what is critical thinking ks2

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Developing Critical Thinking Skills At KS2 Using Same Surface Different Depth Problems: How I Wish I’d Taught Maths (5)

Clare Sealy

Clare Sealy looks at the struggles primary school pupils can have when implementing critical thinking skills when subject knowledge is lacking, and the effect this can have on their attempts at problem solving activities in KS2.

This article is part of a series published to help primary school teachers and leaders implement some of the insights and teaching techniques derived from Craig Barton’s bestselling book How I Wish I’d Taught Maths . Links to the other 5 articles appear at the end.

In the introduction to this series, I outlined how Craig Barton, in his book How I wish I’d taught maths,  described how he had changed his teaching as the result of reading research around learning and memory , in particular cognitive load theory in the classroom . In the latter part of his book, the focus turns to helping pupils use what they know.

Whatever the age of the children we teach, many find it hard to transfer what they know how to do in one context to another. This is most evident when it comes to maths problem solving , or in the SATs reasoning papers. They know the maths, they just can’t work out which bit of maths they need in this specific circumstance.

What are critical thinking skills?

At the basic level, critical thinking is the ability to analyse facts presented to us to form a judgement about a topic. It is an incredibly important skill to have at higher education and beyond, and is one of the key factors in astute decision making. 

Most of us explicitly encounter critical thinking and other higher order thinking skills such as metacognition in the classroom at either GCSE or A-Level, but laying their foundations at primary school is becoming more and more common and valued. 

However, “critical thinking and the ability to solve problems is not a generic skill that can be taught and that children can transfer from one problem to another. While there are some metacognitive strategies that can help a bit, what is really crucial is having a very secure understanding of the actual maths – the domain specific knowledge – that lies at the heart of the problem.” Daniel Willingham (2006)

Critical thinking (as well as scientific thinking and other domain-based types of thinking) is not a skill. There is not a set of critical thinking skills that can be acquired and deployed regardless of context. There are, however, metacognitive strategies that (once learned) make the critical thinking process more likely, and make up a key part of many quality first teaching methods .

The ability to think critically (to actually do what the metacognitive strategies call for) depends on domain knowledge and practice. For teachers, the situation is not hopeless, but no one should underestimate the difficulty of teaching pupils to think critically.

This said, metacognition is an incredibly valuable skill for pupils to have for any number of reasons, from helping low-ability students catch up to their peers to helping the whole class minimise the impact of the summer slide .

The metacognitive strategies mentioned involve reflecting on what you are doing during problem solving activities in KS2, asking yourself questions such as:

‘What am I doing?’

‘Why am I doing this?’

‘How does it help me?’

This is all very well if you have secure domain knowledge and can answer these questions. However, if you lack this knowledge, the questions are just frustrating.

Crib Sheet for How I Wish I'd Taught Primary Maths

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How to help your pupils develop critical thinking skills for problem solving activities throughout KS2

There are of course  problem solving strategies  we can give pupils to help them become better critical thinkers. For example, underlining the important words. However, this relies on pupils understanding what the important word are in the first place.

Often, irrelevant surface features seem important to pupils whereas we experts can see they are completely irrelevant, because our domain knowledge and experience of answering many, many questions means we can spot the deep underlying structure a mile off.

It’s the same with other strategies such as setting work out systematically (you have to know what system is likely to be helpful), working backwards (you have to know whether this is likely to be useful in this situation) or even using a bar model. Bar models can be so helpful, but you have to know whether or not this kind of question is suitable for the bar model treatment.

‘Same surface, different deep’ or SSDD Problems

Problem solving maths questions usually have an arbitrary surface structure and a deep structure. The surface structure involves the context in which the problem is set and has nothing to do with the actual maths; for example, in a question about buying tickets to a funfair, the funfair and ticket are part of the surface structure.

They are but the wrapper in which the real maths is wrapped. Pupils can get fixated on this ‘wrapper’, rather than the underlying deep mathematical structure held within it.

I recall a SATs question about paving inside a greenhouse. The child thought that they couldn’t do it because they didn’t know what a greenhouse was! Whereas I immediately knew that this was going to be an area question. The surface structure was transparent to me whereas, it was thoroughly opaque to the pupil.

All the underlining, systematic working or bar modelling in the world wouldn’t get past this erroneous latching onto surface features.

How to get past the surface features 

To overcome this hurdle, Craig recommends teaching children to recognise the deep structure of maths problems and how to identify and then disregard surface features.

It should go without saying that children need to be thoroughly secure in the underlying maths before attempting problem solving.

It is a mistake to think that maths problem solving is a good way of consolidating learning, let alone using it in the initial knowledge acquisition phase. Problem solving is about transferring learning from one context to another.

Problem solving at KS2 is about using your critical thinking skills to generalise

It therefore comes at the end of learning to do something, not mid- way and definitely not at the beginning.

But what is more, if at the end of a unit on, say division, we give children a load of division problems, this will not help them work out what the deep structure is. They already know; it’s division! This is fine, but it won’t help children learn to decide whether or not a particular problem requires division or not.

As well as problem solving activities at the end of units, teachers also need to allocate separate times where children have to work out what the deep structure of a problem actually is, regardless of surface features.  

This means setting a range of SSDD problems sharing the same surface features – for example a shopping problem involving apples and pears – but which each have a different deep structure .

Read more: KS2 Problem Solving and KS3 Maths Problem Solving

Translating this to a primary school context.

Let’s return to the question about stickers from the 2017 KS2 SATs paper we considered when considering goal free problems:

The surface feature here is stickers.

As experts, we know straightaway that we could substitute packs of stickers with boxes of apples or packets of balloons or even a family ticket to the cinema.

In fact, in a variation of Craig’s SSDD technique for a primary context, I’d suggest also doing DSSD problems (different surface, same deep) problems too, asking children to cross out the words ‘pack of stickers’ and replace with suitable alternative, and then repeat the problem to understand that the surface features do not change the underlying maths at all.

Then I’d suggest moving on to SSDD problems, with appropriate differentiation in the classroom . Let’s stick with stickers as our ‘same surface’.  

The deep structure of our original question involved knowing that you had to multiply to find the price of 12 separate stickers and then subtracting to find the difference. But we could ask mathematically different questions while keeping the context and visual look of the problem the same.

