life history case study

Life History Research

• Introduction

What is life history research?

What are examples of life history, what is the life history research method, advantages and challenges of life history research, practical tips for conducting life history research, comparing life history research with other qualitative methods, useful resources.

Life histories are an important aspect of qualitative research that focus on a particular person in a comprehensive manner. Rather than look at a population or a culture at scale, the life history method looks at the story of a single individual, both from their own perspective and the perspective of others around them. While research is often useful in developing universal theories or greater contextualization at scale, life histories can also influence current and future reproduction of knowledge by investigating a single subject as deeply as possible.

Life history research is a qualitative research method that delves into the individual and collective experiences of people, providing an in-depth understanding of their life trajectories from their perspective. It involves collecting detailed accounts of lived experiences, personal narratives, memories, and reflections of individuals or groups across various time frames.

The life history approach finds its roots in anthropology and sociology, which have long been concerned with understanding the intricacies of human experience in context. Anthropologist Franz Boas utilized this approach to better comprehend an individual over their entire life span. In sociology, life history research became prominent through the work of the Chicago School in the early 20th century, which used personal narratives to understand the social phenomena of the time.

Philosophically, life history research aligns with the interpretivist paradigm , where reality is understood to be subjective, multifaceted, and constructed through individual experiences and societal interactions. The focus is on 'emic' or insider's perspectives, recognizing that the meanings people attach to their experiences are of paramount importance.

Life history research seeks to uncover the complexities, contradictions, continuities, and changes that constitute an individual's or group's life. Its central objective is to create a nuanced, holistic, and contextualized understanding of people's lived experiences. It aims to unveil the rich interplay between personal experiences and broader social, cultural, and historical structures. By interweaving individual narratives with social constructs, life history research can reveal how macro-level phenomena affect micro-level experiences and vice versa.

This approach is particularly useful for exploring less tangible aspects of life such as values, beliefs, motivations, emotions, identities, and the underlying meanings of actions. Moreover, life history research often brings to light marginalized or silenced voices, providing insights into diverse experiences and perspectives.

Among life history traits, the emphasis on narratives or stories is a key element. Narratives are not merely a record of facts and events but are imbued with individual interpretations and meanings. Researchers view people's own life stories as interpretive narratives that individuals construct to make sense of their life. These narratives provide a medium to understand the intricacies of the human experience, capturing the dynamics of the past, the present, and the future. They reveal how individuals negotiate and construct their identities, make sense of their past, navigate their present, and envision their future.

Life history research is characterized by its methodological flexibility. While it is guided by a deep respect for individuals' life experiences and a commitment to in-depth exploration, the specific methods of data collection and analysis can vary widely. Researchers adopting life history strategies may employ a range of methods, including interviews , diaries, letters, photographs, and artifacts. The choice of methods depends on the research questions , context, and the accessibility of participants.

Ultimately, life history research is an interpretive, narrative-based approach that aims to provide a comprehensive, in-depth, and contextually embedded understanding of individuals' or groups' life experiences. It offers valuable insights into how people interpret their world and how their lives are shaped by and shape the wider social, cultural, and historical context.

That said, when collecting life history information, challenges abound in terms of painting as comprehensive a picture as possible. How do you document a subject's early childhood, for example? How do the environmental factors that an individual encounters influence their behavior? How have an individual's current attitudes evolved over the course of time? As a researcher engaged in life history research fills in the more nuanced details of a person's life, the data collection undoubtedly becomes more challenging, but also more rewarding.

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Life history research has been applied in numerous fields, enriching our understanding of a broad array of topics. Below are a few illustrative examples that demonstrate the diversity and depth of this research method .

Understanding identities

A life history strategy to research is particularly valuable in highlighting the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or underrepresented groups. For instance, a study might explore the life history of individuals from the LGBTQ+ community. The research could dive into their experiences of self-discovery, coming out, facing societal prejudices, and developing resilience and identity. Through this, the study could shed light on broader issues like societal norms, discrimination, and the process of identity formation within a specific cultural context.

In the field of education, life history research has been used to study teachers' professional development, pedagogical beliefs, and identity formation. A researcher might collect the life histories of veteran teachers, examining their career trajectories, critical incidents, teaching philosophies, and the impacts of policy changes on their practices. Such research can provide valuable insights into teacher motivation, burnout, professional growth, and the influence of social, institutional, and policy contexts on teaching practices.

Studying the effects of historical events on individual lives

Life history research can also reveal how larger historical events and societal shifts influence individual lives. For example, a researcher might explore the life histories of refugees who fled their home country due to war or political turmoil. These life histories could illustrate the profound impacts of geopolitical events on individuals, shedding light on themes like displacement, resilience, cultural adaptation, loss, and identity change.

Life history research is also commonly used in biographical studies. Researchers might delve into the life histories of notable figures in politics, science, art, or other domains, providing a comprehensive understanding of their life trajectories, achievements, challenges, and influences. These studies can enhance our understanding of individual creativity, leadership, resilience, and the contextual factors that contribute to exceptional performance or significant contributions to society.

Investigating health experiences and illness narratives

In the health and medical field, documenting health patterns of individuals helps to investigate individuals' experiences with illnesses, treatments, and healthcare systems. For example, a researcher might collect the life histories of patients with a specific chronic disease, exploring their experiences from symptom onset, diagnosis, treatment, to living with the disease. Such research can illuminate the emotional, psychological, social, and cultural dimensions of health and illness, contributing to more patient-centered healthcare practices.

These examples illustrate the vast potential of life history research to enrich our understanding of diverse human experiences and perspectives. The method allows researchers to look deeply into individual lives, revealing the intricate interplay between personal narratives and broader social, cultural, and historical contexts.

