goleman research on emotional intelligence

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With regard to emotional intelligence, Daniel Goleman was not the first to articulate the concept. However, in the double role of psychologist and journalist, Goleman made the elements of emotional intelligence accessible to broad segments of society. His best-selling books — beginning with “Emotional Intelligence”(1995) — have already changed how some businesses interact with clients and some managers recruit employees. His impact has been even more profound on education.

Thanks to Goleman, educators now recognize that emotional intelligence is every bit as important to learning as intellectual prowess or IQ. As a result, tens of thousands of schools throughout the world currently incorporate “social and emotional learning” in their curricula. In some schools, courses geared toward developing emotional intelligence are mandatory.

The history of emotional intelligence

For decades, researchers have studied the reasons why a high IQ does not necessarily guarantee success in the classroom or the boardroom. By the 1980s, psychologists and biologists, among others, were focusing on the important role other skill sets — needed to process emotional information — played in promoting worldly success, leadership, personal fulfillment and happy relationships.

In 1990, psychologists John Mayer (now at the University of New Hampshire) and Peter Salovey of Yale theorized that a unitary intelligence underlay those other skill sets. They coined the term, emotional intelligence, which they broke down into four “branches”:

• Identifying emotions on a nonverbal level
• Using emotions to guide cognitive thinking
• Understanding the information emotions convey and the actions emotions generate
• Regulating one’s own emotions, for personal benefit and for the common good

As a science reporter for the New York Times, Goleman was exposed to Mayer’s and Salovey’s work and took the concept of emotional intelligence a step further. In his eponymous book from 1995, he argued that existing definitions of intelligence needed to be reworked. IQ was still important, but intellect alone was no guarantee of adeptness in identifying one’s own emotions or the emotional expressions of others. It took a special kind of intelligence, Goleman said, to process emotional information and utilize it effectively — whether to facilitate good personal decisions, to resolve conflicts or to motivate oneself and others.

Goleman’s five domain components of emotional intelligence

Goleman broadened Mayer’s and Salovey’s four-branch system to incorporate five essential elements of emotional intelligence — or EQ, the shorthand he sometimes uses:

• Emotional self-awareness — knowing what one is feeling at any given time and understanding the impact those moods have on others
• Self-regulation — controlling or redirecting one’s emotions; anticipating consequences before acting on impulse
• Motivation — utilizing emotional factors to achieve goals, enjoy the learning process and persevere in the face of obstacles
• Empathy — sensing the emotions of others
• Social skills — managing relationships, inspiring others and inducing desired responses from them

Applications for educators

There are very practical reasons to promote social and emotional learning in schools, from kindergarten through college. According to Goleman, bullying, disciplinary problems, violence and drug abuse are reduced in schools with a high EQ. With a solid basis in emotional intelligence, academic performance — as well as behavior — improves. There is an obvious connection to Goleman’s third, motivational component: learning stimulates curiosity and promotes feelings of satisfaction, even joy, when students immerse themselves in the process of assimilating new information.

The EQ of children starts developing long before they ever enter a classroom. But EQ levels will vary widely, depending on each child’s home environment. Thus teachers must be able to recognize those children whose emotional literacy needs a boost. Teachers should be ready to talk about feelings in the classroom. The message is that no emotion is “wrong,” but certain ways of expressing those emotions or acting on them are indeed inappropriate.

In 2002, UNESCO launched an international campaign to promote emotional learning in the classroom. The U.N. body sent a statement of 10 basic EQ principles to education ministries throughout the world. Those principles drew heavily from Goleman’s exposition of emotional intelligence.

Rating emotional intelligence

PositivePsychology.com has created a guide to help people assess their own levels of emotional intelligence. Discover exercises ranging from classifying facial expressions, emotional articulation tools, and communication tasks among other activities. These are suitable for students and adults alike.

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Daniel Goleman

“By teaching people to tune in to their emotions with intelligence and to expand their circle of caring, we can transform organizations from the inside out and make a positive difference in our world.”

Psychologist and author of emotional intelligence, daniel goleman has transformed the way the world educates children, relates to family and friends, leads, and conducts business..

Working as a science journalist, I reported on the brain and behavioral sciences for The New York Times for many years. My 1995 book Emotional Intelligence (Bantam Books) was on The New York Times bestseller list for a year-and-a-half; it is available around the world in 40 languages, and has been a bestseller in many countries.

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Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New Directions

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• First Online: 14 July 2018

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• Ashley K. Vesely-Maillefer 6  

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• The original version of this chapter was revised. The correction to this chapter is available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_17

About 25 years ago emotional intelligence (EI) was first introduced to the scientific community. In this chapter, we provide a general framework for understanding EI conceptualized as an ability. We start by identifying the origins of the construct rooted in the intelligence literature and the foundational four-branch model of ability EI, then describe the most commonly employed measures of EI as ability, and critically review predictive validity evidence. We further approach current challenges, including the difficulties of scoring answers as “correct” in the emotional sphere, and open a discussion on how to increase the incremental validity of ability EI. We finally suggest new directions by introducing a distinction between a crystallized component of EI, based on knowledge of emotions, and a fluid component, based on the processing of emotion information.

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• Emotional intelligence
• Crystallized EI
• Emotion information processing
• Emotion knowledge

Research in the domains of psychology, education, and organizational behavior in the past 30 years has been characterized by a resurgence of interest for emotions, opening the door to new conceptualizations of intelligence that point to the role of emotions in guiding intelligent thinking (e.g., Bower, 1981 ; Zajonc, 1980 ). Earlier work often raised concern surrounding the compatibility between logic and emotion, and the potential interference of emotion in rational behavior, as they were considered to be in “opposition” (e.g., Lloyd, 1979 ). Research shifted into the study of how cognition and emotional processes could interact to enhance thinking, in which context Salovey and Mayer first introduced the construct of emotional intelligence (EI). Their initial definition described EI as the “ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990 , p. 189).

The definition of EI was heavily influenced by early work focused on describing, defining, and assessing socially competent behavior such as social intelligence (Thorndike, 1920 ). The attempt to understand social intelligence led to further inquiries by theorists such as Gardner ( 1983 ) and Sternberg ( 1988 ), who proposed more inclusive approaches to understanding general intelligence. Gardner’s concepts of intrapersonal intelligence , namely, the ability to know one’s emotions, and interpersonal intelligence, which is the ability to understand other individuals’ emotions and intentions, aided in the development of later models in which EI was originally introduced as a subset of social intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ). Further prehistory to EI involved the investigation of the relation of social intelligence to alexithymia , a clinical construct defined by difficulties recognizing, understanding, and describing emotions (e.g., MacLean, 1949 ; Nemiah, Freyberger, & Sifneos, 1976 ), as well as research examining the ability to recognize facial emotions and expressions (Ekman, Friesen, & Ancoli, 1980 ).

EI was popularized in the 1990s by Daniel Goleman’s ( 1995 ) best-selling book, Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ , as well as through a number of other popular books (e.g., Cooper & Sawaf, 1997 ). However, the lack of empirical evidence available at the time to support the “exciting” statements and claims about the importance of EI in understanding human behavior and individual differences (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998 ) prompted critiques and further investigation into the construct. Major psychological factors such as intelligence, temperament, personality, information processing, and emotional self-regulation have been considered in the conceptualization of EI, leading to a general consensus that EI may be multifaceted and could be studied from different perspectives (Austin, Saklofske, & Egan, 2005 ; Stough, Saklofske, & Parker, 2009 ; Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews, 2008 ).

Two conceptually different approaches dominate the current study of EI: the trait and the ability approach (Petrides & Furnham, 2001 ). The trait approach conceives EI as dispositional tendencies, such as personality traits or self-efficacy beliefs (see Petrides, Sanchez-Ruiz, Siegling, Saklofske, & Mavroveli, Chap. 3 , this volume). This approach is often indicated in the literature as also including “mixed” models, although such models are conceptually distinct from conceptions of EI as personality because they consider EI as a mixture of traits, competences, and abilities (e.g., Bar-On, 2006 ; Goleman, 1998 ). Both the trait approach and the “mixed” models share the same measurement methods of EI, namely, self-report questionnaires. In contrast, the ability approach conceptualizes EI as a cognitive ability based on the processing of emotion information and assesses it with performance tests. The current chapter deals with the latter approach, where we first outline Mayer and Salovey’s ( 1997 ) foundational four-branch ability EI model, then describe commonly used and new measures of EI abilities, critically review evidence of EI’s predictive validity, and finally discuss outstanding challenges, suggesting new directions for the measurement and conceptualization of EI as an ability.

Although not the focus of the present contribution, it should be noted that some attempts to integrate both ability and trait EI perspectives exist in the literature, including the multi-level developmental investment model (Zeidner, Matthews, Roberts, & MacCann, 2003 ) and the tripartite model (Mikolajczak, 2009 ). For example, the tripartite model suggests three levels of EI: (1) knowledge about emotions, (2) ability to apply this knowledge in real-world situations, and (3) traits reflecting the propensity to behave in a certain way in emotional situations (typical behavior). Research and applications on this tripartite model are currently underway (e.g., Laborde, Mosley, Ackermann, Mrsic, & Dosseville, Chap. 11 , this volume; Maillefer, Udayar, Fiori, submitted ). More theory and research is needed to elucidate how the different EI approaches are related with each other. What all of these theoretical frameworks share in common is their conceptualization of EI as a distinct construct from traditional IQ and personality, which facilitates the potential for prediction of, and influence on, various real-life outcomes (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008 ; Petrides, Perez-Gonzalez, & Furnham, 2007 ).

The Four-Branch Ability EI Model

The main characteristic of the ability approach is that EI is conceived as a form of intelligence. It specifies that cognitive processing is implicated in emotions, is related to general intelligence, and therefore ought to be assessed through performance measures that require respondents to perform discrete tasks and solve specific problems (Freeland, Terry, & Rodgers, 2008 ; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 2016 ; Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). The mainstream model of EI as an ability is the four-branch model introduced by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ), which has received wide acknowledgment and use and has been foundational in the development of other EI models and measures. The four-branch model identifies EI as being comprised of a number of mental abilities that allow for the appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotion, as well the integration of these emotion processes with cognitive processes used to promote growth and achievement (Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ; Salovey & Mayer, 1990 ). The model is comprised of four hierarchically linked ability areas, or branches: perceiving emotions, facilitating thought using emotions, understanding emotions, and managing emotions (see Fig. 2.1 ).

The Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) four-branch model of emotional intelligence (EI) abilities

Perceiving emotions (Branch 1) refers to the ability to identify emotions accurately through the attendance, detection, and deciphering of emotional signals in faces, pictures, or voices (Papadogiannis, Logan, & Sitarenios, 2009 ). This ability involves identifying emotions in one’s own physical and psychological states, as well as an awareness of, and sensitivity to, the emotions of others (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ).

Facilitating thought using emotions (Branch 2) involves the integration of emotions to facilitate thought. This occurs through the analysis of, attendance to, or reflection on emotional information, which in turn assists higher-order cognitive activities such as reasoning, problem-solving, decision-making, and consideration of the perspectives of others (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ). Individuals with a strong ability to use emotions would be able to select and prioritize cognitive activities that are most conducive to their current mood state, as well as change their mood to fit the given situation in a way that would foster better contextual adaptation.

Understanding emotions (Branch 3) comprises the ability to comprehend the connections between different emotions and how emotions change over time and situations (Rivers, Brackett, Salovey, & Mayer, 2007 ). This would involve knowledge of emotion language and its utilization to identify slight variations in emotion and describe different combinations of feelings. Individuals stronger in this domain understand the complex and transitional relationships between emotions and can recognize emotional cues learned from previous experiences, thus allowing them to predict expressions in others in the future (Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ). For example, an understanding that a colleague is getting frustrated, through subtle changes in tone or expression, can improve individuals’ communication in relationships and their personal and professional performances.

Finally, managing emotions (Branch 4) refers to the ability to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions successfully. Such ability would entail the capacity to maintain, shift, and cater emotional responses, either positive or negative, to a given situation (Rivers et al., 2007 ). This could be reflected in the maintenance of a positive mood in a challenging situation or curbing elation at a time in which an important decision must be made. Recovering quickly from being angry or generating motivation or encouragement for a friend prior to an important activity are illustrations of high-level emotion management (Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ).

The four EI branches are theorized to be hierarchically organized, with the last two abilities (understanding and management), which involve higher-order (strategic) cognitive processes, building on the first two abilities (perception and facilitation), which involve rapid (experiential) processing of emotion information (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ; Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). It should be noted that the proposed hierarchical structure of the model, as well as its four distinctive branches, have been contradicted. First, developmental evidence suggests that abilities in different EI domains (e.g., perceiving, managing) are acquired in parallel rather than sequentially, through a complex learning process involving a wide range of biological and environmental influences (Zeidner et al., 2003 ). Though this conceptualization supports the notion that lower-level competencies aid in the development of more sophisticated skills, it also identifies ways in which the four EI branches are sometimes developed simultaneously, with lower-level abilities of perceiving, facilitating, understanding, and managing emotions at the same time leading to their later improvement.

The four-branch model has also been challenged through factor analysis in several cases, which did not support a hierarchical model with one underlying global EI factor (Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Rossen, Kranzler, & Algina, 2008 ). Moreover, facilitating thought using emotions (Branch 2) did not emerge as a separate factor and was found to be empirically redundant with the other branches (Fan, Jackson, Yang, Tang, & Zhang, 2010 ; Fiori et al., 2014 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Gignac, 2005 ; Palmer, Gignac, Manocha, & Stough, 2005 ), leading scholars to adopt a revised three-branch model of ability EI, comprised of emotion recognition, emotion understanding, and emotion management (Joseph & Newman, 2010 ; MacCann, Joseph, Newman, & Roberts, 2014 ). Nevertheless, the four branches remain the foundation for current ability EI models, and their description aids in the theoretical understanding of the content domains covered by ability-based perspectives on EI (Mayer et al., 2016 ).

Measurement of EI Abilities

How ability EI is measured is critically important to how the results are interpreted. The fact that ability EI is measured by maximum-performance tests, as is appropriate for a form of intelligence, instead of self-report questionnaires, as is the case for trait EI (see Petrides et al., Chap. 3 , this volume) can, in itself, lead to different results (Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006 ). This is analogous to asking people to provide evidence of their intelligence by utilizing a performance IQ measure versus asking them how high they think their IQ is. Although most individuals have insight with regard to their own abilities, there are those who do not. There are, of course, others who over- or underestimate their intelligence unintentionally or for social desirability purposes, resulting in different scores depending on the format of measurement. Thus, it would be challenging to determine whether the results are attributable to the construct itself or to the assessment methods that are being used (MacCann & Roberts, 2008 ).

Though this example is referring to empirically acknowledged problems with self-report measures in general, reflected in vulnerability to faking, social desirability, and ecological validity (Grubb & McDaniel, 2007 ; Roberts, Zeidner, & Matthews, 2007 ), problems with performance measures of EI that may alter the response outcome also exist. For instance, typical ability EI items require individuals to demonstrate their “ability” to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions by responding to a variety of hypothetical scenarios and visual stimuli, thus deeming the incorrect/correct response format as a method of scoring. Although this may correlate with real-life outcomes, it may not be an accurate representation of EI in real-life social interactions (Vesely, 2011 ; Vesely-Maillefer, 2015 ).

With these considerations in mind , we provide below a short description of the most commonly used as well as some newly developed tests to measure EI abilities.

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test

The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT; Mayer et al., 2002 ; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios, 2003 ) is the corresponding measure of the dominant-to-date four-branch theoretical model of ability EI (Mayer & Salovey, 1997 ). This is a performance-based measure that provides a comprehensive coverage of ability EI by assessing how people perform emotion tasks and solve emotional problems. It assesses the four EI branches with 141 items distributed across eight tasks (two tasks per branch). Perceiving emotions (Branch 1) is assessed with two emotion perception tasks: (1) the faces task involves identifying emotions conveyed through expressions in photographs of people’s faces; and (2) the pictures task involves identifying emotions in pictures of landscapes and abstract art. For both tasks, respondents are asked to rate on a 5-point scale the degree to which five different emotions are expressed in each stimulus. Facilitating thought (Branch 2) is assessed with two tasks: (1) the facilitation task involves evaluating how different moods may facilitate specific cognitive activities; and (2) the sensations task involves comparing emotions to other sensations, such as color, light, and temperature. For both tasks, respondents are asked to indicate which of the different emotions best match the target activity/sensation. Understanding emotions (Branch 3) is assessed with two multiple-choice tests: (1) the changes test involves questions about how emotions connect to certain situations and how emotions may change and develop over time; and (2) the blends test involves questions about how different emotions combine and interact to form new emotions. For both tests, respondents are asked to choose the most appropriate of five possible response options. Managing emotions (Branch 4) is assessed with two situational judgment tests (SJTs) using a series of vignettes depicting real-life social and emotional situations: (1) the emotion management test involves judgments about strategies for regulating the protagonist’s own emotions in each situation; and (2) the emotional relations test involves judgments about strategies for managing emotions within the protagonist’s social relationships. For both tests, respondents are asked to rate the level of effectiveness of several different strategies, ranging from 1 = very ineffective to 5 = very effective.

The MSCEIT assessment yields a total EI score, four-branch scores, and two area scores for experiential EI (Branches 1 and 2 combined) and strategic EI (Branches 3 and 4 combined). Consistent with the view of EI as a cognitive ability , the scoring of item responses follows the correct/incorrect format of an ability-based IQ test while also requiring the individual to be attuned to social norms (Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). The correctness of the MSCEIT responses can be determined in one of two ways: (a) based on congruence with the answers of emotion experts (expert scoring) or (b) based on the proportion of the sample that endorsed the same answer (general consensus scoring) (Mayer et al., 2003 ; Papadogiannis et al., 2009 ; Salovey & Grewal, 2005 ). Mayer et al. ( 2003 ) reported high agreement between the two scoring methods in terms of correct answers ( r  = 0.91) and test scores ( r  = 0.98). The test internal consistency reliability (split half) is r  = 0.91–0.93 for the total EI and r  = 0.76–0.91 for the four-branch scores, with expert scoring producing slightly higher reliability estimates (Mayer et al., 2003 ).

The MSCEIT has been the only test available to measure EI as an ability for a long time, and much of the existing validity evidence on ability EI, which we review in the next section, is based on the MSCEIT, introducing the risk of mono-method bias in research. Although there are other standardized tests that can be used to measure specific EI abilities (described below), the MSCEIT remains the only omnibus test to measure all four branches of the ability EI model in one standardized assessment. Another attractive feature of the MSCEIT is the availability of a matching youth research version (MSCEIT-YRV; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2005 ; Rivers et al., 2012 ), which assesses the same four EI branches using age-appropriate items for children and adolescents (ages 10–17). However, a major barrier to research uses of the MSCEIT and its derivatives is that these tests are sold commercially and scored off-site by the publisher, Multi-Health Systems Inc. Furthermore, the MSCEIT has several well-documented psychometric limitations (Fiori et al., 2014 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Maul, 2012 ; Rossen et al., 2008 ), which have prompted researchers to develop alternative instruments, to generalize findings across assessments , and to create non-commercial alternatives for research.

Tests of Emotion Understanding and Management

Recently, there has been an important advancement in ability EI measurement: the introduction of a second generation of ability EI tests, notably the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) and the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) introduced by MacCann and Roberts ( 2008 ). Both the STEU and the STEM follow the SJT format similar to that used for the managing emotions branch of the MSCEIT, where respondents are presented with short vignettes depicting real-life social and emotional situations (42 on the STEU and 44 on the STEM) and asked to select, among a list of five, which emotion best describes how the protagonist would feel in each situation (STEU) or which course of action would be most effective in managing emotions in each situation (STEM). Correct answers on the STEU are scored according to Roseman’s (2001) appraisal theory (theory-based scoring), and correct answers on the STEM are scored according to the judgments provided by emotion experts (expert scoring). The reliability of the two tests is reported to be between alpha = 0.71 and 0.72 for STEU and between alpha = 0.68 and 0.85 for STEM (Libbrecht & Lievens, 2012 ; MacCann & Roberts, 2008 ). Brief forms of both tests (18–19 items) have also been developed for research contexts where comprehensive assessment of EI is not required (Allen et al., 2015 ). There is also an 11-item youth version of the STEM (STEM-Y; MacCann, Wang, Matthews, & Roberts, 2010 ) adapted for young adolescents. The STEU and STEM items are available free of charge in the American Psychological Association PsycTESTS database (see also https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012746.supp ). These tests look promising, although they have been introduced recently and more research is needed to ascertain their construct and predictive validity (but see Burrus et al., 2012 ; Libbrecht & Lievens, 2012 ; Libbrecht, Lievens, Carette, & Côté, 2014 ).

The text-based format of the SJT items on the STEU, STEM, and MSCEIT raises concerns about their ecological validity, as real-life social encounters require judgments of verbal as well as nonverbal cues . To address this concern, MacCann, Lievens, Libbrecht, and Roberts ( 2016 ) recently developed a multimedia test of emotion management, the 28-item multimedia emotion management assessment (MEMA) , by transforming the original text-based scenarios and response options from the STEM into a video format. MacCann et al.’s ( 2016 ) comparisons of the MEMA with the text-based items from the MSCEIT managing emotions branch produced equivalent evidence of construct and predictive validity for the two tests.

Tests of Emotion Perception

There are several long-existing standardized measures of perceptual accuracy in recognizing emotions, many of which were introduced even before the construct of EI. Therefore, these were not presented as EI tests but do capture the perceiving emotions branch of EI and could be considered as viable alternatives to the MSCEIT. Among the most frequently used of these tests are the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (DANVA ; Nowicki & Duke 1994 ), the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS ; Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Archer, 1979 ), and the Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART ; Matsumoto et al., 2000 ). Like the MSCEIT faces task, these tests involve viewing a series of stimuli portraying another person’s emotion, and the respondent’s task is to correctly identify the emotion expressed. However, unlike the rating-scale format of the MSCEIT faces items, these other tests use a multiple-choice format, where respondents must choose one emotion, from a list of several, that best matches the stimulus. This difference in response format could be one possible reason why performance on the MSCEIT perceiving branch shows weak convergence with these other emotion recognition tests (MacCann et al., 2016 ).

Different emotion recognition tests use different types of stimuli and modalities (e.g., photos of faces, audio recordings) and cover different numbers of target emotions. For example, the DANVA uses 24 photos of male and female facial expressions and 24 audio recordings of male and female vocal expressions of the same neutral sentence (“I am going out of the room now but I’ll be back later”), representing 1 of 4 emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, and fear) in 2 intensities, either weak or strong. The PONS is presented as a test assessing interpersonal sensitivity, or the accuracy in judging other people’s nonverbal cues and affective states. It includes 20 short audio and video segments of a woman for a total length of 47 minutes. The task is to identify which of two emotion situations best describes the woman’s expression. The JACBART uses 56 pictures of Japanese and Caucasian faces expressing 1 of 5 emotions (fear, happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, contempt, and disgust). The interesting feature of this test, in comparison to others, is that it employs a very brief presentation time (200 ms). Each expressive picture is preceded and followed by the neutral version of the same person expressing the emotion in the target picture, so as to reduce post effects of the pictures and get a more spontaneous evaluation of the perceived emotion.

