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Introduction to Islamic Architecture

By rabah saoud published on: 17th january 2002.

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Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day, influencing the design and construction of buildings and structures in Islamic culture and beyond. The principal Islamic architectural types are: the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace, the Fort, the School, and urban buildings. For all these types of constructions, Islamic architecture developed a rich vocabulary that was also used for buildings of lesser importance such as public baths, fountains and domestic architecture. The following article, recalling salient aspects of the rich tradition of Islamic architecture, provides a brief discussion on the concept of Islamic architecture and reviews a number of its key theoretical issues circulating in the Western academic circles.

Rabah Saoud *

Table of contents

1. Theoretical issues 2. Terminological issues 3. Final Remark 4. References

Note of the editor

This article was first published in January 2002. An edited version with revisions is published here in HTML, with new illustrations and captions. © FSTC 2002-2010.

1. Theoretical issues

Although Muslim architecture has been widely investigated, it still remains omitted from main stream architecture theories and much of the existing works about it are no more than curiosities undertaken by a group of sympathisers. Here, the notion of Islamic architecture has been associated with Muslim monuments such as mosques, palaces, and castles. Some scholars, such as Briggs (1924), called it Muhammedan. Sometimes, it is denoted as Saracenic, a Crusaders’ name for the Muslims. In some textbooks, we find deliberate silence, an example of this is Simpson‘s book, one of early key references of History of architecture [1] . This three volume work touched upon the architecture of most nations but jumped from Sassanian and Byzantine architecture (4th and 5th century CE) to European Medieval architecture of the 11th century (Romanesque), ignoring some 500 years of Muslim architectural achievements (700-1200). Hope (1835) provided a chapter on Islamic architecture entitled “Derivation of the Persian, Mohammedan, and Moorish architecture from that of Byzantium.” The title clearly demonstrates why Hope referred to Islamic architecture. Meantime, publications referring to it often present a shy coverage. Kostof (1994), for example, gave it a mere eight pages with five figures in his 800 pages work [2] .

Furthermore, there are views circulating in the West which reject the “islamisation” of architecture, arguing that Muslim architecture was used by Orientalists only to differentiate it from other types of architecture. This prejudice is often argued by the misconception of Islam‘s reluctance to building and urbanisation which circulates among some scholars. They propound that the nomadic lifestyle of the Arabs discouraged any form of permanent settlement and thus any architectural or building tradition. According to this view, much of the building heritage of what is called Islamic architecture came from Christian, Persian, or Indian origins and Muslims only imitated and sometimes employed masons from these cultures.

The answer to these arguments involves the following three main issues:

1. Although Islam opposes the exaggeration in unnecessary spending, it has no objection to comfortable life or wealth as such, nor to the enjoyment of this worldly life. Allah has subjected his creation to the use of his favourite creature (man), but man has to use it within the boundary of his Almighty‘s law and guidance, as it is clearly affirmed in a Quranic verse of Surah Luqman (31:20).

2. Sources on the tradition of Prophet Muhammad show that he discouraged Muslims from miserable living. It is amply evident that he had worn rich clothes in festivities and was fond of exquisite perfumes and essences. His famous expressive saying: “Strive for your earthly life as you live forever and strive for your hereafter as you will die tomorrow” sums it all up.

3. In relation to building activity, we find indications in the Quran as well as in the tradition of the Prophet that the first builder was Prophet Adam who built the Kaaba. After him, it was Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and his son Ismail (Ishmail) who rebuilt it, after its collapse some 800 years before Prophet Suleiman (Solomon) built his famous temple, which is considered in some popular writings as the origin of architecture. The Quran also refers to building in a number of occasions. In Surah 66, Ayah 11, for example, the wife of the Pharaoh in her supplication says: “My Lord! build for me a house with Thee in the garden and deliver me from Fir’aoun (Pharaoh) and his doing, and deliver me from the unjust people”. Prophet Muhammad participated in the construction of his mosque by carrying bricks. He also helped in the construction of dwellings of some of his followers. In one of his sayings, he stressed that “Whoever built a mosque, with the intention of seeking Allah’s pleasure, Allah will build for him a similar place in Paradise [3] .”

From the above, it appears clearly that Islam has no objection to building and urbanisation. On the contrary, it requests the sons of Adam “to work and settle Earth if they are to fulfil their main divine purpose, as Allah‘s entrusted servants”. As for borrowing from other cultures, we find the argument endorsing the universal concept of the message of Islam. Islam‘s accommodation and tolerance to other cultures have been its strongest point: “There is no difference between An Arab (Muslim) and a non Arab except by Piety” declares the Prophet. “Believers are but brethren” adds the Quran (49:10). In no other part of the world was the population so diversified, yet united, than in the Muslim World. This is the secret of the success story of Muslim art, architecture, science and technology of the classical period of Islamic civilisation. Its expansion over a vast territory, incorporating three continents, provided a cultural richness that played a significant role in the elaboration of Muslim art and architecture. Converts from Christian, Persian and Indian origins enthusiastically redefined their knowledge, as well as their experience in arts, industry and various accomplishments of their respective nations, to conform with Islamic values and injected it into their new world. Muslims were not blind imitators but “were content to adopt each local style that they found, modifying it mainly in distinctive ornamental details, but also introducing several important new features of plan and structure [4] .”

On the other hand, early imitation or sometimes adaptation of non-Muslim buildings was deliberate, as these buildings were often communal centres for pagan societies. The early introduction of a completely alien architecture was not desirable, as Islam remoulded existing traditions and built on them the new value and life systems. So, these centres which played important community roles in ignorant pagan times, provided new enlightened rays of the new belief. The early use of churches in Syria and Spain, and temples in Persia and India is evidence of these attitudes. According to H. Saladin [5] , the plan of the mosque was derived from older Semitic sanctuaries. Muslims have always maintained that Islam is a purification and renovation of Allah‘s old religion revealed to previous Prophets Ibrahim, Moses and Jesus. The building of mosques and diffusion of the new architecture did not take place until Islam became established in that community or region. For example, in Spain and Sicily, Muslim architecture clearly showed no connection with existing Visigoth and Lombard/Byzantine building cultures.

As Islam took firm roots and a degree of economic and cultural prosperity was reached, unique core architectural features, forms and techniques evolved. Such factors became distinguishing features of Muslim and Islamic architecture. Similarly, the existence of other elements unique to Christian or Japanese architecture would define their building style.

2. Terminological issues

The second issue is terminological and connected to the use of “Muslim” and “Islamic” architecture. The two words are theoretically interconnected but conceptually different. Muslim is a general word referring to religious and geographical setting of Islam. Muslim architecture is the building style of the countries of Muslim religion, a term which may include modern or old architecture practised in these countries and which may not be necessarily Islamic nor display any known features of Islamic architecture such as the arch, the dome, stucco decoration, etc. Similarly, we say today Muslim city to refer to its location in a Muslim country rather than to its Islamic morphological features.

The other disadvantage of using this concept is related to buildings of Muslim origin but not in the Muslim world, as in the case of Spain, Sicily, old USSR and other countries. More positively, one can define it as including the architecture that was accomplished by Muslim masons, architects, for or under Muslim patronage (government), or in a Muslim country.

Islamic architecture can also be misleading as one may understand that it refers to the architecture of a particular religious (Islamist) group or that of a religious function, while in reality it refers to the Islamic way of building and the specific style developed in the civilisation of Islam. In this definition, we are not concerned with the location and actual function of the building, but rather with its Islamic character in terms of design, form and décor, a definition which includes all types of building rather than only monuments.

This is practical for the ordinary house as well as the mosque, the palace and other major architectural monuments. However, one can analytically categorise Muslim architectural achievements in two main areas involving religious and secular. The centre of the first is the mosque which was invented in the first year of Hijra to serve a prestigious role providing shelter and refuge for the first community of Muslims. The faithful gather there five times a day and every Friday on a weekly basis. The articulation of elements such as arches, domes and columns, calligraphic illustrations and geometrical decorating patterns create a continuous sense of peace and contemplation.

Architecturally, the second most important religious building is the Madrasa (school), being in general a college which evolved from the mosque and was finally established as an independent institution of learning and education. The form of Madrasa progressively evolved starting from the simple form of houses of the teachers and reaching the monumental character of the Kutubiya in Marrakesh, Morocco. Here, the building incorporated lecture theatres, library, residential rooms for students and facilities such as bathes, fountains and a courtyard, which is equipped with a water clock. Although, a handful of Madrasas still exist today in the Muslim world, most of its teaching is undertaken by modern universities which do not structurally differ from their Western counterparts. Other religious buildings include monastic mosques (Zawiya) and mausoleums which can also be very elaborate, reaching sometimes a monumental position like the Taj Mahal in India.

Muslim secular buildings consist largely of domestic structures, palaces and ordinary houses. Here, one cannot stop appreciating the successful adaptation of space to religious values and teachings, especially those relating to private and public domains. From early palaces of the Ummayyad and Abbassid Caliphate to modern houses, there was much observance of distinction between private and public spaces. The first was designed for family and domestic life, reserved for children and women. In the palace, the public space was for conducting public affairs such as reception halls, meeting rooms, ceremonial courts (maydan) and mosques for princial entourage. Their setting, organisation and décor had worldwide reputation that they were made settings for many Western sagas and tales.

Other buildings that form part of Muslim secular architecture include military structures such as castles, forts, towers and walls. These were erected to provide protection for cities, especially in areas where external threat was menacing as in Palestine and its bordering countries (Syria and Jordan), in Cairo and North African coast. Giant gates forming part of the defensive system as well as elements of ceremonial furniture (victory) were also erected along these ramparts. The oldest of these is Bab Raqqa in Baghdad of Al-Mansur (in 772 CE) [6] and Bab Al-Futuh in Cairo (11th century) [7] .

Muslim keen interest in trade produced highly developed architecture in the form of numerous caravanserais, warehouses (Qaysariyaor Khan) and suqs (markets and bazaars) which formed the economic heart of the Muslim city. In engineering architecture, Muslims managed to create ensembles of structures combining high degree of engineering, functionality and outstanding beauty. Their bridges, fountains and reservoirs also form fascinating elements showing sense of purpose and professional excellence.