Life history theory employs a qualitative research approach that focuses on collecting and interpreting personal narratives to understand the intricate experiences of individuals or groups over time and within their social, cultural, and historical context. The process of conducting life history research can be broken down into several steps: designing the study , collecting the data , analyzing the data , and presenting the findings .

Designing the study

The initial phase in life history research involves establishing the research objectives and formulating the research question . These should align with the overarching aim of life history research – to capture in-depth, nuanced, and contextually embedded understandings of individuals' or groups' life experiences. The research question could focus on understanding specific life experiences, the interplay between personal narratives and larger societal phenomena, or the processes of identity formation and change over time.

After establishing the research question, the researcher identifies potential participants. In life history research, participant selection often follows purposive or criterion-based sampling strategies, focusing on individuals or groups who have particular experiences or characteristics that align with the research question.

The ethical considerations in life history research can extend beyond the typical concerns in research. Given the deeply personal nature of the data collected, it's essential that the researcher takes extra care in establishing informed consent . This means not only getting a participant's agreement to participate but also ensuring they understand the extent of their involvement, the purpose of the research, and how their data will be used.

Maintaining confidentiality and anonymity is crucial, given the potential for sensitive and personal information to be revealed. Researchers must develop robust strategies for de-identifying data and securely storing and disposing of data to protect participants' identities.

Furthermore, life history research can involve recalling and discussing potentially sensitive or traumatic life events, posing potential emotional risks for participants. Researchers need to have strategies in place to manage such situations, such as offering referral to professional support services or providing opportunities for participants to take breaks, skip questions, or end the interview if it becomes too distressing. Thus, ethical considerations in life history research involve not only protecting participants' rights and privacy but also ensuring their emotional well-being throughout the research process.

Collecting the data

Data collection in life history research typically involves in-depth interviews , but can also include other methods such as analysis of personal documents, diaries, photographs, and artifacts , as well as observation and field notes . The goal is to gather detailed, rich narratives of participants' life histories.

Interviews for life histories are usually semi-structured, providing a general framework of topics while allowing flexibility for participants to share their stories in their own ways. The researcher may start by asking participants to construct a broad narrative of their life, then delve into specific experiences or themes related to the research question. The interviews can occur in one or multiple sessions, depending on the complexity of the life history and the participant's willingness.

Document collection is also an essential aspect of conducting a life history study. Records can serve as invaluable resources that add depth and richness to the data. These materials offer unique insights into the individual's life and experiences, providing tangible evidence of their past and giving researchers a more holistic understanding of the life history.

Personal documents can range from letters, official documents, awards, or certificates, to any written record that is a part of an individual's life story. They often contain factual information and personal reflections, offering a glimpse into the individual's experiences, thoughts, and emotions at particular moments in time. Diaries are a particularly rich source of data, as they represent individuals' personal narratives written in real-time. They can reveal intimate details, inner thoughts, emotions, and mundane aspects of everyday life, often capturing the complexity and dynamism of the lived experience. Photographs, meanwhile, can evoke memories and stimulate conversations about the past. They provide a visual record of individuals' lives, capturing people, places, events, and experiences. They can help individuals remember and articulate their life stories, and they can also offer researchers visual cues to interpret the life history.

Finally, data collection should be guided by reflexivity – the researcher's awareness of their role, assumptions, and influence on the research process. This is particularly important in life history research, where the researcher and participant may develop a close, trust-based relationship, and the researcher's interpretations play a significant role in shaping the narrative.

Analyzing the data

Analyzing life history data involves a careful and iterative process of interpreting the narratives to answer the research question. This usually starts with transcribing the interviews and reading the transcripts multiple times to gain a holistic understanding.

As the researcher engages with the data, they can analyze different aspects that might be related to their research question . For example, exploring patterns within and across the life histories can stem from specific life events, experiences, actions, emotions, beliefs, identity aspects, and social-cultural-historical influences. The researcher can carry out coding – assigning labels to segments of the data – to facilitate the identification and organization of themes and patterns.

A unique aspect of life history analysis is the interpretation of narratives not just as a chronological sequence of events, but as a rich tapestry of meanings and interpretations that the individual constructs. This includes considering the narrative structure (e.g., turning points, resolutions), narrative content (e.g., key events, characters), and narrative performance (e.g., how the story is told, emotions expressed), in addition to themes that emerge across the data.

Throughout the analysis, reflexivity , or the practice of self-awareness and self-examination, is paramount. Researchers should be conscious of their own interpretations and assumptions and how they might influence the analysis. This process goes beyond merely acknowledging one's role; it involves continuous reflection on how one's background, beliefs, and experiences might shape the understanding of the participants' narratives.

It's important to ensure that the findings are grounded in the participants' perspectives rather than the researcher's preconceptions. Researchers can achieve this by revisiting the raw data frequently and comparing their interpretations with the participants' own words and meanings. Moreover, seeking feedback from participants on preliminary findings, a practice known as member checking , can also help to enhance the credibility of the analysis.

Lastly, maintaining a reflexive journal , where researchers document their thoughts, reactions, and evolving insights during the analysis, can be a valuable tool for enhancing reflexivity. This ongoing engagement with reflexivity not only strengthens the analytical rigor but also adds transparency and credibility to the research, emphasizing that the researcher is not a neutral observer but an active participant in the knowledge construction process.

Presenting the findings

The final stage of life history research is to present the findings in a manner that captures the richness, depth, and complexity of the life histories. This often involves creating narrative summaries or vignettes for each life history, highlighting the key themes, and interweaving quotes from the participants.

The researcher also discusses the broader implications of the findings, linking the individual life histories to larger social, cultural, and historical contexts. They reflect on the study's limitations, such as potential artifacts of the researcher's interpretations or the participants' recall of their life events.

The life history method is a comprehensive, rigorous, and reflexive process of gathering, interpreting, and presenting personal narratives. It offers a powerful means to illuminate the intricacies of human experiences and the interplay between individuals' lives and their societal context. Through the participants' stories, life history opens a window into the richness of human life, revealing its complexity, dynamism, and profound significance.

