a seemingly logical solution to a lifestyle that increasingly requires coordination and prioritization skills [ 39 , 40 ].

Yet, popular media outlets increasingly voice concern and frustration over time management, reflecting at least part of the population’s growing disenchantment [ 38 ]. This questioning of time management practices is becoming more common among academics as well [ 41 ]. As some have noted, the issue is not just whether time management works. Rather, the question is whether the techniques championed by time management gurus can be actually counterproductive or even harmful [ 26 , 42 ]. Other scholars have raised concerns that time management may foster an individualistic, quantitative, profit-oriented view of time that perpetuates social inequalities [ 43 , 44 ]. For instance, time management manuals beguile readers with promises of boundless productivity that may not be accessible to women, whose disproportionate share in care work, such as tending to young children, may not fit with typically male-oriented time management advice [ 45 ]. Similarly, bestselling time management books at times offer advice that reinforce global inequities. Some manuals, for instance, recommend delegating trivial tasks to private virtual assistants, who often work out of developing countries for measly wages [ 46 ]. Furthermore, time management manuals often ascribe a financial value to time—the most famous time management adage is that time is money. But recent studies show that thinking of time as money leads to a slew of negative outcomes, including time pressure, stress, impatience, inability to enjoy the moment, unwillingness to help others, and less concern with the environment [ 47 – 51 ]. What’s more, the pressure induced by thinking of time as money may ultimately undermine psychological and physical health [ 52 ].

Concerns over ethics and safety notwithstanding, a more prosaic question researchers have grappled with is whether time management works. Countless general-audience books and training programs have claimed that time management improves people’s lives in many ways, such as boosting performance at work [ 53 – 55 ]. Initial academic forays into addressing this question challenged those claims: time management didn’t seem to improve job performance [ 29 , 30 ]. Studies used a variety of research approaches, running the gamut from lab experiments, field experiments, longitudinal studies, and cross-sectional surveys to experience sampling [ 28 , 56 – 58 ]. Such studies occasionally did find an association between time management and performance, but only in highly motivated workers [ 59 ]; instances establishing a more straightforward link with performance were comparatively rare [ 31 ]. Summarizing these insights, reviews of the literature concluded that the link between time management and job performance is unclear; the link with wellbeing, however, seemed more compelling although not conclusive [ 18 , 32 ].

It is interesting to note that scholars often assess the effectiveness time management by its ability to influence some aspect of performance, wellbeing, or both. In other words, the question of whether time management works comes down to asking whether time management influences performance and wellbeing. The link between time management and performance at work can be traced historically to scientific management [ 60 ]. Nevertheless, even though modern time management can be traced to scientific management in male-dominated work settings, a feminist reading of time management history reveals that our modern idea of time management also descends from female time management thinkers of the same era, such as Lillian Gilbreth, who wrote treatises on efficient household management [ 43 , 61 , 62 ]. As the link between work output and time efficiency became clearer, industrialists went to great lengths to encourage workers to use their time more rationally [ 63 – 65 ]. Over time, people have internalized a duty to be productive and now see time management as a personal responsibility at work [ 43 , 66 , 67 ]. The link between time management and academic performance can be traced to schools’ historical emphasis on punctuality and timeliness. In more recent decades, however, homework expectations have soared [ 68 ] and parents, especially well-educated ones, have been spending more time preparing children for increasingly competitive college admissions [ 69 , 70 ]. In this context, time management is seen as a necessary skill for students to thrive in an increasingly cut-throat academic world. Finally, the link between time management and wellbeing harks back to ancient scholars, who emphasized that organizing one’s time was necessary to a life well-lived [ 71 , 72 ]. More recently, empirical studies in the 1980s examined the effect of time management on depressive symptoms that often plague unemployed people [ 19 , 73 ]. Subsequent studies surmised that the effective use of time might prevent a host of ills, such as work-life conflict and job stress [ 22 , 74 ].

Overall, then, various studies have looked into the effectiveness of time management. Yet, individual studies remain narrow in scope and reviews of the literature offer only a qualitative—and often inconclusive—assessment. To provide a more quantifiable answer to the question of whether time management works, we performed a meta-analysis, the methods of which we outline in what follows.

Literature search and inclusion criteria

We performed a comprehensive search using the keywords “time management” across the EBSCO databases Academic Search Complete , Business Source Complete , Computers & Applied Sciences Complete , Gender Studies Database , MEDLINE , Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection , PsycINFO , SocINDEX , and Education Source . The search had no restrictions regarding country and year of publication and included peer-reviewed articles up to 2019. To enhance comprehensiveness, we also ran a forward search on the three main time management measures: the Time Management Behavior Scale [ 21 ], the Time Structure Questionnaire [ 19 ], and the Time Management Questionnaire [ 20 ]. (A forward search tracks all the papers that have cited a particular work. In our case the forward search located all the papers citing the three time management scales available on Web of Science .)

Time management measures typically capture three aspects of time management: structuring, protecting, and adapting time to changing conditions. Structuring refers to how people map their activities to time using a schedule, a planner, or other devices that represent time in a systematic way [ 75 – 77 ]. Protecting refers to how people set boundaries around their time to repel intruders [ 78 , 79 ]. Examples include people saying no to time-consuming requests from colleagues or friends as well as turning off one’s work phone during family dinners. Finally, adapting one’s time to changing conditions means, simply put, to be responsive and flexible with one’s time structure [ 80 , 81 ]. Furthermore, time management measures typically probe behaviors related to these three dimensions (e.g., using a schedule to structure one’s day, making use of downtime), although they sometimes also capture people’s attitudes (e.g., whether people feel in control of their time).

As shown in Fig 1 , the initial search yielded 10,933 hits, excluding duplicates.

The search included no terms other than “time management” to afford the broadest possible coverage of time management correlates. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 1 , we focused exclusively on quantitative, empirical studies of time management in non-clinical samples. Successive rounds of screening, first by assessing paper titles and abstracts and then by perusing full-text articles, whittled down the number of eligible studies to 158 (see Fig 1 ).

Data extraction and coding

We extracted eligible effect sizes from the final pool of studies; effect sizes were mostly based on means and correlations. In our initial data extraction, we coded time management correlates using the exact variable names found in each paper. For instance, “work-life imbalance” was initially coded in those exact terms, rather than “work-life conflict.” Virtually all time management correlates we extracted fell under the category of performance and/or wellbeing. This pattern tallies with previous reviews of the literature [ 18 , 32 ]. A sizable number of variables also fell under the category of individual differences and contextual factors, such as age, personality, and job autonomy. After careful assessment of the extracted variables, we developed a coding scheme using a nested structure shown in Table 2 .

Aeon and Aguinis suggested that time management influences performance, although the strength of that relationship may depend on how performance is defined [ 18 ]. Specifically, they proposed that time management may have a stronger impact on behaviors conducive to performance (e.g., motivation, proactiveness) compared to assessments of performance (e.g., supervisor rankings). For this reason, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance in our coding scheme, both in professional and academic settings. Furthermore, wellbeing indicators can be positive (e.g., life satisfaction) or negative (e.g., anxiety). We expect time management to influence these variables in opposite ways; it would thus make little sense to analyze them jointly. Accordingly, we differentiate between wellbeing (positive) and distress (negative).

In our second round of coding, we used the scheme shown in Table 2 to cluster together kindred variables. For instance, we grouped “work-life imbalance,” “work-life conflict” and “work-family conflict” under an overarching “work-life conflict” category. The authors reviewed each variable code and resolved rare discrepancies to ultimately agree on all coded variables. Note that certain variables, such as self-actualization, covered only one study (i.e., one effect size). While one or two effect sizes is not enough to conduct a meta-analysis, they can nonetheless be grouped with other effect sizes belonging to the same category (e.g., self-actualization and sense of purpose belong the broader category of overall wellbeing). For this reason, we included variables with one or two effect sizes for comprehensiveness.

Meta-analytic procedures

We conducted all meta-analyses following the variables and cluster of variables outlined in Table 2 . We opted to run all analyses with a random effects model. The alternative—a fixed effects model—assumes that all studies share a common true effect size (i.e., linking time management and a given outcome) which they approximate. This assumption is unrealistic because it implies that the factors influencing the effect size are the same in all studies [ 83 ]. In other words, a fixed effects model assumes that the factors affecting time management are similar across all studies—the fallacy underlying this assumption was the main theme of Aeon and Aguinis’s review [ 18 ]. To perform our analyses, we used Comprehensive Meta-Analysis v.3 [ 84 ], a program considered highly reliable and valid in various systematic assessments [ 85 , 86 ].

Meta-analyses do not typically perform calculations on correlations (e.g., Pearson’s r). Instead, we transformed correlations into Fisher’s z scales [ 83 ]. The transformation was done with z = 0.5 × ln ( 1 + r 1 − r ) , where r represents the correlation extracted from each individual study. The variance of Fisher’s Z was calculated as V z = 1 n − 3 where n corresponds to the study’s sample size; the standard error of Fisher’s Z was calculated as S E z = V z .

In many cases, studies reported how variables correlated with an overall time management score. In some cases, however, studies reported only correlations with discrete time management subscales (e.g., short-range planning, attitudes toward time, use of time management tools), leaving out the overall effect. In such cases, we averaged out the effect sizes of the subscales to compute a summary effect [ 83 ]. This was necessary not only because meta-analyses admit only one effect size per study, but also because our focus is on time management as a whole rather than on subscales. Similarly, when we analyzed the link between time management and a high-level cluster of variables (e.g., overall wellbeing rather than specific variables such as life satisfaction), there were studies with more than one relevant outcome (e.g., a study that captured both life satisfaction and job satisfaction). Again, because meta-analyses allow for only one effect size (i.e., variable) per study, we used the mean of different variables to compute an overall effect sizes in studies that featured more than one outcome [ 83 ].

Overall description of the literature

We analyzed 158 studies for a total number of 490 effect sizes. 21 studies explored performance in a professional context, 76 performance in an academic context, 30 investigated wellbeing (positive), and 58 distress. Interestingly, studies did not systematically report individual differences, as evidenced by the fact that only 21 studies reported correlations with age, and only between 10 and 15 studies measured personality (depending on the personality trait). Studies that measured contextual factors were fewer still—between 3 and 7 (depending on the contextual factor). These figures fit with Aeon and Aguinis’s observation that the time management literature often overlooks internal and external factors that can influence the way people manage time [ 18 ].

With one exception, we found no papers fitting our inclusion criteria before the mid-1980s. Publication trends also indicate an uptick in time management studies around the turn of the millennium, with an even higher number around the 2010s. This trend is consistent with the one Shipp and Cole identified, revealing a surge in time-related papers in organizational behavior around the end of the 1980s [ 87 ].