For example:

• How much does one sticker cost? (though I’d adapt the price so the division came out as a whole number of pence)
• Stickers are 8cm wide and 6cm high. Ally sticks 3 stickers in a row, without any gaps. What is the perimeter of the shape she has now made?
• Ally buys 7 packs of stickers a month, Jack buys 3 packs of stickers a month and Chen buys 5 packets a month. What is the average number of packets bought by the 3 children in one month?
• Ally buys a pack of 12 stickers. She has spent 15% of her birthday money. How much birthday money has Ally got left? (again, I would adjust the price into something more workable)

Another great way to translate problem solving into a primary context is through topical maths investigations.

Extension ideas for problem solving activities in KS2

Extending both ideas, we could make a grid where the rows contained questions with a different surface structure and the columns contained questions with the same deep structure. This grid could be cut into individual boxes with pupils having to sort each box accordingly, to reconstruct the grid.

Tigers, Cake or Money? A unique approach to critical thinking

One questioning in the classroom strategy for helping children understand the deep structure of division problems, is to ask children if this is a tiger, cake or money sort of division question.

What this means is, could we swap the surface features of the problem we are given to one involving tigers, or cake or money?

Why these three I hear you ask?

This is because, where division problems do not divide exactly, it is really useful to:

• Be able to decide if you need to round up or down (These are the tiger questions. If you haven’t got enough cages for your tigers you might get eaten)
• Have a remainder that’s a fraction (These are the cake questions as we can each have 1 and a half cakes)
• Or have a remainder expressed as a decimal (These are the money questions as we can have £2.47 each)

An example of a Tiger question

This is a great example of a tiger question. With 4 spare tigers, you need to have an extra box! Having 2/3 of a box wouldn’t work, neither would having 0.666 of a box. Rewriting this as a tiger question helps understand the deep structure.

A cage holds 6 tigers

How many cages are needed to hold 52 tigers?

How to make a trickier Tiger question

Here is a slightly harder ‘tiger’ problem:

Let’s rewrite this:

A zookeeper has 7,600 tigers (!)

Cages can contain 500 tigers.

How many cages does the zookeeper need?

The answer:

15.2 cages is obviously not enough to stop the keeper from being eaten.

Answers requiring a decimal answer are usually money questions already, or calculations rather than word problems. Hence they are easy to categorise.

Some children find ‘tiger’ type questions particularly hard, and give answers that don’t make sense because they haven’t rounded up or down. So in the brick example above, they give the answer as 15.2 because they haven’t recognised that doesn’t make sense.

By naming certain deep structures, children are more able to identify them when they arise, and this is a fantastic way to help children with problem solving activities throughout KS2.

Sources of Inspiration

• Willingham, D.T. (2006) ‘How knowledge helps: it speeds and strengthens reading comprehension, learning and thinking’. American Educator 30 (1) p.30

This is the fifth blog in a series of 6 adapting the book How I Wish I’d Taught Maths for a primary audience. Some have already been mentioned in this post, but if you wish to read the remaining blogs in the series, check them out below:

• Direct Instruction: How I Wish I’d Taught Maths (2)
• Deliberate Practice In Education: How I Wish I’d Taught Maths (4)
• How Retrieval Practice Helps Long-Term Maths Skills: How I Wish I’d Taught Maths (6)

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• Critical Thinking What Is Enquiry Based Learning And Why Is It Important

Critical thinking – What is enquiry-based learning and why is it important?

Gavin McLean explores five ways to improve primary pupils' critical thinking skills

Critical thinking is an educational methodology that has truly withstood the test of time.

Casting our minds back to Ancient Greece, Socrates created the Socratic method to establish the foundations of critical thinking.

What is critical thinking?

Stemming from a determination to provide a mechanism through which pupils were presented with questions (not answers), this method asks pupils to draw upon inquiry, curiosity, reasoning and self-reflection to define the most suitable answer or way forward.

Skipping forward to more contemporary thinkers, it is relevant to draw upon examples like Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, even Martin Luther King, as advocates of critical thinking and inquiry-based learning.

Today though, in our modern and technologically-driven age, and an era of automation where machine-learning does most of the work, a concerted effort needs to be made to ensure this vital skill set continues to be taught in schools.

Yet, how, in the face of education technology can this be achieved and why is it still relevant when automation and AI reigns supreme?

The importance of critical thinking

Developing critical thinking skills among pupils has a wide range of benefits.

My experience has proven time and again that the earlier this is taught in schools, the better equipped pupils are as they progress through their educational experience.

But why is this? What are the skills and traits that critical thinking develops among learners that makes it so valuable?

First, critical thinking encourages curiosity. Pupils who are taught to think critically inherently have a deeper curiosity about the subjects and topics presented to them in class.

It encourages them to ask important questions about even the simplest of topics, questioning the status quo and discovering a richer level of understanding.

Critical thinking questions

Asking these ‘curiosity questions’ like, ‘What’s happening?’, ‘Why is it important?’, and ‘What’s hidden?’ develops lifelong learners who go on to have a greater appreciation for others’ perspectives and explore issues with a critical eye.

Secondly, and somewhat surprisingly, critical thinking enhances pupils’ creativity.

This follows critical analysis of issues and problem-solving that often calls for creative solutions and thinking ‘outside the box’, which transcend more conventional boundaries.

With critical thinking comes a freedom from obstacles that may hinder those who haven’t developed critical thinking skills, allowing for more constructive outcomes.

Perhaps the most obvious benefit of critical thinking is the well-honed problem-solving skills that follow.

Developing critical thinking allows us to make better-informed decisions and use reason to achieve the most effective results.

Assessing problems from all manner of angles and perspectives allows pupils to strategically work through the problem or challenge, consider the pros and cons of different solutions and rationally select the path most likely to succeed.

Keeping the ‘curiosity questions’ in mind, these also apply to the critical thinking approach to problem-solving which considers additional questions such as, ‘Where did this come from?’; ‘How do I know this?’; ‘Why should I trust this source?’; ‘What other information should I consider?’.

All told though, each of these benefits of critical thinking work in tandem to develop independent learners who are empowered to think and make decisions for themselves – an objective that I’m sure all teachers will agree, is central to our job as educators.

How to improve critical thinking skills in primary school

Understanding the importance of introducing critical thinking to primary pupils is one thing, but effective implementation is another.

To help you and your pupils succeed, I’ve compiled five quick and easy ways to place critical thinking at the centre of your classroom:

Plan for critical thinking time

As with all aspects of teaching, planning is key so keep this in mind when planning future lessons by allowing extra time for pupils to test their analytical and critical-thinking skills.