Life history research, like any other research method , has its own set of strengths and limitations. It offers a distinctive approach to understanding individual experiences and the interplay between personal lives and larger social, cultural, and historical contexts. However, it also poses some unique challenges that researchers need to navigate. Below, we discuss the key advantages and challenges associated with life history research.

One of the primary advantages of life history research is that it offers a rich, detailed, and nuanced understanding of individual or collective experiences. By focusing on personal narratives, it delves beyond surface-level facts to uncover the deeper meanings, interpretations, emotions, and values that individuals attach to their experiences. It reveals the complexities, contradictions, continuities, and changes in individuals' life trajectories, providing a holistic understanding of human life.

First, life history research provides a contextual understanding of human experiences. It recognizes that individuals' lives are embedded in and shaped by their social, cultural, and historical contexts. Through the narratives, it reveals the intricate interplay between personal experiences and broader societal phenomena, offering insights into how macro-level structures affect micro-level experiences and vice versa.

Life history research can be a powerful tool to bring to light the experiences and perspectives of marginalized or underrepresented groups. By focusing on individual narratives, it enables these voices to be heard, acknowledged, and understood. This can contribute to more inclusive, equitable, and diverse understandings of human experiences.

Most notably, life history research offers methodological flexibility, allowing researchers to adapt their methods based on the research questions , context, and participants. While the primary data collection method is often in-depth interviews , researchers can also utilize a variety of other methods such as collecting diaries, letters, photographs, and objects. This flexibility can facilitate rich and diverse data collection .

One of the main challenges of life history research is that it can be time-intensive and demanding. Collecting , transcribing , and analyzing life histories require substantial time and effort. Additionally, researchers often need to build a close, trust-based relationship with the participants, which can take time to develop. They also need to navigate the complexities and nuances of the narratives, grappling with contradictions, ambiguities, and emotional depth.

Life history research involves ethical considerations , particularly when it deals with sensitive life events or marginalized groups. Researchers need to ensure informed consent , confidentiality, and anonymity , and be prepared to manage potential emotional risks associated with recalling sensitive life experiences. This requires careful planning, sensitivity, and ethical reflexivity.

Life history research depends on participants' memory and willingness to share their life experiences. Memory can be imperfect and selective, and individuals may forget, exaggerate, or distort certain events. Furthermore, some individuals may be hesitant or uncomfortable sharing sensitive or personal aspects of their life. Researchers need to recognize these limitations and find ways to facilitate open, honest, and respectful conversations.

Life history research requires a high degree of reflexivity – the awareness of the researcher's role, assumptions, and influence on the research process. Researchers need to reflect on how their own experiences, beliefs, and identities shape their interactions with participants, their interpretations of the narratives, and the overall research outcomes. While reflexivity is a strength of qualitative research , it can also be challenging to navigate.

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Conducting life history research can be a complex yet rewarding journey. Here are some practical tips to guide you through this process, from designing your study to presenting your findings.

Planning your research

• Refine your research question : Your research question should align with the goals of life history research, focusing on in-depth, nuanced, and contextually embedded understanding of individual or group experiences. Keep your question open-ended and exploratory to allow for the complexity and richness of life histories.
• Select participants strategically : Use purposive or criterion-based sampling to identify individuals or groups who have specific experiences or characteristics that align with your research question. Remember, in life history research, the depth of information is more important than the number of participants.
• Ensure ethical practices : Obtain informed consent from participants and assure them about the confidentiality and anonymity of their data . Be transparent about your research goals and the potential emotional implications of recounting sensitive life events. Have a support plan in place in case participants experience emotional distress during the research.

Conducting research

• Establish a trust-based relationship : Building a trusting relationship with participants is crucial for open, honest sharing of life histories. Spend time getting to know your participants and show genuine interest in their stories.
• Use semi-structured interviews : Semi-structured interviews provide a balance between obtaining targeted information and allowing participants to express their narratives in their own ways. Prepare an interview guide with open-ended questions, but be flexible and responsive to the flow of the conversation.
• Collect diverse data : While interviews are usually the primary data source , consider incorporating other data types such as letters, diaries, photos, or artifacts. These can provide additional layers of insight and stimulate memory recall.
• Practice reflexivity : Be aware of your influence on the data collection process . Your reactions, questions, and interpretations can shape the narrative. Be mindful of this, and aim for an empathetic, non-judgmental approach.
• Transcribe and familiarize : Transcribe your interviews verbatim and read the transcripts multiple times to gain a comprehensive understanding. Note down your initial observations and reflections.
• Identify themes or patterns : Code your data to identify recurring themes, narrative elements, or any other relevant aspects within and across the narratives. Your coding system can immensely help categorize and organize all your data .
• Interpret narratives holistically : Life history analysis is not just about isolating themes, but interpreting the narrative as a whole. Consider the narrative structure, content, and performance. Reflect on how the narrative themes are interwoven and what they reveal about the participant's life and identity.
• Maintain reflexivity : Reflect on your own assumptions, interpretations, and potential biases throughout the analysis. Ensure that your findings are grounded in the participants' perspectives, not your preconceptions.

Presenting your findings

• Create narrative summaries or vignettes : Present your findings in a way that captures the richness of the life histories. Use narrative summaries or vignettes for each life history, highlighting key themes and including participant quotes for authenticity.
• Discuss the broader implications : Link the life histories to larger social, cultural, or historical contexts. Discuss how your findings contribute to broader understandings of human experiences and societal phenomena.
• Reflect on limitations : Acknowledge the limitations of your study, such as potential impacts from your interpretations or in the participants' recall of life events. This shows transparency and integrity in your research.