It is also interesting to note that the first modern time management books came out in the early 1970s, including the The Time Trap (1972), by Alec MacKenzie and How to Get Control of your Time and your Life (1973), by Alan Lakein. These books inspired early modern time management research [ 21 , 58 , 88 ]. It is thus very likely that the impetus for modern time management research came from popular practitioner manuals.

To assess potential bias in our sample of studies, we computed different estimates of publication bias (see Table 3 ). Overall, publication bias remains relatively low (see funnel plots in S1). Publication bias occurs when there is a bias against nonsignificant or even negative results because such results are seen as unsurprising and not counterintuitive. In this case, however, the fact that time management is generally expected to lead to positive outcomes offers an incentive to publish nonsignificant or negative results, which would be counterintuitive [ 89 ]. By the same token, the fact that some people feel that time management is ineffective [ 38 ] provides an incentive to publish papers that link time management with positive outcomes. In other words, opposite social expectations surrounding time management might reduce publication bias.

Finally, we note that the link between time management and virtually all outcomes studied is highly heterogeneous (as measured, for instance, by Cochran’s Q and Higgins & Thompson’s I 2 ; see tables below). This high level of heterogeneity suggests that future research should pay more attention to moderating factors (e.g., individual differences).

Time management and performance in professional settings

Overall, time management has a moderate impact on performance at work, with correlations hovering around r = .25. We distinguish between results-based and behavior-based performance. The former measures performance as an outcome (e.g., performance appraisals by supervisors) whereas the latter measures performance as behavioral contributions (e.g., motivation, job involvement). Time management seems related to both types of performance. Although the effect size for results-based performance is lower than that of behavior-based performance, moderation analysis reveals the difference is not significant (p > .05), challenging Aeon and Aguinis’s conclusions [ 18 ].

Interestingly, the link between time management and performance displays much less heterogeneity (see Q and I 2 statistics in Table 4 ) than the link between time management and other outcomes (see tables below). The studies we summarize in Table 4 include both experimental and non-experimental designs; they also use different time management measures. As such, we can discount, to a certain extent, the effect of methodological diversity. We can perhaps explain the lower heterogeneity by the fact that when people hold a full-time job, they usually are at a relatively stable stage in life. In school, by contrast, a constellation of factors (e.g., financial stability and marital status, to name a few) conspire to affect time management outcomes. Furthermore, work contexts are a typically more closed system than life in general. For this reason, fewer factors stand to disrupt the link between time management and job performance than that between time management and, say, life satisfaction. Corroborating this, note how, in Table 6 below, the link between time management and job satisfaction ( I 2 = 58.70) is much less heterogeneous than the one between time management and life satisfaction ( I 2 = 95.45).

* p < .05

** p < .01

*** p < .001.

k = number of studies related to the variable | N = total sample size related to the variable.

r = effect size of the correlation between time management and the variable | 95% CI = confidence interval of the effect size.

Q = Cochran’s Q, a measure of between-study heterogeneity | τ 2 = measure of between-study variance | I 2 = alternative measure of between-study heterogeneity.

Moreover, we note that the relationship between time management and job performance (see Fig 2 ) significantly increases over the years ( B = .0106, p < .01, Q model = 8.52(1), Q residual = 15.54(9), I 2 = 42.08, R 2 analog = .75).

Time management and performance in academic settings

Overall, the effect of time management on performance seems to be slightly higher in academic settings compared to work settings, although the magnitude of the effect remains moderate (see Table 5 ). Here again, we distinguish between results- and behavior-based performance. Time management’s impact on behavior-based performance seems much higher than on results-based performance—a much wider difference than the one we observed in professional settings. This suggests than results-based performance in academic settings depends less on time management than results-based performance in professional settings. This means that time management is more likely to get people a good performance review at work than a strong GPA in school.

In particular, time management seems to be much more negatively related to procrastination in school than at work. Although we cannot establish causation in all studies, we note that some of them featured experimental designs that established a causal effect of time management on reducing procrastination [ 90 ].

Interestingly, time management was linked to all types of results-based performance except for standardized tests. This is perhaps due to the fact that standardized tests tap more into fluid intelligence, a measure of intelligence independent of acquired knowledge [ 91 ]. GPA and regular exam scores, in contrast, tap more into crystallized intelligence, which depends mostly on accumulated knowledge. Time management can thus assist students in organizing their time to acquire the knowledge necessary to ace a regular exam; for standardized exams that depend less on knowledge and more on intelligence, however, time management may be less helpful. Evidence from other studies bears this out: middle school students’ IQ predicts standardized achievement tests scores better than self-control while self-control predicts report card grades better than IQ [ 92 ]. (For our purposes, we can use self-control as a very rough proxy for time management.) Relatedly, we found no significant relationship between time management and cognitive ability in our meta-analysis (see Table 8 ).

a Female = 1; Male = 2.

b Single = 1; Married = 2.

Time management and wellbeing

On the whole, time management has a slightly stronger impact on wellbeing than on performance. This is unexpected, considering how the dominant discourse points to time management as a skill for professional career development. Of course, the dominant discourse also frames time management as necessary for wellbeing and stress reduction, but to a much lesser extent. Our finding that time management has a stronger influence on wellbeing in no way negates the importance of time management as a work skill. Rather, this finding challenges the intuitive notion that time management is more effective for work than for other life domains. As further evidence, notice how in Table 6 the effect of time management on life satisfaction is 72% stronger than that on job satisfaction.

Time management and distress

Time management seems to allay various forms of distress, although to a lesser extent than it enhances wellbeing. The alleviating effect on psychological distress is particularly strong ( r = -0.358; see Table 7 ).

That time management has a weaker effect on distress should not be surprising. First, wellbeing and distress are not two poles on opposite ends of a spectrum. Although related, wellbeing and distress are distinct [ 93 ]. Thus, there is no reason to expect time management to have a symmetrical effect on wellbeing and distress. Second, and relatedly, the factors that influence wellbeing and distress are also distinct. Specifically, self-efficacy (i.e., seeing oneself as capable) is a distinct predictor of wellbeing while neuroticism and life events in general are distinct predictors of distress [ 94 ]. It stands to reason that time management can enhance self-efficacy. (Or, alternatively, that people high in self-efficacy would be more likely to engage in time management, although experimental evidence suggests that time management training makes people feel more in control of their time [ 89 ]; it is thus plausible that time management may have a causal effect on self-efficacy. Relatedly, note how time management ability is strongly related to internal locus of control in Table 8 ) In contrast, time management can do considerably less in the way of tackling neuroticism and dampening the emotional impact of tragic life events. In other words, the factors that affect wellbeing may be much more within the purview of time management than the factors that affect distress. For this reason, time management may be less effective in alleviating distress than in improving wellbeing.

Time management and individual differences

Time management is, overall, less related to individual differences than to other variables.

Age, for instance, hardly correlates with time management (with a relatively high consistency between studies, I 2 = 55.79, see Table 8 above).

Similarly, gender only tenuously correlates with time management, although in the expected direction: women seem to have stronger time management abilities than men. The very weak association with gender ( r = -0.087) is particularly surprising given women’s well-documented superior self-regulation skills [ 95 ]. That being said, women’s time management abilities seem to grow stronger over the years ( N = 37, B = -.0049, p < .05, Q model = 3.89(1), Q residual = 218.42(35), I 2 = 83.98, R 2 analog = .03; also see Fig 3 below). More realistically, this increase may not be due to women’s time management abilities getting stronger per se but, rather, to the fact that women now have more freedom to manage their time [ 96 ].

Other demographic indicators, such as education and number of children, were nonsignificant. Similarly, the relationships between time management and personal attributes and attitudes were either weak or nonsignificant, save for two notable exceptions. First, the link between time management and internal locus of control (i.e., the extent to which people perceive they’re in control of their lives) is quite substantial. This is not surprising, because time management presupposes that people believe they can change their lives. Alternatively, it may be that time management helps people strengthen their internal locus of control, as experimental evidence suggests [ 89 ]. Second, the link between time management and self-esteem is equally substantial. Here again, one can make the argument either way: people with high self-esteem might be confident enough to manage their time or, conversely, time management may boost self-esteem. The two options are not mutually exclusive: people with internal loci of control and high self-esteem levels can feel even more in control of their lives and better about themselves through time management.

We also note a very weak but statistically significant negative association between time management and multitasking. It has almost become commonsense that multitasking does not lead to performance [ 97 ]. As a result, people with stronger time management skills might deliberately steer clear of this notoriously ineffective strategy.

In addition, time management was mildly related to hours spent studying but not hours spent working. (These variables cover only student samples working part- or full-time and thus do not apply to non-student populations.) This is consistent with time-use studies revealing that teenagers and young adults spend less time working and more time studying [ 98 ]. Students who manage their time likely have well-defined intentions, and trends suggest those intentions will target education over work because, it is hoped, education offers larger payoffs over the long-term [ 99 ].

In terms of contextual factors, time management does not correlate significantly with job autonomy. This is surprising, as we expected autonomy to be a prerequisite for time management (i.e., you can’t manage time if you don’t have the freedom to). Nevertheless, qualitative studies have shown how even in environments that afford little autonomy (e.g., restaurants), workers can carve out pockets of time freedom to momentarily cut loose [ 100 ]. Thus, time management behaviors may flourish even in the most stymying settings. In addition, the fact that time management is associated with less role overload and previous attendance of time management training programs makes sense: time management can mitigate the effect of heavy workloads and time management training, presumably, improves time management skills.

Finally, time management is linked to all personality traits. Moreover, previous reviews of the literature have commented on the link between time management and conscientiousness in particular [ 32 ]. What our study reveals is the substantial magnitude of the effect ( r = 0.451). The relationship is not surprising: conscientiousness entails orderliness and organization, which overlap significantly with time management. That time management correlates so strongly with personality (and so little with other individual differences) lends credence to the dispositional view of time management [ 101 – 103 ]. However, this finding should not be taken to mean that time management is a highly inheritable, fixed ability. Having a “you either have it or you don’t” view of time management is not only counterproductive [ 104 ] but also runs counter to evidence showing that time management training does, in fact, help people manage their time better.

Does time management work? It seems so. Time management has a moderate influence on job performance, academic achievement, and wellbeing. These three outcomes play an important role in people’s lives. Doing a good job at work, getting top grades in school, and nurturing psychological wellbeing contribute to a life well lived. Widespread exhortations to get better at time management are thus not unfounded: the importance of time management is hard to overstate.

Contributions

Beyond answering the question of whether time management works, this study contributes to the literature in three major ways. First, we quantify the impact of time management on several outcomes. We thus not only address the question of whether time management works, but also, and importantly, gauge to what extent time management works. Indeed, our meta-analysis covers 53,957 participants, which allows for a much more precise, quantified assessment of time management effectiveness compared to qualitative reviews.

Second, this meta-analysis systematically assesses relationships between time management and a host of individual differences and contextual factors. This helps us draw a more accurate portrait of potential antecedents of higher (or lower) scores on time management measures.

