further research and consulting

Subject Matter Expert vs. Consultant: What’s the Difference?

Published: October 25, 2022 by iSixSigma Staff

What is a Subject Matter Expert?

Subject matter experts (SMEs) are people who have a significant amount of knowledge or experience regarding a specific subject. They can specialize in any kind of academic discipline, profession or practice. Even though their area of expertise is relatively narrow compared to general consultants, there is still a lot of variability among SMEs.

Businesses consult with SMEs when they require specific insight on a project. Typically this is done on temporary contract or through retainer services, since these individuals often serve many different companies through their career. Ultimately, the value provided by a subject expert depends on the full breadth of their personal experiences as well as communications and other skills.

The Benefits of Subject Matter Expert

Subject matter experts provide value to businesses by offering them advanced insight, knowledge and perspective. Even large companies can’t afford to maintain specialized employees for every possible subject area, which means small companies can’t even come close. That’s okay though because it’s almost always more efficient to simply bring experts on board when you need them.

Since SMEs are focused on maintaining a broad and cutting-edge mastery of their field, they can help educate others and help them understand the dynamics of the process at hand. They can also leverage their knowledge and experience to guide specific decisions, whether it’s engineering a new product or implementing new workplace policies.

How to Use a Subject Matter Expert

Companies use subject matter experts in the same way they use lawyers: when they need them. That doesn’t mean businesses shouldn’t seek out and establish relations with qualified people, but it’s hard to predict what kind of SME you’ll need until the moment arrives. There’s no “right way” to use a subject matter expert as long as you are leveraging the depth and scope of their knowledge to add value.

What is a Consultant?

Consultants are professional service-providers who cater to specific types of clients. There are limitless roles and opportunities for consultants in the business world, whether it’s management, staffing or maintenance. As a general rule, the term “consultant” describes anyone who provides advice to companies regarding practical application and operations.

The Benefits of Consultant

Even though they are being paid by their client, consultants often adopt a semi-distant position as a third-party during the early phases of the collaboration. This helps them provide objective and thoughtful insight to help identify problems, solutions and opportunities. Consultants often become the joint that everything else hinges on as they work with all the key players in the project.

How to Use a Consultant

The key to using consultants, or being a consultant, is communication. Every employer, project and person is different. Setting clear limitations, expectations and organization on the collaboration is a basic best practice for getting real value out of it. It never hurts to talk to previous clients and dig into the background of potential consultants before hiring them.

Even though SMEs and consultants have a similar role in the business world, they are distinctly different. An easy way to tell them apart is to look for theory versus practice. Subject matter experts are primarily valued for their knowledge and the ability to convey this information to others clearly. Consultants are valued for their ability to put information in context and develop a strategy to implement knowledge in a practical way.

Subject Matter Expert vs Consultant: Who would use a SME or Consultants?

Consultants and SMEs have valuable roles and can be used by any kind of company. In general, a business is more likely to use consultants on a regular basis. Subject experts are usually brought in during later stages of ideation, development or problem-solving. It’s all about picking the right one for the situation.

Choosing Between Subject Matter Expert and Consultant: Real World Scenarios

If you don’t know what you need or what you are doing, you probably need a consultant. Consultants help businesses prioritize and process information so they can start getting things in order. These people aren’t just experts in their specific area, they are also experts in how this specialty should be integrated into business operations.

A subject matter expert is more focused on their area of study than the business applications. It’s up to the business to leverage the expertise of a SME. Most companies don’t even think about using subject experts until a real need arises.

Gaining from Good Advice

There’s incredible value in good advice that has been informed by education and experience. Every business leader should understand the difference between subject matter experts and consultants so they can properly use them both. Knowing when to seek out specialized knowledge and learning how to use it is one of the biggest steps towards becoming a great business leader.

About the Author

iSixSigma Staff

Advances in Consulting Research

Recent Findings and Practical Cases

• © 2019
• Volker Nissen 0

Economic Sciences and Media, Ilmenau University of Technology, Ilmenau, Germany

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• Provides a comprehensive review of current developments and trends in consulting
• Presents latest findings from consulting research
• Includes examples and cases for the application of the research findings

Part of the book series: Contributions to Management Science (MANAGEMENT SC.)