3. Final Remark

Muslim architecture attests to the high level of power and sophistication that the Muslim community had reached at a time when Europe was living through the dark ages. Whether in the mosque, the palace or in the ordinary house, Muslim mason, architect and artist remarkably transmitted the profound devotion of Islam to community. The world owes much of its architectural development to early Muslim architects. Europe in particular built its architectural renaissance on the advances made by Muslim architects; a fact acknowledged at least in Gothic by a number of Western scholars including Fletcher (1961) who stated: “It is now generally admitted that European Gothic architecture owes a substantial debt to Islamic prototypes, many of which became familiar to the Crusaders in Egypt, Palestine and Syria [8] .”

4. References

• Creswell ,K. A. C. (1958), A Short Account of Early Muslim Architecture , Penguin Books.
• Fletcher, B (1961), A History of Architecture: On the Comparative Method , The Athlone Press, London, 17th edition.
• Hope, T. (1835), An Historical Essay on Architecture , John Murray, London.
• Kostof, S. (1994), A History of World Architecture , Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Hakim, B. (1986), Arabic Islamic Cities: Buildings and Planning Principles , Kegan Paul, London.
• Saladin, H. (1899), La Grande Mosquée de Kairwan , Picard, Paris.
• Simpson, F.M. (1913), A History of Architectural Development , Longmans, Green & Co. London.
• Summarised Sahih Al-Bukhari (1994), translated by Muhammad Mohsin Khan, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maktabat Dar Al-Salam.

[1] F.M. Simpson (1913), A History of Architectural Development , Longmans, Green & Co. London.

[2] See S. Kostof (1994), A History of World Architecture , Oxford University Press, Oxford.

[3] Summarised Sahih Al-Bukhari , 1994, p. 181. There are numerous sayings about building and making use of earth, e.g. Anas bin Malik narrated that Prophet Muhammad said: “There is none amongst the Muslims who plants a tree or sows seeds, and then a bird, or a person or an animal eats from it, but is regarded as a charitable gift from him” (ibid, p. 505).

[4] Fletcher 1961, p. 1226.

[5] See H. Saladin 1899.

[6] Creswell 1958.

[7] Bab al Futuh is a gate in the walls of the Old City of Cairo, facing north. It was finished in the year 1087. It stands at the northern end of Muizz Street. Its rounded towers were a stronger defence than the square towers of Bab al-Nasr (another Old City gate, just to the east). They had shafts for pouring boiling water or burning oil on attackers, and arrow slits. These gates and also Bab Zuwayla were built the powerful Fatimid vizier Badr al-Jamali, who ruled Egypt from 1074 to 1094, to prevent the attempts of the Turkoman Atsiz to take Cairo, among other threats from the East. See Bab al-Futuh on Archnet .

[8] Fletcher 1961, p. 1250.

* Dr Rabah Saoud, BA, MPhil, PhD, wrote this article for www.MuslimHeritage.com when he was a researcher at FSTC in Manchester. He is now an Assistant Professor at the University of Ajman, Ajman, UAE.

Cem Nizamoglu

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What Is Islamic Architecture?

Emily Estep is a plant biologist and journalist who has worked for a variety of online news and media outlets, writing about and editing topics including environmental science and houseplants.

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• Key Characteristics
• Famous Examples
• What are the 4 types of Islamic architecture?
• What are the main features of Islamic architecture?

What are the principles of Islamic architecture?

Islamic architecture can be found primarily in Arab states and Muslim-majority countries around the world, as well as in European countries with Arab or Islamic histories, such as Spain and Portugal. Some of its key elements include geometric designs, pointed arches, and domes.

Islamic architecture is a centuries-old category of architecture that is rooted in the principles of Islam. The striking sculptural forms and often dazzling ornamental detail that characterize Islamic buildings include some of the most awe-inspiring built structures on Earth.

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Origins of Islamic Architecture

Islamic architecture refers to a style of architecture that was created as a physical manifestation of the principles of Islam by the Mohammedan (people of Islamic faith) in the 7th century. Its traditions continue to the present day. The building that is most frequently associated with Islamic architecture is the mosque, or Muslim place of worship.

But Islamic architecture encompasses both secular and religious buildings. It includes everything from large-scale mosques, fortresses, palaces, tombs, schools, and other public buildings to smaller-scale fountains, public baths, and domestic structures. 

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Existing styles including Roman, Byzantine, and Persian architecture influenced early Islamic architecture. As Islamic architecture spread from the Middle East throughout the world, specifically to Asia, Chinese and Mughal architecture influenced it as well.

North African Muslims who conquered the Iberian Peninsula and many surrounding Western Mediterranean islands brought Islamic-influenced architecture to parts of Europe. Many prominent examples of this style are in Spain. In the mid-19th century, a revival movement included the work of Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí, who was highly influenced by Islamic style in Spain. 

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Key Characteristics of Islamic Architecture

Some of the key characteristics of Islamic architecture include forms such as minarets, domes, muqarnas vaulting, and arches. Decorative elements such as multicolored mosaic tile ; Arabic calligraphy scripts; and wood latticework on windows are signature elements of Islamic architecture. Outdoor features include gardens; walled interior courtyards; and open halls with a roof held up by columns.

Minarets are towering spires with interior staircases and small windows. They are striking to look at and serve an integral function, calling Muslims to prayer five times a day.

Islamic architecture features domes placed on structures called pendentives that make it possible to fit a round dome on a rectangular or square room. Pendentives are often decorated with mosaic tiling. 

Muqarnas Vaulting

Resembling a honeycomb or stalactite pattern, elaborate muqarnas vaulting adds a textural and monochromatic touch to the ceilings of often intricately and colorfully tiled interiors.

Horseshoe (or keyhole), pointed (a precursor to Gothic ), scalloped (or multifoil), and ogee (multicurved) arches are common in Islamic architecture.

Ornamental Details

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Islamic decoration often includes multicolored mosaic tile featuring repeated patterns and geometric or vegetal motifs and patterns, such as the arabesque. It also typically includes the use of Arabic calligraphy scripts, such as passages from the Qur'an.

Another striking feature is mashrabiya, or wood latticework, which is used on windows for privacy and climate control. It's also sometimes used in a modern context as a purely decorative element or option for dividing interior spaces.

Other decorative elements of Islamic design include wall paintings, stucco sculptures and wall panels, and decorative woodwork.

Outdoor Elements

Islamic architecture often features gardens, walled interior courtyards, open halls with a roof held up by columns, and vaulting.

Famous Examples of Islamic Architecture

The dome of the rock in jerusalem, israel.

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Dating from the 7th century, this famous public shrine is the world’s oldest standing Islamic monument. The Dome of the Rock was the first Islamic building to feature a Byzantine-style dome. The gold-plated wood dome is situated on an octagonal base. And the building itself is decorated with floral and geometric mosaics.

The Taj Mahal in Agra, India

One of the New Seven Wonders of the World , the Taj Mahal is cited as the most famous example of Islamic architecture. Combining elements of Persian, Indian, and Islamic architecture, this sprawling 17th-century mausoleum complex has become one of the world’s most popular tourist attractions. It is instantly recognizable thanks to its imposing central white marble tomb. Closer inspection reveals intricate details, such as precious inlaid stones and Arabic calligraphy. 

The Alhambra in Granada, Spain

The Alhambra is a 14th-century palace and fortress built on a plateau overlooking Granada, Spain. While the complex has lost some of its original structures over the past 700 years, what remains is a stunning example of Islamic architectural ornament. There are carved wood and stucco, colorful tiling , calligraphy, and muqarnas that decorate the Court of Lions. 

Heydar Aliyev Center in Baku, Azerbaijan

Helene Binet / Zaha Hadid Architects  

A well-known example of a modernized version of Islamic style is this award-winning 2013 cultural center designed by the Iraqi-British architect Zaha Hadid , who died in 2016. The Heydar Aliyev Center reinterprets the characteristic flow of architectural elements found in traditional Islamic design, resonating with centuries of tradition while appearing resolutely contemporary.

What are the 4 types of Islamic architecture? 

The four types of Islamic architecture are the Mosque, the Tomb, the Palace and the Fort. Islamic architecture encompasses both secular and religious buildings. It includes everything from large-scale mosques, fortresses, palaces, tombs, schools, and other public buildings to smaller-scale fountains, public baths, and domestic structures.

What are the main features of Islamic architecture? 

Some of the main features of Islamic architecture include geometric designs, pointed arches, and domes. This centuries-old architecture is rooted in the principles of Islam. Its striking sculptural forms often feature dazzling ornamental detail from mosaic tile to wood lattice work on windows.

Islamic architecture is a centuries-old category of architecture that is rooted in the principles of Islam. The building that is most frequently associated with Islamic architecture is the mosque, or Muslim place of worship. 

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Islamic Architecture: History, Characteristics, And Examples

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Traditional Islamic architecture is a centuries-old building tradition deeply rooted in Islamic principles that originated in the middle east and spread out gradually to the rest of the world. However, it is usually associated with religious structures and has significantly contributed to the architectural landscape . Islamic architecture encompasses common buildings such as tombs, public buildings like schools, palaces, and fortresses, and smaller ones like public baths, fountains, and domestic architecture.

Unlike modern and post-modern or Roman architecture , this architecture is unique because of its Islamic calligraphy, rich floral and geometric mosaics, and vibrant colors that are hardly used in other architectures.

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What Is Islamic Architecture?

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Early Islamic architecture, unlike modern architecture , refers to Muslim people’s construction traditions. Additionally, traditional Islamic architecture began in the 7th century and is varied, given that Islamic rule stretched from Spain to Northern India at some point. At this time, not many buildings were done using the style. Due to the diversity, the Islamic infrastructure can be defined as any buildings designed using characteristics of the Islamic culture.

In the Muslim world, buildings designed using this architecture are usually secular and can be both public and private structures. Nevertheless, typical examples include mosques and madrasahs . Tombs, forts, palaces, and city government buildings are other examples.

With the early Islamic religion spreading across Africa, Asia, and Europe, architecture became more diverse, adapting artistic traditions from Chinese, Slavic, Indian, Turkic, and other cultures. For instance, the shape of an arch would differ from North Africa to Persia. Nonetheless, the architecture’s common functions, ideals, and various physical characteristics remain the same.

Development of Islamic Architecture 

Islamic architecture consists of various styles, designs, and construction. Early Islamic architectural patterns and techniques were derived from other contemporary building traditions. Islamic architects, however, further developed and enhanced it to contribute to what is now known as Islamic architecture.