Third, our findings challenge intuitive ideas concerning what time management is for. Specifically, we found that time management enhances wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than it does various types of performance. This runs against the popular belief that time management primarily helps people perform better and that wellbeing is simply a byproduct of better performance. Of course, it may be that wellbeing gains, even if higher than performance gains, hinge on performance; that is to say, people may need to perform better as a prerequisite to feeling happier. But this argument doesn’t jibe with experiments showing that even in the absence of performance gains, time management interventions do increase wellbeing [ 89 ]. This argument also founders in the face of evidence linking time management with wellbeing among the unemployed [ 105 ], unemployment being an environment where performance plays a negligible role, if any. As such, this meta-analysis lends support to definitions of time management that are not work- or performance-centric.

Future research and limitations

This meta-analysis questions whether time management should be seen chiefly as a performance device. Our questioning is neither novel nor subversive: historically people have managed time for other reasons than efficiency, such as spiritual devotion and philosophical contemplation [ 72 , 106 , 107 ]. It is only with relatively recent events, such as the Industrial Revolution and waves of corporate downsizing, that time management has become synonymous with productivity [ 43 , 65 ]. We hope future research will widen its scope and look more into outcomes other than performance, such as developing a sense of meaning in life [ 108 ]. One of the earliest time management studies, for instance, explored how time management relates to having a sense of purpose [ 73 ]. However, very few studies followed suit since. Time management thus stands to become a richer, more inclusive research area by investigating a wider array of outcomes.

In addition, despite the encouraging findings of this meta-analysis we must refrain from seeing time management as a panacea. Though time management can make people’s lives better, it is not clear how easy it is for people to learn how to manage their time adequately. More importantly, being “good” at time management is often a function of income, education, and various types of privilege [ 42 , 43 , 46 , 109 ]. The hackneyed maxim that “you have as many hours in a day as Beyoncé,” for instance, blames people for their “poor” time management in pointing out that successful people have just as much time but still manage to get ahead. Yet this ill-conceived maxim glosses over the fact that Beyoncé and her ilk do, in a sense, have more hours in a day than average people who can’t afford a nanny, chauffeur, in-house chefs, and a bevy of personal assistants. Future research should thus look into ways to make time management more accessible.

Furthermore, this meta-analysis rests on the assumption that time management training programs do enhance people’s time management skills. Previous reviews have noted the opacity surrounding time management interventions—studies often don’t explain what, exactly, is taught in time management training seminars [ 18 ]. As a result, comparing the effect of different interventions might come down to comparing apples and oranges. (This might partly account for the high heterogeneity between studies.) We hope that our definition of time management will spur future research into crafting more consistent, valid, and generalizable interventions that will allow for more meaningful comparisons.

Finally, most time management studies are cross-sectional. Yet it is very likely that the effect of time management compounds over time. If time management can help students get better grades, for instance, those grades can lead to better jobs down the line [ 110 ]. Crucially, learning a skill takes time, and if time management helps people make the time to learn a skill, then time management stands to dramatically enrich people’s lives. For this reason, longitudinal studies can track different cohorts to see how time management affects people’s lives over time. We expect that developing time management skills early on in life can create a compound effect whereby people acquire a variety of other skills thanks to their ability to make time.

Overall, this study offers the most comprehensive, precise, and fine-grained assessment of time management to date. We address the longstanding debate over whether time management influences job performance in revealing a positive, albeit moderate effect. Interestingly, we found that time management impacts wellbeing—and in particular life satisfaction—to a greater extent than performance. That means time management may be primarily a wellbeing enhancer, rather than a performance booster. Furthermore, individual and external factors played a minor role in time management, although this does not necessarily mean that time management’s effectiveness is universal. Rather, we need more research that focuses on the internal and external variables that affect time management outcomes. We hope this study will tantalize future research and guide practitioners in their attempt to make better use of their time.

Supporting information

S1 checklist, acknowledgments.

We would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge our colleagues for their invaluable help: Mengchan Gao, Talha Aziz, Elizabeth Eley, Robert Nason, Andrew Ryder, Tracy Hecht, and Caroline Aubé.

Funding Statement

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability

Case Study On Time Management At Work: My Journey to Productivity

Rosie Landry

Hello, my name is [Name] and like most people, I have always struggled with time management at work. I used to find myself overwhelmed, stressed out, and constantly falling behind on deadlines. But, after implementing effective time management strategies, I have been able to drastically improve my productivity and work-life balance.

Table of Contents

In this article, I will share my personal case study on time management at work and highlight the importance of implementing effective techniques to improve productivity.

Key Takeaways

• Effective time management strategies are key to improving productivity at work.
• Setting SMART goals and prioritizing tasks can help maximize productivity.
• Creating a daily routine and leveraging technology can streamline productivity.
• Delegating and outsourcing tasks can empower time management.
• Tracking progress and making necessary adjustments is crucial for success.
• Challenges can be overcome with practical solutions and maintaining work-life balance is important.

Setting Goals for Effective Time Management

As I embarked on my journey to improve my time management skills, I quickly realized that setting clear and achievable goals was key to my success. By defining what I wanted to accomplish in a given day, week, or month, I was able to prioritize my tasks and work towards my objectives in a more focused and efficient way.

SMART Goals

To make sure that my goals were clear and achievable, I followed the SMART methodology:

Using this method, I was able to set goals that were specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. This allowed me to take concrete steps towards my goals and track my progress along the way.

Aligning Goals with Tasks and Priorities

In addition to setting SMART goals, I also made sure to align them with my daily tasks and priorities. By breaking down my goals into smaller, actionable steps, I was able to identify the tasks that needed to be completed in order to achieve each goal. I then prioritized these tasks based on urgency and importance, ensuring that I focused on the most critical items first.

Through setting clear and achievable goals, and aligning them with my daily tasks and priorities, I was able to improve my productivity at work and achieve a greater sense of satisfaction and accomplishment in my daily tasks.

Prioritizing Tasks: Key to Time Management Success

As I discovered on my journey to productivity, prioritizing tasks is crucial for effective time management . By identifying urgent and important tasks and tackling them first, I was able to maximize my productivity and avoid wasting time on less important tasks.

One helpful strategy for prioritizing tasks is the Eisenhower Matrix, which involves classifying tasks into four categories based on urgency and importance:

By using this matrix, I was able to quickly prioritize my tasks and focus my attention on those that required my immediate attention. I also learned to be realistic about my time and avoid overcommitting myself to tasks that were not essential.

Another important aspect of prioritizing tasks is managing distractions. I found that by minimizing interruptions and limiting my exposure to non-work-related activities, such as social media and email, I was able to stay focused and complete my tasks more efficiently. I also learned to take regular breaks to recharge my energy and avoid burnout.

Overall, effective prioritization of tasks is a key component of successful time management and an essential part of my productivity journey.

Creating a Daily Routine for Optimal Time Management

A daily routine is a powerful tool for effective time management. It helps me stay organized, maintain focus, and achieve my goals with greater efficiency. Here are some tips for creating a routine that works for you:

• Identify your priorities: Start by making a list of your primary goals and tasks for the day. Use this list to determine what tasks require the most time and energy. This will help you allocate your time and resources more effectively throughout the day.
• Set a schedule: Determine what time you want to wake up and go to bed each day. Then, create a schedule that includes dedicated blocks of time for focused work, breaks, and self-care activities. Make sure you block off time for meals, exercise, and other important activities that support your overall well-being.
• Stick to your routine: Consistency is key to making your daily routine work for you. Try to stick to your schedule as closely as possible, even on weekends. This will help you maintain good habits and avoid burnout.
• Be flexible: Remember that life is unpredictable and things don’t always go as planned. Be prepared to make adjustments to your routine as needed. If unexpected tasks come up, try to fit them into your schedule without sacrificing your other priorities.
• Take breaks: Breaks are essential for maintaining focus and avoiding burnout. Plan to take regular breaks throughout the day. Use this time to stretch, take a walk, or do something that brings you joy.
• Track your progress: Keep a log of your daily routine and track your progress over time. This will help you identify areas for improvement and make adjustments as needed.

By creating a daily routine that supports your goals and priorities, you can improve your time management skills and achieve optimal productivity. Remember to be patient with yourself as you establish new habits and routines. With practice, you can develop a routine that works for you and helps you achieve your goals.

Leveraging Technology for Time Management Efficiency

Technology plays a crucial role in modern time management techniques. By using the right tools and apps, I was able to streamline my work process, manage deadlines, and increase my overall productivity. Here are some of the productivity tools and apps I found most helpful:

By using these tools, I was able to stay organized, prioritize tasks effectively, and reduce distractions. It took some time to find the right combination of tools that worked best for me, but the effort was well worth it in terms of improved productivity and efficiency.

Delegating and Outsourcing: Empowering Time Management

One of the most effective ways I have found to improve my time management skills is by delegating tasks to others and outsourcing work when necessary. While this may seem like I am shirking my responsibilities, it actually empowers me to focus on my core tasks and responsibilities without getting bogged down in peripheral ones.

When considering tasks to delegate or outsource, I first look at those that are time-intensive but do not require my specific expertise. For instance, administrative tasks such as data entry, scheduling, and invoicing can be easily outsourced to a reputable virtual assistant or administrative service provider. This frees up a significant amount of my time, which I can then use to focus on more critical tasks that require my unique skill set.

Another factor to consider when delegating or outsourcing is the level of trust that I have in the person or service that I am passing my work onto. It is essential to conduct background checks, review testimonials, and vet potential candidates to ensure that they have the necessary skills and experience to handle my work effectively. I also ensure that I communicate expectations clearly and provide sufficient guidance to minimize the chances of any misunderstandings or errors.

Finally, outsourcing or delegating tasks should not be a one-time occurrence. To ensure that everything runs smoothly and efficiently, I make it a point to schedule regular check-ins with my virtual assistant or service provider and regularly review their performance metrics. This allows me to address any issues before they become major setbacks and make any necessary adjustments to improve their performance or streamline the work process.

Tracking Progress and Making Adjustments

Throughout my journey towards improving time management at work, I found it crucial to track my progress and make necessary adjustments along the way. This allowed me to ensure that I was on the right track, identify areas for improvement, and maintain my productivity levels.

One of the strategies I used was to regularly monitor my productivity and analyze how I spent my time on different tasks. I found that this helped me identify any patterns or habits that were affecting my productivity and enabled me to make informed decisions about how to optimize my time.

Another technique I found useful was to set benchmarks and goals for each day and week. By measuring my progress against these targets, I was able to stay motivated and track my success. In addition, it allowed me to make adjustments when needed and adapt my strategies to better align with my goals.

When making adjustments, it is important to be flexible and willing to try new strategies. For example, if a particular tool or technique is not working, it may be necessary to switch to a different approach. In addition, I found it helpful to seek feedback from colleagues or supervisors and incorporate their suggestions into my time management strategies.