Both the MSCEIT perceiving branch and the earlier emotion recognition tests have been critiqued for their focus on a single modality (i.e., still photos vs. audio recordings), as well as for their restricted range of target emotions (i.e., few basic emotions, only one of them positive), which limits their ecological validity and precludes assessing the ability to differentiate between more nuanced emotion states (Schlegel, Fontaine, & Scherer, 2017 ; Schlegel, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2014 ). The new wave of emotion recognition tests developed at the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences – the Multimodal Emotion Recognition Test (MERT ; Bänziger, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2009 ) and the Geneva Emotion Recognition Test (GERT ; Schlegel et al., 2014 ) – aim to rectify both problems by employing more ecologically valid stimuli, involving dynamic multimodal (vocal plus visual) portrayals of 10 (MERT) to 14 (GERT) different emotions, half of them positive. For example, the GERT consists of 83 videos (1–3 s long) of professional male and female actors expressing 14 emotions (joy, amusement, pride, pleasure, relief, interest, anger, fear, despair, irritation, anxiety, sadness, disgust, and surprise) through facial expressions, nonverbal gestural/postural behavior, and audible pseudo-linguistic phrases that resemble the tone of voice of the spoken language. A short version (GERT-S) is also available with 42 items only (Schlegel & Scherer, 2015 ). The reliability is 0.74 for the long version. The emerging evidence for the construct and predictive validity of the GERT looks promising (Schlegel et al., 2017 ).

Predictive Validity of Ability EI

Among the most researched and debated questions in the ability EI literature is whether ability EI can predict meaningful variance in life outcomes – does ability EI matter? (Antonakis, Ashkanasy, & Dasborough, 2009 ; Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011 ; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008 ). Several studies have shown that ability EI predicts health-related outcomes, including higher satisfaction with life, lower depression, and fewer health issues (Fernández-Berrocal & Extremera, 2016 ; Martins, Ramalho, & Morin, 2010 ). Furthermore, high EI individuals tend to be perceived by others more positively because of their greater social-emotional skills (Fiori, 2015 ; Lopes, Cote, & Salovey, 2006 ) and thus enjoy better interpersonal functioning in the family (Brackett et al., 2005 ), at work (Côte & Miners, 2006 ), and in social relationships (Brackett et al., 2006 ). Ability EI has also been positively implicated in workplace performance and leadership (Côte, Lopes, Salovey, & Miners, 2010 ; O’Boyle, Humphrey, Pollack, Hawver, & Story, 2011 ).

Evidence for ability EI predicting academic success is mixed in post-secondary settings (see Parker, Taylor, Keefer, & Summerfeldt, Chap. 16 , this volume) but more consistent for secondary school outcomes, where ability EI measures have been associated with fewer teacher-rated behavioral and learning problems and higher academic grades (Ivcevic & Brackett, 2014 ; Rivers et al., 2012 ). There is also compelling evidence from over 200 controlled studies of school-based social and emotional learning (SEL) programs, showing that well-executed SEL programs reduce instances of behavioral and emotional problems and produce improvements in students’ academic engagement and grades (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011 ; see also Elias, Nayman, & Duffell, Chap. 12 , this volume). Hoffmann, Ivcevic, and Brackett (Chap. 7 , this volume) describe one notable example of such evidence-based SEL program, the RULER approach , which is directly grounded in the four-branch ability EI model.

Although these results are certainly encouraging regarding the importance of ability EI as a predictor of personal, social, and performance outcomes, there are several important caveats to this conclusion. First, ability EI measures may capture predominantly the knowledge aspects of EI, which can be distinct from the routine application of that knowledge in real-life social-emotional interaction. This disconnect between emotional knowledge and application of knowledge is also supported by the tripartite model of EI mentioned above (Mikolajczak, 2009 ), which separates the ability-based knowledge from trait-based applications within its theory. For example, it posits the possibility that a person with strong cognitive knowledge and verbal ability can describe which emotional expression would be useful in a given situation, but may not be able to select or even display the corresponding emotion in a particular social encounter. Indeed, many other factors, apart from intelligence, contribute to people’s actual behavior, including personality, motives, beliefs, and situational influences.

This leads to the second caveat: whether ability EI is distinct enough from other established constructs, such as personality and IQ, to predict incremental variance in outcomes beyond these well-known variables. Although the overlap of EI measures with known constructs is more evident for trait EI measures (Joseph, Jin, Newman, & O’Boyle, 2015 ), some studies have shown that a substantial amount of variance in ability EI tests, in particular the MSCEIT, was predicted by intelligence, but also by personality traits, especially the trait of agreeableness (Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ). These results suggest that ability EI, as measured with the MSCEIT, pertains not only to the sphere of emotional abilities, as it was originally envisioned, but depends also on one’s personality characteristics, which conflicts with the idea that ability EI should be conceived (and measured) solely as a form of intelligence. Given these overlaps, the contribution of ability EI lowers once personality and IQ are accounted for. For example, the meta-analysis by Joseph and Newman ( 2010 ) showed that ability EI provided significant but rather limited incremental validity in predicting job performance over personality and IQ.

Of course, one may argue that even a small portion of incremental variance that is not accounted for by known constructs is worth the effort. Further and indeed, a more constructive reflection on the role of ability EI in predicting various outcomes refers to understanding why its contributions may have been limited so far. The outcomes predicted by ability EI should be emotion-specific, given that it is deemed to be a form of intelligence that pertains to the emotional sphere. There is no strong rationale for expecting ability EI to predict generic work outcomes such as job performance; for this type of outcome, we already know that IQ and personality account for the most variance. Instead, work-related outcomes that involve the regulation of emotions, such as emotional labor, would be more appropriate. This idea is corroborated by the meta-analytic evidence showing stronger incremental predictive validity of ability EI for jobs high in emotional labor, such as customer service positions (Joseph & Newman, 2010 ; Newman, Joseph, & MacCann, 2010 ).

Another reason why the incremental validity of ability EI measures appears to be rather small may be related to the limits of current EI measures. For example, the MSCEIT has shown to be best suited to discriminate individuals at the low end of the EI ability distribution (Fiori et al., 2014 ). For the other individuals (medium and high in EI), variation in the MSCEIT scores does not seem to reflect true variation in EI ability. Given that most of the evidence on ability EI to date is based on the MSCEIT, it is likely that some incremental validity of ability EI was “lost” due to the limitations of the test utilized to measure it.

Another caveat concerns making inferences about predictive validity of ability EI from the outcomes of EI and SEL programs. Here, the issue is in part complicated by the fact that terms such as “ability” and “competence” are often used interchangeably, but in fact reflect different characteristics, the latter being a trait-like solidification of the former through practice and experience. Many EI programs are in fact meant to build emotional competence, going beyond the mere acquisition of emotional knowledge and working toward the application of that knowledge across different contexts. As such, other processes and factors, apart from direct teaching and learning of EI abilities, likely contribute to positive program outcomes. For example, the most effective school-based SEL programs are those that also modify school and relational environments in ways that would model, reinforce, and provide opportunities for students to practice the newly acquired EI skills in everyday situations (see also Elias et al., Chap. 12 , this volume; Humphrey, Chap. 8 , this volume). Thus, it would be inappropriate to attribute the outcomes of such programs solely to increases in students’ EI abilities, without acknowledging the supportive social and contextual influences.

It is also important to better understand which processes mediate the role of ability EI in improving individuals’ emotional functioning. Social cognitive theories of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997 ) and self-concept (Marsh & Craven, 2006 ) can inform which types of processes might be involved in linking ability to behavioral change. Specifically, successful acquisition and repeated practice of EI skills can build individuals’ sense of confidence in using those skills (i.e., higher perceived EI self-efficacy), which would increase the likelihood of drawing upon those skills in future situations, in turn providing further opportunities to hone the skills and reinforce the sense of self-competence (Keefer, 2015 ). Research on self-efficacy beliefs in one’s ability to regulate emotions supports this view (Alessandri, Vecchione, & Caprara, 2015 ).

Mayer et al. ( 2016 ) cogently summarized the ambivalent nature of predictive validity evidence for ability EI: “the prediction from intelligence to individual instances of “smart” behavior is fraught with complications and weak in any single instance. At the same time, more emotionally intelligent people have outcomes that differ in important ways from those who are less emotionally intelligent” (p. 291). We concur with this conclusion but would treat it as tentative, given that there are several unresolved issues with the way ability EI has been measured and conceptualized, as discussed below. This opens the possibility that EI’s predictive validity would improve once these measurement and theoretical issues have been clarified.

Measurement and Conceptual Issues

Scoring of correct responses.

One of the greatest challenges of operationalizing EI as an ability has been (and still is) how to score a correct answer on an ability EI test. Indeed, in contrast to personality questionnaires in which answers depend on the unrestricted choice of the respondent and any answer is a valid one, ability test responses are deemed correct or wrong based on an external criterion of correctness. Among the most problematic aspects is the identification of such criterion; it is difficult to find the one best way across individuals who may differ with respect to how they feel and manage emotions effectively (Fiori et al., 2014 ). After all, the very essence of being intelligent implies finding the best solution to contextual adaptation given the resources one possesses. For example, one may be aware that, in principle, a good way to deal with a relational conflict is to talk with the other person to clarify the sources of conflict and/or misunderstanding. However, if one knows they and/or their partner are not good at managing interpersonal relationships , one may choose to avoid confrontation as a more effective strategy in the moment, given the personal characteristics of the individuals involved (Fiori et al., 2014 ).

This example evokes another issue that has not been addressed in the literature on ability EI, namely, the potential difference between what response would be more “intelligent” personally versus socially. One may argue that the solution should fill both needs; however, these may be in contradiction. For instance, suppression of one’s own feelings may help to avoid an interpersonal conflict, an action seen as socially adaptive ; however, this same strategy maybe personally unhealthy if the person does not manage their suppressed emotion in other constructive ways. In this case, a more socially unacceptable response that releases emotion may have been more “emotionally intelligent” as it relates to the self but less so as it relates to others. The problematic part is that current measurement tools do not take these nuances into account. This relates also to the lack of distinction in the literature on emotion skills related to the “self” versus “others,” a criticism discussed below.

In addition, “correctness” of an emotional reaction may depend on the time frame within which one intends to pursue a goal that has emotional implications. For example, if a person is focused on the short-term goal of getting one’s way after being treated unfairly by his or her supervisor, the most “effective” way to manage the situation would be to defend one’s position in front of the supervisor regardless of possible ramifications . In contrast, if one is aiming at a more long-term goal, such as to preserve a good relationship with the boss, the person may accept what is perceived as an unfair treatment and try to “let it go” (Fiori et al., 2014 ).

Scholars who have introduced ability EI measures have attempted to address these difficulties by implementing one of these three strategies to find a correct answer: (a) judge whether an answer is correct according to the extent to which it overlaps with the answer provided by the majority of respondents, also called the consensus scoring ; (b) identify correctness according to the choice provided by a pool of emotion experts, or expert scoring ; and (c) identify whether an answer is correct according to the principles of emotion theories, or theoretical scoring . The consensus scoring was introduced by Mayer et al. ( 1999 ) as a scoring option for the MSCEIT, based on the idea that emotions are genetically determined and shared by all human beings and that, for this reason, the answer chosen by the majority of people can be taken as the correct way to experience emotions. Unfortunately, this logic appears profoundly faulty once one realizes that answers chosen by the majority of people are by definition easy to endorse and that tests based on this logic are not challenging enough for individuals with average or above average EI (for a thorough explanation of this measurement issue, see Fiori et al., 2014 ).

Furthermore, what the majority of people say about emotions may simply reflect lay theories, which, although shared by most, can still be incorrect. The ability to spot a fake smile is a good example of this effect. This task is challenging for all but a restricted group of emotion experts (Maul, 2012 ). In this case, the “correct” answer should be modeled on the few that can spot fake emotions, not on the modal answer in the general population. In fact, the emotionally intelligent “prototype” should be among the very few that can spot fake emotions, rather than among the vast majority of people that get them wrong. Thus, from a conceptual point of view, it would make better sense to score test takers’ responses with respect to a group of emotion experts (high EI individuals ), as long as items reflect differences between typical individuals and those that are higher than the norm (Fiori et al., 2014 ). Items for which the opinion of experts is very close to that of common people should be discarded in testing EI abilities, because they would not be difficult enough to discriminate among individuals with different levels of EI.

Finally, scoring grounded in emotion theories offers a valuable alternative, as it allows setting item difficulties and response options in correspondence with theory-informed emotion processes (Schlegel, 2016 ). Some of the recently developed ability EI tests have utilized this approach. For example, response options on the STEM-B (Allen et al., 2015 ) and MEMA (MacCann et al., 2016 ) map onto the various emotion regulation strategies outlined in Gross’ ( 1998 ) process model of emotion regulation. Based on this theory, certain strategies (e.g., positive reappraisal, direct modification) would be more adaptive than others (e.g., emotion suppression, avoidance), and the correct responses on the ability EI items can be set accordingly. However, this too may appear to be a “subjective” criterion because of the differences among theories regarding what is deemed the adaptive way to experience, label, and regulate emotions. For example, suppression is regarded as a deleterious strategy to manage emotions because of its negative long-term effects (Gross, 1998 ). However, evidence suggests (Bonanno, Papa, Lalande, Westphal, & Coifman, 2004 ; Matsumoto et al., 2008 ) that the damaging effect of suppressing emotions may depend on how this strategy fits with the social and cultural contexts, as also discussed earlier in the example of the relational conflict. Moreover, there are systematic differences across cultures in how emotions are to be expressed, understood, and regulated “intelligently” (see Huynh, Oakes, & Grossman, Chap. 5 , this volume), which poses additional challenges for developing an unbiased scoring system for ability EI tests.

Self- vs. Other-Related EI Abilities

Another issue that has not received much attention in the literature and that might explain why ability EI contributions in predicting outcomes are limited refers to the fact that ability EI theorization, in particular Mayer and Salovey’s ( 1997 ) four-branch model, blurs the distinction between emotional abilities that refer to the self with those that refer to others (e.g., perceiving emotions in oneself vs. in others, understanding what one is feeling vs. someone else is feeling, etc.), as if using the abilities for perceiving/understanding/managing emotions in oneself would automatically entail using these abilities successfully with others. However, being good at understanding one’s own emotional reactions does not automatically entail being able to understand others’ emotional reactions (and vice versa). There is some intuitive evidence: some professionals (e.g., emotion experts, psychologists) may be very good at understanding their patients’ emotional reactions, but not as good at understanding their own emotional reactions. Further, scientific evidence also exists : knowledge about the self seems to be processed in a distinctive way compared to social knowledge. For example, brain imaging studies show that taking the self-perspective or the perspective of someone else activates partially different neural mechanisms and brain regions (David et al., 2006 ; Vogeley et al., 2001 ).

The most important implication of considering the two sets of abilities (e.g., employed for oneself or with respect to others) as distinct rather than equivalent is that each of them might predict different outcomes. Recent evidence comes from a program evaluation study of an EI training program for teachers investigating the mechanisms by which EI skills are learned (described in Vesely-Maillefer & Saklofske, Chap. 14 , this volume). Preliminary results showed differential perceived outcomes in self- versus other-related EI skills , dependent on which ones were taught and practiced. Specifically, practice of self-relevant EI skills was the primary focus of the program, and these were perceived to have increased by the program’s end more than the other-related EI skills (Vesely-Maillefer, 2015 ).

It is worth noting that some recently introduced measures of EI make the explicit distinction between the self- and other-oriented domains of abilities. For instance, the Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC; Brasseur, Grégoire, Bourdu, & Mikolajczak, 2013 ) is a trait EI questionnaire that distinguishes between intrapersonal and interpersonal EI competences, and the Genos emotional intelligence test (Gignac, 2008 ) measures awareness and management of emotions in both self and others separately. Additionally, a new ability EI test currently under development at the University of Geneva, the Geneva Emotional Competence Test (Mortillaro & Schlegel), distinguishes between emotion regulation in oneself (emotion regulation) and in others (emotion management). The adoption of these more precise operationalizations of self- and other-related EI abilities would allow collecting “cleaner” validity data for the ability EI construct.

Conscious vs. Automatic Processes

Among the most compelling theoretical challenges EI researchers need to address is to understand the extent to which ability EI depends on conscious versus automatic processes (Fiori, 2009 ). Most ability EI research, if not all, has dealt with the investigation of how individuals thoughtfully reason about their own and others’ emotional experience by consciously feeling, understanding, regulating, and recognizing emotions. However, a large portion of emotional behavior is, in fact, not conscious (Feldman Barrett, Niedenthal, & Winkielman, 2005 ). For example, individuals may process emotional signals, such as nonverbal emotional behavior, without having any hint of conscious perception (Tamietto & de Gelder, 2010 ). Applied to the domain of ability EI, this implies that individuals may be able to use emotions intelligently even without being aware of how they do it and/or without even realizing that they are doing it. Research on cognitive biases in emotional disorders supports this idea: systematic errors in the automatic processing of emotion information have been causally implicated in vulnerability for mood and anxiety disorders (Mathews & MacLeod, 2005 ).

EI scholars need to acknowledge the automaticity component of ability EI, first, because it is theoretically relevant and second, because it might explain additional variance in emotionally intelligent behavior due to subconscious or unconscious processes that have been ignored to date. Some contributions have provided conceptual models (Fiori, 2009 ) and raised theoretical issues (Ybarra, Kross, & Sanchez-Burks, 2014 ) that would help to move forward in this direction. Evidence-based research is the next step and would require scholars to employ experimental paradigms in which the level of emotional consciousness is manipulated in order to observe its effects on emotionally intelligent behavior.

New Developments and Future Directions

The domain of research on ability EI is in its early developmental stage, and there is still much to explore, both on the theoretical and the measurement side. The seminal four-branch model introduced by Mayer and Salovey ( 1997 ) needs to be further developed and refined on the basis of the most recent research findings. As mentioned above, the model of ability EI as composed of four hierarchically related branches underlying a latent global EI factor does not seem to be supported, at least in its original formulation (e.g., Fiori & Antonakis, 2011 ; Rossen et al., 2008 ). On the measurement side, it seems as if progress has been made in terms of introducing new tests to measure specific EI abilities. A further step is to clarify what exactly scores on these tests are measuring and what mechanisms account for test performance. For instance, in the past the possibility was raised that individuals high in EI might be overly sensitive to emotions felt by themselves and by others in a way that could in certain circumstances compromise their health (e.g., Ciarrochi et al., 2002 ) and social effectiveness (Antonakis et al., 2009 ). Recent empirical evidence (Fiori & Ortony, 2016 ) showed that indeed high EI individuals were more strongly affected by incidental anger in forming impressions of an ambiguous target (study 1) and that they amplified the importance of emotion information, which affected their social perception (study 2). This characteristic associated with being high in EI was called “hypersensitivity ,” and it was deemed to have either positive or negative effects depending on the context (Fiori & Ortony, 2016 ).

Further investigation should also clarify which aspects of ability EI may be missing in current measurement and theorization. Ability EI tests, including the second generation, show moderate correlations with measures of intelligence, a finding that supports the conceptualization of EI as a form of intelligence. Interestingly, the component of intelligence most strongly correlated with measures of EI abilities – particularly the strategic branches of understanding and managing – is crystallized intelligence , or g c (Farrelly & Austin, 2007 ; MacCann, 2010 ; Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2006 , 2008 ), which suggests that current tests represent especially the acquired knowledge about emotions people possess. Indeed, items of the STEU and the STEM (as well as most items of the MSCEIT) require respondents to identify the best strategy to cope with emotionally involving situations described in a short vignette or to understand the emotion one would feel in a hypothetical scenario. Individuals may correctly answer such items relying on what they know about emotions, leaving open the question of whether they would be able to apply that knowledge in novel situations. For instance, individuals with Asperger’s syndrome undertaking ability EI training improved their EI scores while still lacking fundamental interpersonal skills (Montgomery, McCrimmon, Schwean, & Saklosfke, 2010 ). All in all, it appears that the STEU and the STEM measure performance in hypothetical situations, rather than actual performance, the former being more dependent on the declarative knowledge individuals possess about emotions (Fiori, 2009 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). Tests employed to measure emotion recognition ability (e.g., JACBART) are not based on hypothetical scenarios but on pictures or videos of individuals showing emotions. Although these tests require the use of perceptual skills – differently from the tests of strategic EI abilities – they still show a significant association with g c  although to a lesser extent (Roberts et al., 2006 ). Indeed, individuals may rely on the knowledge they possess of how emotions are expressed to correctly identify emotions.

At the same time, ability EI measures show little associations with emotion-processing tasks that are more strongly related to the fluid component of intelligence, or g f , such as inspection time and selective attention to emotional stimuli (Farrelly & Austin, 2007 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). For example, Fiori and Antonakis ( 2012 ) examined predictors of performance on a selective attention task requiring participants to ignore distracting emotion information. Results showed that fluid intelligence and the personality trait of openness predicted faster correct answers on the attentional task. Interestingly, none of the ability EI test facets (as measured with the MSCEIT) predicted performance, suggesting that the MSCEIT taps into something different from emotion information processing . Austin ( 2010 ) examined the associations of the STEU and the STEM with inspection time on an emotion perception task and found no relations for the STEM. The STEU scores predicted inspection time only at intermediate and long stimulus durations, but not at very brief exposures requiring rapid processing of the stimuli, suggesting that the STEU captures conscious rather than preconscious emotion information processing. MacCann, Pearce, and Roberts ( 2011 ) looked at the associations of the strategic EI abilities (measured with the STEU and STEM), fluid and crystallized intelligence , and emotion recognition tasks based on processing of visual and auditory emotional stimuli. Their results revealed an ability EI factor distinct from g, but with some subcomponents more strongly related to g f (particularly those involving visual perception of emotional stimuli ) and others to g c (those concerning strategic abilities and the auditory perception of emotional stimuli). This study suggested the presence of potentially distinct subcomponents of fluid and crystallized ability EI, although the authors did not investigate this possibility (MacCann et al., 2011 ).

The association between current ability EI tests and emotion-information processing tasks has not been systematically addressed in the literature and deserves further investigation. In fact, it is expected that high-EI individuals would have wider emotion knowledge but also stronger emotion-processing abilities in dealing with emotional stimuli, both accounting for how individuals perform in emotionally charged situations and each predicting distinct portions of emotionally intelligent behavior. The identification of a component of ability EI that is not (fully) captured by current tests is important because it would reveal an aspect of EI that is not measured (and therefore omitted) in current research. Yet, such a component may be relevant to predicting emotionally intelligent behavior. For example, Ortony, Revelle, and Zinbarg ( 2008 ), in making the case as to why ability EI would need a fluid , experiential component, cite the case of intelligent machines, which, on the basis of algorithmic processes, would be able to perform well on the ability EI test even without being able to experience any emotion. This example highlights the importance of measuring factors associated with emotional experience and the processing of emotion information, beyond emotion knowledge, which would be better captured by bottom-up processes generated by the encoding and treatment of emotion information.

In sum, research suggests that within a broad conceptualization of ability EI as a unique construct, there might be two distinct components : one related to top-down, higher-order reasoning about emotions, depending more strongly on acquired and culture-bound knowledge about emotions, hereafter named the crystallized component of ability EI (EI c , or emotion knowledge ), and another based on bottom-up perceptual responses to emotion information, requiring fast processing and hereafter named the fluid component of ability EI (EI f , or emotion information processing ) (see Fig. 2.2 ).