Conducting life history research is a deeply human, empathetic, and reflexive process. By following these practical tips, you can navigate the complexities of this research method and conduct a rigorous, meaningful, and ethically sound study that illuminates the intricacies of human life.

Qualitative research is a diverse field that offers various methods for exploring human experiences. Life history research is one such method, and it brings a unique perspective to the qualitative landscape. To understand this method's distinctive contribution, it's helpful to compare it with other qualitative methods. This section will compare life history research with case studies , ethnography , and grounded theory .

Case studies

Both life history research and case studies are in-depth investigations that focus on a single entity (individual, group, event, or phenomenon). They both seek a holistic understanding of the entity in its context.

The primary difference lies in the scope of investigation and the way they conceptualize their object of study. Case studies examine a 'case' within a bounded system, such as a person, a group, an institution, or a community, within a specific time frame. They investigate the case in relation to its context and explore the interplay between various components within the case.

In contrast, life history research focuses on an individual's or a group's entire life trajectory, examining how personal experiences intersect with broader social, cultural, and historical contexts. While case studies can provide a snapshot of the case at a particular moment or over a specific period, life history research traces the continuity and change in experiences over the life course.

Ethnography

Both life history research and ethnography place strong emphasis on context. Ethnography is about understanding a culture or a social group from an insider's perspective, focusing on the shared beliefs, norms, practices, and social interactions within the group. It usually involves prolonged immersion in the field, participant observation, and in-depth interviews.

On the other hand, life history research focuses on individual or collective life narratives, seeking to understand personal experiences in relation to larger social, cultural, and historical contexts. While ethnography examines the collective patterns and shared meanings within a group, life history research highlights individual experiences, personal interpretations, and subjective meanings.

That said, life history research can be a part of ethnographic research, offering a way to delve into individual members' experiences within the group. Similarly, ethnographic methods can be used in life history research to provide a more contextual understanding of the life histories.

Grounded theory

Grounded theory aims to generate or construct theory from data. It involves systematic data collection and analysis , with the process of coding , constant comparison , and theoretical sampling to construct a more abstract analytical framework that explains a phenomenon.

Life history research, on the other hand, aims to capture and interpret individual or collective life histories, exploring the interplay between personal experiences and broader social, cultural, and historical contexts. The focus is on understanding the richness, depth, and contextuality of life experiences rather than constructing a theoretical framework.

While life history research can generate theories, its approach to theory is different from grounded theory. Life history research may use existing theories to inform the interpretation of the life histories, or it may generate new insights that contribute to theoretical development. However, the theory is grounded in the life narratives, reflecting the lived realities and subjective meanings of individuals' lives, while potentially connecting to other existing theories that shed light on relevant social, cultural, or historical aspects.

Ultimately, life history research shares some commonalities with other qualitative methods in its in-depth, holistic, and context-focused approach. However, it also brings unique strengths in its focus on life narratives, its exploration of the interplay between personal lives and larger contexts, and its ability to capture the richness, depth, and continuity of human experiences. By understanding these similarities and differences, researchers can make informed decisions about which method is most suitable for their research questions , goals, and contexts.

You might be interested in the following references for more information about life history research:

• Cole, A. L., & Knowles, J. G. (2001). Lives in context: The art of life history research . Rowman Altamira.
• Dhunpath, R. (2000). Life history methodology: "Narradigm" regained. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 13 (5), 543-551.
• Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Lancaster, J., & Hurtado, A. M. (2000). A theory of human life history evolution: Diet, intelligence, and longevity. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews: Issues, News, and Reviews , 9 (4), 156-185.

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Life History

• Last Updated: Aug 3, 2023

The life history approach in social research is a powerful tool that allows scholars to collect qualitative data from individuals about their life experiences, attitudes, feelings, and personal perspectives.

Understanding Life History as a Data Collection Tool

The life history approach revolves around the collection of individuals’ narratives that detail their life experiences and provide insights into their behaviors, actions, emotions, values, and attitudes. These histories typically encompass entire lives, from birth to the present day, but may also focus on specific periods or events [1] .

Some of the primary characteristics of life histories include:

• Personalized data: The data collected is subjective and individual-specific, often reflecting the nuances of personal experiences.
• Contextual information: Life histories take into account the environmental, societal, and cultural contexts in which individuals live.
• Chronological detail: Life histories provide chronological detail, helping to identify how events and experiences unfold over time.

Methods for Collecting Life History Data

Collecting life history data requires different methods, primarily relying on interviews, autobiographical notes, letters, diaries, and even photographs. Researchers typically employ semi-structured or open-ended interviews to encourage participants to share their experiences freely [2] .

Semi-Structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews provide a framework for discussion but are flexible enough to explore new themes and ideas as they emerge. Interviewers may prepare a list of questions or topics to guide the conversation, but they also allow for deviation to delve deeper into particular areas of interest.

Open-Ended Interviews

In open-ended interviews, the interviewee is given more control over the direction of the conversation. The interviewer might start with a broad question, such as “Can you tell me about your life?” and then follow up with more specific queries based on the information provided.

Autobiographical Notes, Letters, and Diaries

Written sources such as autobiographical notes, letters, and diaries can also provide valuable insights into an individual’s life history. These sources are particularly useful when they have been produced over a long period, as they can offer a chronological account of a person’s life and experiences.

Advantages and Challenges of Life History Method

• Life history data can provide rich, in-depth information about individuals’ lives, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of their experiences and perspectives.
• The method can highlight the intersectionality of different social categories such as age, gender, and class.
• Life history data can illuminate how societal changes affect individual lives over time.
• The depth and breadth of life history data can make analysis challenging.
• Participants’ memories may be selective or inaccurate.
• Confidentiality and privacy issues can arise, as participants often share sensitive information.