Overall, tracking progress and making adjustments are critical components of effective time management. By regularly monitoring productivity, setting goals, and being flexible in adapting to new strategies, I was able to maximize my efficiency and achieve success in the workplace.

Overcoming Time Management Challenges

As I progressed on my journey to improve my time management at work, I encountered various challenges that threatened to derail my progress. Here are some of the most common challenges I faced, and how I overcame them:

• Interruptions: One of the biggest challenges to my time management was being interrupted while working on important tasks. To combat this, I started setting boundaries by informing my colleagues of my focus hours and putting up a “do not disturb” sign when necessary. I also made sure to turn off notifications on my phone and email when I needed to focus.
• Unexpected tasks: Another challenge was dealing with unexpected tasks that popped up throughout the day. To manage this, I started blocking out time in my daily routine for “buffer tasks” that allowed me to address unexpected priorities without compromising my other work.
• Work-life balance: Finally, I struggled with finding the right balance between work and personal time. To combat this, I started scheduling self-care activities into my daily routine, such as taking a walk during my lunch break or reading for pleasure before bed. I also made sure to set realistic expectations for my work and communicate with my colleagues about my boundaries.

By proactively addressing these challenges and implementing effective time management strategies, I was able to significantly improve my productivity and work-life balance.

Overall, my journey to improving productivity through effective time management has been transformative. By setting goals, prioritizing tasks, creating a daily routine, leveraging technology, delegating and outsourcing, tracking progress, and overcoming challenges, I’ve found a new level of focus, efficiency, and work-life balance that I never thought possible.

For anyone seeking to improve their own time management skills, I encourage you to take the first step today. Start by identifying your goals and breaking them down into actionable tasks. Prioritize your to-do list based on urgency and importance, and find ways to minimize distractions and procrastination. Consider implementing a daily routine that includes designated work time, breaks, and self-care activities.

Don’t be afraid to experiment with productivity tools and apps to streamline tasks and manage deadlines, or to delegate tasks to reliable resources when necessary. Remember to track your progress regularly and make adjustments as needed, and to be patient with yourself as you learn and grow.

Final Thoughts

Effective time management is not just about getting more done in less time; it’s about finding a balance between work and life that allows you to thrive. By implementing the strategies and techniques discussed in this case study, you can take control of your time and achieve greater success and satisfaction in all areas of your life. So, what are you waiting for? Get started today!

Q: What is the case study about?

A: The case study focuses on time management at work and shares the author’s personal journey towards productivity.

Q: Why is setting goals important for effective time management?

A: Setting goals helps prioritize tasks, align daily activities, and improve overall time management.

Q: How can I prioritize tasks effectively?

A: Prioritizing tasks based on urgency and importance, managing distractions, and avoiding procrastination are key to successful time management.

Q: How can a daily routine contribute to optimal time management?

A: Creating a structured daily routine that includes dedicated time for focused work, breaks, and self-care activities can enhance time management efficiency.

Q: Can technology help improve time management?

A: Yes, leveraging productivity tools and apps can streamline tasks, manage deadlines, and enhance overall productivity.

Q: What are the benefits of delegating and outsourcing tasks?

A: Delegating and outsourcing tasks can empower time management by freeing up valuable time and resources for more important responsibilities.

Q: How can progress be tracked and adjustments made?

A: Monitoring productivity, analyzing time spent on tasks, and making informed adjustments are essential for improving time management.

Q: What are some common time management challenges?

A: Managing interruptions, handling unexpected tasks, and maintaining work-life balance are common challenges that can be addressed with effective time management techniques.

Q: What is the conclusion of the case study?

A: The case study emphasizes the importance of time management in improving productivity and work-life balance, and encourages readers to implement these techniques in their own lives.

About the author

I’m Rosie Landry, your friendly guide through the exciting world of practical management here on this blog. Here, I delve into everything from practical tips to complex theories of time management, combining scientific research with real-life applications. When I’m not writing about time management, you can find me with my nose in a gripping mystery novel, creating culinary delights, or out exploring nature with my faithful golden retriever, Marley. Join me as we discover how to take control of our time and enhance our lives together. If you need to reach out, do so here.

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• Format: Print
• | Language: English
• | Pages: 11

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Ashley V. Whillans

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, a review of the time management literature.

Personnel Review

ISSN : 0048-3486

Article publication date: 13 February 2007

The purpose of this article is to provide an overview for those interested in the current state‐of‐the‐art in time management research.

Design/methodology/approach

This review includes 32 empirical studies on time management conducted between 1982 and 2004.

The review demonstrates that time management behaviours relate positively to perceived control of time, job satisfaction, and health, and negatively to stress. The relationship with work and academic performance is not clear. Time management training seems to enhance time management skills, but this does not automatically transfer to better performance.

Research limitations/implications

The reviewed research displays several limitations. First, time management has been defined and operationalised in a variety of ways. Some instruments were not reliable or valid, which could account for unstable findings. Second, many of the studies were based on cross‐sectional surveys and used self‐reports only. Third, very little attention was given to job and organizational factors. There is a need for more rigorous research into the mechanisms of time management and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness. The ways in which stable time management behaviours can be established also deserves further investigation.

Practical implications

This review makes clear which effects may be expected of time management, which aspects may be most useful for which individuals, and which work characteristics would enhance or hinder positive effects. Its outcomes may help to develop more effective time management practices.

Originality/value

This review is the first to offer an overview of empirical research on time management. Both practice and scientific research may benefit from the description of previous attempts to measure and test the popular notions of time management.

• Time measurement
• Job satisfaction
• Performance management

Claessens, B.J.C. , van Eerde, W. , Rutte, C.G. and Roe, R.A. (2007), "A review of the time management literature", Personnel Review , Vol. 36 No. 2, pp. 255-276. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480710726136

Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2007, Emerald Group Publishing Limited

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2021

Two cases about Hertz claimed top spots in 2021's Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies

Two cases on the uses of debt and equity at Hertz claimed top spots in the CRDT’s (Case Research and Development Team) 2021 top 40 review of cases.

Hertz (A) took the top spot. The case details the financial structure of the rental car company through the end of 2019. Hertz (B), which ranked third in CRDT’s list, describes the company’s struggles during the early part of the COVID pandemic and its eventual need to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy. 

The success of the Hertz cases was unprecedented for the top 40 list. Usually, cases take a number of years to gain popularity, but the Hertz cases claimed top spots in their first year of release. Hertz (A) also became the first ‘cooked’ case to top the annual review, as all of the other winners had been web-based ‘raw’ cases.

Besides introducing students to the complicated financing required to maintain an enormous fleet of cars, the Hertz cases also expanded the diversity of case protagonists. Kathyrn Marinello was the CEO of Hertz during this period and the CFO, Jamere Jackson is black.

Sandwiched between the two Hertz cases, Coffee 2016, a perennial best seller, finished second. “Glory, Glory, Man United!” a case about an English football team’s IPO made a surprise move to number four.  Cases on search fund boards, the future of malls,  Norway’s Sovereign Wealth fund, Prodigy Finance, the Mayo Clinic, and Cadbury rounded out the top ten.

Other year-end data for 2021 showed:

• Online “raw” case usage remained steady as compared to 2020 with over 35K users from 170 countries and all 50 U.S. states interacting with 196 cases.
• Fifty four percent of raw case users came from outside the U.S..
• The Yale School of Management (SOM) case study directory pages received over 160K page views from 177 countries with approximately a third originating in India followed by the U.S. and the Philippines.
• Twenty-six of the cases in the list are raw cases.
• A third of the cases feature a woman protagonist.
• Orders for Yale SOM case studies increased by almost 50% compared to 2020.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 19 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising multiple cases.

CRDT compiled the Top 40 list by combining data from its case store, Google Analytics, and other measures of interest and adoption.

All of this year’s Top 40 cases are available for purchase from the Yale Management Media store .

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• The Productivity Show

Time Management Case Study: Busy Business People

Case Studies

A really common question that all productivity consultants get, is “well, that sounds great in theory… and it would probably work if I didn’t have all these other things to do… but Jim/John/Mary/Sarah, I have a business to run – I don’t have time for all this. What can you do for me?” This time management case study addresses that very question: how do you increase the productivity and efficiency of busy business people – without creating major disruptions throughout their business?

This case study is a little different in that it’s not about a specific person (company in this case), but is based on a presentation that was given to a small business in a non-Internet/non-tech service industry. They have about 25 employees distributed across 4 cities and as far as I know, no-one in the company is a productivity nerd .

We won’t be looking at specific strengths and weaknesses within that company, but rather, productivity concepts and applications that can be applied across all small businesses, with minimal fuss and disruption. These concepts are targeted mainly at a business’ founders or partners, but we’ll discuss how to implement them across the entire employee base as well.

Principles of Productivity

The general principles of productivity are the same, whether applied to an individual or a company. Here are the important ones for a busy business person.

Touch it Once

The touch it once  concept is the notion that each piece of paper, each activity, email or task should only have to be handled once. Realistically, twice if you have to assign it to someone or if you need to file it for actioning later. But the concept still holds. And the simplest application is this: avoid filing things “for later” into an overflowing physical in-tray. Deal with them as they arise, and either:

• File it away for actioning at a specific time.
• Delegate them to someone on the team.

No Meetings, Only Workshops

Don’t hold meetings. Meetings are the biggest time wasters in the business world. The allure of a meeting is that it feels like you’re getting work done… when really, it’s just a big session of mental masturbation. You discuss ideas, draw pretty flowcharts… and walk away with everyone “informed” and some “meeting minutes” that no one ever looks at again.

Instead, hold workshops. Workshops are essentially super-powered meetings. They start on time. They have a specific purpose in mind (“create a solution for claiming unpaid invoices”), and they have a time limit. It’s fine if the solution isn’t completed by the end time. You can always schedule another workshop.

If you absolutely must have traditional-style meetings, borrow a page from military field command – hold them standing up. You’ll waste a lot less time.

No Multitasking

This should be obvious but business people ignore this principle all the time. Multitasking is doing two or more things at once, or within close chronological proximity (i.e., within a few minutes of each other). A really common example is typing a document, chatting with a team member over Skype, and then answering the phone when it rings. Or compiling a spreadsheet, then stopping when someone appears at your office door.

Killing multitasking completely will yield unheard-of productivity increases everywhere. Even in a business where you have walk-in clients, as a director/partner/founder, you have the luxury of having a receptionist asking people to wait. It makes your time seem more valuable (because it is), and it allows you to take what you’re currently working on, tidy it up so that you can easily restart it at a later time, and then talk to the client.

Eat That Frog

AE Thanh has the authoritative article about this . The short version: do your most important task first, especially if it’s the one you really don’t want to do. This could be accounting, this could be reviewing legal papers, it could be firing that one employee who’s causing trouble. Do it first, and the rest of your day/week/month will be much better. See more in the section on rituals and health below.