Conceptualization of ability EI as composed of a fluid (EI f ) and crystallized (EI c ) component, both affected by conscious and automatic emotion processes

An additional way to look at the relationship between the two components underlying ability EI is by considering what might account for such differences, namely, the type of processing (conscious vs. automatic) necessary for ability EI tests. The role automatic processes might play in EI has been approached only recently (Fiori, 2009 ), and it is progressively gaining recognition and interest especially in organizational research (Walter, Cole, & Humphrey, 2011 ; Ybarra et al., 2014 ). With respect to the relationship between a crystallized and a fluid component of ability EI, it is plausible that answers to current ability EI tests strongly rely on conscious reasoning about emotions, whereas performance on emotional tasks, such as inspection time and fast categorization of emotional stimuli, for example, relies more on automatic processing. This may be the case as individuals in the latter tasks provide answers without being fully aware of what drives their responses. Thus, current ability EI tests and emotion information processing tasks may be tapping into different ways of processing emotion information (conscious vs. automatic; see also Fiori, 2009 ). The extent to which current ability EI tests depend on controlled processes and are affected by cognitive load is still unaddressed (Ybarra et al., 2014 ). Given that no task is process pure (Jacoby, 1991 ), both controlled and automatic processes are likely to account for responses in current ability EI tests. However, such tests require great effort and deep reasoning about emotions and thus likely tap mostly into controlled processes.

The most important implication of the engagement of two types of processing in ability EI is that each of them may predict a different type of emotional performance. More specifically, ability EI tests that rely more on emotion knowledge or the crystallized component of EI may be more suited to predict effortful and consciously accessible emotional behavior, whereas tasks meant to “catch the mind in action” (Robinson & Neighbors, 2006 ), such as those based on emotion information processing , may account mostly for spontaneous and unintentional behavior . If this is the case, then current ability EI tests may predict to a greater extent consciously accessible performance and to a lower extent emotionally intelligent behaviors that depend on spontaneous/automatic processing (Fiori, 2009 ; Fiori & Antonakis, 2012 ). The hypothesized relationship is illustrated in Fig. 2.3 .

Hypothesized effects of the fluid (EI f ) and crystallized (EI c ) ability EI components on emotional behavior

The next generation of ability EI tests will hopefully incorporate more recent theoretical advancements related to additional components of EI – such as sub- or unconscious processes or the fluid , emotion-information processing component of EI. Some may ask how the perfect measure would look like. Knowing that EI is a complex construct, it seems unlikely that “one perfect” measure that would capture all the different components of EI is in the near future. It may be more realistic to aim for “several good” measures of EI, each of them capturing key aspects of this construct with satisfactory reliability and validity. Despite some noted theoretical and practical gaps in the current literature on ability EI, the construct of EI is still in its developmental stages. With increasing interest in EI’s potential for real-world applications and its growing literature, this domain of research provides a challenging yet exciting opportunity for innovative researchers.

Change history

31 december 2019.

Chapter 2 of this book has been converted to open access and the copyright holder has been changed to ‘The Author(s)’.The book has also been updated with these changes.

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Fiori, M., Vesely-Maillefer, A.K. (2018). Emotional Intelligence as an Ability: Theory, Challenges, and New Directions. In: Keefer, K., Parker, J., Saklofske, D. (eds) Emotional Intelligence in Education. The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90633-1_2

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REVIEW article

The measurement of emotional intelligence: a critical review of the literature and recommendations for researchers and practitioners.

• 1 School of Management, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
• 2 Clinical Skills Development Service, Metro North Hospital and Health Service, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
• 3 School of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia
• 4 School of Advertising, Marketing and Public Relations, QUT Business School, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

Emotional Intelligence (EI) emerged in the 1990s as an ability based construct analogous to general Intelligence. However, over the past 3 decades two further, conceptually distinct forms of EI have emerged (often termed “trait EI” and “mixed model EI”) along with a large number of psychometric tools designed to measure these forms. Currently more than 30 different widely-used measures of EI have been developed. Although there is some clarity within the EI field regarding the types of EI and their respective measures, those external to the field are faced with a seemingly complex EI literature, overlapping terminology, and multiple published measures. In this paper we seek to provide guidance to researchers and practitioners seeking to utilize EI in their work. We first provide an overview of the different conceptualizations of EI. We then provide a set of recommendations for practitioners and researchers regarding the most appropriate measures of EI for a range of different purposes. We provide guidance both on how to select and use different measures of EI. We conclude with a comprehensive review of the major measures of EI in terms of factor structure, reliability, and validity.

Overview and Purpose

The purpose of this article is to review major, widely-used measures of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and make recommendations regarding their appropriate use. This article is written primarily for academics and practitioners who are not currently experts on EI but who are considering utilizing EI in their research and/or practice. For ease of reading therefore, we begin this article with an introduction to the different types of EI, followed by a brief summary of different measures of EI and their respective facets. We then provide a detailed set of recommendations for researchers and practitioners. Recommendations focus primarily on choosing between EI constructs (ability EI, trait EI, mixed models) as well as choosing between specific tests. We take into account such factors as test length, number of facets measured and whether tests are freely available. Consequently we also provide recommendations both for users willing to purchase tests and those preferring to utilize freely available measures.

In our detailed literature review, we focus on a set of widely used measures and summarize evidence for their validity, reliability, and conceptual basis. Our review includes studies that focus purely on psychometric properties of EI measures as well as studies conducted within applied settings, particularly health care settings. We include comprehensive tables summarizing key empirical studies on each measure, in terms of their research design and main findings. Our review includes measures that are academic and/or commercial as well as those that are freely available or require payment. To assist users with accessing measures, we include web links to complete EI questionaries for freely available measures and to websites and/or example items for copyrighted measures. For readers interested in reviews relating primarily to EI constructs, theory and outcomes rather than specifically measures of EI, we recommend a number of recent high quality publications (e.g., Kun and Demetrovics, 2010 ; Gutiérrez-Cobo et al., 2016 ). Additionally, for readers interested in a review of measures without the extensive recommendations we provide here, we recommend the chapter by Siegling et al. (2015) .

Early Research on Emotional Intelligence

EI emerged as a major psychological construct in the early 1990s, where it was conceptualized as a set of abilities largely analogous to general intelligence. Early influential work on EI was conducted by Salovey and Mayer (1990) , who defined EI as the “the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions” (p. 189). They argued that individuals high in EI had certain emotional abilities and skills related to appraising and regulating emotions in the self and others. Accordingly, it was argued that individuals high in EI could accurately perceive certain emotions in themselves and others (e.g., anger, sadness) and also regulate emotions in themselves and others in order to achieve a range of adaptive outcomes or emotional states (e.g., motivation, creative thinking).

However, despite having a clear definition and conceptual basis, early research on EI was characterized by the development of multiple measures (e.g., Bar-On, 1997a , b ; Schutte et al., 1998 ; Mayer et al., 1999 ) with varying degrees of similarity (see Van Rooy et al., 2005 ). One cause of this proliferation was the commercial opportunities such tests offered to developers and the difficulties faced by researchers seeking to obtain copyrighted measures (see section Mixed EI for a summary of commercial measures). A further cause of this proliferation was the difficulty researchers faced in developing measures with good psychometric properties. A comprehensive discussion of this issue is beyond the scope of this article (see Petrides, 2011 for more details) however one clear challenge faced by early EI test developers was constructing emotion-focused questions that could be scored with objective criteria. In comparison to measures of cognitive ability that have objectively right/wrong answers (e.g., mathematical problems), items designed to measure emotional abilities often rely on expert judgment to define correct answers which is problematic for multiple reasons ( Roberts et al., 2001 ; Maul, 2012 ).

A further characteristic of many early measures was their failure to discriminate between measures of typical and maximal performance. In particular, some test developers moved away from pure ability based questions and utilized self-report questions (i.e., questions asking participants to rate behavioral tendencies and/or abilities rather than objectively assessing their abilities; e.g., Schutte et al., 1998 ). Other measures utilized broader definitions of EI that included social effectiveness in addition to typical EI facets (see Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005 ) (e.g., Boyatzis et al., 2000 ; Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ). Over time it became clear that these different measures were tapping into related, yet distinct underlying constructs. Currently, there are two popular methods of classifying EI measures. First is the distinction between trait and ability EI proposed initially by Petrides and Furnham (2000) and further clarified by Pérez et al. (2005) . Second is in terms of the three EI “streams” as proposed by Ashkanasy and Daus (2005) . Fortunately there is overlap between these two methods of classification as we discuss below.

Methods of Classifying EI

The distinction between ability EI and trait EI first proposed by Petrides and Furnham (2000) was based purely on whether the measure was a test of maximal performance (ability EI) or a self-report questionnaire (trait EI) ( Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ; Pérez et al., 2005 ). According to this method of classification, Ability EI tests measure constructs related to an individual's theoretical understanding of emotions and emotional functioning, whereas trait EI questionnaires measure typical behaviors in emotion-relevant situations (e.g., when an individual is confronted with stress or an upset friend) as well as self-rated abilities. Importantly, the key aspect of this method of classification is that EI type is best defined by method of measurement: all EI measures that are based on self-report items are termed “trait EI” whereas all measures that are based on maximal performance items are termed “ability EI”.

The second popular method of classifying EI measures refers the three EI “streams” ( Ashkanasy and Daus, 2005 ). According to this method of classification, stream 1 includes ability measures based on Mayer and Salovey's model; stream 2 includes self-report measures based on Mayer and Salovey's model and stream 3 includes “expanded models of emotional intelligence that encompass components not included in Salovey and Mayer's definition” (p. 443). Ashkanasy and Daus (2005) noted that stream 3 had also been referred to as “mixed” models in that they comprise a mixture of personality and behavioral items. The term “mixed EI” is now frequently used in the literature to refer to EI measures that measure a combination of traits, social skills and competencies and overlaps with other personality measures ( O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

Prior to moving on, we note that Petrides and Furnham's (2000 ) trait vs. ability distinction is sufficient to categorize the vast majority of EI tests. Utilizing this system, both stream 2 (self-report) and stream 3 (self-report mixed) are simply classified as “trait” measures. Indeed as argued by Pérez et al. (2005) , this method of classification is probably sufficient given that self-report measures of EI tend to correlate strongly regardless of whether they are stream 2 or stream 3 measures. However, given that the terms “stream 3” and “mixed” are so extensively used in the EI literature, we will also use them here. We are not proposing that these terms are ideal or even useful when classifying EI, but rather we wish to adopt language that is most representative of the existing literature on EI. In the following section therefore, we refer to ability EI (stream 1), trait EI (steam 2), and mixed EI (stream 3). As outlined later, decisions regarding which measure of EI to use should be based on what form of EI is relevant to a particular research project or professional application.

For the purposes of this review, we refer to “ability” based measures as tests that utilize questions/items comparable to those found in IQ tests (see Austin, 2010 ). These include all tests containing ability-type items and not only those based directly on Mayer and Salovey's model. In contrast to trait based measures, ability measures do not require that participants self-report on various statements, but rather require that participants solve emotion-related problems that have answers that are deemed to be correct or incorrect (e.g., what emotion might someone feel prior to a job interview? (a) sadness, (b) excitement, (c) nervousness, (d) all of the above). Ability based measures give a good indication of individuals' ability to understand emotions and how they work. However since they are tests of maximal ability, they do not tend to predict typical behavior as well as trait based measures (see O'Connor et al., 2017 ). Nevertheless, ability-based measures are valid, albeit weak, predictors of a range of outcomes including work related attitudes such as job satisfaction ( Miao et al., 2017 ), and job performance ( O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

In this review, we define trait based measures as those that utilize self-report items to measure overall EI and its sub dimensions. We utilize this term for measures that are self-report, and have not explicitly been termed as “mixed” or “stream 3” by others. Individuals high in various measures of trait EI have been found to have high levels of self-efficacy regarding emotion-related behaviors and tend to be competent at managing and regulating emotions in themselves and others. Also, since trait EI measures tend to measure typical behavior rather than maximal performance, they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviors in a range of situations ( Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ). Recent meta-analyses have linked trait EI to a range of work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organization commitment ( Miao et al., 2017 ), Job Performance ( O'Boyle et al., 2011 ).

As noted earlier, although the majority of EI measures can be categorized using the terms “ability EI” and “trait EI”, we adopt the term “mixed EI” in this review when this term has been explicitly used in our source articles. The term mixed EI is predominately used to refer to questionnaires that measure a combination of traits, social skills and competencies that overlap with other personality measures. Generally these measures are self-report, however a number also utilize 360 degree forms of assessment (self-report combined with multiple peer reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates) (e.g., Bar-On, 1997a , b ) This is particularly true for commercial measures designed to predict and improve performance in the workplace. A common aspect in many of these measures is the focus on emotional “competencies” which can theoretically be developed in individuals to enhance their professional success (See Goleman, 1995 ). Research on mixed measures have found them to be valid predictors of multiple emotion-related outcomes including job satisfaction, organizational commitment ( Miao et al., 2017 ), and job performance ( O'Boyle et al., 2011 ). Effect sizes of these relationships tend to be moderate and on par with trait-based measures.

We note that although different forms of EI have emerged (trait, ability, mixed) there are nevertheless a number of conceptual similarities in the majority of measures. In particular, the majority of EI measures are regarded as hierarchical meaning that they produce a total “EI score” for test takers along with scores on multiple facets/subscales. Additionally, the facets in ability, trait and mixed measures of EI have numerous conceptual overlaps. This is largely due to the early influential work of Mayer and Salovey. In particular, the majority of measures include facets relating to (1) perceiving emotions (in self and others), (2) regulating emotions in self, (3) regulating emotions in others, and (4) strategically utilizing emotions. Where relevant therefore, this article will compare how well different measures of EI assess the various facets common to multiple EI measures.

Emotional Intelligence Scales

The following emotional intelligence scales were selected to be reviewed in this article because they are all widely researched general measures of EI that also measure several of the major facets common to EI measures (perceiving emotions, regulating emotions, utilizing emotions).

1. Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Tests (MSCEIT) ( Mayer et al., 2002a , b ).

2. Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT) ( Schutte et al., 1998 )

3. Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) ( Petrides and Furnham, 2001 )

4. Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) ( Bar-On, 1997a , b )

5. i) The Situational Test of Emotional Management (STEM) ( MacCann and Roberts, 2008 )

ii) The Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU) ( MacCann and Roberts, 2008 )

6. Emotional and Social competence Inventory (ESCI) ( Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 )

The complete literature review of these measures is included in the Literature Review section of this article. The following section provides a set of recommendations regarding which of these measures is appropriate to use across various research and applied scenarios.

Recommendations Regarding the Appropriate Use of Measures

Deciding between measuring trait ei, ability ei and mixed ei.

A key decision researchers/practitioners need to make prior to incorporating EI measures into their work is whether they should utilize a trait, ability or mixed measure of EI. In general, we suggest that when researchers/practitioners are interested in emotional abilities and competencies then they should utilize measures of ability EI. In particular ability EI is important in situations where a good theoretical understanding of emotions is required. For example a manager high in ability EI is more likely to make good decisions regarding team composition. Indeed numerous studies on ability EI and decision making in professionals indicates that those high in EI tend to be competent decision makers, problem solvers and negotiators due primarily to their enhanced abilities at perceiving and understanding emotions (see Mayer et al., 2008 ). More generally, ability EI research also has demonstrated associations between ability EI and social competence in children ( Schultz et al., 2004 ) and adults ( Brackett et al., 2006 ).

We suggest that researchers/practitioners should select trait measures of EI when they are interested in measuring behavioral tendencies and/or emotional self-efficacy. This should be when ongoing, typical behavior is likely to lead to positive outcomes, rather than intermittent, maximal performance. For example, research on task-induced stress (i.e., temporary states of negative affect evoked by short term, challenging tasks) has shown trait EI to have incremental validity over other predictors ( O'Connor et al., 2017 ). More generally, research tends to show that trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles in response to life stressors (e.g., Austin et al., 2010 ). Overall, trait EI is associated with a broad set of emotion and social related outcomes adults and children ( Mavroveli and Sánchez-Ruiz, 2011 ; Petrides et al., 2016 ) Therefore in situations characterized by ongoing stressors such as educational contexts and employment, we suggest that trait measures be used.

When both abilities and traits are important, researchers/practitioners might choose to use both ability and trait measures. Indeed some research demonstrates that both forms of EI are important stress buffers and that they exert their protective effects at different stages of the coping process: ability EI aids in the selection of coping strategies whereas trait EI predicts the implementation of such strategies once selected ( Davis and Humphrey, 2014 ).

Finally, when researchers/practitioners are interested in a broader set of emotion-related and social-related dispositions and competencies we recommend a mixed measure. Mixed measures are particularly appropriate in the context of the workplace. This seems to be the case for two reasons: first, the tendency to frame EI as a set of competencies that can be trained (e.g., Goleman, 1995 ; Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ) is likely to equip workers with a positive growth mindset regarding their EI. Second, the emphasis on 360 degree forms of assessment in mixed measures provides individuals with information not only on their self-perceptions, but on how others perceive them which is also particularly useful in training situations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Trait and Ability EI

There are numerous advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of EI that test users should factor into their decision. One disadvantage of self-report measures is that people are not always good judges of their emotion-related abilities and tendencies ( Brackett et al., 2006 ; Sheldon et al., 2014 ; Boyatzis, 2018 ). A further disadvantage of self-report, trait based measures is their susceptibility to faking. Participants can easily come across as high in EI by answering questions in a strategic, socially desirable way. However, this is usually only an issue when test-takers believe that someone of importance (e.g., a supervisor or potential employer) will have access to their results. When it is for self-development or research, individuals are less likely to fake their answers to trait EI measures (see Tett et al., 2012 ). We also note that the theoretical bases of trait and mixed measures have also been questioned. Some have argued for example that self-report measures of EI measure nothing fundamentally different from the Big Five (e.g., Davies et al., 1998 ). We will not address this issue here as it has been extensively discussed elsewhere (e.g., Bucich and MacCann, 2019 ) however we emphasize that regardless of the statistical distinctiveness of self-report measures of EI, there is little question regarding their utility and predictive validity ( O'Boyle et al., 2011 ; Miao et al., 2017 ).

One advantage of ability based measures is that they cannot be faked. Test-takers are told to give the answer they believe is correct, and consequently should try to obtain a score as high as possible. A further advantage is that they are often more engaging tests. Rather than simply rating agreement with statements as in trait based measures, test-takers attempt to solve emotion-related problems, solve puzzles, and rate emotions in pictures.

Overall however, there are a number of fundamental problems with ability based measures. First, many personality and intelligence theorists question the very existence of ability EI, and suggest it is nothing more than intelligence. This claim is supported by high correlations between ability EI and IQ, although some have provided evidence to the contrary (e.g., MacCann et al., 2014 ). Additionally, the common measures of ability EI tend to have relatively poor psychometric properties in terms of reliability and validity. Ability EI measures do not tend to strongly predict outcomes that they theoretically should predict (e.g., O'Boyle et al., 2011 ; Miao et al., 2017 ). Maul (2012) also outlines a comprehensive set of problems with the most widely used ability measure, the MSCEIT, related to consensus-based scoring, reliability, and underrepresentation of the EI construct. Also see Petrides (2011) for a comprehensive critique of ability measures.

General Recommendation for Non-experts Choosing Between Ability and Trait EI

While the distinction between trait, ability and mixed EI is important, we acknowledge that many readers will simply be looking for an overall measure of emotional functioning that can predict personal and professional effectiveness. Therefore, when potential users have no overt preference for trait or ability measures but need to decide, we strongly recommend researchers/ practitioners begin with a trait-based measure of EI . Compared to ability based measures, trait based measures tend to have very good psychometric properties, do not have questionable theoretical bases and correlate moderately and meaningfully with a broad set of outcome variables. In general, we believe that trait based measures are more appropriate for most purposes than ability based measures. That being said, several adequate measures of ability EI exist and these have been reviewed in the Literature Review section. If there is a strong preference to use ability measures of EI then several good options exist as outlined later.

Choosing a Specific Measure of Trait EI

Based on our literature review we suggest that a very good, comprehensive measure of trait EI is the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, or TEIQue ( Petrides and Furnham, 2001 ). If users are not restricted by time or costs (commercial users need to pay, researchers do not) then the TEIQue is a very good option. The TEIQue is a widely used questionnaire that measures 4 factors and 15 facets of trait EI. It has been cited in more than 2,000 academic studies. It is regarded as a “trait” measure of EI because it is based entirely on self-report responses, and facet scores represent typical behavior rather than maximal performance. There is extensive evidence in support of its reliability and validity ( Andrei et al., 2016 ). The four factors of the TEIQue map on to the broad EI facets present in multiple measures of EI as follows: emotionality = perceiving emotions, self-control = regulating emotions in self, sociability = regulating emotions in others, well-being = strategically utilizing emotions.

One disadvantage of the TEIQue however is that it is not freely available for commercial use. The website states that commercial or quasi-commercial use without permission is prohibited. The test can nevertheless be commercially used for a relatively small fee. The relevant webpage can be found here ( http://psychometriclab.com/ ). A second disadvantage is that the test can be fairly easily faked due to its use of a self-report response scale. However, this is generally only an issue when individuals have a reason for faking (e.g., their score will be seen by someone else and might impact their prospects of being selected for a job) (see Tett et al., 2012 ). Consequently, we do not recommend the TEIQue to be used for personnel selection, but it is relevant for other professional purposes such as in EI training and executive coaching.

There are very few free measures of trait EI that have been adequately investigated. One exception is the widely used, freely available measure termed the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT, Schutte et al., 1998 ). The SREIT has been cited more than 3,000 times. The full paper which includes all test items can be accessed here ( https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247166550_Development_and_Validation_of_a_Measure_of_Emotional_Intelligence ). Although it was designed to measure overall EI, subsequent research indicates that it performs better as a multidimensional scale measuring 4 distinct factors including: optimism/mood regulation, appraisal of emotions, social skills and utilization of emotions. These four scales again map closely to the broad facets present in many EI instruments as follows: optimism/mood regulation = regulating emotions in self, appraisal of emotions = perceiving emotions in self, social skills = regulating emotions in others, and utilization of emotions = strategically utilizing emotions. Please note that although one study has comprehensively critiqued the SREIT ( Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ), it actually works well as a multidimensional measure. This was acknowledged by the authors of the critique and has been subsequently confirmed (e.g., by O'Connor and Athota, 2013 ).

Long vs. Short Measures of Trait EI

The TEIQue is available in long form (153 items, 15 facets, 4 factors) and short form (30 items, 4 factors/subscales). A complete description of all factors and facets can be found here ( http://www.psychometriclab.com/adminsdata/files/TEIQue%20interpretations.pdf ). We recommend using the short form when users are interested in measuring only the 4 broad EI factors measured by this questionnaire (self-control, well-being, sociability, emotionality). Additionally, there is much more research on the short form of the questionnaire (e.g., Cooper and Petrides, 2010 ) (see Table 5 ), and the scoring instructions for the short form are freely available for researchers. If the short form is used, it is recommended that all factors/subscales are utilized because they predict outcomes in different ways (e.g., O'Connor and Brown, 2016 ). The SREIT is available only as a short, 33 item measure. All subscales are regarded as equally important and should be included if possible. Again it is noted that this test is freely available and the article publishing the items specifically states “Note: the authors permit free use of the scale for research and clinical purposes.”

When users require a comprehensive measure of trait EI, the long form of the TEIQue is also a good option (see Table 5 ). Although not as widely researched as the short version, the long version nevertheless has strong empirical support for reliability and validity. The long form is likely to be particularly useful for coaching and training purposes, because the use of 15 narrow facets allows for more focused training and intervention than measures with fewer broad facets/factors.