The Islamic architectural style is characterized by a repetition that is well-ordered, structures that are radiating, and rhythmic patterns. Some of the significant features of Islamic architecture include columns, arches, and piers intertwined with alternating colonnades and niches. The key characteristics of the style include the following:

1. Religious Architecture: Mosques

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The places of worship for the Islamic people, known as a mosque or Masjids in Arabic, feature an open courtyard for accommodating a big crowd and a fountain for ritual cleansing. The main aspect of the mosque’s architecture is the minaret. This is the tower from where the clergy sits when calling Muslims to prayer and is also a visual reminder of the presence of Islam.

Congregational mosques have one or more domes, called qubba in the Arabic language. These domes were adopted from Byzantine architecture and symbolically represented the vault of heaven. The essential element inside the mosque is the Mihrab, a niche in the wall that points in the direction of Mecca, which Muslims face when praying.

Different types of mosques emerged, and the oldest style, known as the hypostyle mosque, was inspired by the house of Muhammad. This style is shown best in the Great Mosque of Kairouan. This mosque is large and rectangular, with a big hall supported by columns and a large inner “sahn.” The Hypostyle type of mosque is defined by the forest of columns that characterize the interior.

During the 11th century, the four-iwan mosque emerged. Iwan is a vaulted space that opens on one side to a courtyard.

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The madrasa is an Islamic building used when teaching Islamic studies. Seljuk Turks built the earliest madrasas in the 11th century in Iran. The design of these structures was obtained from contemporary house plans or Buddhist Viharas. The oldest madrasa is the  Gumushtutigin Madrassa  in Bosra, dating back to 1136. It has a domed courtyard and two iwans.

The domed madrasas are small Islamic buildings, but those with an open courtyard are larger and have arcades surrounding central iwans. The Egyptian madrasas were started in 1160 by Sunni Orthodoxy. The four-iwan plan signifies the Egyptian madrasas, where the four iwans represent the four orthodox schools of law.

This design later spread to other countries and is present in Mustansriya Madrassa in Baghdad. In Egypt, the madrasa is the dominant architectural form where religious buildings adopted the four-iwan plan. In later years, the madrasas provided accommodation for students, and this architectural style has continued to the present day.

3. Islamic Pilgrimage Places: Kaaba

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The Hajj, the most well-known pilgrimage in Islam, consists of many rituals that shaped the architecture of the most sacred places of the religion. Kaaba is where pilgrims go even in the present day. It means cube in Arabic, a square building covered in a silk and cotton veil. The faithful assemble in the courtyard of the Masjid al-Haram around the Kaaba.

The Muslims circulate the Kaaba during the tawaf ritual, hoping to touch and kiss the Black Stone embedded in the eastern side of the building. Muslims believe that Abraham and Ismail constructed the Kaaba even though it existed in pre-Islamic times. 

Traditionally, the Kaaba was a simple roofless rectangular structure. Its door was raised above ground level to protect the shrine from intruders and flood waters. The Muslims believe that the Black Stone was given to Abraham by archangel Gabriel. Over the years, the places surrounding Kaaba were expanded to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims.

With time, colonnades were built around the open area where the Kaaba stands, and important monuments were included in the sanctuary. During the 17th century, the Kaaba was covered with a black cloth called  kiswa , which is replaced yearly during the Hajj.

Characteristics of Islamic Architecture

Some of the key elements of Islamic religious buildings include domes, minarets, arches, muqarnas, girth tiles, and vaults. The tile work, domes, and arches reflect the influence of Christian architecture in Islamic architecture. 

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This is the rounded vault usually erected on the roof of an Islamic building.

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It is a carved symmetrical structure on top of an opening that carries the weight of the wall or the roof. Arches and domes are used to direct one’s look to the heavens.

c) Courtyard

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The courtyard provides stillness and privacy to the worshipers. It is also essential as it allows for lighting and cooling.

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These buildings also have tall and narrow towers. This is where a calling to prayer is read. The structure is called a minaret, while a mihrab is a niche in the mosque’s wall that indicates the direction of Mecca. Muslims pray facing the Mihrab as it points toward the Muslim holy city.

e) Girth Tiles  

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These are pieces of star and polygon-shaped tiles. They are combined to create consistent geometric patterns. One characteristic of Islamic interior design is the use of geometric mosaic patterns. This relates to Islamic values. Islamic interiors are decorated with girth tiles, colorful patterns, with intricate calligraphy.

f) Muqarnas

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These are three-dimensional decorative elements often used from the 11th century. They are tiers of cells that go up to the ceiling of the building, like stalactites or honeycombs. Maqurnas create a spectacular visual effect when light shines off the surfaces.

Examples of Islamic Architecture

1. qutub minar.

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This building was created to celebrate the dominance of Muslims in Delhi. Qutub Minar was constructed right after the victory of Aibak against Rajput rulers. Its construction commenced in 1199, is 14.3 meters in diameter, and stands 72.5 m high. Its top diameter is 2.7 meters. The Minar has a total of 379 steps running from top to bottom, while its exterior walls display carvings that reveal the history of the construction.

The curving on the wall is intricate, with Afghani-style patterns creatively blended with local artistic conventions. Red sandstone is the primary material used to construct the first three floors of the Minar, and sandstone and marble are used afterward. The building has projected balconies after every five floors. Plus, its cylindrical shaft contains Quran inscriptions.

2. CharMinar 

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This is an Indian structure that is famous for its architectural design. It was constructed in 1591 by Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah purposely to mark the end of a plague that had stricken the city. CharMinar is greatly inspired by Arc de Triomphe and gets its name from the minarets. The two-story building stands 48.7 meters high. Plus, you can see the landscape from minarets.

On the other hand, the minarets have four stories, each having a ring around the minaret. CharMinar takes the shape of a square. It has four arches that face the four directions. You can get a glimpse of huge courtyards from all four directions. Additionally, the arches have a height of 20 meters and a width of 11 meters.

This building displays Indo-Saracenic architecture. This is a mixture of Hindu and Islamic architecture. On the other hand, the ornamentation of the domes and arches was influenced by Hindu architecture.

3. Taj Mahal

Image Credits: Britannica.com

Taj Mahal was built between 1631 and 1648 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan on the banks of the river Yamuna. The mausoleum, like CharMinar, also displays Indo-Islamic architecture and a rhythmic combination of voids and solids.

This mosque-cathedral has a clever combination of concave and convex and light and shadow. On a raised square platform, a tomb is placed right at one end of the quadripartite Mughal Garden. Additionally, the platforms for the sides of the octagonal base of the minarets go past the squares.

4. Gol Ghumbaz

Image Credits: Commons.wikimedia.org

This is yet another monument constructed using Islamic style and was put up to mark the tomb of Mohammed Adil Shah. The measurements of the tomb are 47.5 meters on all sides. Further, the tomb is capped by a wooden dome that measures 44 millimeters in external diameter. The tomb is a single chamber structure constructed using dark grey basalt, while its facade is decorated using plaster.

Gol Ghumbaz is found only two kilometers from the capital city of Adil Shah’s rule, Bijapurand. It is inhibited in a complex that consists of other structures such as mosques, Dharamshala, and more buildings. There were also gardens in the complex. Deccan Indo-Islamic is the architectural style used in the construction of Gol Ghumbaz, a mixture of the Dravian and Indo-Islamic styles.

The tomb cubical has a gold-plated wood dome on top, fitted on a 600 feet podium, and is the second largest in the world. There is also a staircase in the building’s wall which leads to a seven-story octagon tower on each corner of the cube. Every seven storiecs have arched windows that are capped by a smaller dome. The pendentives are also another unique feature of this building. These are groined compartments whose purpose is to counteract the outward thrust of the dome. Plus, the tomb’s foundation is the bedrock presumed to prevent unequal settlement.

5. The Dome of the Rock

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This is thought to be the oldest Islamic monument, and by the time of the Arab conquest of Jerusalem, the monument was already 55 years old. It was the first Islamic building to feature Byzantine architectural elements and designs. The monument is also called Qubbat al Sakhra.

The Dome of the Rock is found on the Temple Mount, a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, and is sacred in all three religions, including Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.

6. Sixty Dome Mosque

Image Credits: Pixabay.com

Sixty Dome Mosque is known as Shait Gambuj Mosque or Saith Gumbad Masjid. The structure is mainly recognized as one of the most impressive Muslim monuments throughout the Indian continent. It is found in Bangladesh and was built in 1442 and completed in 1459.

The monument has walls of unusual thickness, a hit-shaped roofline, and tampered bricks. It has up to 77 squat domes and four-sided pitched Bengali domes that stand right on the middle row.

7. Great Mosque of Samarra

Image Credits: Amusingplanet.com

Found in Samara, Iraq, the Great Mosque of Samarra was built from 847 to 861 AD. Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil completed the 9th-century mosque. One of its most remarkable features is its minaret.

The Malwiya Tower is a vast cone that spirals vertically, is 52 meters high, and is 33 meters wide. The walls of this mosque are paneled with a mosaic of dark blue glass, and inside, it has up to 17 aisles. The unique architectural element used in the construction of this building makes it an icon in the area.

8. Great Mosque of Kairouan

Image Credits: smarthistory.org

The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia is the Mosque of Uqba. Due to its rich history, this mosque is considered one of the most important mosques in Tunisia and stands as one of the oldest places of worship in the country and the Islamic world. The mosque is also one of the largest and most impressive monuments in the northern part of Africa. 

The Great Mosque of Kairouan features a hypostyle prayer hall, a square minaret, and a marble-paved courtyard.

9. The Nur-Astana Mosque

Image Credits: Tripadvisor.com

The Nur-Astana Mosque is located in Kazakhstan and is the largest mosque in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The Islamic monuments’ materials are glass, granite, and concrete.

It can house up to 5000 worshipers. Nur- Astana Mosque has a height of 40 meters which symbolizes the age of Prophet Muhammad when he started receiving revelations.

10. The Great Mosque of Cordoba

Image Credits: Gardenvisit.com

The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption is the other name given to the Great Mosque of Cordoba . Found in the Spanish region of Andalusia, the Great Mosque of Cordoba was constructed on the site of a Christian church. The great mosque was constructed by the Umayyad ruler Abd Al Rahman I in 784 and completed in 786 using local materials.

It underwent a couple of enlargements and contains a richly decorated mihrab set behind an intricate arch. Architectural styles used to construct the mosque include Gothic architecture, Islamic architecture, and more. It remains among the oldest structures from the Muslim -ruled Al Andalus in the late 8th century.