Make connections to the real world

We all know that real-world examples help give pupils greater purpose to their learning, so integrate practical applications and activities that will allow them to see how they can apply their knowledge and skills in real life.

Encourage reflection to think about concepts

Critical thinking isn’t restricted to critiquing the knowledge and views of others, it is also about discovering our personal bias.

For this, I recommend creating an online space where questions, thoughts and ideas can be shared.

This also creates a safe sharing space for pupils who are reluctant to speak up in front of their peers. Pose questions

Develop your own set of ‘curiosity questions’ and challenge pupils at the end of each class.

This leaves them with something to think about overnight and creates a valuable way of connecting the dots during future lessons.

Equally, you can ask the same question at the beginning of the class, and pupils can use the duration of the lesson to come up with solutions and suggestions, as individuals or collectively.

Read a statement to your class that has two opposing views. Ask pupils to stand on either side of the room to represent their opinion and move around as their views evolve with each subsequent ‘curiosity question’.

Gavin McLean is international business development director at Edmentum International .

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Critical Thinking in Primary Schools

by Open Minds Foundation | Uncategorized

Authored by John Snell

Developing critical thinking skills in primary schools can appear to be a daunting challenge for educators in the UK. After all, how do you begin to develop these skills in children as young as four? Over 25 years working in education as a classroom teacher and now head teacher, I have always been interested in the purpose of education – and to add value to the process of helping children learn.

It is all too apparent to me that education is far more than the acquisition of knowledge, and it is our essential duty as educators to prepare children for their future lives. Knowledge itself will not equip children with the skills necessary to navigate their way through life, nor it could be argued, will it prepare them for future careers. So where do we begin? How do schools look to teach these skills while also covering the statutory national curriculum?

While finding time in the school day to teach critical thinking skills may be a challenge, I believe it is possible to teach these skills alongside the day to day teaching. In many ways, I see this as a hugely valuable and relevant way to develop understanding, as the content of the lessons is then presented more deeply, and for our learners is more relevant.

Let me explain how this might look in a classroom. Imagine a maths lesson (or any other lesson) where the teacher is explaining a concept. For the younger children, this might be a simple calculation – what is 5+5? In an average class, it is likely that most children will be able to give a correct answer, however is this enough? In fact, is the correct answer what we are looking for at all? This might seem counterintuitive to many outside the profession but here is where there is a fantastic opportunity to develop deeper thinking skills than would ordinarily be covered. In many classrooms, there may be a short acknowledgment that 10 is the correct answer – and that 9 or 11 are incorrect – and, due to the amount of subject coverage required to be taught in a school day, the teacher would quickly move on to the next question. My point here is that teachers should stop here and ask, ‘how do you know?’ Simply put, can the children explain deeply, how they know 5+5=10. From my experience, children initially look blank or reply, ‘because it is’, however by probing further, children are actually able to explain ‘10’ through using practical resources and the fact that they know their number bonds – and how numbers/amounts work. Many children will, if challenged, be able to demonstrate this through practical equipment or through using their fingers to count. This conversation needn’t be long (indeed I would not advocate the ‘how do you know?’ strategy to every question asked during the school day!) however I believe it is a simple way to begin to enable children to think critically.

This can also be applied to any subject – how do you know Mount Everest is the highest mountain? How do you know that a word is an adjective? By employing this approach day to day, children are developing their ability to question what they know  and think deeply. Further up the school, this skill is explored more literally through studies in propaganda relating to World Wars, advertising and other more ‘obvious’ lessons that teach children to be critical in their thinking. I believe this simple approach not only adds value to learning but helps prepare our children for a future life where they will question what they are told and have the skills to avoid being manipulated and coerced, whether by media, politics or otherwise.

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06 Jul 2023

by   Shahzia Ghafoor

How to Use Big Questions to Develop Critical Thinking Skills in the Primary Classroom

Critical Thinking Skills (CTS) are skills with which children debate a statement. They are specifically taught and include (but are not limited to): asking questions, analysing the statement, reasoning about what it means, communicating with others in a debate and problem-solving to come out in support of one side of the debate. This article will explore the need for teaching CTS in the classroom with examples of things to try.

Why teach critical thinking skills?

Throughout my twenty years as a teacher, I have always found the sharpest students (those with sound argument, not the most intelligent) are those who can hold their own in a debate. Whether that be a classroom debate about why schools should not have a uniform, or a slanging match in the playground about who is the better footballer. Students who have the capacity to hear an argument and formulate a response instantaneously, have all the hallmarks of a leader and now - more commonly - an influencer. 

On a world stage, the leaders with the most influence are those who can persuade others to their way of thinking - think beauty companies, fashion houses, politicians and social media influencers. How do they do it? Critical thinking skills (CTS): a structured way of thinking involving analysis of ideas and constructing a viewpoint.  

As societies move towards a greater need for intellectual intelligence, I can foresee the most successful generations will be those whose students are taught to persuade others of their point of view. So if CTS can empower leaders to have the most influence in decision-making, then we have to teach these skills explicitly to young people, right?

Using big questions to teach critical thinking skills

Why should we reduce our carbon footprint, when the world’s governments are not role-modelling their expectations?  

If we should look after animals, why do we eat them?

These are examples of big questions (BQ). Both children and philosophers share the instinct to question, and kids start to question the world around them at an early age. BQs are those  ‘deeper thinking questions’ , which require students to think above and beyond their everyday experiences to formulate a response. 

A book like   Get To Know: Philosophy encourages and magnifies that natural inquisitiveness. We don’t teach philosophy as part of the UK primary curriculum, but the principles behind the CTS used in philosophy are so valuable and can be easily developed in the primary classroom.

In class, I give my students enough  thinking time  to come up with an answer. They think about the question by talking it through with a peer and then write down some ideas to give feedback to the class. In a debate, the thought process can be streamlined using CTS to formulate and present an argument. 

There are many CTS, but for the sake of application in the classroom, I have whittled them down to five stages: asking questions, analysis, reasoning, communication and problem-solving. There is a little more detail about each stage further on in this article. Training a student to develop CTS is about repetitive practice at each stage. That way, the learner builds a logical way of thinking, which they can rely on when they come upon new questions and new ideas.

As the RE lead, I have made BQ part of the pedagogy of all RE lessons across the school. Now, all children from KS1-KS2 practise CTS at least once a week. I use BQ to start a debate. 