Choosing Between Measures of Ability EI

The most researched and supported measure of ability EI is the Mayer, Salovey, Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) (see Tables 2 , 3 ). It has been cited in more than 1,500 academic studies. It uses a 4 branch approach to ability EI and measures ability dimensions of perceiving emotions, facilitating thought, understanding emotions and managing emotions. These scales broadly map onto the broad constructs present in many measures of EI as follows: facilitating thought = strategically utilizing emotions, perceiving emotions = perceiving emotions in self and others, understanding emotions = understanding emotions, and managing emotions = regulating emotions in self and others. However, this is a highly commercialized test and relatively expensive to use. The test is also relatively long (141 items) and time consuming to complete (30–45 min).

A second, potentially more practical option includes two related tests of ability EI designed by MacCann and Roberts (2008) (see Tables 2 , 7 ). These tests are called the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (the STEU). These tests are becoming increasingly used in academic articles; the original paper has now been cited more than 250 times. The two aspects of ability EI measured in these tests map neatly onto two of the broad EI constructs present in multiple measures of EI. Specifically, the STEM can be regarded as a measure of emotional regulation in oneself and the STEU can be regarded as a measure of emotional understanding. As indicated in Table 7 , there is strong psychometric support for these tests (although the alpha for STEU is sometimes borderline/low). A further advantage of STEU is that it contains several items regarding workplace behavior, making it highly applicable for use in professional contexts.

If researchers/practitioners decide to use the STEM and STEU, additional measures might be required to measure the remaining broad EI constructs present in other tests. Although these measures could all come from relevant scales of tests reviewed in this article (see Table 1 ), there is a further option. Users should consider the Diagnostic Analysis of Non-verbal Accuracy scale (DANVA) which is a widely used, validated measure of perceiving emotion in others (see Nowicki and Duke, 1994 for an introduction to the DANVA). Alternatively, for those open to using a combination of ability and trait measures, users might wish to use Schutte et al.'s (1998) SREIT to assess remaining facets of EI (see Table 4 ). This is because it is free and captures aspects of EI not measured by STEM/STEU. These include appraisal of emotions (for perceiving emotions) and utilization of emotions (for strategically utilizing emotions), respectively.

Table 1 . Summary of recommended emotional intelligence assessment measures for each broad EI construct.

Therefore, if there is a strong preference to utilize ability based measures, the STEM, STEU, and DANVA represent some very good options worth considering. The advantage of using these over the MSCEIT is the lower cost of these measures and the reduced test time. Although the STEM, STEU, and DANVA do not seem to be freely available for commercial use, they are nevertheless appropriate for commercial use and likely to be cheaper than alternative options at this point in time.

Deciding Between Using a Single Measure or Multiple Measures

When seeking to measure EI, researchers/practitioners could choose to use (1) a single EI tool that measures overall EI along with common EI facets (i.e., perceiving emotions in self and others, regulating emotions in self and others and strategically utilizing emotions) or (2) some combination of existing scales from EI tool/s to cumulatively measure the four constructs.

The first option represents the most pragmatic and generally optimal solution because all information about the relevant facets and related measures would usually be located in a single document (e.g., test manual, journal article) or website. Additionally, if a paid test is used it would only require a single payment to a single author/institution. Furthermore, single EI tools are generally based on theoretical models of EI that have implications for training and development. For example EI facets in Goleman's (1995 ) model (as measured using the ESCI, Boyatzis and Goleman, 2007 ) are regarded as characteristics that can be trained. Therefore, if a single EI tool is selected, the theory underlying the tool could be used to model the interventions.

However, a disadvantage of the first option is that some EI measures will not contain the specific set of EI constructs researchers/practitioners are interested in assessing. This will often be the case when practitioners are seeking a comprehensive measure of EI but prefer a freely available measure. The second option specified above would solve this problem. However, the trade-off would be increased complexity and the absence of a single underlying theory that relates to the selected measures. Tables 2 – 8 describe facets within each measure as well as reliability and validity evidence for each facet and can be used to assist the selection of multiple measures if users choose to do this.

Table 2 . Summary of major emotional Intelligence assessment measures.

Table 3 . Review of selected studies detailing psychometric properties of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT).

Table 4 . Review of selected studies detailing psychometric properties of the Self-report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT).

Table 5 . Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue).

Table 6 . Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) ( Bar-On, 1997a , b ).

Table 7 . Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the STEU and STEM.

Table 8 . Review of selected studies on psychometric properties of the Emotional and Social competence Inventory (ESCI).

The Best Measure of Each Broad EI Construct (Evaluated Across all Reviewed Tests)

In some cases, researchers/practitioners will not need to measure overall EI, but instead seek to measure a single dimension of EI (e.g., emotion perception, emotion management etc.). In general, we caution the selective use of individual EI scales and recommend that users habitually measure and control for EI facets they are not directly interested in. Nevertheless, we acknowledge that in some cases users will have to select a single measure and consequently, this section specifies a selection of what we consider the “best” measures for each construct. We do this for both free measures and those requiring payment. In order to determine which measure constitutes the “best” measure for each construct, the following criteria were applied:

1. The measure should have been used in multiple research studies published in high quality journals.

2. There should be good evidence for the reliability of the measure in multiple academic studies incorporating the measure.

3. The measure should have obtained adequate validity evidence in multiple academic studies. Most importantly, evidence of construct validity should have been established, including findings demonstrating that the measure correlates meaningfully with measures of related constructs.

4. The measure should be based on a strong and well-supported theory of EI.

5. The measure should be practical (i.e., easy to administer, quickly completed and scored).

Where multiple measures met the above criteria, they were compared on their performance on each criterion (i.e., a measure with a lot of research scored higher on the first criteria than a measure with a medium level of research). Table 1 summarizes these results.

Please note that the Emotional and Social Intelligence Inventory (ESCI) by Boyatzis and Goleman (2007) has subscales that are also closely related to the ones listed in Table 1 (see full technical manual here ( http://www.eiconsortium.org/pdf/ESCI_user_guide.pdf ). The measure was developed primarily to predict and enhance performance at work and items are generally written to reflect workplace scenarios. Subscales from this test were not consistently chosen as the “best” measures because it has not had as extensive published research as the other tests. Most research using this measure has also used peer-ratings rather than self-ratings which makes it difficult to compare with the majority of measures (this is not a weakness though). Nevertheless, it should be considered if cost is not an issue and there is a strong desire to utilize a test specifically developed for the workplace.

Qualifications and Training

Although our purpose in this paper is not to outline the necessary training or qualifications required to administer the set of tests/questionnaires reviewed, we feel it is important to make some comments on this. First, we recommend that all researchers and practitioners considering using one more of these tests have a good understanding of the principles of psychological assessment. Users should understand the concepts of reliability, validity and the role of norms in psychological testing. There are many good introductory texts in this area (e.g., Kaplan and Saccuzzo, 2017 ). Furthermore, we recommend users have a good understanding of the limitations of psychological testing and assessment. When using EI measures to evaluate suitability of job applicants, these measures should form only part of the assessment process and should not be regarded as comprehensive information about applicants. Finally, some of the tests outlined in this review require specific certification and/or qualifications. Certification and/or qualification is required for administrators of the ESCI, MSCEIT, and EQi 2.0).

Literature Review

The final section of this article is a literature review of the 6 popular measures we have covered. We have included our review at the end of this article because we regard it as optional reading. We suggest that this section will be useful primarily for those seeking a more in depth understanding of the key studies underlying the various measures we have presented in earlier sections.

This literature review had two related aims; first to identify prominent EI measures used in the literature, as well as specifically in applied (e.g., health care) contexts. The emotional intelligence measures we included were those that measured both overall EI as well as more specific EI constructs common to multiple measures (e.g., those related to perceiving emotions in self and others, regulating emotions in self and others and strategically utilizing emotions). The second aim was to identify individual studies that have explored the validity and reliability of the specific emotional intelligence measures identified.

Inclusion Criteria

Four main inclusion criteria were applied to select literature: (a) focus on adult samples, (b) use of reputable, peer-reviewed journal articles, (c) use of an EI scale, and (d) where possible, use of a professional sample (e.g., health care professionals) rather than primarily student samples. The literature search therefore focused on empirical, quantitative investigations published in peer-reviewed journals. The articles reviewed therefore were generally methodologically sound and enabled a thorough analysis of some aspect of reliability or validity. We only reviewed articles published after 1990. Additionally, only papers in English were reviewed.

Papers were identified by conducting searches in the following electronic databases: PsycINFO, Medline, PubMED, CINAHL (Cumulative Index for Nursing and Allied Health Literature), EBSCO host and Google Scholar. Individual journals were also scanned such as The Journal of Nursing Measurement and Psychological Assessment.

Search Terms

When searching for emotional intelligence scales and related literature, search terms included: trait emotional intelligence, ability emotional intelligence, emotional intelligence scales, mixed emotional intelligence and emotional intelligence measures. Some common EI facet titles (e.g., self-awareness, self-regulation/self-management, social awareness, and relationship management) were also entered as search terms however this revealed far less relevant literature than searches based on EI terms. To access studies using professionals we also used terms such as workplace, healthcare, and nursing, along with emotional intelligence.

When searching for literature on the identified scales, the name of the respective scale was included in the search term (such as TEIQue scale) and the authors' names, along with terms such as workplace, organization, health care, nurses, health care professionals, to identify specific studies with a professional employee sample that utilized the specific scale. The terms validity and reliability were also used. Additionally, a similar search was conducted on articles that had cited the original papers. This search was done conducted utilizing Google Scholar. Table 2 summarizes the result of the first part of the literature review. It provides an overview of major Emotional Intelligence assessment measures, in terms of when they were developed, who developed them, what form of EI they measure, theoretical basis, test length and details regarding cost.

Tables 3 – 8 summarize research on the validity and reliability of the 6 tests included in Table 2 . In these tables we summarize the methodology used in major studies assessing reliability and validity as well as the results from these studies.

Collectively, these tables indicate that all 6 of the measures we reviewed have received some support for their reliability and validity. Measures with extensive research include the MSCEIT, SREIT, and TEIQue, and EQ-I and those with less total research are the STEU/STEM and ESCI. Existing research does not indicate that these latter measures are any less valid or reliable that the others; on the contrary they are promising measures but require further tests of reliability and validity. As noted previously, this table confirms that the tests with the strongest current evidence for construct and predictive validity are the self-report/trait EI measures (TEIQue, EQ-I, and SREIT). We note that although there is evidence for construct validity of the SREIT based on associations with theoretically related constructs (e.g., alexithymia, optimism; see Table 4 ), some have suggested the measure is problematic due to its use of self-report questions that primarily measure ability based constructs (see Petrides and Furnham, 2000 ).

In this article we have reviewed six widely used measures of EI and made recommendations regarding their appropriate use. This article was written primarily for researchers and practitioners who are not currently experts on EI and therefore we also clarified the difference between ability EI, trait EI and mixed EI. Overall, we recommend that users should use single, complete tests where possible and choose measures of EI most suitable for their purpose (i.e., choose ability EI when maximal performance is important and trait EI when typical performance is important). We also point out that, across the majority of emotion-related outcomes, trait EI tends to be a stronger predictor and consequently we suggest that new users of EI consider using a trait-based measure before assessing alternatives. The exception is in employment contexts where tests utilizing 360 degree assessment (primarily mixed measures) can also be very useful.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

The QUT library funded the article processing charges for this paper.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: emotional intelligence, measures, questionnaires, trait, ability, mixed, recommendations

Citation: O'Connor PJ, Hill A, Kaya M and Martin B (2019) The Measurement of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners. Front. Psychol. 10:1116. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01116

Received: 05 October 2018; Accepted: 29 April 2019; Published: 28 May 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 O'Connor, Hill, Kaya and Martin. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Peter J. O'Connor, peter.oconnor@qut.edu.au

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The Theories of Emotional Intelligence Explained

Despite the fact that theories of emotional intelligence only really came about in 1990, much has been written about this topic since then.

It has been argued by some people that EQ, the ‘ emotion quotient ’, is even more important than the somewhat less controversial ‘ intelligence quotient ’ or IQ.

Why bother studying EQ? Well, can you imagine a world in which you didn’t understand any of your feelings? Or where you couldn’t perceive that another person was angry with you by the ferocious look on their face? It would be a nightmare!

Emotional intelligence is everywhere we look, and without it, we would be devoid of a key part of the human experience.

This article aims to share theories of emotional intelligence, and the 5 components of emotional intelligence will be discussed.

It is also hoped that some of your questions about emotional intelligence, such as “does emotional intelligence involve specific competencies?” and “is emotional intelligence linked to personality traits?” will be answered. Please enjoy!

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and regulate your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What are the 5 components of emotional intelligence, models and frameworks of the emotional intelligence concept, research on eq characteristics, does ei involve specific competencies, is ei linked to personality traits, a closer look at ei and personality, different types of emotional intelligence, dimensions of the concept, 12 recommended research articles and papers on ei, key topics in emotional intelligence research, are there gender differences in emotional intelligence, role of eq in self-awareness, the yale center for emotional intelligence, emotional intelligence and the brain: advancements in neuroscience, a take-home message.

What is meant when we refer to emotional intelligence? Well, let’s begin with a look at ‘intelligence’. Intelligence refers to the unique human mental ability to handle and reason about information (Mayer, Roberts, & Barsade, 2008).

Thus, emotional intelligence (EI):

“concerns the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought”

(Mayer et al., 2008, p. 511).

According to almost three decades of research, emotional intelligence (EI) results from the interaction of intelligence and emotion (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). EI refers to an individual’s capacity to understand and manage emotions (Cherry, 2018).

What are the five components of EI?

The notion of EI consisting of five different components was first introduced by Daniel Goleman, a psychologist and bestselling author.

[Reviewer’s Update]

Daniel Goldman, who received his PhD in psychology from Harvard and cofounded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at Yale’s Child Studies Center, expanded the four branches of Mayer et al.’s (2004) emotional intelligence model (included in more detail below, they are: identifying emotions on a nonverbal level, using emotions to guide cognitive thinking, understanding the information emotions convey and the actions emotions generate, and regulating one’s own emotions) to include emotional self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy, and motivation (Resilient Educator, 2020).

The five components of EI are (Cherry, 2018):

1. Self-awareness

Self-awareness refers to the capacity to recognize and understand emotions and to have a sense of how one’s actions, moods and the emotions of others take effect.

It involves keeping track of emotions and noticing different emotional reactions, as well as being able to identify the emotions correctly.

Self-awareness also includes recognizing that how we feel and what we do are related, and having awareness of one’s own personal strengths and limitations.

Self-awareness is associated with being open to different experiences and new ideas and learning from social interactions.

2. Self-regulation

This aspect of EI involves the appropriate expression of emotion.

Self-regulation includes being flexible, coping with change, and managing conflict. It also refers to diffusing difficult or tense situations and being aware of how one’s actions affect others and take ownership of these actions.

3. Social skills

This component of EI refers to interacting well with other people. It involves applying an understanding of the emotions of ourselves and others to communicate and interact with others on a day-to-day basis.

Different social skills include – active listening, verbal communication skills, non-verbal communication skills, leadership, and developing rapport.

Empathy refers to being able to understand how other people are feeling.

This component of EI enables an individual to respond appropriately to other people based on recognizing their emotions.

It enables people to sense power dynamics that play a part in all social relationships, but also most especially in workplace relations.

Empathy involves understanding power dynamics, and how these affect feelings and behavior, as well as accurately perceiving situations where power dynamics come into force.

5. Motivation

Motivation, when considered as a component of EI, refers to intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation means that an individual is driven to meet personal needs and goals, rather than being motivated by external rewards such as money, fame, and recognition.

People who are intrinsically motivated also experience a state of ‘flow’, by being immersed in an activity.

They are more likely to be action-oriented, and set goals. Such individuals typically have a need for achievement and search for ways to improve. They are also more likely to be committed and take initiative.

This has been a brief introduction into the 5 components of Emotional Intelligence: self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy, and motivation.

5 Components of emotional intelligence… in 60 seconds – Online PM Courses – Mike Clayton

What is EI? Hopefully, through discussing its’ components, the picture is becoming clearer.

The early theory of emotional intelligence described by Salovey and Mayer in 1990 explained that EI is a component of Gardner’s perspective of social intelligence.

Similar to the so-called ‘personal’ intelligences proposed by Gardner, EI was said to include an awareness of the self and others (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). One aspect of Gardner’s conception of personal intelligence relates to ‘feelings’ and this aspect approximates what Salovey and Mayer conceptualize as EI (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

What differentiates EI from the ‘personal’ intelligences is that EI does not focus on a general sense of self and the appraisal of others – rather, it is focused on recognizing and using the emotional states of the self and others in order to solve problems and regulate behavior (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

What about proposed models of EI? Faltas (2017) argues that there are three major models of emotional intelligence:

• Goleman’s EI performance model
• Bar-On’s EI competencies model
• Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso’s EI ability model

These three models have been developed from research, analysis, and scientific studies. Now, let’s examine each of these in more detail…

Goleman’s EI Performance Model (Faltas, 2017)

According to Goleman, EI is a cluster of skills and competencies , which are focused on four capabilities: self-awareness, relationship management, and social awareness. Goleman argues that these four capabilities form the basis of 12 ‘subscales’ of EI.

He suggests that these subscales are:

• emotional self-awareness
• emotional self-control
• adaptability
• achievement orientation
• positive outlook
• coaching and mentoring
• conflict management
• organizational awareness
• inspirational leadership

Goleman developed these 12 subscales from research into EI in the workforce .

Bar-On’s EI Competencies Model (Faltas, 2017)

Bar-On put forward the suggestion that EI is a system of interconnected behavior that arises from emotional and social competencies. He argues that these competencies have an influence on performance and behavior.

Bar-On’s model of EI consists of five scales: self-perception, self-expression, interpersonal, decision-making, and stress management. You will be noticing the similarities that are appearing in these models of EI!

Bar-On also proposed 15 subscales of the EI concept:

• self-regard,
• self-actualization,
• emotional self-awareness,
• emotional expression,
• assertiveness,
• independence,
• interpersonal relationships ,
• social responsibility,
• problem-solving,
• reality testing,
• impulse control,
• flexibility,
• stress tolerance and

According to Bar-On, these competencies, as components of EI, drive human behavior and relationships.

Mayer, Salovey and Caruso’s EI Ability Model (Faltas, 2017)

This model suggests that information from the perceived understanding of emotions and managing emotions is used to facilitate thinking and guide our decision making. This EI framework emphasizes the four-branch model of EI.

The four-branch model

Mayer and colleagues (2004) developed the four-branch ability model of EI.

They suggest that the abilities and skills of EI can be divided into 4 areas – the ability to:

• Perceive emotion (1)
• Use emotion to facilitate thought (2)
• Understand emotions (3), and
• Manage emotion (4).

These branches, which are ordered from emotion perception through to management, align with the way in which the ability fits within the individual’s overall personality (Mayer et al., 2004).

In other words, branches 1 and 2 represent the somewhat separate parts of information processing that are thought to be bound in the emotion system – whereas, emotion management (branch 4) is integrated into his/her plans and goals (Mayer et al., 2004).

Also, each branch consists of skills that progress developmentally from more basic skills through to more sophisticated skills.

Let’s examine each branch:

• This branch involves the perception of emotion, including being able to identify emotions in the facial and postural expressions of others. It reflects non-verbal perception and emotional expression to communicate via the face and voice (Mayer et al., 2004).
• Branch 2 includes the ability to use emotions in order to aid thinking.
• This branch represents the capacity to understand emotion, including being able to analyze emotions and awareness of the likely trends in emotion over time, as well as an appreciation of the outcomes from emotions. It also includes the capacity to label and discriminate between feelings.
• This branch, emotional self-management, includes an individual’s personality with goals, self-knowledge and social awareness shaping the way in which emotions are managed (Mayer et al., 2004).

According to Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (2016), these skills are what define EI.

In 2016, based on the developments in EI research, Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey updated the four-branch model. They included more instances of problem-solving and claimed that the mental abilities involved in EI do, in fact, remain to be determined (Mayer et al., 2016).

Mayer and colleagues suggested that EI is a broad, ‘hot’ intelligence (2008). They include practical, social and emotional intelligence in their understanding of ‘hot’ intelligences.

So-called ‘hot’ intelligences are those in which people engage with subject matter about people (Mayer et al., 2016). Mayer et al. (2016) invite comparison of EI with the personal and social intelligences and they contend that EI can be positioned among these other ‘hot intelligences’.

It was argued that the specific abilities that EI consists of are specific forms of problem-solving (Mayer et al., 2016).

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In the 1960s, the term EI was used incidentally in psychiatry and literary criticism (Mayer et al., 2004).

However, it was formally introduced to the landscape of psychology in 1990 by Mayer and colleagues (Mayer et al., 2004). Mayer et al. published a few articles in which EI was clearly defined, and a theory plus a measure of EI was developed. Since 1990, research into the characteristics of EQ has grown.

EQ and Academia

A number of studies have looked at predicting grades at school and intellectual problem-solving in relation to EQ (Mayer et al., 2004). It has been shown that the correlation between EI and grades of college students is between r = .20 and .25 (Mayer et al., 2004).

One study of gifted students in Israel found that they scored more highly on EI than those students who were not so academically gifted.

However, the incremental prediction of EI and general intelligence has only been modest to slight (Mayer et al., 2004).

Interestingly, when the study focused on emotion-related tasks in 90 graduate psychology students, a positive relationship was found between Experiencing Emotion and both GPA and the year the student was up to in the program (Mayer et al., 2004).

EQ and Deviancy/Problem Behavior

Even when both intelligence and personality variables are controlled for statistically, EI is inversely related to bullying, violence, tobacco use and drug problems (Mayer et al., 2004).

For example, one study showed that EI was negatively related to student-rated aggression. In 2002, Swift studied the EI of 59 individuals who were part of a court-ordered violence-prevention program, and it was found that Perceiving Emotions was negatively related to psychological aggression (which took the form of insults and emotional torment) (Mayer et al., 2004).

However, surprisingly, Swift also found that rates of psychological aggression were actually associated with higher scores in Managing Emotion! (Mayer et al., 2004).

EQ and Success

It has been previously suggested that EQ is the most important determinant of success in life. Whilst this is not necessarily true, EI has nevertheless been related to success (Cherry, 2018).

Research has found an association between EI and a broad range of skills such as making decisions or achieving academic success (Cherry, 2018).

EQ and Development

EI has been increasingly studied in samples of children and adolescents (Mayer et al., 2008).

EI has been shown to consistently predict positive social and academic outcomes in children (Mayer et al., 2008). A longitudinal study of three to four-year-old children conducted by Denham et al. (2003) used ratings of children’s emotional regulation and emotion knowledge.

Higher levels of emotional regulation and emotion knowledge predicted social competence at ages three to four and then, later, in kindergarten.

EQ and Perceptions

A range of studies has found that those with high levels of EI are actually perceived more positively by other people (Mayer et al., 2008).

EQ and Wellbeing

EI has been found to correlate with enhanced life satisfaction and self-esteem (Mayer et al., 2008). Furthermore, EI correlates with lower ratings of depression (Mayer et al., 2008).

EQ and Pro-social/Positive Behaviors

Research has found a positive correlation between scores in Managing Emotion and the quality of interactions with friends (Mayer et al., 2004).

Individuals scoring more highly on EI have also been shown to be ranked as more liked and valued by members of the opposite sex!

Emotion regulation has been found to predict social sensitivity and the quality of interactions with others (Mayer et al., 2004).