11. Khanqah-E-Maula

Image credits: Commons.wikimedia.org

Khanqah-E-Maula is another shrine worth mentioning, located on the banks of river Jhelum. This great mosque is among the oldest shrine and was built by Sultan Sikander in 1395. It was later reconstructed in 1732. This building is mainly constructed using wood, with the architecture inspired by Hindu, Islamic, and Buddhist architectural designs.

Additionally, its plan is in the form of a square erected in an irregular walled base. This great mosque is a two-tiered building with a sloping pyramidal roof that demarcates each tier. Its roof has been accentuated by heavy woodwork with cornices under the eaves.

The first tier of the monument’s roof has a double-arcaded verandah that runs around the building. The roof’s second tier has an open pavilion for the muezzin and then further crowned by a pyramidal spire. Some parts of the roof are covered with seasonal vegetation. This creates a fantastic sight of intricate woodwork.

12. Agra Fort

Another name for Agra Fort is Red fort. It is found on the banks of the river Yamuna. It found its name from the use of sandstone. Akbar, the Mughal emperor, built it. The fort is capable of serving as a military base and also as a residence. The structure is a crescent-shaped building approximately 1.5 miles and 70 feet high.

It is also surrounded by a moat. Also, it is accessed from the Amar Gate facing south or Delhi gate, facing west. Delhi gate is the original entrance to the fort and is decorated using intricate marble inlays.

13. Jama Masjid of Delhi

Jama Masjid was built for six years, between 1650 to 1656. This monument is Delhi’s principal mosque and is situated in Old Delhi. The primary material for this monument is white marble and red sandstone. The mosque is oriented towards the holy city of Mecca. There is an open courtyard in the structure that measures 325 feet square. This courtyard is capable of holding up to 25,000 people. Its eastern gateway is meant for royal use.

The mosque also has two 130-foot minarets marking the southeastern and northeastern comers to the structure. On the other hand, the prayer hall is interior and measures 90 x 200 feet. Just above this prayer hall’s entrance, there are calligraphic Persian inscriptions. The mosque also has three larger marble domes.

14. Mecca Masjid, Hyderabad

Image Credits: Siasat.com

Mecca Masjid is one of the largest mosques in Hyderabad. Its primary construction materials are granite and bricks. The mosque’s gateway was built, leading to the court’s entrance.

The mosque has intricately designed 15 arches that support the main hall’s roof. Inside, there are up to 5 passageways as well as the tombs of rulers of the Asaf Jhi dynasty.

15. Sultan Ahmed Mosque

Image credits: Planetofhotels.com

Sultan Ahmed Mosque is also called the Blue Mosque. This is its original name. The Ottoman-era history imperial mosque is found in Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque is inspired by Islamic architecture and Ottoman architecture. It stands 43 meters high and is constructed just near a famous mosque called the Hagia Sophia mosque.

This building contains five main domes, six towering minarets, and another eight smaller domes. The architect of this project, Sedefkar Mehmed Aga, created a combination of Islamic elements and Byzantine from Hagia Sophia.

We have explored Islamic architecture’s unique characteristics that make it so fascinating, from its striking dazzling ornamental details to its awesome sculptural forms. We have detailed some of the elegant buildings of Islamic architecture, from mosques to secular styles—this architecture’s elegance and timeless appeal charm historical fans and those who appreciate beautiful details.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Islamic Architecture (622–1500)

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• Morocco and Algeria
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Islamic Architecture (622–1500) by D. Fairchild Ruggles LAST REVIEWED: 12 January 2023 LAST MODIFIED: 12 January 2023 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396584-0306

The premodern Islamic world was vast. Originating in Mecca and Medina in the Arabian peninsula in 622, it grew to extend from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent and across northern Africa to Morocco and Iberia. This bibliography covers Islamic architecture up to the year 1500, starting in the formative period in the Middle East where Islam began and then progressing from region to region, beginning in the west and moving eastward. It concludes with a bibliography organized by building types and elements. The earliest architecture emerged from a heavily Roman Mediterranean context under the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), whose political center was Damascus. But eastern elements were introduced after the Abbasids toppled the Umayyads and shifted power to Baghdad. The empire expanded quickly, and because of Islamic expansionism and the general tolerance extended to non-Muslims living under Muslim rule, the culture included not only diverse regions but also diversity within those regions. Thus the empire included Christian and Jewish peoples (together known as dhimmi s) as well as different ethnic and linguistic groups such as Arabs, Berbers, and Persians. While sectarian differences yielded distinct places of worship—mosques, churches, and synagogues—the architectural form and ornament of the various buildings shared many structural and ornamental features. This was facilitated by the common use of spolia in early Islamic architecture, and by the largely non-figural content of Islamic art, stemming from hadith traditions that rejected figural art for its possible link to idolatry. Mosaics that in Byzantine churches displayed biblical scenes were replaced by abstract ornament and Arabic inscriptions in mosques. Perhaps because of this, the Islamic visual tradition did not favor manuscript illustration until quite late in the medieval period, with the result that builders at one end of the world could not have had much knowledge of what was occurring at the other end, except through the exchange of artisans. More often the artisans were local, working for whatever patron could employ them. Functional types such as the mosque, tomb, caravanserai, and fortress were ubiquitous and might share important elements such as orientation and aniconism, but building technique, plan, and the manner of ornament varied widely and could reflect regional differences. Artistic transmission occurred along known routes, developed for the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, and were facilitated by the relative speed of sailing across bodies of water Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, and the late medieval rise of the land routes collectively known as the Silk Road.

General Overviews

Islamic architecture in Ettinghausen, et al. 2001 and Blair and Bloom 1994 is treated together with art, in part because the same kind of ornament is found on buildings and portable objects. However, due to the relatively late development of the book arts, architecture was until the early thirteenth century the more prevalent and important means of expression. Scholarly studies of Islamic architecture such as Creswell 1969 (cited under Formative Period (Seventh Century through Tenth Century) ) and Hoag 2004 are meticulous, archaeologically driven surveys that rely almost entirely on the description of material structure, structural technique, and the analysis of the development of building typologies. Arnold 2017 continues this tradition, updating it with current findings in archaeology. These are valuable for their breadth and for explaining the arc of history through time and across a wide geographical area. They also provide a useful canon of key sites. But because of the enormous area covered by the rubric “Islam,” surveys of its architecture tend to lack depth. Regional surveys offer more explanation of why architectural innovation occurred in specific contexts, how identity was expressed, and the social and legal mechanisms that stimulated monumental building. Beginning in 1973 with Grabar 1987 (cited under Formative Period (Seventh Century through Tenth Century) ), interpretive studies have sought to explain Islamic architecture in terms of the social milieu from which it was produced. Michell 2006 , Hillenbrand 2004 , and Bloom 2020 are examples of this social history approach. Jayyusi 2008 provides expansive coverage of the topic of urbanism as well as drilling deep into specific issues at specific sites. Petersen 1996 provides a succinct list of key monuments while Ruggles 2011 introduces readers to primary sources translated from Arabic, Persian, and Turkish.

Arnold, Felix. Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History . New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190624552.001.0001

An up-to-date and accurate survey of palatine architecture, focusing on typology and form, free of speculation as to cause and significance.

Blair, Sheila, and Jonathan Bloom. The Art and Architecture of Islam: 1250–1800 . Pelican History of Art. London and New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.

Begins where Ettinghausen, et al. 2001 ends. It offers brief descriptions of key monuments of art and architecture, tracing their development historically and in response to social conditions.

Bloom, Jonathan. Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 . New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2020.

A much-needed, up-to-date, and well-written survey that explains social and political reasons for architectural change across the western Islamic Mediterranean.

Ettinghausen, Richard, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Medina. Islamic Art and Architecture, 650–1250 . 2d ed. Pelican History of Art. London and New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.

Revised and expanded from the original 1987 edition, the new edition surveys the large field of Islamic architecture and art, illuminating the social context that produced it. Organized by region and chronologically, it offers brief descriptions of individual monuments.

Flood, Finbarr B., and Gülru Necipoğlu, eds. A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture . 2 vols. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell, 2017.

Volume 1, From the Prophet to the Mongols , and the first section of the second volume contain essays reflecting current scholarship on Islamic art and architecture, leaning toward an emphasis on the former. Excellent essays written by leading scholars, but poorly illustrated.

Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture: Form, Function and Meaning . New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.

A thorough survey of Islamic architecture, organized by functional type (rather than period). The text is accompanied by excellent axonometric and perspectival drawings made by the author, but the thumbnail plans at the end of the work are too small to be of use. First published in 1995.

Hoag, John D. Islamic Architecture . London: Phaidon, 2004.

A general survey, originally published in 1977, organized by dynasty with each building illustrated in black-and-white photographs and a ground plan or section. Largely descriptive, it emphasizes form rather than social history or symbolic meaning.

Jayyusi, Salma K., ed. The City in the Islamic World . 2 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.

A comprehensive collection of essays on the development of urbanism, aspects such as law and waqf (legal endowment) that affected urban formation, and studies of individual cities such as Jerusalem, Cordoba, Fez, Rabat, Kirman, Bukhara, and Samarkand.

Michell, George, ed. Architecture of the Islamic World: Its History and Social Meaning . New York: Thames and Hudson, 2006.

Originally published in 1978 and thus no longer up to date; yet it remains a good basic introduction for students, emphasizing architectural function and decoration, and concluding with an encyclopedia briefly describing key buildings.

Petersen, Andrew. Dictionary of Islamic Architecture . London and New York: Routledge, 1996.

Useful for brief descriptions of terminology, architectural and decorative elements, sites, dynasties, and regions. Freely available online through Archnet.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources . Malden, MA, and Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

A collection of primary sources on Islamic art and architecture, each excerpt preceded by a brief explanation.

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8.2: Islamic Architecture

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• Alena M. Buis
• Langara Collegeia Institute of Technology via BC Campus

Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of both secular and religious styles. The principal Islamic architectural example is the mosque. A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.

By the end of this module you will be able to:

• Describe the form, content, and context of key works of Islamic architecture
• Define critical terms related to Islamic architecture
• Identify the religious influences on Islamic architecture
• Describe the development of mosques, and their different features during different periods and dynasties

Early Mosques

• The Islamic mosque has historically been both a place of prayer and a community meeting space. The early mosques are believed to be inspired by Muhammad’s home in Medina, which was the first mosque.

The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia) is one of the best-preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it contains all of the architectural features that distinguish early mosques: a minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by porticos, and a hypostyle prayer hall.