Table 1: Comparison of Life History Data Collection Methods

Life History Research in Practice

To provide a holistic view, life history research often combines data collection methods. For example, a researcher may conduct a series of semi-structured interviews supplemented by a review of autobiographical notes or diaries. This approach, known as method triangulation, enhances the reliability of the research.

Researchers should consider the suitability of different methods based on their research question and context. For instance, open-ended interviews might be preferable when exploring a less understood area, whereas semi-structured interviews could be more beneficial when researching a well-defined topic.

Ethical Considerations

Like all research methods, life history research has ethical implications that researchers must consider:

• Confidentiality and Anonymity : Life histories can reveal sensitive information about individuals and those close to them. Researchers must guarantee participants’ confidentiality and consider anonymizing data to protect identities.
• Informed Consent : Participants should understand the research purpose, what their participation entails, and their right to withdraw at any stage without repercussions.
• Respect and Empathy : Interviewers should demonstrate empathy and respect for participants’ experiences and perspectives, creating a safe space for sharing.

Data Analysis

Analyzing life history data is a complex process that involves interpreting and making sense of vast amounts of qualitative data. Several strategies can be used:

• Thematic Analysis : This involves identifying and examining themes or patterns that emerge in the life history data.
• Narrative Analysis : This focuses on how the individual’s story is told, examining elements such as plot, character, and language use.
• Temporal Analysis : This involves examining the data in chronological order to understand how an individual’s experiences and perspectives have evolved over time.

Table 2: Overview of Life History Data Analysis Methods

Life history research provides an invaluable tool for data collection, offering a comprehensive view of individual experiences and perspectives. By navigating its challenges and ethical considerations, researchers can uncover deep insights into the interplay between personal lives and broader societal structures.

[1] Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage publications.

[2] Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing. Sage.

[3] Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research. Sage.

[4] Elliot, J. (2005). Using narrative in social research: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Sage.

[5] Plummer, K. (2001). Documents of life 2: An invitation to a critical humanism. Sage.

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Home >> Socio Short Notes >> Life History Research and Historic Analysis

Life History Research and Historic Analysis

Life history research is a sociological method that is in use since recent times only and it is like a case study on a single person and his life. It includes oral histories, autobiographies, narratives, interview etc. that are used to explore how individuals experience social life and periods of social change. It provides new insights to already existing knowledge as texts like life histories provide new voices. According to Rober Miller it is a research method that collects and analyses a person’s whole life or a part of a life through means of in-depth and unstructured interviews etc. The main aim of biographical research is to produce detailed descriptions of persons or conceptualize structural types of actions and to understand how persons and structures are interlinked. Life histories and other biographical material yield information that is written over periods of time and hence a gradual and deep understanding develops with biographical research. A cross check is made by use of available letters, new reports and contemporary reports. 

Historic Analysis

Historic analysis is a method that provides sociologists scope to look into the past and connect the present with the past and provide a deeper perspective about current issues and problems. In order to understand the structure of present society, it needs to be linked to its past as well as present society. Various sources used in this method are government archives, historical records, historical works and personal diaries. Historical facts are collected to gain an insight into past events related to a phenomenon. It shows the social values and ideas upon which present social structures are based. However in this method collection of facts is a stupendous task and reliability is a big issue. Historical data cannot be subjected to experimentation and statistics cannot  be used in this method. Documentary research is one particular type of historical analysis in which documents are used as a source.

Life history: a qualitative method of research

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Nursing, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City 66103.
• PMID: 1401553
• DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.1992.tb02047.x

The life-history method of qualitative research is an alternative to empirical methods for identifying and documenting health patterns of individuals and groups. It allows the nurse researcher to explore a person's microhistorical (individual) experiences within a macrohistorical (history of the time) framework. Life-history information challenges the nurse to understand an individual's current attitudes and behaviours and how they may have been influenced by initial decisions made at another time and in another place. This paper describes a new direction in nursing research and identifies specific steps for using the life-history approach.

• Autobiographies as Topic*
• Data Interpretation, Statistical
• Interviews as Topic / methods*
• Interviews as Topic / standards
• Medical History Taking*
• Nursing Methodology Research / methods*
• Nursing Methodology Research / standards
• Reproducibility of Results

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The Story of Life History: Origins of the Life History Method in Sociology

2001, Identity

... In C. Kridel (Ed.), Writing educational biography: Explorations in qualitative research (pp. 19–32). New York: Garland. Casey, K. (1993). I answer with my life: Life histories of women teachers working for social change. New York: Routledge. Chambliss, W. (1972). ...

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This bibliography has been composed based on the consultation of the ERIC database (1966-2007) and the Milbank Library catalogue (Teachers College, Columbia University). Since 2002, many references have been added, based on additional research on the Internet (including commercial websites), in books, or through personal contacts. The third version of this bibliography has been organized by themes and by types of sources (chapters, books and documents; papers, journals and conference proceedings). Despite the fact that this bibliography brings together approximately 450 references it is not an exhaustive one. Instead, its purpose is to introduce a broad field of study illustrating its diversity, as it can be observed in the English-speaking field of education and mainly in the American, Canadian and British field of education. From an international perspective, this bibliography can also be a complement to non English-speaking bibliographies already existing.

This paper describes how one researcher's understanding of life history research evolved while conducting research with a high school English teacher. The life history examined the history and evolution of the teacher's beliefs about literacy and how those beliefs related to her teaching practices throughout her career. The paper begins by explaining what life history research is, then it elaborates on two experiences that helped make sense of life histories for the researcher. The first experience was around the issue of life history as an artistic interpretation (following an experience in an art museum). The second experience was a troubling conversation with a former mentor about what constituted educational research and why life history research was controversial as a topic. The paper suggests that life history and narrative research can be as robust as or more robust than quantitative studies in terms of trustworthiness, and it notes that it can produce knowledge or ...

Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum: …, 2004

Although life histories were collected by anthropologists in the first decade of the twentieth century, the most celebrated founding fathers of the life history were the sociologists Thomas and Znaniecki. Their work-The Polish Peasant in Europe and America-began the promotion of the life history perspective as a cental research device in the emerging work of the University of Chicago Sociology department. With the arrival of Robert Park at the department in 1916, a range of studies of the character of cities and city life had been completed. 1 No better statement on the importance of the life history method has been made since Thomas and Znaniecki observed. In analysing the experiences and attitudes of an individual, we always reach data and elementary facts which are not exclusively limited to this individual's personality, but can be treated as mere incidences of more or less general classes or-data or facts, and can thus be used for the determination of laws of social becoming. Whether we draw our materials for sociological analysis from detailed life records of concrete individuals or from the observation of mass phenomena, the problems of sociological analysis are the same. But even when we are searching for abstract laws, life records, as complete as possible, constitute the perfect type of sociological material, and if social science has to use other materials at all it is only because of the practical difficulty of obtaining at the moment a sufficient number of such records to cover the totality of sociological problems, and of the enormous amount of work demanded for an adequate analysis of all the persona] materials necessary to characterise the life of a social group. If we are forced to use mass phenomena as material, or any kind of happenings taken without regard to the life histories of the individuals who participated, it is a defect, not an By providing this kind of voice from a culture and situation that are ordinarily not known to intellectuals generally and to sociologists in particular, The Jack-Roller enables us to improve our theories at the most profound level: by putting ourselves in Stanley's skin, we can feel and become aware of the deep biases about such people that ordinarily permeate our thinking and shape the kinds of problems we investigate. By truly entering into Stanley's life, we can begin to see what we take for granted (and ought not to) in designing ~ur research-what kinds of assumptions about delin

Life history approach in qualitative research emphasises on the importance of presenting the individual\{$\backslash$textquoteright\}s subjective evaluation of his experiences and of giving information about his social experiences. It is the account of a life, completed or ongoing. This approach combines both written and oral evidence. The information gathered offer basic evidence about social interaction and process. There are many problems

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The present work intends to present as a perspective of the field of social sciences, the biographical-narrative approach of lives, has the founding potential-when applied in teaching-to activate and make meaningful (and significant) both learning and the lives of students and educators. Based on an interpretive and reflective reading, the methodology is based on a broad discussion about dealing with biographical narratives. Along with this, the relational possibilities that narrating and reconstructing trajectories reveal are pointed out, added to the understanding of how these are intercrossed in contexts and relationships at the micro and macro level, in the private and public spheres, encompassing traditional, popular and cultivated knowledge. This fact leads to the pedagogical latency of this methodological experience of teaching-learning-research. Therefore, it is intended to point to ways of operationalizing-disciplinary and also inter-, multi-and transdisciplinary-the processes and tools, as well as the gains in interests and contextualization of the contents proposed by the curricula and school calendars. These procedures have the relevant role of revealing the socio-historical present of the trajectories and of the agents that circulate educational life, but also of the families and, especially, of the students themselves, and place them as historical agents filled with subjectivities built in the daily interrelationships and intercoms. In this way, it is pointed out, finally, how the biographical-narrative approach has the potential to constitute itself as an active, interpretive and reflective methodology, without forgetting to be critical and to produce openings for the emancipation of the agents (educator and student).

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The Single Case Study: Understanding the Life History of a Tuskegee Syphilis Study Descendant

• By: Tina K. Sacks
• Product: Sage Research Methods Cases Part 2
• Publisher: SAGE Publications Ltd
• Publication year: 2017
• Online pub date: October 27, 2016
• Discipline: Health , Social Work Administration
• Methods: Case study research , Focus groups , Single cases
• DOI: https:// doi. org/10.4135/9781473997189
• Keywords: Tuskegee study , Tuskegee Syphilis Study , women in black Show all Show less
• Type: Indirect case info Sub Discipline: Social Work Administration Online ISBN: 9781473997189 Copyright: Contact SAGE Publications at http://www.sagepub.com . More information Less information

Drawing on case study research with a single descendant of the infamous Tuskegee Syphilis Study (Washington, 2006), this case describes the iterative nature of developing a research project and analyzes the pros and cons of conducting case study research. The case also highlights practicalities of conducting research, including seeking consultation from other scholars, locating study respondents for follow-up interviews, and handling respondents’ emotional reactions during interviews. The case argues that although making causal claims from a single subject is imprudent, the empirical findings gleaned from a single case may be better characterized as a structural anecdote or a story that illuminates socially patterned phenomena. In this case, the respondent’s family history illuminates the socially patterned nature of racial discrimination in the US healthcare system that began with her great-grandfather’s involvement in the Tuskegee Study, continued with her grandfather being refused treatment in White hospitals in Alabama in the Jim Crow era, and culminated with her contemporary mistrust of predominantly White healthcare institutions. Although this is a single case, it exemplifies the concepts of mistrust and historical trauma that are often amorphous and hard to grasp. By illustrating these concepts, the case highlights the importance of using theoretical constructs to facilitate empirical study.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of this case, students will be able to

• Understand the iterative nature of the research process
• Understand the pros and cons of case study research
• Understand the importance of using theory in empirical research

Project Overview and Context

In 2010, as I was pursuing my doctorate in social work, I embarked on a relatively unconventional dissertation topic: health inequities among the Black middle class. Like many social welfare scholars, I had always been concerned about vulnerable groups, particularly the poor and racial and ethnic minorities. However, the more I learned about healthcare inequities, I was struck by how durable inequities were across class status. Furthermore, because there was relatively little written about the social problems that affect racial minorities, including Black women who are not poor, I felt I had a good opportunity to contribute to the research literature, which is a crucial component of a successful career as a scholar. Based on my review of the literature, and the guidance of my dissertation committee, I decided to explore Black middle-class women’s perceptions of discrimination and bias in healthcare settings.