EQ and Leadership/Organizational Behavior

Studies have consistently shown that customer relations are positively influenced by EI (Mayer et al., 2004). Even after personality traits have been controlled for, individuals rated as higher EI generated vision statements of higher quality than others (Mayer et al., 2004).

It has been shown that EI does definitely involve specific competencies.

To provide a practical explanation of the specific competencies that EI involves, I will refer to the competencies measured by the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), and provide examples of what each competency really means (Meshkat & Nejati, 2017).

The EQ-I is a comprehensive self-report measure of EI. The competencies in EI, as measured by the EQ-I, are, as described by Meshkat and Nejati (2017):

• Emotional self-awareness (e.g. “it is hard for me to understand the way I feel”).
• Assertiveness (e.g. “it is difficult for me to stand up for my right”)
• Self-regard (e.g. “I don’t feel good about myself”)
• Independence (e.g. “I prefer others to make decisions for me”)
• Empathy (e.g. “I’m sensitive to the feelings of others”)
• Interpersonal relationships (e.g. “people think that I’m sociable”)
• Social responsibility (e.g. “I like helping people”)
• Problem-solving (e.g. “my approach to overcoming difficulties is to move step by step)
• Reality testing (e.g. “it’s hard for me to adjust to new conditions”)
• Flexibility (e.g. “it’s easy for me to adjust to new conditions”)
• Stress tolerance (e.g. “I know how to deal with upsetting problems”), and
• Impulse control (e.g. “it’s a problem controlling my anger).

As well as these specific competencies, happiness, optimism and self-actualization act to ‘facilitate’ EI (Meshkat & Nejati, 2017).

From a large study of 1584 individuals, Mayer and colleagues (2004) concluded that people who are rated as higher in EI tend to be more agreeable, open and conscientious.

Furthermore, findings from neuroscience have shown that EI also involves the same brain regions that are implicated in conscientiousness (Barbey, Colom, & Grafman, 2014).

The neural findings support the fact that a central feature of EI is conscientiousness, which is characterized by the degree of organization, persistence, control, and motivation in goal-directed behavior (Barbey et al., 2014).

Let’s examine this in some detail.

According to their seminal paper on EI in 1990, Salovey and Mayer describe EI as the subset of social intelligence. Researchers Cantor and Kihlstrom have argued that social intelligence is a central construct for understanding personality (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).

Behavior has been described as the observable expression of someone’s personality in a certain social condition (Mayer et al., 2016). Personality includes motives, emotions, social styles, self-awareness and self-control (Mayer et al., 2016).

These components contribute to consistent patterns of behavior, quite distinct from intelligence.

Whilst earlier research mentioned previously has found an association between conscientiousness and EI, in actual fact, more recent findings show that the actual correlation between EI and the ‘Big 5’ personality traits is close to zero!

Research by Mayer and colleagues (2016) found the following correlations between EI and the Big 5:

• Neuroticism – r = -.17
• Openness – r = .18
• Conscientiousness – r = .15
• Extraversion – r = .12
• Agreeableness – r = .25

Thus, whereas previous studies have shown that EI was most closely related to the facet of conscientiousness, more recently the most closely related personality factor to EI was found to be agreeableness.

However, the very low levels of correlation have led researchers to conclude that intelligence and socio-emotional styles are relatively distinct and independent (Mayer et al., 2016).

Nevertheless, personality does seem to relate in some ways to EI.

For example, people who score higher in EI tend to be more likely to prefer social occupations than enterprising occupations, as indicated by the Holland Self-Directed Search (Mayer et al., 2004). In addition, individuals who score more highly on EI also tend to display more adaptive defense mechanisms than less adaptive ones, such as denial (Mayer et al., 2004).

Further research is certainly warranted.

To examine so-called ‘types’ of EI, we can examine what people with high EI have the capacity to do.

For starters, they are able to quickly and accurately solve a range of emotion-related problems (Mayer, 2009). A type of EI is being able to solve emotion-based problems. Those who are high in EI can also perceive emotions in other people’s faces accurately (Mayer, 2009). Therefore, a type of EI is facial perception.

People with high EI have an awareness of how certain emotional states are associated with specific ways of thinking (Mayer, 2009). For example, people high in EI may realize that sadness actually facilitates analytic thinking, so they may, therefore, choose (if possible) to analyze things when they are in a sad mood (Mayer, 2009). Thus a ‘type’ of EI is understanding emotions and how they can drive thinking.

People high in EI have an appreciation of the determinants of an emotion and the associated meaning of the emotion – for example, they may recognize that people who are angry are potentially dangerous, that happiness means people are more likely to want to socialize compared to sad people who are preferring to be alone (Mayer, 2009). Thus, a ‘type’ of EI is being able to ‘read’ emotion.

Highly EI individuals are able to manage the emotions of themselves and others (Mayer, 2009). A ‘type’ of EI is effective emotion management. These individuals also understand that people who are happy are more likely to be willing to attend a social event compared to people who are sad, or afraid – therefore, a type of EI is socio-emotional awareness.

Finally, those high in EI have an appreciation of how emotional reactions unfold, which demonstrates another ‘type’ of EI.

When examining the dimensions of EI, it is necessary to differentiate between emotions and EI. Emotions are developed in our environment, resulting from circumstances and knowledge (Faltas, 2017).

Emotion may be described as “ a natural instinctive state of mind that derives from our current and past experiences and situations ” (Faltas, 2017). Our feelings and things that we experience affect our emotions.

On the other hand, EI is an ability (Faltas, 2017). It is having the awareness, and skill, in order to know, recognize, and understand feelings, moods, and emotions and use them in an adaptive way (Faltas, 2017).

EI involves learning how to manage feelings and emotions and to use this information to guide our behavior (Faltas, 2017). EI drives how we act – including decision-making, problem-solving, self-management and demonstrating leadership (Faltas, 2017).

EI has been shown to be a relatively stable aptitude, as opposed to emotional ‘knowledge’ – which is the sort of information that EI actually uses. EI, in comparison to emotional knowledge, is acquired more readily and can be taught.

In that key paper from 1990, Salovey and Mayer stated that the mental processes related to EI are “ appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others, regulating emotion in the self and others, and utilization of emotions in adaptive ways ” (p. 190).

EI touches and influences every aspect of our lives (Faltas, 2017). Dimensions of EI, therefore, include driving behavior and affecting decision-making.

Other dimensions of the concept include solving conflicts, and affecting both how we feel about ourselves and also how we communicate with others (Faltas, 2017).

EI affects how we manage the stress that occurs in day-to-day life, as well as how we perform in the workplace and manage and lead teams (Faltas, 2017).

EI has an effect on all areas of our personal and professional development (Faltas, 2017). It helps us to advance, to mature, and to attain our goals (Faltas, 2017).

• Barchard, K. A. (2003). Does emotional intelligence assist in the prediction of academic success? Educational and Psychological Measurement ,  63 (5), 840-858.
• Brackett, M., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (2004). Emotional intelligence and the prediction of behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 36 , 1387-1402.
• Davies, M., Stankov, L., & Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: In search of an elusive construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 (4), 989-1015.
• Izard, C. E. (2001). Emotional intelligence or adaptive emotions? Emotion, 1 (3), 249-257.
• Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., & Straus, R. (2003). Emotional intelligence, personality, and the perceived quality of social relationships.  Personality and individual Differences ,  35 (3), 641-658.
• Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.  Intelligence ,  27 (4), 267-298.
• Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsades, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59 , 507-536.
• Nathanson, L., Rivers, S. E., Flynn, L. M., & Brackett, M. A. (2016). Creating emotionally intelligent schools with RULER.  Emotion Review ,  8 (4), 305-310.
• Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2000). On the dimensional structure of emotional intelligence.  Personality and Individual Differences ,  29 (2), 313-320.
• Petrides, K. V., Pita, R., & Kokkinaki, F. (2007). The location of trait emotional intelligence in personality factor space.  British Journal of Psychology ,  98 (2), 273-289.
• Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies.  European Journal of Personality ,  15 (6), 425-448.
• Salovey, P., & Grewal, D. (2005). The science of emotional intelligence.  Current Directions in Psychological Science ,  14 (6), 281-285.

What about the future for EI?

As identified earlier in the article, one area of future research into EI is to clarify the relationship (if any!) between EI and personality traits. You will soon read some research from neuroscience, and this is most certainly another area of EI research that will continue to grow.

The key researchers in EI – Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey – have also put forward two suggestions for further research.

The first is in regards to the so-called ability measures of EI… the factor structure is yet to be clarified (Mayer et al., 2016).

The second area is that, if EI is, in fact, a discrete intelligence, there would need to be a separate reasoning capacity to understand emotions…there is some evidence on this so far: Heberlein and colleagues demonstrated that the areas of the brain that serve to perceive emotional expressions (such as happiness) can be differentiated from the brain areas that are responsible for perceiving expressions of personality (such as shyness) (Mayer et al., 2016).

There has been a wealth of interesting research into whether gender is related to EI.

The following discussion is based on a comprehensive research paper published by Meshkat and Nejati in 2017. Although findings have varied, it appears that there are gender differences in EI. These differences may be attributable to both social and biological factors.

Gender has been described as an inherently social process, and that certain traits are seen as desirable for one gender but not another – for example, assertiveness is a ‘typical’ male characteristic, whilst empathy is seen as a desirable female characteristic.

According to Meshkat and Nejati (2017) males and females are socialized differently – females are encouraged to be cooperative, expressive and tuned in to their interpersonal world, whereas males are encouraged to be competitive, independent and instrumental.

Biologically, females are ‘biochemically adapted’ to focus on the emotions of the self and other as necessary to promote survival. Furthermore, neuroscientifically speaking, the areas of the brain that are necessary for emotional processing are larger in females than these areas are in males.

The cerebral processing of emotions has also been shown to differ between males and females.

Findings of research from around the world into gender differences in EI have been inconsistent.

In the study by Meshkat and Nejati (2017), the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory was administered to 455 undergraduate university students. Results showed no significant difference between males and females on the total score measuring EI.

However, female students scored higher than males on self-awareness, interpersonal relationship, self-regard, and empathy. Although, given previous research, Meshkat and Nejati (2017) expected males to score higher than females on self-regard, in actual fact the findings of this study did not support this hypothesis.

What about other research?

In a US study, females scored higher on EI than males on EI and had higher emotional and interpersonal skills, whereas, in India, a study of medical graduates found the females to be higher in EI.

A study of Sri Lankan undergraduate medical students also found females to have a higher average level of EI. In younger students, a study in Delhi found that female 10th graders demonstrated higher EI than their male counterparts, however in a study that took place in Iran, 17-year-old female students had a lower EI.

Overall, it has been suggested that females tend to score higher EI than males. However, even this finding is inconsistent!

In some cases, there are no clear differences – for example, a study in the UK failed to find any relationship between gender and overall EI in a sample of employees. Similarly, in a study based in Myanmar, no difference in EI was found between male and female teachers.

Perhaps, then, we should examine the components of EI. Indeed, females ranked more highly than males in terms of the interpersonal facet of EI, as well as in empathy, emotional skills, and emotional-related perceptions (such as decoding facial expressions).

There are also gender differences in the expression of emotions – females tend to be better at expressing emotions.

It has been found that mothers use more emotion words when telling stories to their daughters, and also display more emotion when interacting with females. It has also been claimed that males actually fear emotions and struggle to name the emotions experienced by themselves or others.

Research has shown that males are more likely to express high-intensity positive emotions, such as excitement, whilst females tend to express low/moderately intense positive emotions (such as happiness) and sadness.

Further, research suggests that females pay more attention to emotions, are more emotional and tend to be better at handling emotions and understanding them. On the other hand, males have been shown to be more skillful at regulating impulses and coping with pressure.

Females tend to be more able to guide and manage the emotions of themselves and others, and they also tend to be better at emotional attention and empathy than males, who show superiority in emotion regulation.

In the workplace, more specifically in the area of leadership, males tend to be more assertive, whilst females demonstrate higher levels of integrity than their male leader counterparts.

One consistent finding into gender difference in EI was that in nearly all countries, males were found to overestimate their EI whilst females tend to underestimate their EI.

As you can see, the question of whether there are gender differences in emotional intelligence is not easily answered. Overall, however, there does seem to be an association between gender and EI.

Self-awareness can be defined as the ‘ conscious knowledge of one’s own character and feeling s’. In his best-selling book “ Emotional Intelligence ” published in 1995, Daniel Goleman defines self-awareness as ‘ knowing one’s internal states, preference, resources, and intuitions ’.

What, then, is the role of EQ in self-awareness?

Well, considering that the first step in awareness is ‘ knowing ’, EQ enables an individual to notice different emotional reactions – therefore giving them the knowledge of what is being experienced themselves or by another person.

The next step is another component of EQ: being able to identify the emotions correctly (Cherry, 2018). Another feature of being self-aware is the capacity to realize how our actions, moods, and emotions affect others – which is also a component of EQ (Cherry, 2018).

Monitoring one’s emotional experience is another skill of EQ related to self-awareness.

Another factor in being self-aware is being able to notice the relationship between our feelings and our behavior, as well as being able to recognize our own strengths and limitations (Cherry, 2018).

While self-awareness necessarily affects the individual, according to Goleman, the self-awareness component of EQ also includes having an open mind when it comes to unfamiliar experiences and new ideas, and also to take lessons from day-to-day interactions with others.

As you can see, self-awareness is a key component of EQ, and the two are interdependent.

The following section of the article is based on the information freely available at www.ei.yale.edu .

The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence was founded by Peter Salovey, and is currently being directed by Marc Brackett. The Center “ uses the power of emotions to create a more effective and compassionate society ”.

A key aspect of the center is the application of scientific research to develop effective approaches for teaching EI . It also seeks to provide education on how to develop EI across the lifespan.

In a range of schools, the Yale Center uses a research-based, field-tested approach called RULER.

RULER was inspired by Marvin Maurer, a teacher who, in the early 1970s began using an emotional literacy program. RULER has been associated with improvements in students’ academic performance and social skills.

It has also been shown to help develop classrooms that are more supportive and student-centered. It includes tools, such as the ‘mood meter’: a RULER tool that helps students recognize and communicate their feelings.

Classrooms using RULER report less aggression among students than those classrooms not using RULER.

To learn more about RULER, a research article has been listed as one of the recommended papers in the earlier section of this article.

The Yale Center for EI’s mission is to utilize research to enhance real-world practice. The success of RULER has led Yale to produce similar programs to be delivered in ‘communities’ such as businesses, governments, and families.

The overarching aim is to harness the power of EI to help individuals achieve happier, healthier, and more productive lives.

Partners of the Center include the Born This Way Foundation, the Brewster Academy, and CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning). The Yale Center is currently being supported by Facebook in researching the nature and consequences of online bullying among adolescent Facebook users.

The Center aims to study new ways to teach EI.

Researchers have published over 400 scholarly articles, a number of curricula for teaching EI and several books on the topic of EI . It looks into how EI skills are taught and assessed in people of all ages. Further, it has investigated how best to assess EI in a variety of contexts and the development of EI skills throughout life.

Researchers at the Yale Center for EI are also looking into the roles emotions play in everyday contexts, including work and school. One example is the ‘ Creativity, Emotions and The Arts ’ project.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

In the past, cognitive and emotional processes were understood to be different constructs. A study by Barbey and colleagues in 2014 provides neuropsychological data to suggest that emotional and psychometric (i.e. general) intelligence are both driven by the same neural systems – therefore integrating cognitive, social, and affective processes.

The study led by Aron Barbey (University of Illinois neuroscience professor) showed that general intelligence and EI share similarities both in behavior and the brain – many of the brain regions were important to both general and emotional intelligence (Yates, 2013).

Barbey’s study looked at the neural basis of EI in a sample of 152 individuals with focal brain injuries (Barbey et al., 2014).

Researchers looked at task performance on a range of tests designed to measure:

• EI (using the Mayer, Salovey and Caruso EI test – MSCEIT)
• General intelligence (using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, third edition – WAIS-III)
• Personality (using the NEO-PIR)

The researchers studied these phenomena by using CT scans and developing a 3D ‘map’ of the cerebral cortex, which they then divided into 3D units called ‘voxels’ (Yates, 2013).

They then compared the cognitive abilities of those with damage to a particular voxel, or cluster of voxels, with those who had no such injuries in the brain region (Yates, 2013). Then they looked at the brain regions utilized to execute specific cognitive abilities, those associated with general intelligence, EI, or both.

Barbey et al. (2014) found that impairments in EI related to specific damage to the ‘social cognitive network’. This network is made up of the extrastriate body area within the left posterior temporal cortex, which is associated with perception of the form of other human bodies, and the left posterior superior temporal sulcus, which plays a role in interpreting movement of the human body in terms of goals (Barbey et al., 2014).

The social cognitive network also comprises of the left temporoparietal junction, which supports the ability to reason about what makes up mental states, and the left orbitofrontal cortex, which is recognised as supporting emotional empathy and the relations between two minds and an object – thus supporting shared attention and collaborative goals (Barbey et al., 2014).

Although the study showed that the neural networks of EI were distributed, the neural substrates of EI were concentrated in the white matter (Barbey et al., 2014).

There was found to be a significant effect on EI with lesions in white matter sectors such as the superior longitudinal/arcuate fasciculus that connect the frontal and parietal cortices. EI substrates were also found within a narrow subset of regions associated with social information processing.

Overall, the findings of Barbey et al. (2014) provide evidence that EI is supported by the neural mechanisms that regulate and control social behavior, and that the communication between these brain areas is critically important.

The orbitofrontal cortex is a key part of the neural network for regulating and controlling social behavior (Barbey et al., 2014). It has been suggested that the orbitofrontal cortex plays an important role in emotional and social processing – studies have also supported the role of the medial orbitofrontal cortex in EI.

The neural system for EI also shared anatomical substrates with specific facets of ‘psychometric’ intelligence (Barbey et al., 2014).

According to Barbey (as reported in Yates, 2013):

“Intelligence, to a large extent, does depend on basic cognitive abilities, like attention and perception and memory and language. But it also depends on interacting with other people. We’re fundamentally social beings and our understanding not only involves basic cognitive abilities but also involves productively applying those abilities to social situations so that we can navigate the social world and understand others”.

This neuroscience study provides an interesting perspective on the interdependence of general and emotional intelligence.

Hopefully, by reading this article, you are now aware of the important part emotional intelligence plays in each of our lives. EI provides life with flavor! By understanding the feelings of ourselves and others, and allowing this knowledge to enable us to reason and make decisions, we enjoy what is the unique experience of being a human being.

I will readily admit that I have learned a lot about EI writing this article, and I am hoping that you have learned something new too. Perhaps you are now interested in spending some time reading one of the research papers that were recommended earlier in the article, or for something a little lighter, why not check out our 15 Most Valuable Emotional Intelligence TED Talks.

I welcome your input on this diverse area of positive psychology – how are you aware of EI in your day-to-day life? In your experience, do you think that EI can be linked to personality traits? What would a world without EI look like?

Thanks for reading this article!

For further reading:

• 13 Emotional Intelligence Activities & Exercises
• How To Improve Emotional Intelligence Through Training

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

• Barbey, A. K., Colom, R., & Grafman, J. (2014). Distributed neural system for emotional intelligence revealed by lesion mapping.  Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience ,  9 (3), 265-272.
• Cherry, K. (2018). 5 Components of emotional intelligence. Very Well Mind . Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/components-of-emotional-intelligence-2795438
• Denham, S. A., Blair, K. A., DeMulder, E., Levitas, J., Sawyer, K., Auerbach–Major, S., & Queenan, P. (2003). Preschool emotional competence: Pathway to social competence? Child Development ,  74 (1), 238-256.
• Faltas, I. (2017). Three models of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314213508_Three_Models_of_Emotional_Intelligence/download
• Mayer, J. D. (2009). What emotional intelligence is and is not. Psychology Today . Retrieved from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-personality-analyst/200909/what-emotional-intelligence-is-and-is-not
• Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of emotional intelligence: Principles and updates.  Emotion Review ,  8 (4), 290-300.
• Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59 , 507-536.
• Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory, findings and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15 (3), 197-215.
• Meshkat, M., & Nejati, R. (2017). Does emotional intelligence depend on gender? A study on undergraduate English majors of three Iranian universities.  SAGE Open ,  7 (3), 1-8.
• Resilient Educator. (2020, June 11). Daniel Goleman’s emotional intelligence theory explained . Retrieved from https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/daniel-golemans-emotional-intelligence-theory-explained/
• Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9 (3), 185-211.
• Yates, D. (2013). Researchers map emotional intelligence in the brain. Illinois News Bureau. Retrieved from https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/271097

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Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Mia Belle Frothingham

Author, Researcher, Science Communicator

BA with minors in Psychology and Biology, MRes University of Edinburgh

Mia Belle Frothingham is a Harvard University graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Sciences with minors in biology and psychology

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and relationships. It involves being aware of emotions in oneself and others and using this awareness to guide thinking and behavior. Emotionally intelligent individuals can motivate themselves, read social cues, and build strong relationships

Some researchers propose that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others argue it is an inborn characteristic.

The ability to express and manage emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, diagnose, and react to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which one could not understand when a friend felt sad or a classmate was angry.

Why is Emotional Intelligence Critical?

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Having a higher level of emotional intelligence allows one to empathize with others, communicate effectively, and be both self and socially aware. How people respond to themselves and others impacts all types of environments.

Living in this world signifies interacting with many diverse kinds of individuals and constant change with life-changing surprises.

Being emotionally intelligent is key to how one reacts to what life throws. It is furthermore a fundamental element of compassion and comprehending the deeper reasons behind other people’s actions.

It is not the most intelligent people who are the most prosperous or the most fulfilled in life. Many people are academically genius and yet are socially incompetent and unsuccessful in their careers or their intimate relationships.

Intellectual ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. Undoubtedly, IQ can help one get into university, but your Emotional Intelligence (EI) will help one manage stress and emotions when facing final exams.

IQ and EI exist in tandem and are most influential when they build off one another.

Emotional intelligence is also valuable for leaders who set the tone of their organization. If leaders lack emotional intelligence , it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower worker engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While one might excel at one’s job technically, if one cannot effectively communicate with one’s team or collaborate with others, those specialized skills will get neglected.

By mastering emotional intelligence, one can positively impact anywhere and continue to advance one’s position and career in life. EI is vital when dealing with stressful situations like confrontation, change, and obstacles.

Emotional intelligence helps one build stronger relationships, succeed at work or school, and achieve one’s career and personal goals, as well as reduce group stress, defuse conflict, and enhance job satisfaction.

It can also help connect with one’s inner feelings, turn purpose into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to oneself.

During these times, it is essential to remember to practice kindness, and being in touch with our emotions can help us do just that.

Examples of Emotional Intelligence

How does one become emotionally intelligent? Below we will discuss what one can do to learn to improve the skills that are behind emotional intelligence (EI).

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem-solve based on them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

By working on and improving these skills, one can become more emotionally intelligent and, therefore, more successful!

Emotional Awareness and Understanding

Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s own emotions, is a vital emotional intelligence skill. Beyond acknowledging one’s feelings, however, is being conscious of the effect of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on other people.

According to research by Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, 95% of individuals believe they are self-aware. Still, only 10 to 15 percent genuinely are, which can cause problems for the people one interacts with.

Being with people who are not self-aware can be frustrating and lead to increased stress and decreased encouragement.

To become self-aware, one must be capable of monitoring one’s emotions while recognizing different emotional reactions and correctly identifying each distinct emotion.