For example, when learning about Hinduism, I asked my students,  ‘What do you think Brahman does?’ After five minutes of chatting with their peers, some said,  ‘He looks after everyone’ . To get them to think a little deeper, I then asked,  ‘Why do you think he would do that?’ This is where students got the chance to build a response. They suggested reasons based on their own experience of faith or no faith as to why an unseen God would want to look after everyone. 

Learners can then continue to use their CTS to justify or disprove each other’s points. It is this logical reasoning that demonstrates the use of CTS in the classroom. RE does not need to be the gatekeeper of BQ; they can be used to develop CTS in all subjects. More about CTS in various curriculum subjects later.

Critical thinking skills and SMSC: a whole school approach

As BQ give rise to discussion, with logical arguments, they can also be useful in non-academic areas of school life as part of a wider SMSC remit. SMSC stands for spiritual, moral, social and cultural development. Schools are required to demonstrate children’s understanding of British Values, as per DfE guidance. 

Once embedded in the school’s ethos and curriculum, BQ can be a useful tool for debate in all strands of British Values to deliver on SMSC:

Respect for the rule of law – An example might be: UK prisoner reoffending rates stand at 20-30%. So if 1 in 5 prisoners reoffend after they have served their sentence - why is there no respect for the rule of law? Or why is the rule of law not working?

Individual liberty – An example might be: Individual liberty promotes the freedom of speech and free-thinking, so why are there laws against hate crimes such as race?

Democracy – An example might be: Why should I raise my hand in class, when I never get picked? Or I didn’t vote for the Pupil Leader in my class, so why should I support their actions?

Mutual respect for and tolerance of different faiths and beliefs – An example might be: For all children in this country, the most valuable culture to learn about is British. So why is there a need for Cultural Heritage Day, or Black History Month?

A book such as Our World in Pictures: Countries, Cultures, People & Places is perfect for initiating BQ, such as Why do so many places have monuments or statues? What is their purpose and importance? or It’s interesting and important to learn about places and cultures around the world. Do you agree or disagree? Why?

BQ and CTS can even be brought into displays and assemblies. Interactive displays in corridors and classrooms can invite children to think more deeply through carefully-worded questions. Assemblies could regularly start with, end with or feature one or more BQ to encourage CTS to be applied to topics or issues that may not be addressed through curriculum lessons.

Critical thinking strands

There are many viewpoints on the different elements of CTS. As previously mentioned, I find these five strands, or steps, to be the most useful to develop in the classroom:

• Asking questions
• Communication
• Problem-Solving

1) Asking questions

This is the most important part of structuring a debate to develop CTS. John Coleman at the Harvard Business Review suggests, ‘at the heart of critical thinking is the ability to formulate deep, different, and effective questions’.

I have found that the best questions should be open and provide students with the opportunity to come to more than one conclusion and to change their views upon persuasion.

When training teachers on how to use CTS, there are two simple steps:

• Set the context. It is useful for students to be able to rely on pictures as a visual stimulus, videos with a moral lesson to set the tone, a story or storyboard to show a sequence of events, tables or charts that show data or a text that can be referred to.
• KS1 - Provide a simple statement and let children give a reason for their answer. For example, Easter is a time for Christians to remember God. Do you agree or disagree? Why? Explain your reasons. KS2 - Students play devil’s advocate, by supporting an unpopular position, to get their defences going. For example, Rama killed the demon king to save Sita - was this the right thing to do?

2) Analysis

The analysis stage involves students interpreting the question in context. They work out what is being asked and begin to formulate a viewpoint using their knowledge and experiences.

3) Reasoning

At the reasoning stage, students need ample thinking time to develop their arguments. They need to write down different arguments for one point of view , working collaboratively in pairs or groups. Give students time to brainstorm their arguments and then ask each other if the ideas hold up.

4) Communication

This is the debate stage. Students get a chance to express their arguments and listen to others’ viewpoints in a debate. They build on or challenge each other’s ideas based on their own logic and reasoning. During a debate, oral learning interventions can help to structure an argument. 

5) Problem-solving

The last strand of the CTS structure is when students come to a final conclusion or choose a side, having set out their position. In the real world, this skill is most useful when leading and maximising influence over others. 

Useful strategies for developing critical thinking skills with pupils

Teachers can use a range of strategies to teach BQ in class to ensure their students develop CTS. Below are some strategies I have used in class to develop CTS, with their impact evidenced by Education Endowment Foundation (EEF).

1) Oral language interventions allow children time to practise their language skills in structured speaking and listening activities. In my school, we call it Oracy. It can involve reading aloud, active listening, providing speaking frames to structure thoughts, providing vocabulary to use in discussion or providing sentence starters to begin arguments. Oral language interventions become key in arming children with the tools to voice their views when answering BQ. When I have worked with students from an EAL background, scaffolds are essential to express a point of view. The EEF states that oral language interventions have a high impact on students for a very low cost to the school, based on  extensive evidence .

2) Collaborative learning, aka peer or small group work, ensures all students participate in a task. This kind of activity encourages discussion of ideas and problem-solving. Ultimately, everyone in the group has to contribute to complete the task. The approach allows students to: create arguments for and against a big question, choose one viewpoint to persuade others and work through counter-arguments in debate. The  EEF report on collaborative learning suggests there is a high impact for students with a low cost to the school, although evidence is limited.

Applying critical thinking skills in curriculum subjects

CTS can be developed in all subjects. Below are some ways teachers can give them a go in lessons. 

• Reading comprehension - ‘Simone sighed and slumped her back against the gnarled trunk of the old chestnut tree.’  KS1 question:  Simone is a moody character. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
• English Writing - “Mum, I’m off, can you put some money in my account? Thanks, Fam!” Ali shouted from the doorway. KS3 question: When a character uses slang, we create a perception of who they are and where they come from. This reduces our expectations of them. Why?
• Maths - using reasoning in word problems for children to explain their mathematical understanding.
• Science - formulating scientific enquiry questions.
• PE  - exploring the impact of technical movement before or after an action.
• RE - exploring the aspects of celebrations that are similar and different in religions.
• Art - debating the use of art in a specific context.
• Design - reasoning about the use of sustainable materials in poor countries.
• Computing  – debating the use of AI to support learning.
• Music - debating the use of music for more advantaged people vs less advantaged people.
• Humanities - mitigating the impact of natural hazards.
• PSHE, Relationships and Health Education – the  Children’s Book of Philosophy asks,  What is happiness? and,  Is my mind different from my body?
• Citizenship – discussing notions of ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ and how societies agree on laws.