Ottoman Mosques

Ottoman mosques and other architecture first emerged in the cities of Bursa and Edirne in the 14th and 15th centuries, developing from earlier Seljuk Turk architecture, with additional influences from Byzantine, Persian, and Islamic Mamluk traditions.

Sultan Mehmed II would later fuse European traditions in his rebuilding programs at Istanbul in the 19th century. Byzantine styles as seen in the Hagia Sophia served as particularly important models for Ottoman mosques, such as the mosque constructed by Sinan.

Construction reached its peak in the 16th century when Ottoman architects mastered the technique of building vast inner spaces surmounted by seemingly weightless yet incredibly massive domes and achieved perfect harmony between inner and outer spaces, as well as articulated light and shadow.

They incorporated vaults, domes, square dome plans, slender corner minarets, and columns into their mosques, which became sanctuaries of transcendently aesthetic and technical balance, as may be observed in the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, Turkey.

Architecture flourished in the Safavid Dynasty, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque. Isfahan, the capital of both the Seljuk and Safavid dynasties, bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, such as the Imperial Mosque, which was constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598.

• A specifically recognizable Islamic architectural style emerged soon after Muhammad’s time that incorporated Roman building traditions with the addition of localized adaptations of the former Sassanid and Byzantine models.

Adapted from “Boundless Art History” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/bo...o-islamic-art/ License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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Art of the Islamic world 640 to now

Course: art of the islamic world 640 to now   >   unit 1, arts of the islamic world.

• Adorning the Qur’an
• Gold in the Qur’an
• Introduction to mosque architecture
• Common types of mosque architecture
• The complex geometry of Islamic design

What is Islamic art?

Arts of the islamic world, note on organization from the contributing editor, want to join the conversation.

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Continuity and Innovation: Early Islamic art and architecture of the Umayyads and Abbasids

Great Mosque of Kairouan prayer hall façade (photo: Damian Entwistle, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Artworks and buildings have been produced by and for Muslims across the world from the 7th century to the present, and it would take many books to do justice to their full range. This chapter looks at some of the art produced immediately before and during the first few centuries of Islam, in West Asia and North Africa. It focuses on the cultures of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties, which were the first two major caliphates .

Map indicating the phases of expansion under the Prophet Mohammad, the Rashidun caliphate, and the Umayyad Dynasty

Map of the Mediterranean and west Asia in the 9th century

The art produced in these early centuries is wonderfully varied, and different Islamic lands had their own artistic traditions. Techniques or materials could be associated with specific cities, for example Nishapur in Iran was famous for producing colorful glazed ceramics. Such local identities could be important to craftspeople, who sometimes recorded their hometowns in inscriptions on artworks.

There were also long-distance connections, within and beyond the Islamic world. People and goods moved overland from one part of the caliphate to another, sometimes using the roads and hostels maintained for the barid (the official postal system). Longer journeys usually took place by ship. Although the level of trade across the Mediterranean Sea had dropped after the fragmentation of the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries, it never stopped completely, and ships also carried merchandise back and forth between the West Asia, India, Indonesia, and China.

Despite regional differences, broad similarities can be found—in the architecture of mosques, the decoration of textiles, or the marking of verses in Qur’ans—which tell us that some cultural conventions were shared across large areas. The Great Mosques of Kairouan and Aleppo are separated by 200 years and 1,500 miles, but both have large courtyards surrounded by porticos, and arched entrances to the prayer-halls (the latter shown towards the right of both images below).

The Great Mosques of Kairouan, Tunisia, 9th century (left), and Aleppo, Syria, 11th–14th century (right) (photos: Sean Leatherbury and Ross Burns/Manar al-Athar)

There was also a balance in the early Islamic period between continuity and innovation. On the one hand, some objects and compositions are almost indistinguishable from Sasanian or Byzantine designs of previous generations, and this is not surprising given that many of the artists would have been trained in these traditions. For instance there are similarities in the designs of the two silver dishes shown below, in the overhanging grape vine and the central image of a figure holding a drinking bowl, although one is early Islamic in date and one is several centuries earlier.

Left: Gilded silver dishes from the Sasanian Empire, 2nd–3rd century; right: from the early Islamic period of rule in the same region, 7th–8th century (photos: © Trustees of the British Museum)

On the other hand, there were inventions. There were new kinds of visual display, such as the decorative use of Arabic script, and technological changes, such as the new recipes developed by ceramicists and glassmakers at the Abbasid courts.

Left: Fragment of statue from Umayyad palace of Mshatta; right: detail of bronze brazier with Dionysiac imagery from Umayyad palace of al-Fudayn, both from Jordan, first half of the 8th century (Jordan Archaeological Museum, Amman; photos: Beatrice Leal)

The 8th and 9th centuries also saw the reinvention of some ancient Greek and Roman cultural traditions, such as the use of figural sculpture and an engagement with classical mythological subjects. Both objects above were commissioned for Umayyad palaces and both use imagery from the classical tradition; the woman carrying a piece of fruit may represent one of the seasons, and the man on the brazier is likely to be the god of wine Dionysus, or one of his followers.

The mix of tradition, innovation, and reinvention depended on the function of the artwork, the interests of the patron, the presence of artists trained in a particular way, and the availability of materials for them to work with, among other things. Iconography also varied according to setting—some types of images were seen as appropriate for houses or palaces but not for mosques, for instance.

Patrons, makers, and materials

In addition to describing the main trends of development in early Islamic culture, each section of this chapter will present an artwork in relation to three questions. These are broad questions that can be asked of any object or building, from any time or place, so they can help to highlight comparisons and contrasts. Firstly, who commissioned objects and buildings? Secondly, what do we know about the people who did the work? And thirdly, what were the social, technological, or symbolic considerations behind the choice of one material over another?

Read an introductory essay

Arts of the Islamic world, the early period: an introduction

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Before Islam

This section looks in more detail at the pre-Islamic period, to set the political and cultural scene into which Islam emerged in 7th-century Arabia. Arabia has not always been given much importance in the story of Islamic art; previous generations of scholars described its visual culture as weak and unimpressive. [1] This picture has been modified partly by archaeological discoveries and partly by changes in attitude. Some aspects of Arabian art and architecture were distinctive to the region, from massive rock-cut shrines to delicate painted ceramics. Other art forms, such as stuccowork, were inspired by neighboring cultures but adapted to local settings.

Stucco panel from church at al-Qusur, Kuwait, 8th century (photo: © Mission archéologique franco-koweïtienne de Faïlaka/Hélène David-Cuny)

An 8th-century stucco panel from the church of al-Qusur hints at the diverse visual culture of pre- and early Islamic Arabia. The patrons belonged to one of the Christian communities living along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and like congregations elsewhere they invested in the decoration of their churches, possibly as a collective enterprise. All the surviving archaeological evidence for churches in the region dates to the early Islamic period (as this panel does), but according to written sources Christian communities existed from the 4th century C.E., and it is probable that earlier churches were similarly decorated. The makers may have been local to Arabia, but they probably also had links to workshops in what is now Iran, as the material and motifs of the molded plaster were common in the Sasanian world. Stucco paneling of this kind was equally widely used in Umayyad and Abbasid palaces.

In late antiquity large powers surrounded Arabia—the Sasanian Empire to the east and the Byzantine Empire to the west—and as the decorated plasterwork shows, this had an artistic impact. In the 7th century, Muslim forces conquered the entire Sasanian territory and large parts of Byzantium. Early Islamic art incorporated many elements from both traditions.

Byzantine and Sasanian visual cultures didn’t exist in isolation; some motifs and techniques were popular in both regions, and even further afield. The combination of styles in many early Islamic monuments was a continuation of this artistic mixing.

Read essays about art before Islam

Pre-Islamic Arabia: The pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula had a complex artistic and religious history.

Sasanian art: Many of the elite artforms in the Sasanian Empire continued to be valued in the early Islamic period.

Byzantine art: The Byzantine empire and the caliphates were political rivals, but each had an influence on the art and architecture of the other.

Cross-cultural artistic interaction in the Middle Byzantine period: Some early Islamic art was inspired by Byzantine examples, which in turn used conventions shared with other cultures.

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The beginnings of Islam

The Prophet Muhammad started preaching during the 610s in Mecca in western Arabia, and established the first Muslim community in Medina in 622. Over the next few decades, Muslim armies conquered a territory stretching over 3,000 miles. Some new military towns were founded, such as Basra and Kufa in what is now Iraq. The administration of existing cities continued—with some minor changes, such as new issues of coins.

Silver dirham minted at Bishapur, Iran, mid-7th century (Classical Numismatic Group, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The patron of the mid-7th century silver dirham shown here was a Muslim governor of Fars province (in modern-day Iran), during the reign of one of the early caliphs, but the portrait on the coin is not of either of them. Instead the figure is the pre-Islamic ruler, the Shahan Shah, and the reverse of the coin shows a Zoroastrian fire altar. The makers had probably worked in the mint of Bishapur before the conquest, and may have reused the same dies as before. There was a subtle addition to the design, however; the Arabic inscription beside the portrait reads bismillah , “in the name of God.” There was an increase in precious metal mining in the early Islamic period, and silver coins gradually circulated throughout the caliphate, whereas previously they were rare outside Iran.

As this coin shows, Muslim administrators commissioned objects and images for the business of government. But the first wave of expansion of Islam was not marked by grand artistic or architectural projects; in the new settlements the first mosques were simply open spaces for prayer. There were exceptions, however, including two essential elements of Islamic material culture: the Kaaba and the Qur’an. 

The Kaaba, granite masonry, covered with silk curtain and calligraphy in gold and silver-wrapped thread, pre-Islamic monument, rededicated by Muhammad in 631–32 C.E., multiple renovations, Mecca, Saudi Arabia

The Kaaba was modified several times in the 7th century, by different and sometimes rival patrons, as the needs of the expanding pilgrimage center were set against a desire to replicate the original (but by then already long-lost) form of the shrine. During the reign of Uthman (644–56) the Qur’an began to be written down in codices , rather than being transmitted only in spoken form. The process of writing contributed to the standardization of the text. Qur’anic manuscripts from this period survive, a few with chapters separated by simple decorations, perhaps to aid memorization of the text.

Read essays about the beginnings of Islam

Introduction to Islam: Some aspects of Islamic material culture began during the lifetimes of Muhammad and his initial successors.

Introduction to mosque architecture: The first mosque was the Prophet’s house in Medina; more ornate architectural settings for prayer were developed later. 