Self-aware individuals also can recognize the connections between the things they feel and how they act.

These individuals also acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses, are open to new data and experiences, and learn from their exchanges with others.

Furthermore, people who maintain self-awareness have a fine sense of humor, are confident in themselves and their capabilities, and know how others perceive them.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-awareness:

Ask for constructive feedback from others.

Keep a journal of one’s thoughts and feelings.

Practice mindfulness – try meditating.

Pay careful attention to one’s thoughts and emotions.

Pursue one’s passions and do what makes one happy.

Learn new skills and set goals for oneself.

Reflect on one’s experiences and be grateful.

Use positive self-talk daily.

Work on building a growth mindset.

Emotional Self Regulation (Managing Emotions)

In addition to being aware of one’s own emotions and the impact one has on others, emotional intelligence requires one to regulate and manage one’s emotions .

This does not mean taking emotions out of sight and essentially “locking” them away, hence hiding one’s true feelings. It just means waiting for the right time and place to express them. Self-regulation is all about communicating one’s emotions appropriately in context. A reaction tends to be involuntary.

The more in tune one is with one’s emotional intelligence, the easier one can transition from an instant reaction to a well-thought-out response. It is crucial to remember to pause, breathe, compose oneself, and do what it takes to manage one’s emotions.

This could mean anything to oneself, like taking a walk or talking to a friend, so that one can more appropriately and intentionally respond to tension and adversity.

Those proficient in self-regulation tend to be flexible and acclimate well to change. They are also suitable for handling conflict and diffusing uncomfortable or difficult situations.

People with healthy self-regulation skills also tend to have heightened conscientiousness. They reflect on how they influence others and take accountability for their actions.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-regulation:

Look at challenges as opportunities.

Be mindful of thoughts and feelings.

Build distress and anxiety tolerance skills.

Work on accepting reflections and emotions.

Find ways to manage difficult emotions.

Practice communication and social skills.

Recognize that one has a choice in how one responds.

Use cognitive reframing to change emotional responses and thought patterns.

Social Empathy (Perceiving Emotions)

Empathy , or the capability to comprehend how other people are feeling, is crucial to perfecting emotional intelligence.

However, it involves more than just being able to identify the emotional states of others. It also affects one’s responses to people based on this knowledge.

How does one respond when one senses someone is feeling sad or hopeless? One might treat them with extra care and consideration, or one might make a push to lift their mood.

Being empathetic also allows one to understand the authority dynamics that frequently influence social relationships, especially in the workplace.

This is essential for guiding one’s daily interactions with various people. In fact, it is found that empathy ranks as the number one leadership skill.

Leaders proficient in empathy perform more than 40% higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a different study, researchers found that leaders who show more empathy toward their co-workers and constructive criticism are viewed as better performers by their supervisors.

Those competent in this element can recognize who maintains power in different relationships. They also understand how these forces impact feelings and behaviors. Because of this, they can accurately analyze different situations that hinge on such power dynamics.

Here are some tips on improving social empathy:

Be willing to share emotions.

Listen to other people.

Practice meditation.

Engage in a purpose like a community project.

Meet and talk to new people.

Try to imagine yourself in someone else’s place.

Social Skills (Using Emotions)

The ability to interact well with others is another vital aspect of emotional intelligence. Solid social skills allow people to build meaningful relationships with others and develop a more robust understanding of themselves and others.

Proper emotional understanding involves more than just understanding one’s own emotions and those of others. One also needs to put this information to work in one’s daily interactions and communications.

In the workplace or professional settings, managers benefit by being able to build relationships and connections with employees.

Workers benefit from developing a solid rapport with leaders and co-workers. Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it is crucial to address issues as they arise correctly.

Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste almost eight hours of company time on unproductive activities, damaging resources and morale. Essential social skills include active listening , verbal communication, nonverbal communication, leadership , and persuasiveness.

Here are some tips on improving social skills:

Ask open-ended questions.

Find icebreakers that will help start conversations.

Practice good eye contact.

Practice active listening with the entire body.

Notice other people’s social skills.

Show interest in others and ask them personal questions.

Watch one’s body language and that of others.

In The Workplace

Emotional intelligence includes showing genuine compassion, empathizing with the needs of individuals, and encouraging the ongoing personal growth of individuals.

When a leader takes into account the emotions of their followers, they then learn how to best engage with them.

1. Lending a Compassionate Ear to a Frustrated Co-Worker

Employees will inevitably get upset, have bad moods, argue, and just generally have bad days. In practice, compassion, understanding, and awareness are definite signs of emotional intelligence.

Awareness of and reacting to other people’s emotional states shows an understanding that all humans experience intense emotions and says that a person’s feelings matter.

2. Listening to Others Respectfully

Ever been to a conference when it seems like everyone is speaking over each other, trying to get the last word?

This is not only an indication of egos taking over and a lack of consideration for others; these are also indications of there being a lack of emotional intelligence.

When individuals are allowed to speak, and others listen without persistent interruptions, it is a good sign of EI. It shows reciprocal respect between parties and is more likely to lead to a productive conclusion in meetings.

3. Being Flexible

Flexibility is a critical term in organizations today. Building flexibility into how people function can be the difference between keeping the best workers and drifting out the door.

Emotionally intelligent leaders comprehend the changing needs of others and are ready to work with them rather than attempting to impose rigid restrictions on how people go about their work.

They do not expect everyone to work the hours they do, hold the same priorities, or live by precisely the same values.

In Healthcare

1. being patient with hurting individuals.

When in healthcare, it is expected that doctors and nurses will have to manage people in pain. Emotional intelligence not only allows for better patient care but also for better self-care.

For instance, if a patient is lashing out, and one can see that they are in pain, one will be far less likely to take their combativeness personally and treat them better.

2. Acting as the Effective Leader

In healthcare, there is a necessity to have influential leaders, a trusting environment with a helpful team, critical thinking, and quality patient and family-centered care.

A higher emotional intelligence will allow healthcare professionals to respond and react better to patients. Studies have shown a correlation between emotional intelligence and positive patient outcomes.

3. Responding Better to Stressful Situations

Multiple occasions in healthcare involve an urgent situation involving a life or death scenario. Doctors and nurses must check their own emotions.

Being in healthcare is a highly emotional career, and being aware of your feelings when they come up is key to effective self-care.

Interacting with patients can cause overwhelming joy or deep sadness, and these fluctuations can be utterly exhausting.

The ability to deal with these feelings, take breaks, and ask for help when you need it is another example of good emotional intelligence that nurses should practice.

Tips for Improving EI

Be more self-aware.

Awareness of one’s emotions and emotional responses to others can significantly improve one’s emotional intelligence. Knowing when one is feeling anxious or angry can help process and communicate those feelings in a way that promotes healthy results.

Recognize how others feel

Emotional intelligence could start with self-reflection, but measuring how others perceive one’s behavior and communication is essential. Adjusting one’s message based on how one is being received is an integral part of being emotionally intelligent.

Practice active listening

People communicate verbally and nonverbally, so listening and monitoring for potentially positive and negative reactions is essential. Taking the time to hear others also demonstrates a level of respect that can form the basis for healthy relationships.

Communicate clearly

Solid communication skills are critical for emotional intelligence. Knowing what to express or write and when to offer information is crucial for building strong relationships.

For instance, as a manager in a work environment, communicating expectations and goals is required to keep everyone on the same page.

Stay positive

A positive attitude is incredibly infectious. Emotionally intelligent people comprehend the power of positive words, encouraging emails, and friendly gestures. When one can also remain positive in a stressful situation, one can help others stay calm. It can also encourage further problem-solving and collaboration.

Thinking about how others might be feeling is an essential quality of emotional intelligence. It means you can empathize with feelings that one may not be feeling oneself and respond in a way that is respectful and relaxing to others.

Be open-minded

Emotionally intelligent people are comfortable to approach because they are good listeners and can consider and understand other viewpoints. They are also receptive to learning new things and embracing novel ideas.

Listen to feedback

It is essential to be the type of person who can hear feedback, whether it is positive on a recent presentation or more critical advice on how you should commission tasks more efficiently.

Being receptive to feedback means taking responsibility for one’s actions and being willing to improve how one communicates with others.

Stay calm under pressure

It is essential to approach stressful situations with a calm and positive attitude. Pressures can quickly escalate, primarily when people are operating under deadlines, so keeping steady and concentrating on finding a solution will help everyone complete their goals.

History of Emotional Intelligence

In the 1930s, psychologist Edward Thorndike explained the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other individuals.

During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler suggested that different practical elements of intelligence could play a critical role in how successful people are in life.

In the 1950s, the school of thought was known as humanistic psychology, and scholars such as Abraham Maslow concentrated attention on how people could build emotional strength.

Another critical concept to arise in the development of emotional intelligence was the concept of multiple intelligences . This idea was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, presenting the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, broad capacity.

Emotional intelligence did not come into our vernacular until around 1990. The term “emotional intelligence” was first utilized in 1985 as it was presented in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne.

In 1987, there was an article written by Keith Beasley and published in Mensa Magazine that used the term emotional quotient or EQ.

Then in 1990, psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey published their milestone article, Emotional Intelligence , in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality .

They described emotional intelligence as the capability to monitor one’s and others’ feelings and emotions, discriminate among them, and use this knowledge to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Salovey and Mayer also initiated a research study to develop accurate measures of emotional intelligence and explore its significance. For example, they found in one investigation that when a group of people saw an upsetting film, those who ranked high on emotional clarity, or the ability to recognize and label a mood that is being experienced, recovered more quickly.

In a different study, people who scored higher in the ability to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others’ emotions were sufficiently capable of responding flexibly to changes in their social environments and building supportive social networks.

But despite it being a relatively new term, attraction to the concept has grown tremendously. In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is emotional intelligence important in the workplace.

Researchers have indicated that emotional intelligence influences how excellently employees interact with their colleagues, and EI is also considered to play a role in how employees manage stress and conflict.

It also affects overall performance on the job. Other studies have connected emotional intelligence with job satisfaction.

Studies have shown that workers with higher scores on measures of EI also tend to be ranked higher on criteria of interpersonal functioning, leadership abilities, and stress management.

While standard intelligence was associated with leadership success, it alone was not enough. People who are prosperous at work are not just brilliant; they also have a high EI.

But emotional intelligence is not simply for CEOs and senior executives.

It is a quality that is essential at every level of a person’s career, from university students looking for internships to seasoned workers hoping to take on a leadership role.

Emotional intelligence is critical to success if one wants to succeed in the workplace and move up the career ladder.

Can emotional intelligence be taught?

As it turns out, the question whether emotional intelligence can be learned is not a straightforward one to answer.

Some psychologists and researchers claim that emotional intelligence is a skill that is not quickly learned or improved. Other psychologists and researchers, though, believe it can be improved with practice.

One key to improving EI is sustained practice – especially in high-stakes situations. Referring back to the above tips, one could read them and say those guidelines are pretty straightforward.

But, the challenging task is to do these practices in real-time and consistently. It takes practice to develop these skills. Then as you acquire them, you have to rehearse them under stress.

Can emotional intelligence be measured?

Several different assessments have arisen to gauge levels of emotional intelligence. These trials typically fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most abundant because they are the quickest to administer and score. Respondents respond to questions or statements on such tests by rating their behaviors.

For example, on a comment such as “I sense that I understand how others are feeling,” a test-taker might describe the statement as strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree.

On the other hand, ability tests involve people responding to situations and assessing their skills. These tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which a third party rates.

If one is taking an emotional intelligence trial issued by a mental health professional, here are two measures that could be used: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI).

What is the dark side of emotional intelligence?

The dark side of emotional intelligence is using one’s understanding of emotions manipulatively, to deceive, control, or exploit others.

High emotional intelligence can mask hidden agendas, enabling insincere charm or feigned empathy, potentially leading to deceitful or self-serving actions.

Boyatzis, R. E., & Goleman, D. (2011). Emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI): A user guide for accredited practitioners.  Retrieved December ,  17 , 2019.

Eurich, T. (2018). What self-awareness really is (and how to cultivate it).  Harvard Business Review , 1-9.

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . Hachette UK.

Goleman, D. (1996).  Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.  Intelligence, 27 (4), 267-298.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.  Intelligence, 17 (4), 433-442.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (2007).  Mayer-Salovery-Caruso emotional intelligence test . Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Incorporated.

Payne, W. L. (1985). A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence .  Imagination, cognition and personality ,  9 (3), 185-211.

Thorndike, R. L., & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure social intelligence.  Psychological Bulletin ,  34 (5), 275.

Wechsler, D., & Kodama, H. (1949).  Wechsler intelligence scale for children  (Vol. 1). New York: Psychological corporation.

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What People (Still) Get Wrong About Emotional Intelligence

• Daniel Goleman

It’s not just about being nice.

Many people assume that having emotional intelligence means being“nice.” But this perception obscures some fundamental benefits to developing one’s EI. For example, simply saying someone is nice can belie the fact that they’re only nice to some people and not others. Or, if you think that being nice simply means being a pushover, you might not take advantage of the EI framework’s capacity to teach you about productive conflict management. You might also fail to consider or check the dark side of your own EI — an ability to influence or manipulate someone without their interests in mind. By understanding how EI actually works, you can have powerful, productive conversations that build up your ability to influence and lead across all your relationships.

In the 25 years since my book  Emotional Intelligence was published, one of the most persistent things I see people get wrong about the concept is that it equates to being “nice.” But it doesn’t,   and misunderstanding this can get people into trouble.

• DG Daniel Goleman , best known for his writing on emotional intelligence, is codirector of the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in Organizations at Rutgers University. His latest book is Building Blocks of Emotional Intelligence , a 12-primer set on each of the emotional intelligence competencies, and he offers training on the competencies through an online learning platform, Emotional Intelligence Training Programs . His other books include Primal Leadership: Unleashing the Power of Emotional Intelligence and Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body .

Partner Center

Daniel Goleman EI Course (English)

$ 1,045.00

Emotional intelligence (EI) is crucial for personal and professional growth, helping you develop your inner capacity and impact, become an exceptional leader, and build high-performing teams.

This flagship course is part of the only EI training program created in direct collaboration with Daniel Goleman — founded on the concepts and practices of his model that are critical to developing and deepening transformative EI skills.

Our eLearning journey is designed to help you bridge the gap between theory and practice. It offers guided facilitation, a cohort-based community, science-backed knowledge, and practical experiences that build impactful skills.

Pace yourself in the best blend of asynchronous and synchronous learning with weekly modules including video, audio, reading, and reflection.

In this 12-week (but only minutes a day) online course, you can:

• Learn the 12 foundational and relational skills from Daniel Goleman’s EI model
• Earn two verifiable digital Credly badges from the Daniel Goleman EI program

Unlock your growth potential with intentional learning, practice, and reflection.

Impact of Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Courses

• 93%  said the course helped them develop or deepen their foundational emotional intelligence skills
• 98%  found the lessons directly relevant to their work
• 92%  would recommend the course to a friend or colleague

Our courses track the latest neuroscience research on the dynamics of relationships and data on the impact EI has on an organization’s bottom line. Our engaging learning format, inspiring community, expert facilitators, and hands-on tools help learners bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Jumpstart your emotional intelligence journey and be a force for good.

EI isn’t fixed at birth. It’s a skill you can learn and hone over time.

And your growth can be felt by everyone around you — creating a ripple effect of positive impact.

The Daniel Goleman Emotional Intelligence Courses combine guided facilitation, evidence-based knowledge of what drives behavioral change, and practical experiences that build impactful skills.

Experience a flexible, blended learning program with weekly modules including video, audio, reading, and reflection.

And learn with — and from — your global cohort community.

Each weekly module is divided into five or six days, with specific steps outlined daily. You can expect to spend 15-30 minutes per day for intentional learning, practice, and reflection.

What We Will Cover

There are four domains and 12 competencies in the daniel goleman emotional intelligence model. for this course, we’ve replaced “achievement orientation” with “focus” as a meta competency that bridges several domains..

What You Will Achieve

Whether you’re an emotional intelligence coach, business leader, people manager, HR professional, or someone interested in growing EI, this course will help you:

• Gain practical knowledge and understand how and when to apply EI skills that are prerequisites for responding to your own and others’ emotions.
• Increase your threshold for complexity and be more flexible in the face of stress and uncertainty.
• Apply emotional intelligence to cultivate resilience and respond more effectively when encountering setbacks, obstacles, and challenges.
• Discover how to enrich your relationships with psychological safety and trust.
• Learn how to positively influence others while navigating challenging team dynamics and shifting work environments.
• Strengthen teamwork and collaboration through science-based practices.
• Become a leader who inspires innovation, engagement, and trust.

What EI Learners Say About Our Courses

This course was the best gift I could ever give myself!! I am a business owner and on a very busy schedule. I am the type of person who finds it hard to be vulnerable, and I can sometimes lack empathy for myself and others. I have worked really hard on putting what we are learning about emotional intelligence into practice.  

Since the second week of the course, I have really felt a shift in my life and have been getting positive feedback from the people closest to me, including my husband, my daughter, and my management team. They all noticed a positive change in the way I communicated, engaged, and connected with them. I’m still learning, and it’s not always easy, but I am committed to continue practicing. Thank you for your support, this course has done so much more than I thought it would ever do!

Lo que dicen los estudiantes de la IE sobre nuestros cursos

¡Este curso fue el mejor regalo que pude haberme dado a mí misma! Soy dueña de un negocio con una agenda muy apretada. Soy el tipo de persona a quien le cuesta trabajo ser vulnerable y a veces no tengo la suficiente empatía hacia mí misma y hacia otras personas. He trabajado mucho para poner en práctica lo que he aprendido acerca de la inteligencia emocional. Desde la segunda semana del curso, realmente sentí un cambio en mi vida y comencé a recibir comentarios positivos de la gente más cercana a mí, incluyendo mi esposo, mi hija y mi equipo administrativo. Todos ellos notaron un cambio positivo en la forma en la que me comunico, me relaciono y conecto con ellos. Aún sigo aprendiendo y, aunque no siempre es sencillo, estoy comprometida a seguir practicando. ¡Gracias a su apoyo, este curso me ha dado mucho más de lo que pensé que me daría!

Registration per seat is $1045, which includes the 12 crucial competencies from Dr. Goleman’s emotional intelligence model and two digital badges (earned upon successful completion).

We welcome EI learners from all over the world. Each Live Session has two available times to join, so you will have the option of choosing the Session time that best aligns with your schedule.  You can also view the on-demand recording if you have a conflict for that particular session. This schedule is subject to change but rest assured you will be notified of any adjustments prior to the course start date.

Live Session Schedule for the next course that begins April 29, 2024:

• Thursday 4/25  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Thursday 5/9  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Thursday 5/23  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Thursday 6/6  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Thursday 6/20  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Wednesday 7/3  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET
• Thursday 7/18  — 12-1:30 pm ET or 6-7:30 pm ET

Please keep in mind the 90-minute Live Sessions via Zoom occur every other week throughout the duration of the 12-week Course. The first Zoom session is orientation-focused and is scheduled for one week before the course begins.

The Dream See Do app is in development and is only available on iOS. If you’d like to engage with the course content on a mobile device, a web version of the platform is also available and offers a better experience than the app. For the best Learner experience overall, we highly recommend using desktop.

Please view this Course Summary to better understand the course logistics.

We understand life – and extenuating circumstances – happen.

Due to limited enrollment, we request you cancel at least 7 days before your scheduled cohort begins. This gives us the opportunity to fill your spot in the cohort.

If you need to cancel your course registration, the following schedule applies:

• We offer a full refund within 24 hours of registering, regardless of your registration date.
• We offer a full refund, minus a $75 non-refundable administration fee, up to 7 days before your cohort begins.
• We offer a 50% refund from 7 days before your cohort begins until 7 days after your cohort begins.
• No refund is offered after the first 7 days of your cohort.

Please contact us to confirm with your intent to cancel and we will follow up based on the policy noted above.

Please see below for course-specific access beyond the 12-week course schedule:

• Daniel Goleman EI — English: up to three months after
• Daniel Goleman EI — Spanish and Daniel Goleman EI — Spanish (Foundational Skills) : up to three months after
• Daniel Goleman EI+ (Continuing Ed), Daniel Goleman EI+ (Foundational Skills), and Daniel Goleman EI+ (Relational Skills): up to nine months after

Yes, we would be happy to accommodate you. Once you and your friend/colleague/team have signed up for the course, please contact us with the names of everyone you would like to be placed in a cohort group with.

All of the Daniel Goleman EI courses are online, asynchronous, and released in weekly modules that include video, audio, reading, and reflection. You can pace yourself through each week in a way that best aligns with your schedule, while engaging with your cohort community and facilitator.

This course fosters a rich community of EI change-makers and is designed to optimize your Learner experience through a combination of engaging course content, skilled facilitators, and practical tools to help you bridge the gap between theory and action. There will also be 90-minute synchronous live group check-ins via Zoom with course facilitators, occurring every other week through the duration of the course. It is highly recommended to be at these sessions live, if you can make it; we provide recordings as well.

This is the only emotional intelligence (EI) training program affiliated with Daniel Goleman, created in direct collaboration with him, and founded on the concepts and practices of his model that are critical to developing EI. While the course is not taught or facilitated by Dr. Goleman, the asynchronous weekly module content (video, audio, reading etc.) features Dr. Goleman and his collaborative work. The course facilitators you will engage with have also been certified and trained in-depth on his emotional intelligence model.

We are here for you. Please email or call us at (413) 587-0818 with any questions, suggestions or feedback. We look forward to hearing from you.

Yes! We’re happy to offer a group rate discount for five or more registrations. Please contact us at [email protected] for more info.

We want to support everyone who wants to invest in growing their emotional intelligence. If you would like to explore flexible payment options, please contact us for details.

To optimize for meaningful learning, reflection, and application, every week’s competency is divided into five or six days—with specific steps outlined for each day. You can expect to spend 15-30 minutes per day to go through the daily content and get familiar with the exercise/activity outlined, complete the exercise/activity and share your reflection.

Often the activity will include noticing different aspects of your experience over the course of a day. We recommend planning to review the content in the morning, complete the activity during the day and leave your reflection at the end of the day. Be sure to plan time to read and respond to the reflections from your fellow cohort members as well!

Enrollment for courses starting April 29 are closed and at capacity. The next 12-week courses start on September 16. Save your seat now for the final cohorts this year. Dismiss

Here's Why Employees With High Emotional Intelligence Thrive

B efore Dan Goleman, a prolific author and science journalist, popularized the concept of emotional intelligence (E.I. or E.Q.), it was a skill set largely ignored in the workforce where I.Q. metrics reigned supreme. 

Goleman writes on  his website  about discovering the research around E.I. in 1990 and being “electrified by the notion.” A lot has changed. A term once misunderstood has now become a household phrase, accepted widely as key to personal and professional growth. 

But, if the last two decades have witnessed the gradual acceptance of the science behind emotional intelligence, it may be we are only now beginning to realize its practical applications and benefits. 

Ellen Leanse, a leadership coach in Silicon Valley and author of the book "Happiness Hack," argues we have yet to reach “peak E.I.” in our society or in the workforce. She believes there is still much to learn about how to sharpen our own emotional intelligence and turn it into a powerful tool for positive change.

Here are the signs that you have high E.I. and why it matters:

You Are Self-Aware

“ The foundation of emotional intelligence is self-awareness. Are you aware of the emotions that drive your behavior and what impact it has?” says Bill Benjamin, a partner at the Institute for Health and Human Potential, a Chicago-based research and consulting company that trains people around the world on emotional intelligence.