To pursue my interest in understanding the healthcare experiences of Black middle-class women, I embarked on a qualitative study of how non-poor Black women perceived doctors and other healthcare providers. Because I was interested in women’s experiences from their points of view and in their own words, I decided to use qualitative research methods. Ultimately, I embarked on a constructivist grounded theory study of how Black middle-class women perceived healthcare providers, including any strategies they may have used to avoid being discriminated against. The data collection methods included focus groups and in-depth interviews.

Research Practicalities

During one of the focus groups, I encountered, Tammy, 1 a 37-year-old Black woman who steadfastly refused to be treated by a non-Black healthcare provider, even in emergency situations (Sacks, 2013). When her stance was strongly challenged by other focus group respondents, she disclosed that her great-grandfather was killed as a result of his involvement in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.

The US Public Health Service (PHS) began the “Study of Syphilis in the Untreated Negro Male” in 1932. In total, 399 African American men with syphilis and 201 controls, primarily poor sharecroppers in Macon County, Alabama, were enrolled in the study. The men were told they would be treated for syphilis when in fact the purpose of the study was to learn whether syphilis progressed differently in Blacks than Whites. PHS never intended to treat the study respondents, and although penicillin was available by 1943, the men were not treated and hundreds went on to infect their wives and children through congenital exposure (Washington, 2006). The experiment concluded in 1972 making it the longest non-therapeutic biomedical study in US history (Reverby, 2001). The outcry over the study led to reform of human subjects’ protections and the creation of the National Center for Bioethics and Research at Tuskegee University (Reverby, 2001).

Given the magnitude of the Tuskegee Study, and because I was so new to research, I had no idea how to analyze or interpret what Tammy disclosed during the focus group. I was not sure whether one person’s story even constituted research, but I felt strongly that given the historical and social relevance of the Tuskegee Study, I should investigate further. I decided to consult with a senior qualitative scholar in my field who suggested that although data from a single focus group were insufficient to analyze, if I could get Tammy to sit for an in-depth interview, I had the beginnings of a case study. The scholar felt that data from two data collection sources over two time periods could provide a rich analytical contribution to what we know about the long-term implications of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.

Research Design

Newly confident that I should collect more data, I set about finding Tammy some 5 years after our first chance encounter. I somehow managed to dig up her email address and wrote to her sheepishly asking whether she would sit for another interview. Although I was sure her story was important, I was uncomfortable asking her to divulge more of her personal story after so many years out of touch. By this time, I had completed my dissertation and was now an assistant professor at large research university. Although I was happy to have a full-time professorship, I was not sure how Tammy would respond to my attempts to contact her, especially since I was no longer a student. Given that the Tuskegee Study raised such serious issues about research ethics, I was not sure how she would feel about my new connection to a large research institution. When I met her previously, I had been a student with little institutional support, which may have given me a little more leeway than had I been connected to a large research enterprise. To my surprise, she responded immediately, indicating she would be happy to be interviewed.

Her initial openness to my follow-up inquiry seemed far off when I first entered Tammy’s apartment in the summer of 2015. In reality, we had only interacted briefly 5 years before. On the evening of the follow-up interview, Tammy was not particularly talkative at first, but over the next couple of hours she alternated between laughter, contemplation, and, sometimes, tears. I had learned from conducting other interviews that it was important to stay calm especially when respondents become emotional. I needed to be able to give her my full attention. Although it was difficult to see her in emotional distress, my training as a social worker allowed me to remain calm and to ask whether she needed a break.

Tammy declined my offer and simply continued to discuss her life experience, providing additional insight to her family’s interpretation of the events surrounding her great-grandfather’s involvement in the Tuskegee Study. Although at the time of the focus group in 2010 she stated definitively that her healthcare preferences were the result of her family’s Tuskegee experiment history, upon follow-up, it was clear that the circumstances surrounding his death were vague. The uncertainty surrounding her great-grandfather’s death led to deep feelings of confusion, fear, and resentment. Later in the interview, Tammy recalled that her grandfather (the son of her great-grandfather), who was a small child at the time, had been permanently disfigured after being denied treatment for severe burns at a White-only hospital in Alabama.

Based on these events, along with numerous instances of discrimination, Tammy’s family made a very pointed decision to avoid all encounters with non-Black healthcare providers. In fact, Tammy disclosed that she was particularly fearful of receiving an injection from a non-Black healthcare provider. Her fear is likely rooted in a commonly held misconception about the Study that holds the US government actively injected Blacks with syphilis (Reverby, 2001). Although the evidence suggests that the US government only enrolled men in the study if they already had the infection, Tammy’s experience illustrates that historical events, particularly traumatic ones, are transmuted through time. People must make meaning of their own history.

Furthermore, the process of interviewing Tammy demonstrated just how powerful one-on-one interaction with a study respondent could be, both analytically and personally. Being fully present with Tammy during the interview allowed me to actually hear the emotion in her voice as she explained why her family made certain the decisions. They were deeply fearful of being harmed in predominately White healthcare institutions. Given their experience, their decisions seem very rational. Moreover, actually experiencing Tammy’s emotional reaction to her family history was a powerful reminder of the importance of qualitative research methods and in-depth interviewing. This particular data collection method can facilitate a deeper understanding of why people behave the way they do by illuminating much more than what actions they undertook.

As the interview progressed, it became clear that, despite the confusion surrounding the circumstances of her great-grandfather’s death, Tammy and her family undoubtedly experienced the instances of discrimination as life or death struggles. Importantly, her contemporary refusal to seek healthcare treatment from White providers was not only related to her great-grandfather’s presumed involvement in Tuskegee. Rather, the totality of her experience led her to the conclusion that, for her own safety, she should avoid White healthcare providers and institutions.