Uptime, Downtime, Full Engagement

When you’re at work, you’re in uptime. You are fully engaged in what you are doing. With the exception of real-life emergencies, you do not break this state. You keep at it, and you keep on working.

When you’re off work, you’re in downtime (normally). Do your best not to think about work, or to take work calls. Really try to engage in your time off – it’s recharging your concentration and motivation and self-control levels, which you’ll need at optimum for when you’re back in the office.

No News Media

This is a pet peeve of mine. I hate – absolutely hate – when people forward non-work-related emails to my work address. Like pictures of the royal wedding. Like pictures of cute kittens. Like pictures of (insert today’s internet meme here). Your work time is your work time – it’s not time to be reading the paper, Cosmo/GQ or looking at YouTube videos. That’s all for downtime (and even then, I would suggest minimizing the presence of news media in your personal life too).

You should be able to work out the exceptions – like if you’re in publishing, you have to read certain periodicals and blogs. Business people should also read their industry’s trade periodical.

Create Future Business

Dan Kennedy calls this “priming the pump”. I prefer the term “future business”. It’s essentially a way to set yourself up for future success. Every day (and I do mean every day), do something extra that could result in future business. Whether it’s emailing a client to see how they’re doing, whether it’s posting a short blog entry to the company website, whether it’s giving a pep talk to a discouraged team member – give away something of value that can result in future business (and profits).

Health and Fitness

If there’s one thing that will increase the productivity levels across your entire business, it’s the health and fitness of your team members.

Simply put:

Happy + healthy team members = productive team members

As a business owner, you must lead by example. This doesn’t have to be complicated – some exercise or physical activity suited to your age and physical condition, a proper diet and some rituals to put it all together.

Think of other high-performance organizations, like sports teams or the military. They spend most of their time training and practicing for a game or operation. In the business world, you have to do the same – the game or mission is your work, that is when you perform. And one of the largest factors for success is your health and fitness.

Also, remember to get at least 6 hours of sleep a day . Preferably 8.

Two rituals are extremely useful for businesspeople.

The first is your morning ritual on days where you work. You should include the basics upon waking up:

• 500ml of water.
• Hygiene/make yourself presentable.
• Some movement to get the blood flowing.
• Personal email/Facebook if you must. It is better to defer these to the end of the day.
• A proper breakfast. Coffee and a bagel as you walk into the office is not breakfast.
• Once at the office, look at your plan for the day, make changes if necessary and then start with your most important task .

The second is what you do before you leave the office – you want to clear to neutral . Essentially, you want to review what you completed during the day, plan what you’re going to do the next day, and lay out all the materials and resources that you will need for a running start the next morning.

Email Management

We’ve written extensively about email management  before, but here’s a slight twist on the standard AE email management system that works better for busy business people who get a lot of email, and who use email to manage their team on a daily basis.

In general:

• Separate personal and business email accounts. This should be obvious.
• Check email twice a day – once at noon, and once before you finish up for the day. If you don’t think this is enough, put in 2 more checks at even intervals (for example, 10am, 12pm, 2pm, 4pm).
• Don’t leave Outlook/Mail open during the day. Close it when you’re not using it. Turn off any new mail notifications or reminders.
• Any incoming email should either:
• Be replied to or actioned if it will take less than 5 minutes.
• Filed if it doesn’t require actioning or follow up.
• Left in the inbox for later, if it involves someone having to get back to you on something, or if it’s something that will take more than 5 minutes to action.

The reason that this system deviates from the standard AE email management methodology is that a lot of businesses still use old POP3 servers, which makes storing items in separate folders inefficient. I’ve also found that teaching the concept of Inbox Zero to business people a large exercise in futility – most are in the mentality that the Inbox is a holding box for things that need to be worked on.

Instant Messaging

If you use IM (Skype, MSN, AIM) to communicate with your team , create a separate account where the contact list is only your team. You can leave the application running, but set it to NOT notify you when you have an incoming message. This is usually the Do Not Disturb or Busy status.

Treat IM like email – deal with it in batches, at specific times.

Put your cell phone/mobile on silent, but within visual range.

Never take phone calls immediately – train a receptionist to take messages, and set aside time to return calls in batches.

Door Policy

There is to be no open door policy. People who want to see you should make an appointment, including your own team. There is nothing worse than trying to solve the crisis-of-the-day than trying to solve the crisis-of-the-day while being constantly interrupted by employees wandering in to ask questions that they could look up on Google.

The only time anyone should interrupt you is in an emergency – if the building’s on fire, and even then, only if you need to evacuate.

Getting Work Done

In concert with the closed door policy, create your own interruption-free time by using timeblocks/timeboxes. This is essentially an appointment you make with yourself, where you work on one specific task or project.

The pomodoro technique is perfect to use in concert with timeboxes. Set it for a 50 minute work period with a 10 minute break, where you physically get out of your computer and move around. Whether it’s wandering over to the kitchen to get some water, or popping downstairs for some fresh air, you must leave your desk during the break.

Task Management

If you are super motivated to improve your productivity, take a look at our OmniFocus series .

For everyone else, I would suggest that the simpler the better. The AE primer on Simple Task Management  is ideal.

What you do is create a simple task list on paper or in a Word document, which then carries forward day-to-day.

From this list, pick the 3 most important things for the day , do a quick analysis of which is a priority , and do that first. At the end of the day, carry all remaining tasks to the next day. Any information or notes should be at the bottom of the list.

An adjunct to this is to use the task functionality in Outlook, or in iCal. Both are super simple task managers that can work very well for busy business people. If you’re going to use either of these programs, having a legal pad or notebook nearby to store information is also a good idea.

Decisions in the company that involve technology or computers should be made on the basis not of “what is the latest and coolest”, but on the basis of “what makes work easier”. When you are making architecture or buying decisions, think “developing world”: what is the simplest and cheapest solution that works. As an example, yes, online storage and redundant RAID arrays are nice and fancy, but a $100 USB hard disk works just as well for file backups.

Some advice from my mentor Jim: If it costs you less than $500 and makes you more productive, buy it.

Business Systems

Every successful business owner knows that the long-term profitability of their business lies in systems. Systems are where you meld habits, people, technology and processes together to create a profit-making machine.

You should be constantly investing in systems that let you and your team work faster, better and more efficiently.

Note: if you are a business owner or starting a new business, we have something super cool for you. Just email either of us introducing yourself (a simple hi will do) and we’ll talk.

Implementation

Everything that you’ve read in this case study is not hard to implement. The hardest will be the principles and mindsets at the beginning. Everything else, is something you can use right away – how you handle your email, turning off your IM client during the day, timeboxing your day.

The thing about habits is the more you do them, the easier they become. It will be difficult at first, but the payoff from implementing more efficient practices is far greater in the mid-to-long term.

These are things that can be taught to employees and team members too. The best way of teaching is through leading by example – show them how you are effective, and they will naturally follow.

Most business owners I know are already quite determined and disciplined – they know the value of putting in the hours and work. That’s all you need to implement this.

Photos by: Dan Zen , mikebaird , zieak , dsix , valeyoshino , Alex E. Poimos

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Founder of Asian Efficiency where we help people become more productive at work and in life. I've been featured on Forbes, Fast Company, and The Globe & Mail as a productivity thought leader. At AE I'm responsible for leading teams and executing our vision to assist people all over the world live their best life possible.

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Your advice is very helpful. I think that time management should be a mandatory lesson for employees. After all, planning tasks will help to make a profit. I really liked the advice – No News Media

I will soon start with some team training and managment effciency. Eventhough some of this concepts were already known and applyied, I’d love to use your format and some expressions. for sure I’d love to credit you for all of them! Thanks for saying it in a straight forward and refreshing way!

No worries. Thanks for the kind words!

Can you send me the link to the “Military Field Command” you reference? I couldn’t find it on google.

Am from Nigeria,we also do training, Please I need your affirmation to use some of this illustrations as you identified here in our time management training while i will also reference your site.

Tim, you’ll have to contact the individual photographers on Flickr or follow their attribution rules to use the illustrations.

I work for a local corporate college and am preparing a training session on time management for an organization the college is working with. Would it be possible to use some of the concepts you mention in your article during my workshop? I would of course credit them to your site. Thanks for your consideration. Chris

Yes you’re welcome to do so.

Mostly good paper, thanks. I have a point though. The productivity that can be achieved with each one only being interrupted “at proper times” (such as a avoiding the open door policy) can clearly make u more Efficient. But, in a work place where more and more is done through collaboration and communication is critical, that might not be the most “Effective” action to do (close ur door for example). That’s my thinking. I would like to hear back some comments on it.

Btw: sorry for th typing, iPhone isn’t meant for long texts typing.

Hey João, in reality you really need both. There are times when having full-spectrum open-communication between team members in critical – but that’s not all the time. Some tasks are definitely best done in-collaboration and those can best be handled by “hey, do you have 15 minutes in 5 minutes time free to discuss something?”. Other tasks are most definitely best done in “silent cockpit” mode where you can completely focus on one thing and one thing only.

This article has been mentally enlightening to me! But i dont score well with time management, but hoping to set myself straight.

Do you mind if I quote a couple of your articles as long as I provide credit and sources back to your site? My website is in the exact same area of interest as yours and my visitors would really benefit from some of the information you provide here. Please let me know if this okay with you. Many thanks!

Hi Cathern as long as you credit us with a link for quotations it’s fine. Looking forward to seeing your posts!

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Time Management - Phil's Story

Case Study - Before

Phil is finding that there are less and less hours in the day, the workload is the same but he feels more rushed than ever. He finds himself eating his lunch at his workstation, and feels demotivated during the last two hours of his shift. He works in a busy office environment with lots of noise and distractions, this he feels has some detrimental impact on his workload, one of his colleagues asks him for help on a regular basis and this is also eating up his time, but he doesn't want to come across as ignorant so is always ready to help. He worries that his inability to complete all his goals will start impacting on the business and his next review, this has caused his stress levels to increase and he starting to struggle to sleep at night.

After attending our Time Management training, Phil soon realised he only needed to make small alterations to meet his daily goals. Working harder didn't necessary mean getting more done...he needed to work smarter.

Case Study - After

Phil used the time matrix system to prioritise his tasks, he broke them down into smaller more manageable tasks. Previously he had been prioritising the smaller less important tasks...because he felt they were easier. Once he completed a task he marked it off from his list and then went onto the next one. He got his more difficult tasks done earlier in the day so that the afternoon was filled with the easier less important duties.