The Kaaba: The Kaaba is the central shrine of Islam, and has been rebuilt many times over the centuries.

The Qur’an: The prophetic revelation was initially spread in spoken form, and was recorded in a book format after Muhammad’s death.

The Umayyad caliphate (661–750)

If the conquest period didn’t produce much elaborate art and architecture, the following century made up for it—many of the most impressive early Islamic monuments date to the Umayyad era. Even relatively modest Umayyad buildings might be given a touch of grandeur by the use of expensive materials, such as glass mosaic.

Dedicatory inscription of market in Beth Shean, 737–38, Israel Museum, Jerusalem (photo: Sean Leatherbury/Manar al-Athar)

An eighth-century mosaic inscription from Beth Shean (in present-day Israel) illustrates several characteristics of Umayyad art. It commemorates the building of a marketplace under the patronage of the governor Ishaq bin Qabisa and caliph Hisham . Many of the early caliphs invested in projects like roads, canals and markets; these were ideological acts as well as practical ones, demonstrating the resources of the regime. As with the silver coin discussed above, the makers were probably non-Muslim; most local mosaicists would have been Christian or Jewish. The inscription is written in Arabic, however, perhaps indicating the involvement of Muslim artisans, as well as the increasing use of the language for official purposes. The medium of glass mosaic had a long tradition in the Levant , and was adopted for many of the most prestigious Umayyad buildings, such as the Dome of the Rock and the Great Mosque of Damascus.

Mosaic arches with acanthus motif, Great Mosque of Damascus, Syria (photo: Judith McKenzie/Manar al-Athar, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0

While Umayyad religious buildings—like the two mentioned above—were the most visible artistic interventions of their time, it is important to remember that these are only one aspect of Islamic material culture. There were also distinctive forms of secular buildings, like palaces and bathhouses, as well as objects from curtains to tableware. Wool textiles like the one shown here would have been valuable possessions but were nonetheless fairly widespread, and unglazed jugs painted with simple designs might be owed by almost any household .

Left: fragment of tiraz, 7th–8th century, silk, from a cemetery at Akhmim (Egypt), 21.5 x 15.2 cm (The V&A); right: painted jug, late 7th or 8th century, found at Jerash, Jordan (photo: Beatrice Leal)

Read essays about art made under the Umayyads

The Umayyads, an introduction: Umayyad rulers sponsored art forms ranging from new designs of coins to large congregational mosques, creating a coherent dynastic image.

The Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhra): This was one of the first explicitly Islamic monuments, built in Jerusalem during the reign of ‘Abd al-Malik.

The Great Mosque of Damascus: Caliph al-Walid I, ‘Abd al-Malik’s son, made an equally striking architectural statement with a huge mosque in the center of Damascus.

The Great Mosque of Córdoba: After the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads in Syria, some of the dynasty reestablished themselves as rulers in Spain.

The Abbasid caliphate (750–13th century)

In 750 the Umayyad dynasty was replaced by the Abbasids. The new rulers founded cities, notably Baghdad and Samarra in Iraq, and the artisans who gathered there developed characteristic styles of working.

Great Mosque of Samarra, Iraq (photo: Taisir Mahdi, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Investment in older sites also continued, for example many Abbasid caliphs restored buildings in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and artists sometimes traveled across hundreds of miles to take part in these projects. The caliphs were not the only patrons; as before, regional governors and wealthy individuals also sponsored works of art. Another Umayyad site which continued to attract sponsorship was the Great Mosque of Damascus.

Folio from Qur’an, before 911, possibly made in Iraq (The Morgan Library and Museum, New York, MS M.712, fol. 19v)

In 911 a Qur’an was donated to the Great Mosque of Damascus. The patron, ‘Abd al-Mun’im, may have been a local aristocrat, or maybe an official who had traveled to Damascus. The scribes were highly trained calligraphers, probably working in one of the new Abbasid cities in Iraq. The book was in the latest style, with long horizontal pages, and like many top-end Abbasid Qur’ans it was decorated with gold. The use of precious metals was rare in 8th-century Qur’ans, but increasingly common in the 9th and 10th centuries, partly to enhance the sacred text but also as a display of wealth.

From the 10th century, the Abbasid caliphate was surrounded by other Islamic states, sometimes in conflict with them and sometimes with more diplomatic relations. The last two essays in this section highlight artworks from the courts of two of these powers, one from al-Andalus in the far west of the Islamic world, and one from the east, in the Ghaznavid empire centered in modern Afghanistan.

Read essays about art under the Abbasids and other powerful courts

Arts of the Abbasid Caliphate: The Abbasid courts attracted scholars and artists from across the Islamic world.

Samarra: the Abbasid caliphs spared no expense to build a palatial city of grand buildings and sprawling residential complexes.

Folio from a Qur’an: Abd al-Mun’in ibn Ahmad donated this Qur’an to the Great Mosque of Damascus.

Pyxis of al-Mughira: This ivory box was a gift for the 18-year-old prince al-Mughira.

Dado Panel, Courtyard of the Royal Palace of Mas’ud III : This marble panel was part of the 12th-century Ghaznavid palace near Kabul.

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As the rival caliphates and sultanates multiplied during the so-called Middle Ages , the diversity of styles and techniques of Islamic arts did too. Nonetheless, the achievements of the Umayyad and Abbasid periods continued to inspire artists for centuries to come.

[1] The art historian Oleg Grabar wrote that “the living architecture of Central Arabia was not an impressive one” and referred to the “visual weakness of [Islam’s] Arabian past”: The Formation of Islamic Art , 1973 (revised 1987), New Haven and London: Yale University Press, pp. 75, 94.

Key questions to guide your reading

What are the factors that might encourage artistic innovation on the one hand, or sticking to traditional conventions on the other, what does it mean to say that an artwork or an artistic tradition is influenced by another one, what can the choice of materials tell us about what an object or building was used for, and who it was for, terms to know and use.

Qur'an (also spelled Koran)

Learn about gold in the Qur’an

The vibrant visual cultures of the Islamic West, an introduction

Agnieszka Lic, ‘Why Study Stucco? The Importance of Stucco Decorations for Christian Communities of the Gulf in the Early Islamic Period’, Le carnet de la MAFKF. Recherches archéologiques franco-koweïtiennes de l’île de Faïlaka (Koweït) , (2016).

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Introduction: the historiography of Islamic art and architecture,

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Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka Report

Introduction.

The Greek architects were the designers of the early buildings in the Islamic empire. The buildings had to be the works of the Greek architects, they resembled the buildings in the late Roman Empire. Because they were building the mosques, unlike the churches, the Greek architects saw the need to try out some new designs. This contributed to the rise of different models of Islamic style of constructions.

This paper seeks to explore Islamic architecture with special attention to Al-Masjid Al-Haram. The report begins with the significance of Ka’aba to Muslims. It also explores a brief history of the characteristics of Islamic architectures, with special emphasis on Makka and Masjid Al-Haram. Al-Masjid al-Haram is considered one of the largest mosques in the world. The report describes its architectural design and major renovations which have taken place since it was constructed. Ka’aba plays a significant role in the spirituality of every Muslim. It is a cube-shaped structure that is about forty-three feet high. The report describes Ka’ba architecture and gives its historical link between the graves of prophet Ismail and his mother Hajar.

Significance of Ka’aba to Islam

Ka’aba, besides its architectural designs, is significant to every Muslim believer. The Muslims who proceed to the area around Mecca must undergo a ritual cleansing and wear a special white robe (Hankin, 2003). The pilgrimage starts with a procession (tawaf) around the Ka’aba seven times in the anti-clockwise direction as viewed from above (Mubarakpuri, 2002). In the south-eastern side of the Ka’aba, there is a sacred black stone mounted in silver. It is around 11 inches wide and 15 inches high. Muslims believe that this stone was sent from heaven by Allah and is considered highly sacred. Because of the numerous numbers of Muslim faithful crowding into Ka’aba at any given time, it is almost impossible to get close to the stone and kiss it (Mubarakpuri, 2002).

General Characteristics of Islamic Architectures

According to Mubarakpuri (2002), the Islamic systems of architecture are mirrored byzantine and Sassanid models. The effects of these models inspired the architects of the time hence it contributed to the building of similar models such as the; dome of the rock in Jerusalem. The dome of the rock is adorned with arabesque patterns and the great epigraphic frieze. Architectural concepts and plans are enhanced by embracing the advice of civic and religious leaders.

Islamic architectural styles are unique. They encompass camouflaged walls of most mosques and Madrasa. The principle involved is the application of infinite patterns on the surfaces of any medium. The final architectural work involves superimposing elements, which tricks the eye into an illusion of the image. The architecture was enhanced by using decorative works. Tiles and plaster decorations were commonly used to cover up solid walls of Mosques and Madrasa while arches and vaults were camouflaged with epigraphic and floral decorations. Infinite patterns of radiating designs were put into a dome which reduces the solidity of masonry and stone.

Makkah is located east of the port of Jedda. It is about 45 miles east of the red sea. Makkah is known to many people as Mecca. Makkah is considered the mother of the cities and a holy place in the Islamic world. Muhammad, the founder of the Muslim faith was born here in 570. Within this Great Mosque, there is a shrine named Ka’aba (Mubarakpuri, 2002). There are also considered to be the holiest shrines of Islam. Devoted Muslims throughout the world pray five times a day, and when they pray, they bow down facing Mecca. Those who can afford it take a tour to the holy city of Mecca once in their lifetime. This is referred to as a Hajj. It is done during the Muslim month of Dhu-al-Hijah (Hankin, 2003).

Masjid Al-Haram Architecture

According to The Message of Islam (2011), Al-Masjid al-Haram is the largest mosque in the world, and it is in Mecca. Al-Masjid al-Haram covers an area of 356,800 square meters and has a capacity to hold 4 million people during Haji period (Baz, 1996).

The Al-Masjid al-Haram mosque was destroyed by a flood and was rebuilt by Ibrahim and his son Ismail.

A large number of travelers to Mecca contributed to a complete rebuild of the Al-Masjid al-Haram. Therefore, the wooden columns were substituted with stonework decorations. The oldest surviving parts of the building are the support columns placed by Sultan Selim II in 1570 and decorated domes that replaced the flat roof (The Message of Islam, 2011). In the 1620s, the mosque was reconstructed.