High-quality non-fiction books are often a great tool to prompt BQs in various subjects. A book like Knowledge Encyclopedia: Earth! can spark BQs about topics like the importance of forests and why the glaciers are melting. In fact, I’m thinking that when it comes to the environment and climate change, future generations of critical thinkers are exactly what our planet needs!

I firmly believe that if we teach CTS from a young age, we prepare our children to express themselves, listen to others, reason their point of view, challenge ideas, innovate and influence others. But most of all, we give them the tools to be confident and courageous when facing the world.

Shahzia Ghafoor is a primary teacher with a passion for all things education. She leads RE at her school and is the Year 3 lead. Shahzia is currently completing an NPQSL course and hopes to coach and mentor new teachers in the future. Her hobbies are cooking and fitness, and she likes a siesta in the afternoon!

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Why we run critical thinking lessons - and how to do it

In the past, the emphasis in classrooms was on imparting information and content - the times tables or European capitals, for example.

But over the years, the focus of educators has shifted from simply passing information to students, to teaching students how to access accurate information and critically analyse it.

A big part of this has been a move toward teaching critical thinking - a skill that elevates thinking beyond memorisation into the realm of analysis and logic.

Critical thinking lessons develop a set of transferable skills, including deeper thinking, reasoning and problem-solving, that students can apply across a wide range of subjects and complex real-world issues. 

Research suggests that explicit teaching in critical thinking may make children smarter, more independent and more creative, while also preparing them for an uncertain future where 65 per cent of the jobs they will end up doing don’t yet exist.

Wondering where to start?

This sounds great, but perhaps also daunting. After all, how can you teach skills that are not so easily measured as, say, times tables? To start with, it’s about creating an environment where critical thinking is actively encouraged.

Here are six ways we do that from primary school:

1. Start young

Young children might not be ready for lessons in formal logic. But they can be taught to give reasons for their conclusions. And they can be taught to evaluate the reasons given by others. At Skt. Josef’s International School  in Denmark, we use the Cambridge Global Perspectives program to consider global issues from different perspectives but also to apply critical thinking skills to our students’ work, life and the world around them.

2. Encourage children to ask questions

Curiosity is the mother of all knowledge and should be nurtured by teachers and parents. If a justification doesn’t make sense to a child, they should be encouraged to question it.

3. Invite children to consider alternative explanations

Yes, it is nice to get the right answer, but many problems have more than one method and more than one solution. When children consider multiple methods and solutions, they may become more flexible thinkers.

4. Discuss biases

Even primary children can understand how emotions, intentions and even our aspirations can influence our judgments.

5. Get children to clarify meanings

Children should practise putting things in their own words and should be encouraged to make meaningful distinctions.

6. Don’t confine critical thinking to academic problems

Encourage children to reason about ethical, moral and political matters, too.

Taking it further

In addition to Global Perspectives, secondary students have critical thinking lessons scheduled into their timetable for 90 minutes a week based on two key areas: psychology, and philosophy and logic.

Term 1: Psychology

The autumn term is devoted to the study of psychology. Students expand their social and emotional intelligence through a study of the mind and human behaviour.

Our study is focused through the lens of the personality and, with this aim in mind, we survey theories on childhood development, personality types and motivation, as well as anxiety and depression.

In the course, we are introduced to the main features of several traditions: psychoanalysis, behaviourism, humanism and biopsychology.

The course is structured in such a way that we begin by studying key texts and then explore the ideas presented through a variety of mediums, such as art, contemporary film and politics.

Assessment takes place through presentations and research papers, as well as through projects that analyse the use of psychology in product marketing and the methods used by popular magicians/illusionists.

Additionally, students interview family members to analyse their own childhood development in reference to the theories and methods studied in class. 

Term 2: Philosophy and logic

The spring term is devoted to the study of philosophy and logic.

Perhaps surprisingly, the fundamental questions in the history of philosophy can be immediately understood as having great personal significance and urgency for students - for example, free will and social conditioning.

The ability to identify truth from opinion, analyse and construct rational arguments, and develop rigorous methods of thinking are all transferable skills that can be successfully applied to all other academic subjects.

This course is organised around the topic of human nature, and it approaches the study of philosophy and logic in a twofold way.

First, our study involves reading selections from classic philosophical texts and identifying the methods and approaches that people have used to solve fundamental questions/problems.

Second, we learn to apply what we have learned by constructing our own arguments.

Opportunities for application are given in a range of tasks and projects, including: group presentations; preparing and leading discussions of texts; writing argumentative essays on contemporary social issues; and identifying and labelling logical fallacies committed in comments on social media.

The students, who can often be somewhat sceptical at first of taking these subjects, usually end them with a far greater understanding of the world and how they learn. They actively enjoy what they have studied.

As one Year 11 student puts it: “Critical thinking has been a very interesting and informative subject. I have learned a lot from this course, and I would recommend it for other schools because it makes you think about how the mind subconsciously affects all of your actions.”

Or as another puts it: “It is really interesting to learn theories about how the mind works…it applies to everyday life and it is a really interesting subject.”

I couldn’t agree more.

Kevin Goggins is Head of Skt Josefs International School in Denmark.

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• New Magazine Experience New Magazine Experience • 18th November 2021

Education resources › Blog › Critical thinking in schools: An overview

Critical thinking in schools: An overview

• The science of learning

Written by the InnerDrive team | Edited by Bradley Busch

Critical Thinking is one of those phrases that gets mentioned often. Some think it is vital that we teach it to students. Others think it’s something that can’t be taught in isolation. We think it’s worth exploring exactly what it is and more importantly, if it is possible to teach it. We’ve done the research and found that arguments for both sides exist.

So, what are the benefits of teaching critical thinking? And what are some common misconceptions?

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What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking can be defined as clear, rational, logical and  independent thinking . It involves changing the way we think and analysing situations and events objectively. It can be used to solve problems and promotes self-regulation and mindful communication.