“We have to be aware that we have emotional responses to setbacks or what people say or feeling overwhelmed,” he said

This self-awareness begins with mapping and understanding your emotions. Do you know what kind of interactions bring joy, anger, sadness, fear? 

Benjamin suggests constantly observing your own behavior in the workplace, in order to identify your trigger points and blind spots. It also means testing yourself. 

IHHP's assessment to measure a person’s core competencies in EI includes comparing their self-perception with the perception of others in their life.

You Can Manage Your Emotions

“The most important thing about a career is how you build relationships, and if you’re a leader how you build teams,” Benjamin said. “So it’s all about managing the emotions that come up when there’s tension and conflict. The people who excel at that, research shows, are those with high E.I.”

While it’s normal to feel anger, anxiety and other strong emotions in the workplace, the most effective workers know how to deal with their reactions and how they can affect the people around them.

Benjamin suggests asking yourself the following questions: “When there’s tension and conflict or pressure, can we manage our emotions, so that we can step in and be skillful? Can we have a sense of urgency, but not with panic or anxiety, and instead be solutions-focused and confident?” 

Other questions include :

- Am I aware of the emotions that are driving my behavior?

- Can I manage my emotions in stressful situations?

- Can I make difficult decisions that involve a lot of emotions?

- Can I empathize with others in order to motivate and inspire them?

- Am I able take ownership of my behavior? 

A "yes" to these questions add up to a leader strengthened by emotional intelligence.

You Can Handle the Hard Talk

According to research from the IHHP, 80 percent of qualities that make for an exceptional leader are in the domain of emotional intelligence. This includes the ability to have difficult conversations that involve a lot of emotions, such as giving someone negative feedback or criticism.

“ Most people avoid these conversations because they’re afraid," Benjamin said. "They don’t want to upset people, they want to be liked. Can they manage those feelings so they can step in where it’s difficult?” 

Advancing your career depends on the ability to work through those feelings in order to achieve a goal or cultivate trust.  

For more about employees with high emotional intelligence, check out Work + Money.

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What Is Emotional Intelligence & Why Is It Important to Your Career?

In the decades since the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) was introduced by psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey, EI has become ubiquitous across fields, including psychology, education, and business. It’s led to everything from the proliferation of social and emotional learning (SEL) education in elementary schools to the development of EI-based leadership programs.

In this article, we’ll discuss what EI means, how you can improve it for yourself, and why it’s important to your career.

The Four Components of Emotional Intelligence (and How to Improve Them)

According to Mental Health America , “emotional intelligence is the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you.”

Daniel Goleman, an author who has written extensively about EI, has narrowed down EI to four key components : self-awareness, self-management, relationship management, and social awareness. When these components are all working together, “[EI] can help people make better decisions,” he said in an interview .

But you don’t have to be a natural at EI to apply it to your life and work. In his book Leadership: The Power of Emotional Intelligence , Goleman wrote that research shows people can actually develop their emotional intelligence.

Let’s take a look at each component and how you can begin improving it for yourself.

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is being conscious of your own feelings and your thoughts about them as well as how those feelings affect others. For example, if an emotionally intelligent person were faced with a crisis at work, they may get upset but will be aware of that feeling. With that awareness, they can allow themselves to feel angry while still acting in a way that is constructive and helps solve the problem instead of shutting down or lashing out.

According to Goleman , the competencies that fall under this component are:

• Self-awareness

One way to help you improve your self-awareness is to begin journaling. Writing down your feelings and actions each day not only forces you to reflect on how you let your emotions affect you, but it can also help you see bigger patterns that may exist. For example, if you notice that you get more frustrated with small issues on days you’ve had little sleep, you can try harder to get a good night’s rest during the workweek.

Self-Management

In emotional intelligence, self-management is the ability to have control over unhelpful or negative thoughts and emotions. In his book The Brain and Emotional Intelligence, Goleman explains that you want the prefrontal cortex area of the brain (responsible for strategy and planning) to have control over the amygdala area (responsible for one’s fight-or-flight response).

According to Goleman, the competencies that fall under this component are:

• Emotional balance
• Adaptability
• Achievement orientation
• Positive outlook

To start getting better at self-management, try setting — and writing down — a daily intention, such as “I need to think about my words before replying to messages today.” Having the phrase written down and posted somewhere you’ll always see it can help you be more intentional with how you act and react.

Relationship Management

Relationship management is the ability to influence and inspire others. In an article for consulting firm Korn Ferry, Goleman calls this “friendliness with a purpose.”

• Coach and mentor
• Conflict management
• Inspirational leadership

To work on relationship management at the office, try ensuring you explain your decisions not only to your peers but also to your employees. You’ll also want to listen when others do the same. This will help you build trust and can help others feel heard and appreciated.

Social Awareness

To be socially aware is to have the ability to empathize with the emotional experiences of individuals as well as to read and understand the emotional drivers behind group dynamics. Regarding the latter, this could be understanding the office politics of a particular organization — individual influencers, intraoffice networks, unspoken rules, etc.

• Organizational awareness

You can work on your social awareness by ensuring you’re present in social interactions, listening to what others have to say as well as watching how people act and react. Additionally, try having a conversation-starter question on hand. This can help you break the ice when meeting others for the first time or diffuse awkwardness when a conversation begins to wane.

>> Read More: The Top Soft Skills Employers Want

How Emotional Intelligence Affects Your Career

According to the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE), there are eight career readiness competencies: career and self-development, communication, critical thinking, equity and inclusion, leadership, professionalism, teamwork, and technology. While EI may not tie into the technology competency, it does connect to the other seven.

Career and Self-Development

According to NACE, some of the sample behaviors in this competency include establishing and maintaining relationships as well as being aware of both your strengths and where you need development.

Understanding and being aware of your and other people’s emotions can help you better connect with others. It can also help you be more empathetic and recognize how others want to be treated, which helps with establishing better working relationships, according to leadership development firm EWF International .

Additionally, research shows that emotional intelligence is positively associated with taking ownership of your career goals, according to an article in Human Resource Management Review . Being able and willing not only to set career goals but also to recognize what you need to work on to reach those goals can help with long-term success.

When it comes to professional communication, you should be able to be a good active listener and communicate with others in a way that respects their learning style, abilities, and cultural differences, according to NACE.

By applying the tenets of good emotional intelligence, you can be a stronger communicator. It can help you be more respectful of how each person wants to be communicated with as well as better understand the meaning behind their communication. In the world of instant messaging and emails, this can help you avoid misinterpreting intent in the absence of facial expressions and body language.

Critical Thinking

One of the sample behaviors for critical thinking, according to NACE, is the ability to “make decisions and solve problems using sound, inclusive reasoning and judgment.” Being aware and in control of your emotions — self-management — is linked to critical thinking, according to an article in Psychology Today .

Your emotions can affect how you read and interpret data and vice versa. Knowing when and how to set emotion aside and be objective about a task or findings can help you make better decisions in the long run.

Equity and Inclusion

NACE defines equity and inclusion as the ability to “demonstrate the awareness, attitude, knowledge, and skills required to equitably engage and include people from different local and global cultures.”

This ties into all four components of emotional intelligence. You need to be aware of your own biases (self-awareness), willing to work on and change them (self-management), have empathy for how others feel and want to be treated (social awareness), and be willing to influence others to do the same (relationship management).

According to an article in the Journal of Engineering, Project, and Production Management , EI is a success factor for both leadership and decision-making. It can help you be more empathetic and a better communicator with your team.

“Managers who show more empathy toward direct reports are viewed by their bosses as better performers in their jobs,” according to the Center for Creative Leadership . “Increasing your emotional intelligence quotient [can] directly increase your effectiveness as a leader.”

Professionalism

Being professional means acting with integrity as well as being dependable and consistent. But if you act based on uncontrolled emotions, you may make decisions that are not in your own best interest or that of the organization.

Understanding your own emotions and how to control them may allow you to better navigate times in which negative emotions begin to rise. For example, instead of procrastinating due to fear of failure, you can recognize and accept that emotion, but apply self-management skills to put that fear aside long enough to complete the task at hand.

Think about the last time you worked on a team project. There can often be as many personality types, communication styles, and ideas about how to best complete the task as there are people on the team. This can lead to difficulties in task completion.

When it comes to effective teamwork, you need to be able to read and react to your teammates’ emotional states and adjust your own behavior, according to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER). In fact, the NBER published research showing “a clear and statistically significant correlation between being a good team player and emotional perceptiveness.”

>> Read More: Goal-Setting Strategies and Resources

Enhance Your Career With a Degree from Purdue Global

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• Published: 09 May 2024

The moderating effect of physical exercises on job stress, emotional intelligence, and teaching satisfaction among Chinese University teachers

• Mao Zhao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2581-3003 1 ,
• Yating Yu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9416-0130 2 &
• Kuen Fung Sin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8923-1443 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  599 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Health humanities

This study presents a conceptual model that investigates teaching satisfaction as an outcome variable in mainland China. The model incorporates the mediating mechanism of emotional intelligence and the moderating role of physical activity. The results of a survey of 2500 university teachers from 25 public institutions, which tested teaching satisfaction, demonstrate that job stress is negatively related to teaching satisfaction and indirectly related to emotional intelligence. Physical exercise acts as a moderating factor that alleviates the negative correlation between job stress and emotional intelligence. Overall, our findings indicate that enhancing the frequency of physical exercises can potentially alleviate stress, regulate emotional intelligence, and ultimately contribute to a positive enhancement in teaching satisfaction. These outcomes undeniably hold practical significance for teachers and educational administrators in the realm of higher education.

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Introduction.

The quality of teaching forms the foundation of the university and is vital for its sustainable development. A crucial metric for assessing the effectiveness of instruction is teaching satisfaction (Truta et al. 2018 ). It refers to the degree of contented emotional state attained by a person’s evaluation of instructional work and its worth. It reveals how much instructors love their jobs and how they see the state of education today (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2011 ; Oshagbemi, 2003 ). Teaching satisfaction is a crucial sign of the effectiveness of talent cultivation and instruction. It is essential for fostering the reform, expansion, and growth of institutions of higher learning (Gao et al. 2021 ). According to Yin et al. ( 2013 ) and Yin ( 2015 ), teachers’ emotional intelligence (EI) is a key element in fostering teaching satisfaction. Additionally, a prior study (Biddle and Asare, 2011 ) found that physical activity enhances self-esteem, self-concept, and self-confidence. Additionally, it promotes communication and empathy while lowering job stress (De Benito and Luján, 2013 ; Ros et al. 2013 ).

In the fields of teaching, research, and administration, university faculty members frequently face conflicting expectations (Vardi, 2009 ). These pressures are sources of work stress for the majority of teachers, which can result in unpleasant feelings and poor professional results like burnout and low job satisfaction (Skaalvik and Skaalvik, 2007 ). According to earlier surveys, the situation for university academics in China is significantly worse. Universities and colleges have raised the expectations for teaching and research competitiveness, which has resulted in a high degree of stress, depressive symptoms, emotional exhaustion, and turnover among faculty members at universities (You, 2014 ; Yin et al. 2020 ; Han et al. 2021 ; Yu et al. 2022 ). A 2013 survey study found that 36% of university faculty members in China suffer from stress (Liu and Zhou, 2016 ), which has been linked to lower job satisfaction and unfavourable faculty emotions (Gao et al. 2015 ; Liu and Zhou, 2016 ; Wang et al. 2020 ; Liu et al. 2023 ).

Researchers have recently developed a strong interest in the study of instructors’ emotions. EI is the capacity to perceive, classify, and express emotions accurately. The ability to produce emotions when they are beneficial for thinking, comprehending emotions, and learning about emotions, as well as the capability to control emotions to foster both intellectual and emotional development, are further traits of EI (Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ). According to previous studies, higher EI scores lead to greater health and well-being (Cabello and Fernández-Berrocal, 2015 ; Sánchez-Álvarez et al. 2016 ; Costa et al. 2014 ) and better job performance (Côté, 2014 ; Fox and Spector, 2000 ; Muchhal and Solkhe, 2017 ). Similar to how perceived stress is frequently described as the type and intensity of negative emotions, pleasant emotions are seen as a critical counterbalance to perceived stress (Rahm and Heise, 2019 ). Job satisfaction has been proven to be negatively correlated with perceived stress (Klassen and Chiu, 2010 ). Meanwhile, research has shown that high levels of EI are linked to healthy behaviours like avoiding alcohol and smoking, maintaining a nutritious diet, or engaging in more exercise and are associated with low levels of mental and physical health (Tsaousis and Nikolaou, 2005 ; Extremera and Fernández-Berrocal, 2002 ; Lewis et al. 2017 ).

There has been a significant increase in research related to physical exercise and EI, some from the field of physical education (Ferrer-Caja and Weiss, 2000 ; García-Martínez et al. 2018 ; González et al. 2019 ; Gutiérrez Sas et al. 2017 ; Lu and Buchanan, 2014 ; Mouton et al. 2013 ; Puertas Molero et al. 2017 ) and others from sport psychology (Bretón Prats et al. 2017 ; Zurita-Ortega et al. 2017 ). Emotional changes during physical exercise have been examined in individuals who have undergone physical activity (Duran et al. 2015 ; Acebes-Sánchez et al. 2019 ). For instance, physical activity offers the chance to overcome obstacles, work with others as a team, and compete against oneself (Ubago-Jiménez et al. 2019 ). Experiences with physical activity can act as a mechanism for the development of emotions. Therefore, physical exercise enhances positive emotions (Biddle, 2000 ), and positive pleasant emotions (Wolfson and Turnbull, 2002 ; Kerr and Kuk, 2001 ) and enhances well-being (Szabo, 2003 ). Most studies have shown a positive correlation between EI and physical exercise levels (Zysberg and Hemmel, 2018 ; Li et al. 2009 ; Dev et al. 2012 ). Thus, those who met exercise recommendations had better EI compared to those who did not meet the exercise recommendations (Li et al. 2009 ; Dev et al. 2012 ). In a similar vein, there were notable differences in EI between physically active and inactive people; the active people had better EI (Fernández Ozcorta et al. 2015 ). Other studies (Tsaousis and Nikolaou, 2005 ; Saklofske et al. 2007 ; Magnini et al. 2011 ; Li et al. 2011 ) have demonstrated a substantial relationship between EI and the amount of exercise.

The majority of recent research on teachers’ stress has used faculty samples from Western universities. However, given the cross-national cultural differences associated with stress interpretation and coping, it is questionable to what extent these findings are applicable to the Chinese higher education context (Shin and Jung, 2014 ). Few researchers have examined whether job stress and EI are associated with the level of physical exercises that faculty do to enhance teaching satisfaction. The purpose of our study was to explore the direct relationship between job stress and teaching satisfaction and to attempt to understand how EI and physical exercise work together to influence teaching satisfaction and thus help university faculty feel satisfied with their teaching jobs.

Literature review

Job stress and teaching satisfaction.

Faculty satisfaction in teaching is significantly influenced by job stress. Numerous contextual factors, such as an increased workload, a lack of free time, problems with student behaviour, a lack of adequate resources, a lack of administrative support, and the variety of tasks needed are frequently predictors of teacher job stress (Kokkinos, 2007 ; Berryhill et al. 2009 ; Fütterer et al. 2022 ). These elements may lower job satisfaction (Armstrong et al. 2015 ), lower teaching self-efficacy (Klassen et al. 2013 ), job burnout (Wang et al. 2020 ), and lower EI (Petrides et al. 2016 ) as well as lower educational quality.

In Chinese higher education, there have been few studies that specifically analyze the relationship between faculty job stress and job satisfaction, but it is well known that job stress is a major contributor to dedication, presentation, and faculty turnover, all of which are strongly correlated with job happiness (Toropova et al. 2021 ; Bogler and Nir, 2015 ; Dorenkamp and Ruhle, 2019 ; Riyadi, 2015 ). Academic and teaching job stress has increased in colleges and universities as a result of the changing working conditions and environment in higher education, including increased levels of management control, increased job demands, and job insecurity (Kinman and Jones, 2008 ; Ablanedo-Rosas et al. 2011 ; Shin and Jung, 2014 ). In addition, studies have shown that teacher self-efficacy is a strong predictor of teachers’ effective implementation of instructional strategies (Künsting et al. 2016 ), and Gentile et al. ( 2023 ) argued that teachers with low self-efficacy also have a greater negative impact on the implementation of instructional strategies and teaching performance. Even faculty members who are happy with their jobs can experience extremely high levels of job stress. Tian and Lu ( 2017 ) found that the rapid expansion of China’s shift to mass education and the demanding requirements to improve international rankings and competitiveness, as well as higher demands on research productivity and funding, resulted in greater teaching workload pressures on faculty and staff. Because of this, faculty members are being forced to handle heavier responsibilities in terms of teaching and research, which increases workplace stress (Jacobs and Winslow, 2004 ; Tytherleigh et al. 2005 ; Houston et al. 2006 ; Dickson-Swift et al. 2009 ).

High job stress is also a problem for Chinese university professors (Li and Kou, 2018 ; Han et al. 2021 ), and it is linked to lower job satisfaction (He and Liu, 2012 ; Gao et al. 2015 ; He, 2015 ). For university teachers, the strain and weight of a large workload are more likely to diminish the value of their work experience, encourage negative feelings, and reduce job satisfaction (Zang et al. 2022 ). University lecturers with more stressful occupations have been found to have higher rates of burnout (Li, 2018 ). Job stress was shown to be negatively correlated with job satisfaction but mitigated the negative association between job stress and organisational commitment, according to a recent study of 1906 university instructors in China (Wang et al. 2020 ). Previous studies on the job satisfaction of university professors have discovered a significant correlation between job stress and job satisfaction in various groups. As a result, the first hypothesis of this study is that teaching pleasure is adversely correlated with the job stress of university professors.

Emotional intelligence and teaching work

EI refers to the ability to express and evaluate one’s own and others’ emotions, control one’s own and other’s emotions, and use emotions to resolve practical issues. It is the comprehensive ability to accurately perceive, express, and evaluate emotions (Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ). According to previous studies, Salovey and Mayer ( 1990 ) stated that EI can be viewed as “a subset of social intelligence that includes the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, distinguish between them, and use this information to guide ones’ thinking and actions” (p. 189). EI includes abilities including awareness of oneself, compassion, handling emotions, self-motivation, and managing connections with others, according to Goleman ( 1995 ).

The two different EI models that are now accessible are the ability model and the trait model. EI is the ability to understand, use, and regulate one’s own and other people’s emotions. Two maximum performance tests can be used to measure EI: the Multifactor Intelligence Scale (MEIS; Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ) and the Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Scale (MSCEIS; Mayer et al. 2004 ). EI is classified at a lower level of personality taxonomies and is viewed in the trait model as a constellation of emotion-related self-perceptions and behavioural dispositions that affect peoples’ capacity to perceive and exploit emotion-related information (Shi and Wang, 2007 ). Two self-report measures that are frequently used in studies to measure EI are the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS; Wong and Law, 2002 ) and the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al. 1998 ).

In the context of higher education, some academics have accepted the characteristic model. When using the EIS developed by Schutte et al. ( 1998 ), Chan ( 2004 , 2006 ) suggested that teachers’ EI has four dimensions: emotional assessment, positive regulation, empathy sensitivity, and positive utilisation. Some researchers have suggested that teachers’ EI includes four different dimensions: self-evaluation of emotions, evaluation or recognition of others’ emotions, regulation of self-emotions, and use of emotions to facilitate performance (Wong et al. 2010 ; Karim and Weisz, 2011 ). Additionally, Petrides ( 2009 ) developed the TEIQe-SF (short form), which consists of 30 items measuring four broad factors (well-being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability) and global trait EI that is directly entered into the TEIQue-SF total score. The TEIQue-SF focuses on emotion-related self-perceptions as measured by self-report questionnaires. The higher-order structure of the TEIQue-SF is assumed to be oblique, making it a multifaceted construct (Petrides and Mavroveli, 2018 ). This study synthesises this plethora of knowledge by focusing on the EI model and using a self-report questionnaire to assess teachers’ EI.

Ignat and Clipa ( 2012 ) argued that teachers’ EI plays a key role in the expression of their positive attitudes and satisfaction with their work and life, which contributes to their effectiveness as a teacher. Similarly, EI is an important component of positive psychology that has a significant impact on human performance, well-being, and subjective well-being (Bar-On, 2010 ). However, current research on the relationship between EI and teacher burnout or work-related stress, which explores the relevance of trait EI to teachers’ teaching jobs, has yielded inconsistent findings. For instance, Zeidner et al. ( 2012 ) proposed that EI has an effect on reducing occupational stress, decreasing negative emotion levels, and experiencing positive emotional states. In addition, a meta-analytic review that correlated EI with health, well-being, and performance indicators revealed differences in self-reported and performance EI tests (Miao et al. 2016 ; Sánchez-Álvarez et al. 2015 ). However, these cumulative findings suggest that different conceptualisations of EI and specific emotional skills, as measured by different EI tests, are associated with lower burnout or higher teaching satisfaction symptoms. In fact, it is not understood how different EI types impact burnout symptoms in different ways. Based on ability and trait models, a number of instruments have been created that include several aspects (Mayer et al. 2008 ). Therefore, it is challenging to synthesize the present understanding of research in this domain due to the variability of measures.

Physical exercise, job stress, and emotional intelligence

Physical exercise is defined as “any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscle that results in energy expenditure in excess of resting energy expenditure” (Thompson, 2003 ). Physical exercise is associated with physical (Kokkinos, 2008 ; Chomistek et al. 2013 ; Archer and Blair, 2011 ; Hamilton et al. 2007 ; Cavill et al. 2006 ), psychological, and social wellness (Penedo and Dahn, 2005 ; Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Paluska and Schwenk, 2000 ; Mammen and Faulkner, 2013 ; Ströhle, 2009 ; Hills et al. 2015 ). In the particular context of mental health, earlier research has discovered that people who exercise physically exhibit improved psychological well-being and experience less stress and despair. These results applied to young people (Norris et al. 1992 ; Brand et al. 2017 ), college students (Castillo and Molina-García, 2010 ; Molina-García et al. 2011 ), and the elderly (Netz et al. 2005 ; Gogulla et al. 2012 ). Human physiology benefits from physical activity in a number of ways. Its value in preventing obesity, cardiovascular disease, and high blood pressure has been shown in some trials (Okay et al. 2009 ). Exercisers may have decreased rates of depression, according to Strawbridge et al. ( 2002 ) study. Additionally, those who exercised were more likely to partake in other healthy and beneficial pursuits. This study also looked at the causal link between physical activity and depression and came to the conclusion that there was none. Increased exercise and decreased job stress were found to have a real association but not a causal relationship. Early studies (Lawlor and Hopker, 2001 ; Sjösten and Kivelä, 2006 ; Stathopoulou et al. 2006 ) revealed that physical activity as an intervention has clinical consequences for the treatment of depression. Moreover, it has been asserted (Wickramasinghe, 2010 ) that physical activity is a form of personal coping that not only lessens stress (Clark et al. 2016 ; Nguyen-Michel et al. 2006 ) but also guards against its negative effects (Fang et al. 2019 ; Moreira-Silva et al. 2014 ; Toker and Biron, 2012 ). Adults should engage in at least 75 min of vigorous aerobic exercise (VPE), at least 150 min of moderate aerobic exercise (MPE), or an equivalent combination of both, every week, according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (World Health Organization T, 2010 ).