Phil also implemented a range of small tips, this included creating short-cuts on his desktop and checking is email at certain intervals to reduce distractions. Phil also started to go on his lunch breaks, it maintained his motivation throughout the afternoon. Whilst socialising in work is great for morale and has motivational benefits it needed to be done at certain intervals otherwise it can be very distracting. His biggest problem was helping others with their own workload, this had been the biggest drain on his time. He learnt techniques on how to say 'no', he could still help people but it was his decision and only when he knew he could spare the time. He was able to achieve his tasks and his stress levels decreased.

Phil was able to improve his work performance by becoming more efficient, and the organisation got one of their best performing staff members back to his best. Personally Phil was able to reduce his stress levels and reduce his internal anxiety.

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10 best time-management skills practised by presidents and CEOs worldwide

We’ve heard loads about the best time-management skills out there and how they can help everyone from college students to working parents.

Several studies have shown that with good time-management, you can improve your career, academic performance and well-being. 

You’ll get more things done and make the most of your limited time. You’ll breeze through your to-do list like a boss.

It’s about  coming home from class or work, setting aside time to complete your assignments, clean up, get food, and maybe squeezing in an hour or two of game time before getting all that quality snooze time in.

Questionable time-management is coming home from school and falling asleep on the couch for five hours before waking up and realising you have chores to handle, no dinner and lying awake until 4 a.m. 

This is a hot mess.

Despite knowing good time-management is essential to living our best lives, most of us always feel like sleep-deprived zombies running on fumes. 

We’re always struggling to keep up, feel like there are never enough hours in the day and barely getting five to six hours of sleep.

So, what gives? Why do we do this to ourselves?

Almost every self-help guide tells us to exercise but most of us can’t set aside time to do that. Source: AFP

Why do we feel like we don’t have enough time?

If you’ve ever been so busy you had to choose between eating and using the restroom, you’re not alone.  In fact, six out of 10 people say they don’t have enough time to get everything done in within a day. 

Researchers call this “time poverty,” which is the feeling of having too little time to both the must-dos and the wanna-dos. 

There are three major factors behind this:

• Doing too much
• You feel like time is your enemy
• You’re not living in the present, but the future

Despite how we feel, we live in a world where working hours for the average worked have “decreased dramatically over the last 150 years.”

In 1870, the average American worked around 3,096 hours in a year. In 2017, that figure has gone down to 1,757 hours.

That’s not the case in developing countries like China, India, and the Philippines, however, where from 1970 to 2017, the average working hours held stead around 2,000 hours per year.

Perhaps we feel time-poor because of how we spend our time. Nearly 60% of the world use social media and spend around 2.5 hours a day on it . That’s 864 hours (36 days) in a year.

Doomscrolling and feeling inadequate by comparing ourselves to jet-setting genetically-blessed influencers almost never make us feel good about ourselves.

Is there a way around this? Who can we look to for advice?

No matter how busy Barack Obama was, he always had time for his wife, Michelle. Source: AFP

10 great time-management skills from the busiest people in the world

When it comes to unlocking the secrets to reclaiming our precious time, the world’s busiest people know a thing or two.

For leaders of companies or governments, time is their scarcest resource. So much so that some have entire teams to help them allocate it best.

In one Harvard study, CEOs were found to work 9.7 hours per weekday on average. They spend 79% of weekends working, or around 3.9 hours daily.

They also work during vacation, as much as 70% of their paid time off (or 2.4 hours daily). i

It’s a relentless schedule with too many shareholders, customers, employees, the board, the media, government, community organisations, and more to meet and attend to.

Country leaders are like CEOs with their punishing schedules as well. Barack Obama reportedly started work at 9.00 a.m. after a daily morning exercise routine, and was known to at times to work until 2.00 a.m. the next day.

To make it work, they have mastered the art of time-management skills. Below are the 10 most effective time management skills from the world’s busiest CEOs and presidents:

Plan ahead as much as possible

Obama is famous for his killer time-management skills. Despite going to bed late frequently, he prioritises an early start to his day, getting right to work in the morning.

His secret? A great routine and a pre-planned schedule. By knowing what he needs to do for the day ahead, Obama manages to stay productive and make efficient business decisions. 

To him, it prevents him from wasting time and willpower on trivial and unnecessary things, and helps to focus on what really matters. 

We’re serious. Don’t believe us? Take a look at John Kennedy, the youngest person to be elected President of the US.

Despite having severe health problems, Kennedy – or JFK as he’s commonly referred to as – maintained a high level of productivity even in tight time frames. 

His trick was taking a nap for one or two hours every day. When he napped, no calls were allowed, no folders were sent up, and no one was allowed to interrupt his sleep for any reason. This allowed him to reset, relieve his stress and work longer hours. 

In his spare time, Jeff Bezos enjoys gliding about in a submarine looking for old NASA rockets. Source: AFP

Stay on track for long-term planning

Jeff Bezos, arguably the world’s richest man , wrote in a   1997 letter to shareholders:“It’s all about the long-term.”

Since the beginning, he had a big-picture vision for Amazon. He wanted to create a place where anyone could find and discover anything they wanted to buy online. 

It takes a lot of discipline and optimism to stay on track, especially when faced with pressure from stakeholders to bend to short-term profitability goals. 

But in reality, sometimes these short-term goals waste more time and resources that could have been spent on the bigger picture.

To Bezos, it was key that he stayed on track in order to maximise his time-management and business efficiency. Every business decision was made with the long-term in mind, barely buckling to short-term profitability considerations or trends.

Frequenting social media

No, seriously. Billionaire Richard Branson’s tip for efficient time-management is waking up early, answering his emails and keeping his finger on the refresh button of his social media, while exercising and spending time with his family.

It’s incredible how the co-founder of Virgin Group juggles so many things, yet frequently writes relevant articles and content on his blog to stay in touch with his audience. 

“Being a modern business leader is all about having your finger on the pulse and knowing what you’re talking about,” says Branson in a blogpost . “I’m constantly connected and engaged. And I like it that way.”

To him, social media is a way of keeping tabs on his teams and his customers. He calls it “having an ear on the ground in all corners of the globe”. It’s the best way to stay updated with the latest news, hear new feedback and make good business decisions based on the results.

Warren Buffet claims to spend about 80% of his free time reading. Source: AFP

Warren Buffett, co-founder, chairman and CEO of Berkshire Hathaway, said in an interview , “People are going to want your time. It’s the only thing you can’t buy. I can buy anything I want, basically, but I can’t buy time.”

As a result, the world’s most famous investor avoids cramming his calendar with unnecessary activities by doing one simple thing – saying no. 

Chunking tasks

Motivational guru Tony Robbins is passionate about good time-management skills. In fact, he’s written a whole list  of them. 

“Most of your stress is because you’re thinking about too many things at once,” says Robbins. 

He offers a simple solution – chunking tasks.

When you’re facing an overwhelming amount of tasks around a singular outcome, you should create to-do lists by chunking related tasks into smaller groups. This will help you zero-in on important tasks better, so that they’re easier to manage and tackle.

To Robbins, better time-management skills start with exactly that – narrowing down what exactly needs to be done. From there, you can then create smaller goals that ladder up to your desired outcome. 

The Eisenhower Decision Matrix

Dwight Eisenhower was a busier man than most. Besides being the 34th US president, he also commanded the Allied Forces in World War II. This meant making business decisions and tough calls that influenced the lives of others on the daily.

Eisenhower used to say: “I have two kinds of problems, the urgent and the important. What is important is seldom urgent, and what is urgent is seldom important.”

To tackle his busy schedule, he created a priority matrix, which is now called the Eisenhower Decision Matrix. It divided tasks into four categories:

• Important and urgent: Focus on these tasks and get them done as soon as possible
• Important and not urgent: Schedule time when you’ll be able to handle these tasks
• Urgent and not important: Delegate these tasks to others to get them done sooner
• Not urgent and not important: Don’t do these tasks at all – save your time and energy for more critical ones

Distributing tasks by these four categories helps to structure your day and allows you to spend your time more mindfully. 

Day theming

Jack Dorsey, former CEO of Twitter and current CEO of Block, practices day-theming as his time-management technique. 

In a 2012 interview , he explained that each day of the week was given a specific theme. Mondays are reserved for management, Tuesdays are for product, engineering, and design, Wednesdays are for marketing, growth, and communications, Thursdays are about partnership and developers, and Fridays are all about company and culture.

It helps Dorsey and his team work more efficiently because day-theming allows them to enter a day-long flow state. To him, it’s much easier to get things done – and done well! – when you’re fully immersed and engaged in what you’re doing, rather than jumping from task to task.

Divide time into different buckets

Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft and one of the richest men in the world , was such as busy man that he frequently competed with his colleagues to sleep as little as possible .

While awake, he scheduled every five minutes of his day to get as much done as possible.

Thankfully, he eventually realised that it wasn’t a plausible way to survive. He then decided to divide his work hours into four buckets, and dedicated 25% of his schedule to each. While still technically time-blocking, it was much more adjustable as compared to his five-minute blocks.

He used this technique to optimise his time and strategise goals, which gave him leeway to incorporate adjustments and roadblocks while still remaining productive.

Today, Forbes estimates Oprah Winfrey’s net worth to be US$2.8 billion. She holds the distinction of becoming the first black woman in history to become a billionaire.

Stop multitasking

Oprah Winfrey is a busy woman – from running her TV network and production studio to her insanely popular book club and award-winning talk show, the media mogul has a lot on her plate.

But despite having to do multiple things, Oprah’s rule is always to give each project her undivided attention. 

“I have learned that your full-on attention for any activity you choose to experience comes with a level of intensity and truth. It’s about living a present life, moment to moment,” says Winfrey.

“That whole thing about multitasking? That’s a joke for me. When I try to do that, I don’t do anything well.”

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Professor of Business Administration, Distinguished University Service Professor, and former dean of Harvard Business School.

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The Impact of Digitalization on Production Management Practices: A Multiple Case Study

• Conference paper
• First Online: 26 April 2024
• Cite this conference paper

• Ruggero Colombari 6 ,
• Jasmina Berbegal Mirabent 7 &
• Paolo Neirotti 8  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies ((LNDECT,volume 206))

Included in the following conference series:

• International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Industrial Management (ICIEIM) – Congreso de Ingeniería de Organización

With the diffusion of Industry 4.0, manufacturing firms can decentralize their operational decisions and enable real-time data-driven decision-making. Using a socio-technical approach and the manufacturing shop-floor as a unit of analysis, this article studies the changes induced by digitalization on operational decision-making, organizational structures, and individual competencies. A cross-country multiple case study conducted in the automotive sector suggests three main areas on which firms have to focus: decentralized data-driven decision-making, front-line managers’ upskilling, and production workers’ involvement. The successful implementation of digitalization and the actual decentralization of decision-making depend on individual factors related to the competencies of front-line managers, who acquire a central role in this skill-biased technological and organizational change.