The process of critical thinking is based on a foundation of questioning and further assessment. There is no one way to go about applying critical thinking – however, we have come up with a few steps that we believe are crucial to the process for students:

• Identify the problem  – There needs to be a basis to your critical thinking. So, to start the process, identify an issue or situation that you would like to assess.
• Gather information  – Do the research and gather resources from a range of sources. This will help you develop a deeper understanding of the problem and view it from different perspectives.
• Question everything  – The key to critical thinking is to question the information we’re given and not just take it at face value. Asking the necessary questions will help guide your decision in the next step.
• Pick a side and validate it  – After assessing all the information, you need to decide what you think. Once you’ve chosen a side, make sure you have the relevant knowledge and evidence to back it up!
• Evaluate  – The final step, and one of the most important, is to evaluate your judgement and reasoning behind your decision. This keeps the process of critical thinking going and  enhances your self-regulation .

3 benefits of teaching critical thinking

Academic success.

Students who apply critical thinking are able to question the information they’re given and look for the most valid argument. They are also able to formulate their own thoughts on the matter. The core of critical thinking is questioning what you are told instead of just accepting it. This creates independent thinkers who are able to analyse and assess their work to create something that is of their highest potential.

Having critical thinking skills allows students to take a step back and look at a situation from different perspectives. This helps them understand how other people may come to decisions and expand their insights into different types of people. Becoming open-minded can introduce students to more opportunities and enhance their strengths in all aspects of their lives.

Creative thinking is a very important skill that many believe is necessary for students to thrive in schools and beyond. Use of critical thinking can  nurture creativity  as it pushes us to ask “how” and “why not?”. This encourages students to find different ways to solve problems that are more complex and require a deeper understanding.

Misconceptions about critical thinking

Researchers suggest  that critical thinking is not a skill and have argued it is not a set of generic procedures. For example, it cannot be applied to every situation or context: a requirement for using critical thinking is that the individual has background knowledge on the situation. We should teach subject-specific critical thinking, as opposed to generic critical thinking. This will help enhance students’ knowledge and develop a deeper understanding of the details within each topic. Background knowledge for each subject is essential and is the only way that critical thinking will be most effective.

Some may believe that critical thinking is too complex for younger children, when in fact, they have certain advantages over older students. They can bring a fresh perspective to topics because they often don’t have the same doubts and reservations. Instead of waiting to teach your students critical thinking, we would suggest it is worth starting early. This will help them integrate the skill with their learning and soon it will become an almost automatic process that they can continue to apply throughout their education.

Final thoughts

Critical thinking is necessary for all students to learn and apply to their learning and can be especially useful when implemented into learning at an early stage. Be wary of the common misconceptions when it comes to teaching critical thinking so you don’t reduce its effectiveness, and encourage your students to apply the recommended steps when faced with a problem or situation.

About the editor

Bradley Busch

Bradley Busch is a Chartered Psychologist and a leading expert on illuminating Cognitive Science research in education. As Director at InnerDrive, his work focuses on translating complex psychological research in a way that is accessible and helpful. He has delivered thousands of workshops for educators and students, helping improve how they think, learn and perform. Bradley is also a prolific writer: he co-authored four books including Teaching & Learning Illuminated and The Science of Learning , as well as regularly featuring in publications such as The Guardian and The Telegraph.

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How to help your child develop critical thinking skills

Children are natural inquirers. Every day, they’re putting their critical thinking skills into practice, even at primary school level, and this ability to think critically is an asset that will stand your child in good stead as they move through primary school, into secondary and throughout their adult lives.

‘It’s important that children develop critical thinking skills as early as primary school age,’ explains Peter Worley, co-CEO and co-founder of educational charity The Philosophy Foundation .

‘This is because critical thinking needs to be developed and practised as a disposition. Good thinking should be a habit, and habits need to be started young.’

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Why critical thinking matters

Learning to think critically is a vital part of children’s development, helping them make sense of the world around them.

It helps them ask questions and make value judgements, and try to figure things out if they don’t make sense.

Critical thinking encompasses many of the skills your child needs to access the primary school National Curriculum , including inventing, making analogies, formulating hypotheses and suggesting alternatives. It helps them filter the information they take in and select what’s most relevant to the task in hand.

Developing good thinking habits may help your child when they come to formal exams like SATs and the 11+ . Key Stage 2 SATs in English, for example, include a reading comprehension paper, where your child will have to make inferences and deductions from set texts.

Indeed, research has suggested that children who are taught critical thinking skills do better at language comprehension and problem-solving, and even have a higher IQ than their peers.

How to develop your child’s critical thinking skills

‘Children are not only capable of critical thinking from an early age, but they actually do it, too,’ says Peter.

‘For example, children as young as five and six use counter-examples (“Not all birds fly; penguins are birds, and they don’t fly”), draw distinctions (“Heroes are not the same as superheroes”), and challenge inference-making (“Just because he’s the biggest, it doesn’t mean he should get more”).’

Here’s how to help your child hone these skills as they grow.

1. Encourage agreement and disagreement

Being able to say whether they agree or disagree with something, and why, is a sign that your child is thinking critically.

‘Be aware, however, that just because someone says, “I disagree,” it doesn’t mean they’re thinking critically,’ Peter explains. ‘For thinking to be properly critical, one needs to disagree in the right way.’

For example, you can encourage your child to give reasons or examples that show why they agree or disagree with something.

‘Ask, “Do you agree?” to encourage them to evaluate someone else’s claim or idea,’ says Peter. ‘Ask them whether something is right or wrong, true or false, okay or not okay: in other words, have them take a position, evaluate and, if necessary, eliminate.’

2. Ask why?

‘Though children are able to provide reasons for their answers, they often don’t; instead, they make unsupported assertions,’ Peter explains. ‘This is easily addressed by simply asking them, “Why?”’

For instance, your child tells you that their classmate Sam snatched a ball from someone else at playtime. They say, ‘I think he should give it back.’

You can encourage them to explain why, asking, ‘Why do you think he should give it back?’

This may then prompt them to say, ‘Because it’s not his.’

3. Question sequentially

Help your child work through their reasoning by going through a series of steps. Following on from the example above:

• Check for general principles (always/never/sometimes): ‘So, should you always give back what’s not yours?’
• Listen out for counter-examples: ‘No, sometimes you might really need it.’
• Then test the concrete example: ‘Does Sam really need the ball? So, should he give it back?’

4. Look for extracurricular clubs

Joining a philosophy or debating club is a good way to develop your child’s critical thinking skills and put them into practice with other children of a similar age. Some schools run these clubs, or there may be out-of-school clubs in your area.