My interview, and one-on-one interaction with her, certainly provided a more thorough, expansive understanding of how Tammy interpreted what happened to her family. These data facilitated an analytical perspective through which to explore the relationship between historic and collective trauma on the contemporary well-being of Black women and other minorities. In so doing, the open-ended data collection method facilitated thick description that allowed me to contextualize her decision to avoid White providers in the face of racial discrimination and experimentation.

Method in Action

Although researchers rarely discuss serendipity as a component of the research process, it is clear that I was very fortunate to happen upon a respondent willing to share her personal experience with the Tuskegee Study. However, like many social scientists, I had initially been trained in a quantitative, positivist paradigm that dismisses the analytical value of an “anecdote.” Certainly, most social scientists would agree it is unwise to make truth claims from a single story.

However, I argue that Tammy’s story represents what noted sociologists Pierre Bourdieu and Troy Duster have termed the “structural anecdote” (Duster, 1989). According to Duster, Bourdieu first discussed this concept during a 1986 talk at the University of California, Berkeley’s Institute for the Study of Social Change, in which he described it as a story that illuminates key structural relations between social elements (Duster, 1989). In other words, the structural anecdote illustrates certain theoretically informed social phenomenon that may be otherwise difficult to grasp. Sociologist Troy Duster, who later extolled the structural anecdote’s “epistemological elegance,” noted that it “has features that reveal how institutional and organizational forces converge around what on the surface may appear to be an individual, personal or idiosyncratic matter” (Duster, 1989).

In Tammy’s case, her family history illuminates the socially patterned nature of racial discrimination in the US healthcare system that begins with her great-grandfather’s involvement in the Tuskegee Study, continues with her grandfather being refused treatment in White hospitals, and culminates with her mistrust of predominantly White healthcare institutions. Although Tammy’s story is a single case, her story exemplifies the concepts of mistrust and historical trauma that are often amorphous and hard to grasp. By illustrating these concepts, Tammy’s case advances our ability to use theoretical constructs in the service of empirical work.

Practical Lessons Learned

My research with Tammy helped me to conceptualize additional studies to explore the ongoing implications of historical events on the contemporary healthcare experiences of African Americans. In that way, the case propelled my thinking forward. Tammy’s case certainly illustrates the importance of a structural anecdote and also serves as a reminder that the research process is not always linear. That is, I began my dissertation research project with a set of questions about women’s perceptions of bias and stereotyping during the healthcare encounter. I was most curious about how their experience varied based on their class status. However, my chance encounter with Tammy inspired new questions that I was not entirely prepared to explore at the time. Only after asking for advice from a senior colleague was I able to move forward.

Reflecting on my research with Tammy, I realize that my experience with this case crystallized several things about research. First, the research design process can be both iterative and serendipitous. Although researchers certainly consult with other people and review the literature before embarking on studies, in some cases, there are elements of chance that take the research process in a different direction. Indeed, the joy of conducting research is that one often discovers that the study poses more questions than answers. I did not set out to explore the ongoing implications of a historical event like the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, but my case study with Tammy inspired me to conduct more research on the topic.

Second, before my encounter with Tammy, I had never considered the case study nor had I been trained in how to conduct one. Furthermore, I knew many scholars would classify a single case as a meaningless anecdote. However, my review of the research literature led me to Troy Duster’s take on the structural anecdote, which solidified my conviction in the importance of a single case. Tammy’s case illustrates the central tenets of the structural anecdote in that her family’s story exemplifies many themes that we would be unable to fully appreciate had they occurred across multiple respondents or various studies.

Third, the case highlights the importance of theoretically informed research. For example, my analysis of Tammy’s case would have proceeded quite differently had I not been aware of the concepts of historical trauma and the structural anecdote. These conceptual frameworks allowed me to make sense of both her focus group and in-depth interview data and propelled me to think more deeply about why she so adamantly resisted seeking care in predominantly White institutions. Understanding the structural anecdote allowed me to see that although Tammy’s family was a single story, it encapsulated many important social science concepts, for example, inter-generational trauma and mistrust in health care. Tammy’s case advanced my thinking and once again demonstrated the importance of theoretically informed empirical research.

Although embarking on a research career is exciting, it often requires persistence and leaps of faith. At the beginning, we do not know what we may find, whom we will encounter, or how the findings will present themselves. My experience with this case study reminded me to keep the skills that drew me to research, for example, curiosity, openness to ideas, and analytical ability, present in my mind as I pursued research methods or topics I did not anticipate. Furthermore, although social scientists are rightly concerned about drawing claims from a single case, I believe that Tammy’s story takes us a step further to represent a structural anecdote or a single case that pushes us to understand the connections between social phenomena. In this manner, research presents an opportunity to illuminate the lived experience of the people that are gracious enough to answer our questions. Tammy’s story reminds us that we should not take this honor lightly.

1. Pseudonym.

Exercises and Discussion Questions

• 1. This case study is about the descendant of a biomedical study with substantial historical and contemporary impact. How does the significance and rarity of the study respondent impact your evaluation of the research? Are there alternative ways to collect the same data? How might the findings gleaned from one person contribute to future research?
• 2. Given the context of social science rules of evidence, discuss the contributions and limitations of this kind of research.
• 3. Take a moment to reflect on salient themes in your life history. Consider what elements are specific to you and your family and which may be connected to larger themes or concepts in social science and historical research. Discuss as a group.
• 4. The article raises an important, if little discussed, issue in research with human subjects. Respondents may become emotionally upset, angry, or frustrated during an interview. What would you do if this happened? Do you think the emotions may affect the data collection process? Does a respondent’s emotional reaction raise any ethical issues about the process of research? Discuss.
• 5. The research process is often iterative and requires a balance between the structure required to produce high-quality empirical findings and the flexibility to allow the process to evolve. Discuss how you may approach this tension as emerging scholars.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."