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Ruggero Colombari

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Jasmina Berbegal Mirabent

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Colombari, R., Berbegal Mirabent, J., Neirotti, P. (2024). The Impact of Digitalization on Production Management Practices: A Multiple Case Study. In: Bautista-Valhondo, J., Mateo-Doll, M., Lusa, A., Pastor-Moreno, R. (eds) Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Industrial Management (ICIEIM) – XXVII Congreso de Ingeniería de Organización (CIO2023). CIO 2023. Lecture Notes on Data Engineering and Communications Technologies, vol 206. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-57996-7_44

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• Published: 24 April 2024

Management of pediatric vanishing testes syndrome based on pathological diagnosis: a single-center retrospective study

• Chang-Kun Mao 1 ,
• Yuan-Fang 2 &
• Yong-Sheng Cao 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  9437 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study aims to explore the optimal management strategy for pediatric vanishing testes syndrome (VTS) based on pathological characteristics. We retrospectively analyzed clinical data and pathological results of children with unilateral VTS who underwent surgical treatment at our center from July 2012 to July 2023. The children were categorized into the testicular excision group and testicular preservation group based on the surgical approach. Clinical characteristics and outcomes were compared between the two groups. Pathological examination results of excised testicular tissues were collected and analyzed, and long-term follow-up was conducted. A total of 368 children were included in this study. The age of the children at the time of surgery was 27 months (range, 6–156). Among them, 267 cases (72.6%) had VTS on the left side, and 101 cases (27.4%) on the right side. There were no statistically significant differences (P > 0.05) in age, affected side, contralateral testicular hypertrophy (CTH), testicular location, and preferred surgical incision between the testicular excision group (n = 336) and the testicular preservation group (n = 32). In the preservation group, two children experienced scrotal incision infections, showing a statistically significant difference compared to the excision group (P < 0.05). Pathological examination of excised tissues revealed fibrosis as the most common finding (79.5%), followed by vas deferens involvement (67%), epididymis involvement (40.5%), calcification (38.4%), and hemosiderin deposition (17.9%). Seminiferous tubules (SNT) was present in 24 cases (7.1%), germ cells (GC)in 15 cases (4.5%), and ectopic adrenal cortical tissue(EACT) in 1 case (0.3%). VTS belongs to a type of non-palpable testes (NPT) and requires surgical exploration. Considering the risk of scrotal incision infection after preserving atrophic testicular remnants and the unpredictable malignant potential, we recommend excision.

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Introduction.

Cryptorchidism or undescended testis is one of the most common congenital anomalies in male newborns, with an incidence of 1.0–4.6% in full-term infants and up to 45% in premature infants 1 . For ease of surgical management, clinical practice often categorizes testes as palpable or non-palpable, with approximately 20% falling into the non-palpable category 2 . Vanishing testes syndrome (VTS) is one of the reasons of non-palpable testes (NPT) in children, characterized by the discovery of blind-ended spermatic vessels or nodules with unidentifiable normal testicular morphology during surgical exploration 1 , 2 , 3 . However, consensus on the optimal diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for VTS remains elusive. Some scholars previously advocated for surgical excision of testicular remnants, positing that residual testicular tissues may harbor germ cells (GC) and seminiferous tubules (SNT) with potential malignant transformation risks 4 , 5 . Nevertheless, recent research has presented an alternative perspective, suggesting that excision may not be imperative, given the relatively low incidence of GC and SNT, coupled with insufficient robust evidence indicating a continued presence of GC and SNT leading to potential malignant risks 3 , 6 . To delve further into this matter, the current study conducts a retrospective analysis of clinical and pathological data from 368 cases of unilateral VTS treated at our center over the past 11 years, aiming to provide additional data support for the diagnosis and treatment of VTS.

Materials and methods

We conducted a retrospective analysis of case data for children with unilateral VTS who underwent surgical treatment at our center from July 2012 to July 2023, utilizing the electronic medical records system. Inclusion criteria comprised initial diagnosis of cryptorchidism, with surgical confirmation of blind-ended spermatic vessels or identification of atrophic nodules during exploration. Exclusion criteria encompassed a history of surgery on the affected side for undescended testis, testicular torsion, or incarceration related to inguinal hernia, all of which could lead to an NPT. A detailed dataset was constructed by carefully reviewing clinical records, surgical records, and pathological data for each patient.

Preoperative ultrasound and definition of testicular hypertrophy

All patients underwent preoperative ultrasound examination of the scrotum or inguinal region to detect NPT. Simultaneously, the maximum longitudinal diameter of the contralateral testis was measured to assess whether it was hypertrophic. We utilized a criterion of 1.6 cm for testicular diameter in patients under 36 months as the threshold for defining testicular hypertrophy 3 , 7 .

Surgical management

Prior to the commencement of surgical exploration, a thorough physical examination was conducted under general anesthesia to ensure that the patients met the inclusion criteria. If palpable cord-like tissue or atrophic remnants are detectable in the inguinal or scrotal region, inguinal or scrotal incision exploration is the preferred approach. If no structures are palpable, or if there is contralateral inguinal hernia present, laparoscopic exploration is the first choice. During laparoscopic exploration, if no intra-abdominal testis is found, and the spermatic cord enters the closed internal ring, exploration of the inguinal or scrotal region is performed. At the distal end of the spermatic cord, a small fibrotic remnant is identified, with no visible normal testicular tissue. If macroscopically abnormal intra-abdominal testicular remnants are discovered during laparoscopic examination, we advocate for their removal. During the procedure, communication with the parents was reiterated to inform them about the testicular development, and based on parental choice, patients were categorized into the testicular excision group or preservation group. All excised residual specimens underwent histological examination with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics, version 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, United States). Continuous variables were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or mean (min–max), and categorical variables were presented as n (%). Comparisons were made using chi-squared or Fisher’s exact tests for categorical variables. All tests were two-tailed. A significance level of P  < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Ethical approval

This study obtained approval from the Ethics Committee of Anhui Provincial Children’s Hospital (Approval No. 116123S21), ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of all data. Patient participation was voluntary, and informed consent was obtained from parents prior to their children’s involvement, documented through signed informed consent forms. All the procedures involving human participants followed in the study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

This study included a total of 368 pediatric patients with VTS. The mean age of the patients at the time of surgery was 27 months (range, 6–156). Among them, 267 cases (72.6%) had VTS on the left side, and 101 cases (27.4%) on the right side. Thirty-three cases were concurrently associated with contralateral undescended testis or inguinal hernia. Color Doppler ultrasound revealed atrophic nodules in 102 cases (27.7%), with 16 located in the inguinal region and 86 within the scrotum. In 263 cases (71.5%) of patients under 36 months, 172 cases (65.4%) exhibited contralateral testicular hypertrophy (CTH), with ultrasound longitudinal diameters exceeding 1.6 cm. A total of 206 cases (56%) opted for laparoscopic exploration, including 18 cases with contralateral inguinal hernia. The remaining 162 cases (44%) preferred inguinal or scrotal incision exploration.

Based on parental choices during surgery, 336 patients chose testicular excision, while the remaining 32 opted for testicular preservation. Comparative analysis of data between these two groups, including patient age, affected side, CTH, testicular position, and preferred surgical incision, showed no significant differences ( P  > 0.05) in these aspects (Table 1 ). However, it is noteworthy that in the preservation group, two cases, aged 22 months and 30 months respectively, experienced scrotal incision infections postoperatively, showing statistical significance ( P  < 0.05). All patients did not undergo contralateral testicular orchidopexy.

Figure  1 illustrates an atrophic nodule retrieved from the left inguinal incision, where the spermatic vessels and vas deferens were absent, replaced by fibrotic strands (Fig.  1 ). Excision and pathological examination were performed. Results from H&E staining revealed fibrosis in 267 cases (79.5%), vas deferens involvement in 225 cases (67%), epididymis involvement in 136 cases (40.5%), calcification in 129 cases (38.4%), and hemosiderin deposition in 60 cases (17.9%) (Fig.  2 ). Multiple pathological components were found in 83.9% (282/336) of the excised tissue in the excision group. Additionally, 24 specimens (7.1%) showed the presence of SNT, while 15 specimens (4.5%) exhibited GC. Furthermore, one specimen revealed ectopic adrenal cortical tissue (EACT) (Fig.  3 ). An atrophic nodule retrieved from the left scrotal incision, showing the presence of spermatic vessels and vas deferens but lacking normal testicular parenchyma. After consulting with the parents, the remnant was preserved (Fig.  4 ).

Atrophic nodule extracted via left inguinal incision.

The pathological composition of VTS.

The pathological microscopic images of the excised tissue with H&E staining, captured under a × 200 magnification. ( A ) Ectopic adrenal cortex components are observed adjacent to the epididymal duct. ( B ) Iron-hemosiderin deposition and calcification are visible within the fibrous tissue. ( C ) Large and primitive germ cells are seen between the supporting cells of convoluted seminiferous tubules. ( D ) Underdeveloped, small convoluted seminiferous tubules.

Atrophic nodule retrieved from the left scrotal incision.

Through outpatient follow-up examinations, with an average follow-up time of 40 months (range, 3–120), no abnormal development or testicular torsion was observed in the contralateral testis. Among the 32 patients in the preservation group, ultrasound examinations did not detect any malignant transformations, and no cases required secondary surgical excision.

Currently, the guidelines of the European Association of Urology categorize undescended testes into palpable and non-palpable types for clinical management. Among the 20% of NPT, 50–60% are intra-abdominal, canalicular, or peeping (right inside the internal inguinal ring), while the remaining 20% may be absent, 30% atrophied or underdeveloped, and sometimes include cases of ectopic testicles 1 . A retrospective review of clinical cases reveals that VTS is the fundamental cause in 35–69% of clinically NPT 8 , 9 , 10 . Therefore, some scholars consider that VTS is one of the reasons for the inability to palpate the testicle and recommend explaining this to all patients and their families before surgery 10 .

Due to the lack of consensus, various definitions of VTS exist in the literature 3 , 4 , 5 , 11 , 12 . The common feature is the presence of NPT, with only residual structures detected during surgical exploration. In this study, we adopt the definition of VTS as a congenital disease where normal testicular tissue is not identifiable by the naked eye after clinical exploration of the NPT 3 , 6 , 13 . This includes the presence of testicular remnants, nodules, or tissues adjacent to the testis/testicular side at the end of the spermatic cord. Although the etiology, pathological tissue composition, and prognosis of VTS may differ from those of surviving undescended testes 5 , 6 , VTS is considered a result of prenatal or late gestational vascular thrombosis, torsion, or endocrine abnormalities 5 . However, recent studies strongly support the theories of vascular accidents and prenatal torsion, rather than endocrine diseases 14 . Our study consistently observes and supports this theory, as fibrosis, malnutrition-induced calcification, hemosiderin deposition, and the presence of macrophages in the excised residual tissues indicate vascular accidents 4 , 15 , 16 . Additionally, VTS is more common on the left side, as reported in previous studies 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 16 . He et al. 16 suggest that it is challenging to explain this significant lateralization with endocrine factors. The potential reasons include anatomical relationships between the left testicular vein and the left renal vein, leading to vascular occlusion secondary to abnormal renal activity 5 . Furthermore, the earlier descent of the left testis during fetal development may be another contributing factor 15 , 16 .