You can find out more about philosophy clubs from The Philosophy Foundation . If there isn’t one in your area, The Philosophy Foundation can help you set one up. You can find ideas for topics that you might like to discuss in Peter’s books, The If Machine  (Continuum, £18.99) and 40 Lessons to get Children Thinking  (Bloomsbury, £19.94).

5. Encourage your child to open up

To help your child develop critical thinking skills, get into a habit of questioning them about their thoughts and opinions. There are five simple ways to do this:

• Ask why: get them to provide justification, explanation, purpose or motivation.
• Ask for clarification: ‘Can you say what you mean by…?’
• Ask for more: ‘Can you say more about that?’
• Ask for an example or counter-example: ‘Can you give me an example?
• Ask for conditions: ‘Can you say what it would depend on?’

6. Talk about implications

Critical thinking involves thinking something through to its possible conclusions. This means considering the implications of something: ‘What would happen if you did this?’

For example, ‘What does it mean if we say one should never lie?’

This is a good habit to develop when your child is doing reading comprehension. Try stopping the story at the crisis moment or decision, and asking your child what they think will happen, and why, and what they think should happen, and why.

7. Be alert to fake news

In this culture of ‘fake news’, how can your child tell whether something they’ve heard is true or not? ‘The obvious answer is to check sources,’ Peter says.

‘However, this isn’t always helpful, because we don’t always have time to check our sources properly. ‘This is where critical thinking comes into its own, giving children the ability to see where they should apply doubt or scepticism. It acts as a kind of “room-for-doubt detector.”’

Children who think critically can get a good sense of when they really need to check a source or fact, and when it might be okay to not be certain.

‘This will depend on when it really matters: when there are real consequences to saying something is true,’ Peter explains.

8. Encourage good listening

If your child is to become a critical thinker, they need to be a good listener, with a concept called an Open Questioning Mindset (OQM).

‘OQM is listening, but not just stopping yourself from talking; it is attempting to understand, giving the other person space to think and talk, not imposing your thoughts or interpretations on them, and not questioning them to trip them up or stop them in their tracks,’ Peter says.

9. Embrace pedantry

Yes, it can be irritating when your child insists their t-shirt is aquamarine, not turquoise, or reprimands you for calling their sandals shoes, but pedantry can actually be an asset.

‘ A good critical thinker is also a pedant ,’ explains Peter. ‘As a philosopher, I often hear people say, “But isn’t that just semantics?” but semantics matter. Sometimes life and death and even wars have hinged on semantic confusion or a lack of clarity.’

10. Be a good role model

‘Perhaps the most important thing you can do to help your child become a critical thinker is to model good critical thinking yourself,’ explains Peter. ‘Notice, monitor and evaluate your own critical thinking, and, if necessary, take steps to improve it.’

There are some great books that will help you develop your critical thinking skills, including A Rulebook for Arguments by Anthony Weston (Hackett, £9.99), Thinking from A-Z by Nigel Warburton (Routledge, £14.05) and The Duck that Won the Lottery by Julian Baggini (Plume, £12.99).

The Economist Educational Foundation also produce free resource packs to help develop kids' critical thinking .

Oxplore , a digital outreach portal from the University of Oxford, aims to promote broader thinking and stimulate intellectual curiosity in children aged 11+.

Peter Worley is a Visiting Research Associate at King’s College London and author/editor of eight books on philosophy in schools, including The If Machine: Philosophical Enquiry in the Classroom  ( Continuum, £18.99), 40 Lessons to get Children Thinking   (Bloomsbury, £19.94) and The Philosophy Shop (Independent Thinking, £17.58). His latest book, 100 Ideas for Primary Teachers , is out in January 2019.

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Critical thinking

‘Critical thinking is an approach to education underpinned by commitment to rigour and rational reasoning.’

Roberts, 2023, p 121

Topics on this page:

What is critical thinking, why is critical thinking important in geography, developing students’ critical thinking in the geography curriculum.

• Discussion with teachers: critical thinking

Critical thinking activities in geography

Challenging misinformation.

Critical thinking is not about being critical in a negative sense. In the context of the geography classroom, you should see it as ‘better’ thinking. It is the ability to question, think clearly and make reasoned judgements. 

This is considered to be one of the 21st century skills in an information-rich world. David Lambert has succinctly described critical thinking as recognising that ‘ things are not always what they seem to be ’.

Critical thinkers rigorously question ideas and assumptions rather than accepting them at face value. They analyse and solve problems systematically. They always seek to determine whether ideas, arguments and findings represent the entire picture. 

A good critical thinker is open-minded. They know how to separate facts from opinions, how to examine an issue from all sides, how to make rational inferences and how to withhold personal judgment or biases.

Leat and McAleavy argue forcefully for the importance of critical thinking in geography. Their view was that we should not be asking if geography can contribute to critical thinking, but rather they believe that the subject is ‘ nothing without it’ . In the geography classroom, critical thinking it is closely linked with enquiry and thinking geographically.

It encourages students to be open-minded and to think, challenge perceptions and apply newly acquired information. Critical thinking is not a set of skills that can be deployed in any context. So, it cannot be taught in the same way as literacy or numeracy. Critical thinking is directly related to the particular subject; it is not content-free. It should be thought of as way to gain deeper and more thoughtful geographical understanding.

The actual questions you would ask as a critical thinker about the destruction of the Amazon rain forest would be different to those you would ask about housing policy in Norfolk. What a geography teacher can do is show students the procedures they can use to begin to think critically in geography about these issues

In England, the new GCSE and A level geography examinations require students to think critically. Critical enquiry is an integral part of thinking like a geographer and it is an essential part of investigative fieldwork. Ofsted suggest that creating opportunities for students to develop critical thinking is an important factor in promoting achievement in geography.

The Geographical Association considers critical thinking involves three key aspects with geographical thought at the core:

Making better sense of information.  Critical thinkers examine evidence, consider alternative solutions, distinguish fact from opinion and reach informed conclusions. They practise the three Rs: Rigor, Rationality and Reasoning.

Becoming better at thinking.  This involves developing pupils’ curiosity and ability to ask good questions and reflect on their learning – metacognition.

Becoming a more open thinker.  Critical thinkers challenge assumptions. They consider bias, different points of view and present reasoned argument. They consider and debate issues, e.g. ethical issues.