Over the past few decades, a number of theories have been put up to explain how regular physical activity participation influences employees’ psychological functioning in terms of work-related outcomes (Naczenski et al. 2017 ). According to empirical research on physiological mechanisms, regular physical activity can help reduce workplace psychological stress (Klaperski et al. 2014 ). Regarding the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis mechanism, regular physical activity causes biological adaptations (such as altering individual sedation patterns, lowering blood pressure, and reducing hormone production) that lessen physiological reactions to stressors in general, including job stressors, as well as to stressors specific to physical exercise (Klaperski et al. 2013 ; Sothman, 2006 ; Zhao et al. 2021 ). Given that empirical research has demonstrated that quick recovery from stress can avoid many health-related issues, adaptability across stressors through physical activity is regarded as a key health-protective strategy (Chrousos, 2009 ). Additionally, a number of research on the mechanisms for recovering from job stress (such as Feuerhahn et al. 2014 ; Sonnentag et al. 2017 ) have noted the importance of physical exercise outside of work for reducing job stress, refilling depleted resources, and increasing levels of work engagement.

According to the studies consulted, people appreciate how the practice of physical activity and sport provides much satisfaction in exchange for much effort. Physical exercise involves relaxation, provides an opportunity to face challenges, and is a way to work together and motivate as a team, or to compete with oneself (Castro-Sánchez et al. 2018 ; Castro-Sánchez et al. 2018 ). IE and physical exercise are strongly related to the extent that many relaxation, concentration, and visualisation techniques are being shared in more and more clubs, and federations, and even coaches are hiring more professionals to implement these techniques with the aim of improving athletes’ performance (Puertas-Molero et al. 2018 ). Similarly, it emphasises the importance of physical exercise practices in producing improvements in physical, psychological, and social aspects, as well as the quality of life reflected (González Valero et al. 2017 ). However, the use of physical exercise to regulate faculty emotions in higher education is insufficiently studied.

People who engage in physical exercise experience emotional changes during the practice (Zamorano-García et al. 2018 ; Romero-Martín et al. 2017 ). Some scholars have pointed out that physical exercises are strongly associated with EI, and the emotional characteristics of individuals become more obvious after physical exercises. People who consciously and consistently exercise for a long period of time are generally less likely to have emotional problems such as anxiety, fright, and social disorders (Downs and Strachan, 2013 ; Ubago-Jiménez et al. 2019 ). In modern countries, the lack of physical exercise may have a negative impact on physical health and psychological well-being (Erikssen, 2001 ; Gutin et al. 2007 ; Rexrode et al. 1998 ; Blaes et al. 2011 ). Physical exercise is linked to better stress management and increased levels of EI, which are crucial for human interaction in daily life (Gacek and Frączek, 2005 ; Bhochhibhoya et al. 2014 ; Roxana Dev et al. 2014 ).

The current study

A review of the literature found that there is still little empirical data on the connections between job stress, teachers’ EI, physical exercise, and teaching satisfaction. Therefore, this study attempts to examine the effects of teachers’ job stress, EI, and physical exercises on teaching satisfaction using a sample of university teachers from China (Fig. 1 ). Specifically, this study aims to answer the following five research hypotheses:

Conceptual model of job stress, emotional intelligence, teaching satisfaction, and physical exercises.

H1. Teachers’ job stress is negatively related to teaching satisfaction.

H2. Teachers’ job stress is negatively related to teachers’ EI.

H3. Teachers’ EI predicts and positively influences teaching satisfaction.

H4. Teachers’ EI would undermine the negative relationship between job stress and teaching satisfaction.

H5. The mediating effect of EI will differ by the frequency of physical exercises.

Methodology

Participants and data collection.

The study utilized a quantitative survey design that encompassed higher education institutions (HEIs) in Sichuan Province, China. A voluntary, anonymous online poll was conducted with 2680 university teachers from 25 public universities in Sichuan, western China. The university teachers are from different disciplines: math education, international economics and trade, accounting, financial management, business management, and statistics. The poll was carried out using a convenience sample approach as part of a university teacher training programme that the Sichuan Provincial Department of Education launched in July 2023.

Before data collection, we obtained approval from the Academic Board of the Faculty of Education and Psychology of the authors’ university. Afterwards, the research team sent a consent letter to each teacher. In the letter, we specified our confidentiality protection code, the pure nature of the volunteers’ participation, as well as the secure storage of the data and access restrictions. Moreover, the university professors had to respond to all of the questions.

Data collection consisted of four questionnaires (i.e., job stress, emotional intelligence, physical exercise, and teaching satisfaction). The questionnaires were administered online, so teachers were free to decide when and where they would participate. In addition, all research participants were informed about the research objectives of the study and were given the same instructions. Finally, anonymity was guaranteed in all steps of data processing. Exclusion criteria for participation in the study included refusal to provide informed consent, unwillingness to continue with the study, multiple completion of questionnaires by the same participant, and incomplete questionnaires. A total of 92 questionnaires were excluded due to incompleteness, 25 questionnaires were removed as they represented multiple responses from the same participant, and 63 samples were discarded during the data cleaning process. As a result, a final dataset of 2500 questionnaires was retained, yielding a response rate of approximately 93.3%.

Instruments

Four different scales were used in this study to measure job stress, teachers’ EI, physical exercise, and teaching satisfaction. The questionnaire was based on a set of four standardised scales and a set of demographic questions.

The College Work Stress Scale (CWSS: Li, 2005 ) was employed in this study to gauge employee stress. The CWSS, which consists of 24 items and is scored on a Likert scale from 1 (no stress) to 5 (severe stress), is intended to measure the level of job stress among university staff. “Please assess these factors as a source of stress for you: a chance for promotion”, read one sample question. The scale took into account five factors that affect work stress, including job stability, academic tenure, social connections, work pressure, and work enjoyment. The CWSS exhibited strong internal consistency reliability (=0.92) for all items, according to Lis’ 2005 study. The CWSS has sufficient internal consistency reliability (=0.81 to 0.91) and construct validity evidence in Chinese studies, according to a number of earlier investigations (He and Liu, 2012 ; Ni et al. 2016 ; Wang and Jing, 2019 ). Employment security (1 item), interpersonal relationships (3 items), and work enjoyment (2 items) were the three employment stresses considered in this study.

Emotional intelligence

The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) measures a person’s capacity for emotional expression, self-regulation, and problem-solving. The Wang ( 2002 ) revised Chinese version of the scale was applied in this investigation. The measure has 33 items total, of which 5, 28, and 33 are quantified using a 5-point Likert scale and are reverse-scored. They were scored on a scale of 1–5 based on the “very inconsistent-very consistent” option, with scores ranging from 33–165, and higher scores indicating stronger EI. The final three dimensions of EI used in this study are self-emotion appraisal (4 items), use of emotions (4 items), and regulation of emotions (4 items) (Wong and Law, 2002 ).

Physical exercise

Physical exercise was the moderating variable in this study, and the item measured was “In the past 12 months, how many times per week did you typically engage in up to 30 min of physical activity that made you sweat?” It was developed as an enhancement to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), which has been validated and used to evaluate physical exercise patterns (Craig et al. 2003 ). This is a continuous variable with a maximum value of 7, a minimum value of 1, and a mean value of 4.36.

Teaching satisfaction

A specific aspect of faculty satisfaction with the teaching profession as a whole was evaluated using the 5-item Teaching Satisfaction Scale (TSS), which was created by Ho and Au ( 2006 ). A 5-point scale (1 being entirely disagreed, and 5 being completely agreed) was used for all five questions.

Demographics

Gender, professional rank (professors and associate professors, lecturers and teaching assistants), and type of higher education institution (national research-oriented universities and provincial teaching-oriented universities) were the three primary demographic indicators that were collected for this study. The items in all four scales used in this research were originally developed in English and later translated into Chinese. To ensure linguistic equivalence, a translation and back-translation procedure was employed. This process helped in achieving consistency and accuracy in the Chinese translations of the scale items.

Data analysis strategy

The discrepancies between participants’ responses were examined during the data filtering procedure. If participants responded the same to each question, cases were eliminated. Using the expectation maximisation (EM) method, it was calculated that less than 5% of the data were missing. Three stages made up the analysis plan for this investigation. First, the scales’ validity and reliability were examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and the internal consistency (Cronbachs’ alpha) coefficient. Second, the link between the bivariate variables was examined using Pearson correlation analysis and linear regression analysis. The levels of significance were set at p  < 0.05, p  < 0.01, and p  < 0.001. Thirdly, using Mplus 8.0, a comprehensive structural equation model (SEM) was built based on a mediation analysis of bootstrap techniques to ascertain the connection between job stress, EI, and teaching satisfaction among university professors in a higher education context. A variety of acceptable metrics, such as RMSEA < 0.08, SRMR < 0.05, CFI > 0.9, and TLI > 0.9, were used to assess the model fit (Schreiber et al. 2006 ). The bootstrap method was utilized in mediation analysis to find unintended consequences (Hayes, 2009 ).

Reliability and CFA analysis of the scales

This analysis’s first phase involved applying CFA to examine each standardised measure’s factor structure. Each scale’s reliability and CFA analyses were evaluated in various educational settings. The findings show that each scale’s reliability coefficients, with Cronbachs’ alpha values ranging from 0.785 to 0.892, were satisfactory.

Table 1 presents a summary of the CFA findings. The CFA assessment of SEA, OEA, UOE, and ROE revealed a well-fitting model (χ 2  = 418.744, df = 100, p  < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.036, CFI = 0.987, TLI = 0.984, SRMR = 0.021). Similarly, the CFA analysis of JS demonstrated a good model fit (χ 2  = 546.656, df = 202, p  < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.026, CFI = 0.990, TLI = 0.988, SRMR = 0.017). As for PE, the CFA analysis indicated an appropriate model fit ( p  < 0.001, CFI = 1, TLI = 1). The results of the CFA analysis suggest that TS (χ 2  = 57.442, df = 5, p  < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.065, CFI = 0.992, TLI = 0.984, SRMR = 0.013) was a good fit for the data.

Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

The participants of this study were 2500 university teachers, in terms of gender, 1120 were male teachers (44.8%) and 1380 were female teachers (55.2%); in terms of position, 500 were professors (20%); 850 were associate professors (34%); 1000 were lecturers (40%); and 150 were teaching assistants (6%); in terms of experience, 230 were university teachers with 1–2 years (9.2%); 520 were university teachers with 3–5 years (20.8%); 850 were university teachers with 6–10 years (34%); and 900 were university teachers with 10 years and above (36%). In terms of experience, there were 230 university teachers with 1–2 years (9.2%); 520 university teachers with 3–5 years (20.8%); 850 university teachers with 6–10 years (34%); and 900 university teachers with 10 years and above (36%).

Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics for each of the latent variables in the sample of university teachers. The results show that job stress was significantly and negatively related to emotional intelligence (r = −0.494, p  < 0.01), teaching satisfaction (r = −0.618, p  < 0.01), and physical exercise ( r  = −0.061, p  < 0.01). However, emotional intelligence was found to be significantly and positively related to teaching satisfaction ( r  = 0.592, p  < 0.01) and physical exercise ( r  = 0.097, p  < 0.01). Finally, teaching satisfaction was significantly and positively associated with physical exercise ( r  = 0.123, p  < 0.01).

Structural Model

The model fit indicators show that the structural model had a good fit to the data (χ 2  = 1566.41, df = 846, p  < 0.001, RMSEA = 0.018, CFI = 0.989, TLI = 0.988, SRMR = 0.017). As can be seen from Table 3 , there is a statistically significant relationship between teacher job stress and emotional intelligence (β = −0.551, p  < 0.001). However, emotional intelligence significantly and positively predicts teaching satisfaction (β = 0.418, p  < 0.001). At the same time, there is a significant negative association between teacher job stress and teaching satisfaction (β = −0.454, p  < 0.001).

Mediation effect of emotional intelligence

The bootstrap method was used to test the significance of the mediating path. That is, whether the indirect effect of teacher job stress on teaching satisfaction through teacher emotional intelligence was significantly different from zero. The path analysis was conducted using Mplus 8.0 for this purpose. The results are reported in Table 3 .

Table 3 shows that the indirect effect of teachers’ job stress on teaching satisfaction through emotional intelligence is significant (β = −0.230, p  < 0.001), and the 95% C.I. is [−0.259, −0.209]. According to the results reported in Table 3 , we can see that H1, H2, H3, and H4 are all supported.

Testing of moderated mediation models

For testing the moderating effect of physical exercise, we used hierarchical regression analyses in this study. As presented in Table 4 , this study used PROCESS model 7 to test the relationship between the interaction of physical exercise and job stress on emotional intelligence. The results show that the interaction between job stress and physical exercise was significant ( b  = 0.265, t  = 18.609, p  < 0.001), and physical exercise was able to positively moderate the effect of job stress on emotional intelligence. Furthermore, we conducted simple slope analyses (Aiken et al. 1991 ) to analyse the mediating role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between job stress and teaching satisfaction at low (one SD below the mean) and high (one SD above the mean) levels of physical exercise. The results (see Fig. 2 ) show that job stress was significantly negatively correlated with emotional intelligence under the moderating effect of high and low group physical exercise ( b  = −0.188, t  = −7.743, p  < 0.001; b  = −0.827, t  = −34.433, p  < 0.001). It can be seen that the level of negative correlation between job stress and emotional intelligence is somewhat stronger under the moderating effect of the low-group physical exercise.

Interacting effects between job stress and physical exercise on emotional intelligence.

In addition, this study also adopted Bootstrap (5000 times) results (see Table 4 ) and show that the difference in the mediation effect sizes between the low and high values of physical exercise was 0.274, and the 95% confidence intervals [0.239, 0.311] did not contain 0. The difference in effect sizes was significant, and physical exercise can positively moderate the mediating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between job stress and teaching satisfaction. This result supports the H5.

This study’s objective was to give theoretical and empirical knowledge about the evolution of university professors’ mental health within the setting of Chinese higher education. This study focuses on the direct effects of job stress on university teachers’ satisfaction with their instruction, the mediating effect of TEI on job stress and teaching satisfaction, and the mechanisms by which physical exercise modifies the relationship between teachers’ job stress and EI. This is a crucial step in developing teachers’ mental health and in comprehending the mechanisms that underlie them. The association between teachers’ job stress, emotional intelligence, physical exercise, and teaching satisfaction is supported by our findings.

Five hypotheses were tested using a higher-order model in SEM to provide support for our investigation. This study hypothesizes that teachers’ job stress is negatively related to teaching satisfaction (H1). These associations help us understand the negative findings while providing opportunities to reformulate our theory of faculty stress in the Chinese context. University faculty members almost always encounter pressures connected to their jobs, and a significant amount of study has been done to investigate this topic. Stress has been highlighted as an important component in the newly emerging literature on faculty development in China, serving as both a significant independent and dependent variable. Meng and Wang ( 2018 ), for instance, show that the stress levels of Chinese teachers varied according to their professional status, age, and amount of teaching time. They also stress the significance of understanding “the positive effects of occupational stress while working to eliminate stressors” (p. 603). Jing ( 2008 ) looked at workplace stress among undergraduate professors and discovered that it had a substantial impact on how well they were able to teach, which is why she encouraged “administrators and faculty to manage their stress and stimulus performance” (p. 294). According to Sun et al. ( 2011 ), China’s university teachers are particularly vulnerable to professional stress due to poor mental health. They came to the conclusion that one of the key steps in lowering occupational stress is to improve mental health and the organisational climate. These and other findings, such as Lai et al. ( 2014 ) and Tian and Lu ( 2017 ), have elevated the role of stressors in both theory and related research. Our study challenges this notion. More precisely, stress plays a significant role in this area of research, but by using stress assessment as the foundation for validity, we can better comprehend the patterns and mechanisms connected to teaching satisfaction.

This study also predicts a negative relationship between teachers’ job stress and EI, thus supporting the study’s H2. The effect size of teachers’ job stress on EI was −0.551, indicating that job stress plays a promising role in predicting EI and outcomes (Zysberg et al. 2017 ; Asrar-ul-Haq et al. 2017 ; Naseem, 2018 ). The findings of the study confirm those reported in previous studies involving teachers in higher education settings, emphasizing that teachers’ job stress is a critical factor influencing TEI (Akomolafe and Ogunmakin, 2014 ; Yusoff et al. 2013 ; Usmani et al. 2022 ). At the higher education level, fewer studies have been conducted on the importance of teachers’ teaching satisfaction, and these studies have addressed teachers’ teaching styles, cultural backgrounds, and perceptions. The association between occupational stress and EI among faculty members in different fields in higher education institutions, however, does not appear to have been extensively examined in prior studies. The findings of this study stress the significance of this link for present and future faculty members and researchers in higher education institutions.

The study’s findings are consistent with the premise that there is a strong positive relationship between teachers’ feelings of job satisfaction and their EI. According to earlier studies (Khassawneh et al. 2022 ; Yin et al. 2013 ; Efendi et al. 2021 ), EI is a critical component of success as a teacher. The effects of EI on reducing occupational stress, reducing negative emotions, and promoting positive emotional states have been demonstrated in numerous studies (Keefer et al. 2009 ; Zeidner et al. 2012 ). Numerous research (Keefer et al. 2009 ; Zeidner et al., 2012 ) have shown that EI has a favourable impact on reducing occupational stress, reducing negative emotions, and boosting positive emotional states. Given this data, it is becoming more widely accepted that raising teachers’ well-being and enhancing their stress resilience can both benefit from EI training (Vesely-Maillefer and Saklofske, 2018 ). To measure teachers’ emotional intelligence, this study used three substructures: self-emotional appraisal, use of emotions, and management of emotions. The findings show a considerable correlation between EI and teaching satisfaction, with an EI-teaching satisfaction correlation coefficient of 0.592 being statistically significant. This implies that teachers’ levels of happiness at work are significantly influenced by their EI. Teachers who have high EI are more likely to believe in their ability to do their jobs well and to be open to taking on difficult teaching tasks that might result in effective performance.

The results of this study support hypothesis H4, which claims that instructors’ emotional intelligence (EI) is a critical mediator between job stress and teaching satisfaction. This supports the EI theory stated by Mayer et al. ( 1999 ). To the best of our knowledge, no prior research has examined how EI in teachers may play a mediating role in the link between job stress and teaching satisfaction. However, earlier studies have demonstrated that EI is a key mediator in the relationship between various teacher attributes in primary and secondary schools (Yin et al. 2016 ; Ju et al. 2015 ; Vesely et al. 2013 ; Berkovich and Eyal, 2017 ; Basim et al. 2013 ; Mérida-López et al. 2017 ; Latif et al. 2017 ; Wang et al. 2023 ). Therefore, the findings of this study are well supported, and the mediating role of teachers’ EI between job stress and teaching satisfaction is reasonable.

Higher EI makes university faculty members more demanding in the higher education context. They have the capacity to put in the necessary effort to accomplish professional objectives including engaging in demanding instruction, producing works of high calibre, and submitting grant applications. Faculty members may be able to develop EI from these triumphs, allowing them to remain satisfied with their teaching even while under pressure.

In our mediation model, physical exercise was found to be significantly associated with EI as an external contextual variable. Our findings suggest that the mediating effect of EI is not dependent on physical exercise, as the mediating effect continues to work regardless of university faculty members’ frequency of physical exercise (i.e. the non-significant result of moderated mediation). However, the significant moderating effect of physical exercise suggests that teachers who engage in more frequent physical activity may have higher EI, which may positively impact their perceptions of job stress and job satisfaction. This result supports the well-established idea that physical exercise is an important source of teachers’ perceived evaluations of their own EI.

Furthermore, our results support earlier studies showing that instructors who exercise more frequently had higher emotional quotients (Gacek and Frączek, 2005 ; Bhochhibhoya et al. 2014 ; Roxana Dev et al. 2014 ; Ubago-Jiménez et al. 2019 ). Salovey and Mayers’ ( 1990 ) hypothesis supports the idea that EI is made up of three distinct adaptive skills: emotion appraisal and expression, emotion regulation, and emotion utilisation in problem-solving. By controlling their negative emotions and focusing on their positive and pleasurable feelings, teachers can modify their emotions and lessen their work stress through physical exercise. This can lead to improved EI, better well-being, and less stress and depression.

Moreover, teachers who persist in physical exercise may have faced many challenging tasks and eventually found effective ways to cope with stressful situations. As a result, they can draw on their experiences of solving job stress problems to improve their emotional state and believe in their ability to accomplish any teaching task. When teachers have high levels of positive emotions, they are more likely to control their stress levels and cope effectively with challenging teaching tasks.

Limitations

There are several limitations to this study that must be acknowledged. Firstly, the cross-sectional design of the study restricts our ability to make causal inferences about the results. A longitudinal design would provide greater certainty in investigating and highlighting significant variation and development among the study variables over time. Secondly, the moderating effects of demographic factors such as age, gender, teaching experience, and highest education could have been better understood in relation to the focus of the study. Thirdly, the method of measurement of the study variables is also a limitation. Although it is more economically feasible to assess physical exercise (PE) with self-report instruments, similar scales need to be validated in different countries. Objective assessment of physical exercise using pedometers and accelerometers may be a more accurate tool that avoids the overestimation of physical exercise that often occurs with questionnaires (Haskell, 2012 ; Warren et al. 2010 ). Fourthly, our measures were derived exclusively from teachers’ self-reports, which can sometimes lack reliability and be subject to reporting bias. In addition, there may be some potential limitations to self-reported data for reasons such as social expectations and desirability. Finally, EI is also measured using self-report instruments. If EI is assessed as a set of competencies or skills (Mayer et al. 1999 ), it can be measured with maximum validity.

The present study provides an important contribution to the existing knowledge base by establishing a direct link between university faculty job stress and teaching satisfaction and EI, and between EI and teaching satisfaction. Moreover, the study highlights the moderating role of physical exercise between job stress and EI and the mediating role of EI between job stress and teaching satisfaction. These results successfully support all research hypotheses and provide considerable support for important theoretical propositions. However, it is essential to note that teachers’ job stress and EI were equally important in influencing teaching satisfaction, and mediated the relationship between job stress and EI. The theoretical framework of this study contributes to the theoretical research in both the field of EI theory and social cognitive theory.

Furthermore, in contrast to universities with a focus on research in Western nations, faculty development programmes are extremely rare in China. However, given the formation of the China Education Project, our findings imply that we should apply psycho-cognitive and behavioural concepts to reduce the negative effects of occupational stress. Practical strategies for assessing health in specific situations and developing coping strategies to deal with potential stress may help individual teachers to reduce stress.

The stress of change in teaching and learning is a major concern as it has the potential to reduce teachers’ sense of efficacy in teaching and increase their engagement and satisfaction with teaching. Enabling teachers to enjoy the process of dealing with changes in the teaching environment can have a positive impact on promoting their positive attitudes towards teaching. Therefore, to maximise the good effects of the changes in teaching, it is important to provide teachers with the practical aid and guidance they need to manage their perceived stress.

Finally, our findings highlight the need to improve teachers’ perceptions of their own teaching efficacy in order to enhance their performance as teachers and raise their engagement and happiness with the profession. In order to address the actual demands at the individual and administrative levels, teacher development programmes may want to rethink and reevaluate the design and content of teacher training programmes.

Data availability

The data supporting the results of this study are available at https://osf.io/zeuhj .

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Zhao, M., Yu, Y. & Sin, K.F. The moderating effect of physical exercises on job stress, emotional intelligence, and teaching satisfaction among Chinese University teachers. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 599 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03108-z

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