The second major renovations were done from 1982-to 1988 under King Fahd. A new outdoor prayer area and a new wing were built. The third extension saw a more prayer area constructed around the mosque and a King’s residence overlooking the mosque created 18 gates, 500 marbles columns, heated floors, air conditioners, escalators were part of the third extension. This was done between the years 1982 and 1988. The fourth extension started after the death of King Fahd in 2007 and is expected to last until 2020.

Ka’aba Architecture

Ka’aba structure is enclosed in the mosque in Mecca, and it is here that Muslims come for the journey (Haj). Around Mecca, there is a blessed zone where only Muslims are allowed to step in. This is a stonework cube-shaped structure that is about 43 feet high. Its sides are regular with a length of between 36 to 43 feet. This structure is covered in a black cloth called Kiswah which has Quran text sewed in gold and silver thread (The Message of Islam, 2011). The gold curtain (Kiswah) is replaced annually during the Hajj. The entrance into the Ka’aba is a 2-meter gold door. Inside, the Ka’aba floor is made of marble and limestone and the walls are made of marble on it are Qur’anic engravings. Outside the Ka’aba is a semi-circular wall that is 90cm high and 1.5 m wide (The Message of Islam, 2011). It is believed that the gap between this wall and the Ka’aba is the graves of prophet Ismail and his mother Hajar.

Islamic architecture derives its style from the foundation of Islam and shows a wide range of both religious and secular styles. These styles are expressed in different edifices and buildings thus representing the unique Islamic culture. Different styles of decorations have played a part in ornamenting mosques.

Makkah is a very significant city to the Muslim faith. Perhaps, this is the reason why a strong Muslim believer has to undertake a pilgrimage to the city once in his or her lifetime. The architecture of Makka has stood as one of the unique in the Islamic world. This is attributed to the style; design and construction process accorded. The architecture is characterized by strong Islamic tradition which has dictated its construction and subsequent renovation over the ages. Makkah has continued to carry on with the traditional practices of Islam. This is seen through various religious practices and rituals.

References List

Baz, A. A. A. (1996). Verifying & Explaining Many Matters of Hajj . Riyadh: Darussalam Publishers.

Hankin, R. (2003). Makkah . London: Evans Brothers.

Mubarakpuri, S. R. (2002). History of Makkah . Riyadh. Darussalam Publishers.

Student of the Quran. (2011). Al-Masjid Al-Haram in Mecca . Web.

The Message of Islam. (2011). The Kaaba as a Place of Worship in History . Web.

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IvyPanda. (2023, November 1). Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka. https://ivypanda.com/essays/islamic-architecture-al-masjid-al-haram-kaaba-makka/

"Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka." IvyPanda , 1 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/islamic-architecture-al-masjid-al-haram-kaaba-makka/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka'. 1 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/islamic-architecture-al-masjid-al-haram-kaaba-makka/.

1. IvyPanda . "Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/islamic-architecture-al-masjid-al-haram-kaaba-makka/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Islamic Architecture: Al-Masjid Al-Haram, Ka’aba, Makka." November 1, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/islamic-architecture-al-masjid-al-haram-kaaba-makka/.

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Short Essay On Islamic Architecture

What is architecture What is Islamic architecture Terminology Common interruption of Islamic architecture History of Islamic archtecture Islamic architecture today Both the process and the product of planning, designing and constructing buildings. A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and (some) non- building structures. The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. The knowledge of art, science & technology and humanity. The practice of the architect. The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. Can be define as a building traditions of Muslim populations of the Middle East and any …show more content…

Umayyad Empire (661–750), in the Umayyad era many new elements were included to the Islamic architecture : Minarates, Arabisque, Mosaic, Luxury palaces. Great Mosque at Cordoba. Abd ar-Rahman III ordered a new minaret (9th century). Al-Hakam II enlarged the plan of the building and enriched the mihrab (961). Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir completion of the outer aisles and orange tree courtyard were (987). The construction lasted for over two centuries, under the emir, Abd ar-Rahman. The Mosque underwent numerous of subsequent changes. Was captured from the moors by king ferdinand III of castile. The Christians used it as a place of worship. The Construction is now a cathedral (Mezquita) beginning in 785 The site previously is Roman temple. Mosque was added inside by the Christian conquerers (13th century). Characteristics: Giant arches and its forest of over 856 of 1,293 columns of jasper, onyx, marble and …show more content…

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The Mughal Architecture

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The nature of islamic art.

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recto: "Portrait of Raja Suraj Singh Rathor", verso: Page of Calligraphy. Folio from the Shah Jahan Album

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Department of Islamic Art , The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2001

The term Islamic art not only describes the art created specifically in the service of the Muslim faith (for example, a mosque and its furnishings) but also characterizes the art and architecture historically produced in the lands ruled by Muslims, produced for Muslim patrons, or created by Muslim artists. As it is not only a religion but a way of life, Islam fostered the development of a distinctive culture with its own unique artistic language that is reflected in art and architecture throughout the Muslim world.

The lands newly conquered by the Muslims had their own preexisting artistic traditions and, initially at least, those artists who had worked under Byzantine or Sasanian patronage continued to work in their own indigenous styles but for Muslim patrons. The first examples of Islamic art therefore rely on earlier techniques, styles, and forms reflecting this blending of classical and Iranian decorative themes and motifs. Even religious monuments erected under Umayyad patronage that have a clearly Islamic function and meaning, such as the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, demonstrate this amalgam of Greco-Roman, Byzantine, and Sasanian elements. Only gradually, under the impact of the Muslim faith and nascent Islamic state, did a uniquely Islamic art emerge. The rule of the Umayyad caliphate (661–750) is often considered to be the formative period in Islamic art. One method of classifying Islamic art, used in the Islamic galleries at the Metropolitan Museum, is according to the dynasty reigning when the work of art was produced. This type of periodization follows the general precepts of Islamic history, which is divided into and punctuated by the rule of various dynasties, beginning with the Umayyad and ‘ Abbasid dynasties that governed a vast and unified Islamic state, and concluding with the more regional, though powerful, dynasties such as the Safavids , Ottomans , and Mughals .

With its geographic spread and long history, Islamic art was inevitably subject to a wide range of regional and even national styles and influences as well as changes within the various periods of its development. It is all the more remarkable then that, even under these circumstances, Islamic art has always retained its intrinsic quality and unique identity. Just as the religion of Islam embodies a way of life and serves as a cohesive force among ethnically and culturally diverse peoples, the art produced by and for Muslim societies has basic identifying and unifying characteristics. Perhaps the most salient of these is the predilection for all-over surface decoration. The four basic components of Islamic ornament are calligraphy , vegetal patterns , geometric patterns , and figural representation .

Department of Islamic Art. “The Nature of Islamic Art.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/orna/hd_orna.htm (October 2001)

Further Reading

Bloom, Jonathan M., and Sheila S. Blair. The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800 . New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.

Ettinghausen, Richard, Oleg Grabar, and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina. Islamic Art and Architecture, 650–1250 . 2d ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.

Additional Essays by Department of Islamic Art

• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Almoravid and Almohad Periods (ca. 1062–1269) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Turkmen Jewelry .” (August 2011)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Umayyad Period in Spain (711–1031) .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Vegetal Patterns in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Calligraphy in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Figural Representation in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ Geometric Patterns in Islamic Art .” (October 2001)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Mughals before 1600 .” (October 2002)
• Department of Islamic Art. “ The Art of the Nasrid Period (1232–1492) .” (October 2002)

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List of Rulers

• List of Rulers of the Islamic World
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Indo-Islamic Architecture (Indian Culture Series – NCERT)

Last updated on November 8, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

This post finishes our task of covering the highlights of the book in an exam-friendly manner, but we don’t stop creating ‘easy-to-read articles’ for our readers here. We will surely come up with more articles on Indian culture (topics like Painting, Dances, etc) from other sources soon.

Here we discuss various examples of Indo-Islamic architecture, their styles, certain decoration techniques, etc. In previous posts, we have already discussed the ancient art and architecture. Use the search bar on this website for arts of the Mauryan Period ,  Arts of the Indus Valley Civilization , and medieval period temple art and architecture .

Table of Contents

How did Indo-Islamic Architecture evolve?

• In the 7 th and 8 th centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India.
• Islam came to India , particularly with merchants, traders, holy men, and conquerors over a passage of 600 years.
• Although by the 8 th century, Muslims had begun to construct in Sindh, Gujarat, etc., it was only in the 13 th century that large-scale building activity was begun by the Turkish state, established after the Turkish conquest of North India.
• A noteworthy aspect of these migrations and conquests was that Muslims absorbed many features of local culture and tradition and combined them with their architectural features.
• Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejection, or modifications of architectural elements.
• These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic Architecture.
• By the 12 th century, India was already familiar with monumental construction in grandiose settings.
• Certain techniques and embellishments were prevalent, such as trabeation (the use of beams rather than arches or vaulting), brackets, and multiple pillars to support a flat roof or a small shallow dome.
• The arches in early constructions were shaped in wood and stone and were unable to bear the weight of the domes/top structures.
• Such arches needed to be constructed with voussoirs (series of interlocking blocks) and fitted with keystones.

Also read: Qutb Shahi Architecture

Categories of Styles

The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorized as follows:

• The Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
• The Provincial styles (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal and Jaunpur)
• The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra and Lahore)
• The Deccani style (Bijapur and Golconda)
• Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct.
• Gujarat was said to have a markedly regional character for patrons borrowed elements from the regional temple traditions such as torans, lintels in mihrabs, carving of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques, and dargahs.
• The 15 th century white marble dargah of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of provincial style and it heavily influenced the forms and decoration of Mughal tombs.

Decorative Forms

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Indo-Islamic architecture developed distinct decorative styles in the subcontinent.

• These forms include designing on plasters through incisions or stucco.
• The designs were either left plain or covered with colors.
• Motifs were also painted on or carved in stones.
• These motifs include varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and places outside, particularly Iran.
• The lotus bridge fringe was used to great advantage in the inner curves of the arches.
• The walls were also decorated with Cypress, Chinar, and other trees as well as flower vases.
• Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating the ceiling were also to be found on textiles and carpets.
• In the 14 th , 15 th, and 16 th centuries, tiles were also used to surface the walls and the domes.
• Popular colors were blue, turquoise, green, and yellow.
• Subsequently, the techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietra dura (cut and fit technique) were used for surface decoration, particularly in the dodo panels of the walls.

• At times, Lapis Lazuli (a kind of blue stone) was used on the interior walls or canopies.
• Arabesque (surface decorations based on rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, and tendrils), calligraphy, Jalis (perforated stone or latticed screen), etc. were other decorative works.