To create a geography curriculum to promote critical thinking, teachers need to clarify in their own minds: what is a geography critical thinker? What characteristics and capabilities do they demonstrate? Re-read the description in the opening paragraph and highlight what you would wish to prioritise and promote for your students.

Once you have defined the goals, the curriculum should be designed with the achievement of those in mind. What opportunities can be provided for students to go beyond just  acquiring  knowledge and skills and develop their capability as  users  of geographical knowledge and skills? Look for geographical contexts where there are several sides to an argument, so that students have opportunities to express and listen to different views.

Explore different pedagogical strategies that give students practice in making informed decisions. Encourage students to approach such tasks with what Hopwood describes as a ‘confident uncertainty’; these are learners who are confident in their geographical knowledge, but aware that there is invariably more to know.

An interesting idea described by Booth (2020) to stimulate critical thinking is to introduce ‘challenge’ moments into lessons. This is when the teacher transforms a lesson by introducing break in the normal lesson knowledge recall to challenge assumptions. 

Booth describes how this broke their normal learning pathway, stretched their understanding and gave students opportunities to make dynamic conceptual links. The students’ enthusiastic response surprised him.

Teachers must ask what key critical thinking skills should we promote: analysis, interpretation, inference, explanation, self-regulation, open-mindedness, problem-solving? Or are there others you believe are equally important. 

What geographical contexts can be used to best enable students not just to make sense of geographical information and ideas but also to reflect on and evaluate that information and ideas critically?

Critical thinking in geography should be developed from key stage 3. Critical thinking is cumulative and a long-term approach is more likely to bring success to students at GCSE and A level. Many schools adopted the idea of critical thinking in geography with the aim to raise the achievement of students in geography and have reported positive effects, as the case studies referred below illustrate.

There are no hard and fast rules for a perfect curriculum to implement critical thinking. Above all, it requires from both teachers and students a commitment to critically engage with geographical content and ideas. 

There are a wide range of  pedagogical practices and resources for curriculum makers to select from to foster this. Some of these have their roots in the  Thinking through Geography  movement of the 1990s. Refer to the table at the end of this section for activities to use in your teaching, there are so many you will be spoilt for choice!

• One activity that geography teachers have used successfully is the  Silent debate . Read Sloggett (2016) to find out how she managed this activity that was followed by extended writing. She reports that  ‘The quality of their writing was much improved, as was the key geographical skill of being able to understand different points of view and explain reasons for them.’  Her ‘thought-provoking statements’ on Antarctica are available from her article.
• Another of the important techniques for developing critical thinking is  Argumentation   and you should follow the link for further information about this.

The role of the teacher is crucial in developing students’ criticality. Margaret Roberts suggests how geography departments can adopt a  critical pedagogy  that encourages ‘debate, dialogue and critical literacy’. In her article she provides guidance and questions for teachers to ask to promote criticality.

• Read Roberts (2015) for more information on the origins of critical thinking, its characteristics, why it is important in geography teaching and how it can be encouraged in the classroom or field. See the questions bank   Questions for Critical Thinking  which is based on this article.
• GA webpage:   Critical thinking in the classroom  for case studies and ideas for developing critical thinking in lessons.
• GA project (2015-18):  Critical thinking in geography   includes background papers, articles, teaching ideas.
• See  Better evaluation of geographical data  a PowerPoint from the GA Conference by Gemma Mawdsley. This presentation indicates some of the teaching strategies used with post-16 students to enable critical thinking about geographical information and evaluation of data in enquiries. Download the  Better evaluation of data handouts  that supported the presentation.

Discuss some examples from  Critical thinking in practice  with teachers in your school/your mentor:

• Do the teachers see an important role for critical thinking in geography?
• Discuss with your geography tutor/mentor where the characteristics of critical thinking in geography identified by the GA (see above) feature in the geography curriculum in your school (or could do).
• Are these skills routinely developed in the key stage 3 curriculum, or only at key stage 4 and above?
• How do the teachers deal with ‘misinformation’?
• What activities have the teachers used to promote critical thinking? Did they think they help to develop students’ criticality in geography?
• Discuss opportunities to use the  questions for critical thinking  in some of your lessons.

In the last few years, the increasing use of social media has led to a ‘post-truth’ society where people are more likely to accept an argument based on emotions and beliefs that on facts. Post-truth is the antithesis of critical thinking. It is important for students to develop the skills to recognise and challenge misinformation.

• See  Media literacy   and  Values and controversial issues . Both of these pages explore ways to develop students’ critical thinking in geography.
• Consider how developing students’ data skills in geography can support the acquisition of evidence-based knowledge. Refer to  Numeracy and geography  and read the article by Harris (2018).

A different aspect of misinformation results from the sloppy use of terminology that leads to inaccurate understanding. For example, the term  natural disaster  has become widely used in geography, yet ‘hazards may be natural: disasters are not’.

• Read Puttick, S., Bosher, L. and Chmutina, K. (2018) ‘Disasters are not natural’,  Teaching Geography,  Autumn.
• Booth, A. (2020) ‘Challenge moments’ in geography lessons: promoting critical thinking,’  Teaching Geography , Summer.
• Cannell, J., Hopkin, J. and Kitchen, B. (2018)  Critical thinking in practice , Geographical Association.
• Harris, R.. (2018) ’From data to knowledge: teaching data skills in geography,  Geography , Spring.
• Hopkin, J and Owens, P. (2016) ‘Critical thinking in geography’,  Primary Geography , Autumn.
• Hunt, P. (2018) ‘A critical pedagogy approach to the use of images in the geography classroom’,  Teaching Geography,  Autumn.
• Leat, D. and McAleavy, T. (1998) ‘Critical thinking in the humanities’,  Teaching Geography,  July.
• Mawdsley, G. (2019) ‘Critical thinking for achievement CPD’,  Teaching Geography , Autumn.
• Roberts, M. (2015) ‘Critical thinking and global learning’,  Teaching Geography,  Summer.
• Roberts, M. (2023)  Geography Through Enquiry: Approaches to teaching and learning in the secondary school , Second edition. Sheffield: Geographical Association, p 121.
• Sloggett, G. (2016) ‘The silent debate’,  Teaching Geography , Spring.
• Willingham, D. (2020)  ‘ How to teach critical thinking ‘ ,  Impact (Chartered College of Teaching),  November.

Also available from the ITE section

Creativity in geography lessons

Thinking through geography

Argument in geography

Decision making, problem solving and mysteries

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