Preoperative imaging examinations are unable to determine the presence of the testes 17 . Although ultrasound is a non-invasive tool, it is time-consuming, expensive, and lacks accuracy in detecting the presence or location of intra-abdominal testes in non-palpable cases 1 , 18 . However, Press et al. 19 found that ultrasound can detect 84.8% of NPT, including 12.1% with atrophic nodules. These results can impact surgical planning, avoiding unnecessary laparoscopic explorations. In our study, ultrasound is cost-effective (approximately $13), and all patients underwent preoperative ultrasound examinations. The ultrasound results revealed 102 cases (27.7%) with atrophic nodules, including 16 cases in the inguinal region and 86 cases in the scrotum. When ultrasound cannot detect the testes, parents are informed of various possibilities and corresponding treatment methods for the presence of NPT. Another essential role of ultrasound is detecting CTH. Unlike measuring tools such as calipers, ultrasound can exclude interference from the epididymis, scrotal skin, and adjacent soft tissues during the measurement, making it considered the best tool for assessing testicular size in the pediatric population 20 . Although CTH often indicates ipsilateral testicular atrophy, ultrasound is often challenging in determining the location of atrophic nodules 16 . Therefore, CTH has no impact on the decision-making for NPT management, consistent with the results of Wei et al. 21 . Another study’s findings indicate that regardless of ultrasound results, over 80% of surgeons choose laparoscopic exploration as the initial step in diagnosing and treating NPT, while less than 20% of participants opt for inguinal/scrotal approaches as the primary choice for NPT. Supporters of this approach believe that, as only 14–32% of patients have an intra-abdominal testis, this incision allows for easier detection of the testis, potentially avoiding the need for laparoscopic exploration 22 . However, if there is suspicion of a nodular lesion on the same side and CTH is present on the contralateral side, the option of scrotal incision and excision of the nodule can be considered to confirm testicular disappearance, thus obviating the need for laparoscopic exploration 1 . In our study, 206 cases (56%) of patients who did not initially exhibit cord-like structures or atrophic remnants in the inguinal or scrotal region underwent initial laparoscopic exploration. Additionally, 162 cases (44%) with detected nodules in the inguinal or scrotal region underwent direct inguinal or scrotal exploration and residual excision. This surgical approach is considered to have potential certainty for the diagnosis and treatment of testicular disappearance 23 .

Past studies have debated whether atrophic testicular nodules need to be excised. Unlike undescended testes, congenital undescended testes increase the risk of future malignancies 24 . However, the etiology of VTS differs from congenital undescended testes, and therefore, the risk of future malignant tumors may also differ 6 . So far, there has been only one isolated report of intratubular germ cell neoplasia (ITGCN) in residual testicular ducts in a 9-year-old child, but it lacked immunohistochemical support 25 . The controversy over whether to excise atrophic nodules arises from different reported rates of GC occurrence 3 , 4 , 5 , 10 , 16 and the subsequent risk of malignancy.A large-scale retrospective study conducted until now indicated an overall incidence rate of 3.1% for GC and 6.6% for SNT 16 . However, a recent systematic review revealed that the overall incidence rate of GC is 5.3%, and SNT is 10.7% 6 . In our study, considering the potential medical disputes associated with excising testicular tissues and the unpredictable malignant potential of retaining atrophic testicular nodules, parents were allowed to observe the atrophy of the testicles during surgery and choose between excision and fixation. Based on this, we divided the patients into excision and fixation groups. There were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of patient age, affected side, CTH, testicular location, and preferred surgical incision. However, the fixation group had two cases of postoperative scrotal incision infections, which showed statistical significance. In the excision group, we found an SNT occurrence rate of 7.1% and a GC occurrence rate of 4.5%. Postoperative follow-up did not reveal abnormal development or torsion of the contralateral testicle. In the fixation group, no malignant conditions were detected by ultrasound, and there were no cases requiring a second excision surgery. At the same time, we observed that 336 cases (91.3%) of patients underwent excision surgery, a relatively high proportion that may reflect a preference for surgical interventions within parents. Despite our efforts to provide objective information regarding treatment options, we cannot rule out the potential influence of personal preferences within the medical team and concerns from parents about future risks on the decision-making process. Interestingly, in this study, we discovered a case of EACT. First discovered by Morgagni in 1740 26 , EACT can be found anywhere along the migration path from the urogenital ridge during embryonic development. While descriptions of EACT have been reported in the abdomen, broad ligament, testicles, spermatic cord, kidneys, and retroperitoneum 11 , it is rarely reported in atrophic testicular nodules. Although the number of reported cases is limited, EACT is generally accepted to have malignant potential 11 , 27 , thus recommending excision.

By reviewing the literature, the low occurrence rates of SNT and GC and insufficient evidence supporting the continuous existence of future malignant potential lean towards the argument that surgical excision is unnecessary 3 , 6 , 10 . However, this overlooks the clinical significance of surgical procedures. VTS is a type of NPT, often requiring surgical exploration to determine the presence of viable testes. Considering the risk of scrotal incision infections after retaining atrophic nodules and the unpredictable malignant potential, even if the likelihood of malignancy is extremely low, parents find it difficult to accept. Therefore, we recommend excision.

Despite providing valuable data, this study has some limitations. Firstly, it has the limitations inherent in retrospective research, such as information completeness and selection bias. Secondly, the identification of SNT and GC in this study relied on H&E staining and lacked immunohistochemical results. Additionally, the follow-up period in this study was relatively short, requiring long-term follow-up of the malignant potential after retaining atrophic testicular nodules. Therefore, future prospective randomized controlled studies with long-term follow-ups will be more valuable.

In conclusion, in this study, SNT was found in 24 cases (7.1%) of excised atrophic remnants, GC in 15 cases (4.5%), and EACT in 1 case (0.3%). Although there is not sufficient robust evidence to prove the sustained malignant potential of GC and SNT over time, considering that VTS is a type of NPT requiring surgical exploration, and taking into account the risk of incision infection and the unpredictable malignant potential after retaining atrophic testicular remnants, which, even if low, is difficult for parents to accept, we recommend excision.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Vanishing testes syndrome

Contralateral testicular hypertrophy

Seminiferous tubules

Ectopic adrenal cortical tissue

Non-palpable testes

Hematoxylin and eosin

Standard deviation

Intratubular germ cell neoplasia

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Mao, CK., Yuan-Fang & Cao, YS. Management of pediatric vanishing testes syndrome based on pathological diagnosis: a single-center retrospective study. Sci Rep 14 , 9437 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-59583-6

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On average, the Arabian Peninsula receives a scant few inches of rain a year, although scientists have found that a sizable chunk of that precipitation falls in infrequent but severe bursts, not as periodic showers. These rains often come during El Niño conditions like the ones the world is experiencing now.

U.A.E. officials said the 24-hour rain total on April 16 was the country’s largest since records there began in 1949 . And parts of the nation had already experienced an earlier round of thunderstorms in March.

Oman, with its coastline on the Arabian Sea, is also vulnerable to tropical cyclones. Past storms there have brought torrential rain, powerful winds and mudslides, causing extensive damage.

Global warming is projected to intensify downpours.

Stronger storms are a key consequence of human-caused global warming. As the atmosphere gets hotter, it can hold more moisture, which can eventually make its way down to the earth as rain or snow.

But that doesn’t mean rainfall patterns are changing in precisely the same way across every part of the globe.

In their latest assessment of climate research , scientists convened by the United Nations found there wasn’t enough data to have firm conclusions about rainfall trends in the Arabian Peninsula and how climate change was affecting them. The researchers said, however, that if global warming were to be allowed to continue worsening in the coming decades, extreme downpours in the region would quite likely become more intense and more frequent.

Hot oceans are a big factor.

An international team of scientists has made a first attempt at estimating the extent to which climate change may have contributed to April’s storms. The researchers didn’t manage to pin down the connection precisely, though in their analysis, they did highlight one known driver of heavy rain in the region: above-normal ocean temperatures.

Large parts of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans have been hotter than usual recently, in part because of El Niño and other natural weather cycles, and in part because of human-induced warming .

When looking only at El Niño years, the scientists estimated that storm events as infrequent as this month’s delivered 10 percent to 40 percent more rain to the region than they would in a world that hadn’t been warmed by human activities. They cautioned, however, that these estimates were highly uncertain.

“Rainfall, in general, is getting more extreme,” said Mansour Almazroui, a climate scientist at King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and one of the researchers who contributed to the analysis.

The analysis was conducted by scientists affiliated with World Weather Attribution, a research collaboration that studies extreme weather events shortly after they occur. Their findings about this month’s rains haven’t yet been peer reviewed, but are based on standardized methods .

The role of cloud seeding isn’t clear.

The U.A.E. has for decades worked to increase rainfall and boost water supplies by seeding clouds. Essentially, this involves shooting particles into clouds to encourage the moisture to gather into larger, heavier droplets, ones that are more likely to fall as rain or snow.

Cloud seeding and other rain-enhancement methods have been tried around the world, including in Australia, China, India, Israel, South Africa and the United States. Studies have found that these operations can, at best, affect precipitation modestly — enough to turn a downpour into a bigger downpour, but probably not a drizzle into a deluge.

Still, experts said pinning down how much seeding might have contributed to this month’s storms would require detailed study.

“In general, it is quite a challenge to assess the impact of seeding,” said Luca Delle Monache, a climate scientist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, Calif. Dr. Delle Monache has been leading efforts to use artificial intelligence to improve the U.A.E.’s rain-enhancement program.

An official with the U.A.E.’s National Center of Meteorology, Omar Al Yazeedi, told news outlets that the agency didn’t conduct any seeding during the latest storms. His statements didn’t make clear, however, whether that was also true in the hours or days before.

Mr. Al Yazeedi didn’t respond to emailed questions from The New York Times, and Adel Kamal, a spokesman for the center, didn’t have further comment.

Cities in dry places just aren’t designed for floods.

Wherever it happens, flooding isn’t just a matter of how much rain comes down. It’s also about what happens to all that water once it’s on the ground — most critically, in the places people live.

Cities in arid regions often aren’t designed to drain very effectively. In these areas, paved surfaces block rain from seeping into the earth below, forcing it into drainage systems that can easily become overwhelmed.

One recent study of Sharjah , the capital of the third-largest emirate in the U.A.E., found that the city’s rapid growth over the past half-century had made it vulnerable to flooding at far lower levels of rain than before.

Omnia Al Desoukie contributed reporting.

Raymond Zhong reports on climate and environmental issues for The Times. More about Raymond Zhong