Constructing Materials

• The walls in all buildings were extremely thick and were largely constructed of rubble masonry, which was easily available.
• These walls were then cased over with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
• An amazing range of stones were utilized for construction such as quartzite, sandstone, buffs, marbles, etc.
• Polychrome tiles were used to great advantage to finish the walls.
• From the 17 th century onwards, bricks were also used for construction, and in this phase, there was more reliance on local materials.

• Another feature was concentric circles of outer walls as in Golconda where the enemy had to breach these at all stages before getting in.
• Some of the famous forts are the Fort of Chittor (Rajasthan), Gwalior (MP), Daulatabad-earlier Devgiri (Maharashtra), and Golconda (Hyderabad).
• The Chittorgarh fort is the largest in Asia and was occupied for the longest length of time as the seat of power.

Another form of sthamba or tower was the minar, a common feature in the sub-continent which portrays the perfect blend in Indo-Islamic architecture.

• The most striking minars of medieval times are the Qutub Minar in Delhi and Chand Minar at Daulatabad.
• The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or call to prayer.
• Its phenomenal height, however, symbolized the might and power of the ruler.

Eg: Qutub Minar

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• It was built in the 13 th century and the Qutub complex in which the minar is present is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The construction of the bottom storey of the minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate) and his successor Iltumish completed it by adding three more storeys.
• However, Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the top story which was damaged by lightning and also added one more storey.
• Hence now it has five storeys and a height of nearly 234 feet (about 73 m) making it the second tallest minar in India (first is Fateh Burj, Punjab).
• The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much-revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
• The minar is a mixture of polygonal and circular shapes.
• It is largely built on red and buff stone with some use of marble in the upper storeys.
• It is characterized by high decorative balconies and bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

Eg: Chand minar

• It was built in the 15 th century by Ala-ud-din Bahmani.
• It is a 210 feet high (about 30 m) tapering tower divided into four storeys.
• It is painted in peach now.
• Its façade once boasted of chevron patterning on the encaustic tile work and a bold band of Quranic verses.
• Although it looked like an Iranian monument, it was the combined handiwork of local architects with those from Delhi and Iran.

Monumental structures over the graves of rulers and royalty were a popular feature of medieval India and a jewel of Indo-Islamic Architecture.

• Some well-known examples of such tombs are those of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Adur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, Akbar, and Itmaduddaula.
• The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgment. This leads to the paradisiacal imagery for tombs.
• Beginning with the introduction of Quranic verses on the walls, the tomb was subsequently placed with paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a water body or both, as in the case of the Taj Mahal.
• They were not only intended to signify peace and happiness in the next world but also to showcase the majesty, grandeur, and might of the person buried there.

Eg: Taj Mahal

• Taj Mahal was built in Agra by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum (a kind of large tomb) for his deceased wife Mumtaz Mahal.
• It was commissioned in the year 1632 and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• The Taj Mahal was the apogee of the evolutionary architectural process in medieval India.
• The Taj complex is entered through a monumental red sandstone gateway, the opening arch of which beautifully frames the mausoleum.
• The tomb is laid out in a Chahar Bagh (garden), crisscrossed with paths and water courses, interspersed with pools and fountains.
• The structure is placed on the northern extremity of the bagh instead of the middle to take advantage of the river bank (Yamuna).
• The straight path through the bagh reaches the plinth of the tomb.
• At the corners of the terrace stand four tall minarets, one hundred and thirty-two feet high.
• The main body of the building is topped with a drum a dome and four cupolas forming a beautiful skyline.
• Towards the west of the white marble-faced tomb lies a red sandstone mosque and a similar construction in the east to maintain balance.
• The marble for the building was quarried from the Makrana Mines, Rajasthan.
• The inner arrangement of the mausoleum consists of a crypt below and a vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber, with a room at each angle, all connected by corridors.
• Light to every part of the building is obtained using carved and perforated Jalis, set in the arched recesses of the interior.
• Four types of embellishments have been used with great effect for the interior and exterior surfaces of the Taj Mahal.
• These are stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls, the delicate carving of marble into jails and graceful volutes (spiral ornament on the pillars), and the creation of arabesque with pietra dura on walls and tombstones and geometric designs with tessellation.
• The art of calligraphy is used with the inlay of jasper in white marble to unite Quranic verses.
• Calligraphy provides a decorative element on the walls and a continuous connection with the almighty.

Eg: Gol Gumbad, Karnataka

• It is situated in the Bijapur district of Karnataka.
• It is the mausoleum of Muhammed Adil Shah, the 7 th sultan of the Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1498-1686).
• Built by the ruler himself, it is a striking edifice despite being unfinished.
• The tomb is a complex building such as a gateway, a Naqqar Khana, a mosque, and a Sarai located within a large walled garden.
• Gumbad is a square building topped with a circular drum over which rests a majestic dome, giving the building its nomenclature.
• It is built of dark grey basalt and decorated plasterwork.
• The dome of Gol Gumbad is the largest in the world.
• The building has an amazing acoustical system. Along with the drum of the dome, there is a whispering gallery where sounds get magnified and echoed many times over.
• Gol Gumbad is a fine convergence of many styles located in medieval India.
• While its structural peculiarities of dome, arches, geometric proportions, and load-bearing techniques suggest Timurid and Persian styles, it is made of local material and is decorated with surface embellishments popular in Deccan.
• Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan and were meant to provide temporary accommodation for Indian and foreign travelers, pilgrims, merchants, traders, etc.
• They were public domains that thronged with people of varied cultural backgrounds.
• This leads to cross-cultural interaction, influence, and syncretic tendencies in the cultural mores of the times and at the level of people.

Structures for Common People

One of the Indo-Islamic architectural features of medieval India was also a coming together of styles, techniques, and decorations in public and private spaces for non-royal sections of the society.

• These include buildings for domestic usage, temples, mosques, khanqahs, and dargahs, commemorative gateways, pavilions in buildings and gardens, bazaars, etc.

Jama Masjid

• Large mosques spanning huge spaces also dotted the landscapes of the Indian sub-continent in medieval times.
• Congregational prayers were held here every Friday afternoon, which required the presence of a minimum of forty Muslim male adults.
• At the time of prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler and his laws for the realm were also read out.
• In medieval times, a city had one Jama Masjid which, along with its immediate surroundings, became the focus of the lives of the people, both Muslim and non-Muslim.
• This happened because a lot of commercial and cultural exchanges were concentrated here besides religious and indirect political activity.
• Generally, such a mosque was large with an open courtyard, surrounded on three sides by cloisters and the Qibla Liwan in the west.
• It was here that the mihrab and mimbar for the Imam were located.
• People faced the mihrab while offering prayers as it indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.

Indo-Islamic Architecture: Provincial influence

The city of Mandu is located in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of over 2000 feet, and overlooks the Malwa Plateau to the north and the Narmada Valley to the south.

• Mandu’s natural defense encouraged consistent habitation by Parmana Rajputs, Afghans, and Mughals.
• As the capital city of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401-1561) founded by Hoshang Shah, it acquired a lot of fame.
• Mandu was associated with the romance of Sultan Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupamati.
• The Mughals resorted to it for pleasure during the monsoon season.

Mandu is a typical representation of the medieval provincial style of art and architecture influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture.

• It was a complex mix of official and residential-cum-pleasure palaces, and pavilions, light and airy so that these buildings did not retain heat.
• Local stone and marble were used to great advantage.
• The royal enclave located in the city comprised the most complete and romantic set of buildings, a cluster of palaces and attendant structures, official and residential, built around two artificial lakes.

Eg: The Hindola Mahal, Mandu

• It looks like a railway viaduct bridge with its disproportionately large buttresses supporting the walls.
• This was the audience hall of the Sultan and the place where he showed himself to his subjects.
• The batter was used very effectively to give an impression of swinging (Hindola) walls.

Eg: Jahaaz Mahal, Mandu

• It is an elegant two-storey ‘ Ship Palace’ between two reservoirs, with an open pavilion, balconies overhanging the water, and a terrace.
• It was built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji and was possibly used as his harem and the ultimate pleasure and recreation resort.
• It had a complex arrangement of watercourses and a terrace swimming pool.

Eg: Rani Rupamati’s Pavilion, Mandu

• Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion perched on the southern embattlements afforded a beautiful view of the Narmada valley.
• Baz Bahadur’s Palace had a wide courtyard ringed with halls and a terrace.

Eg: Hoshang Shah’s Tomb, Mandu

• It is a majestic structure with a beautiful dome, marble jaliwork, porticos, courts, and towers.
• It is regarded as an example of the robustness of Afghan structures, but its lattice works, carved brackets, and torans lend it a softer hue.

Eg: Jama Masjid, Mandu

• It was built on a large scale to accommodate many worshippers for Friday prayers.
• The building is faced with red sandstone.
• The Mimbar (where the Imam stands to deliver sermons) in the Quibla liwan (a long narrowed hall) is supported on carved brackets and the Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe.

Article by: Jijo Sudarshan

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Reader Interactions

March 8, 2016 at 11:33 am

सर जी यह सब मटेरियल हिंदीमैं भी है?

March 29, 2016 at 9:55 pm

pls provide this material in hindi.

May 20, 2016 at 7:19 pm

सर ये जानकारी हिंदी में हो तो लिंक मेल करो

May 20, 2016 at 7:20 pm

PLEASE PROVIDE THIS KNOWLEDGE IN HINDI

May 28, 2016 at 1:10 am

Material should be in hindi also sir

June 29, 2016 at 10:57 am

could you include dances forn also with this indian culture section

June 30, 2016 at 3:03 pm

This notes provide in Kannada language

July 21, 2016 at 9:53 pm

It will be comfortable if this can be downloaded as PDF

April 8, 2017 at 8:17 pm

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April 8, 2017 at 8:18 pm

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February 3, 2018 at 7:39 pm

Sir spelling mistakes are there pls rectify it. U have used the word DODO. but actually it is dado.

January 27, 2020 at 9:59 pm

This was to be very helpfull to me in a very easy and understandable language..tq

February 27, 2020 at 9:49 pm

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February 5, 2021 at 5:44 pm

There is a deep connection between Taj mahal and Lord shiva temple Tejo Mahalaya. According to some studies, the name “Taj Mahal” was also derived from “Tejo Mahalaya”. There are many pieces of evidence that prove it true.

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