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Table of contents (20 chapters)

Front matter, consulting research: a scientific perspective on consulting.

Volker Nissen

Consulting Research as a Discipline

Consulting: characterization of concepts and connections.

• Thomas Deelmann

Institutionalization of Consulting Research: Review and Comparison of Two Approaches in Germany Over the Period 2007–2017

• Thomas Deelmann, Volker Nissen

General Issues in Consulting

To measure is to know: development of an instrument for measuring consulting service value.

• Severin Oesterle, Arne Buchwald, Nils Urbach

Measuring and Managing the Reputation of Business Consultancies

• Volker Nissen, Johannes Dittler

Development and Handling of Procedure Models for the Selection and Implementation of Business Software

How to design, implement, and manage accepted business processes.

• Volker Nissen, Thomas Müllerleile

An Empirical Study on the Work-Life-Balance in German IT Consulting: With a Focus on Female Consultants

• Volker Nissen, Frank Termer

Consulting Fields and Approaches

Systemic consultancy, theory and application.

• Martin Hillebrand, Stefan Mette

Open Management as Management Innovation: Thoughts About New Business and Disruption in Consulting

• Stephan Friedrich von den Eichen, Kurt Matzler, Julia Hautz

Sustainability Consultancies and Their Contribution to Sustainable Development

• Lisa Hannemann

Consulting Clients and Market

Consulting industry and market trends: a two-sided view.

• Christoph Treichler

The Development of Interpersonal Trust Between the Consultant and Client in the Course of the Consulting Process

• Christian Mauerer

How to Successfully Position New Consulting Services with Clients: Insights from the Theory of Planned Behavior

• Volker Nissen, Tino Machts

Future of Consulting

• IT consulting
• HR consulting
• management consulting
• professional services
• business model innovation
• consulting process

About this book

Editors and affiliations, about the editor, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Advances in Consulting Research

Book Subtitle : Recent Findings and Practical Cases

Editors : Volker Nissen

Series Title : Contributions to Management Science

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95999-3

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-319-95998-6 Published: 08 November 2018

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-07125-7 Published: 13 December 2018

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-95999-3 Published: 18 October 2018

Series ISSN : 1431-1941

Series E-ISSN : 2197-716X

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XII, 427

Number of Illustrations : 110 b/w illustrations

Topics : Services , IT in Business , Business Strategy/Leadership , Human Resource Management

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23 The Future Research Agenda

Andrew Sturdy is Professor of Management and Organisation at the University of Bristol, UK. Previously, he held posts at Imperial College London and the Universities of Bath, Melbourne and Warwick. His research lies mostly in the field of organisational innovation and the role of management consultancy. His work includes co-authored books such as Beyond Organisational Change (Macmillan), Management Consultancy (Oxford University Press) and Management as Consultancy (Cambridge University Press). He is an associate editor of the Journal of Management Inquiry and a Visiting Professor at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU). His latest work explores consultancy in national and transnational public sector contexts, including the UK National Health Service.

• Published: 18 September 2012
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This article studies the field of management consulting research and lists some future research agendas. It first pinpoints the empirical areas of neglect and some new developments. It then examines the issues of under-used sources of data and research methods, and discusses a few theoretical concerns. This article ends with a discussion of the practitioner concerns and the possible contribution of related fields of academic inquiry.

23.1 Introduction

Other chapters in this volume have pointed to further research opportunities in the specific areas they have addressed. The aim of this chapter is to look at the field of management consulting research more broadly and identify future research agendas. Given that the future is necessarily uncertain, this is, of course, highly problematic. Nevertheless, it is possible to speculate in an informed way by examining those drivers of research that have shaped the field to date and to identify areas of continuing neglect and emerging importance. So, what has led consulting research until now?

Until the 1990s, management consultancy received sporadic academic attention except, indirectly, for its association with often controversial organizational reforms (Jackall 1986 ) and, directly, through largely prescriptive accounts of organizational development and change (e.g. Schein 1969 ; Lippitt and Lippitt 1986 ; Armenakis and Burdg 1988 ). However, as consultancy expanded numerically as an occupation (in the USA, UK, and, increasingly, elsewhere), and its public and organizational profile increased, it became the focus of more analytical research—theories about consulting more than theories of consulting. This correspondence between consulting activity and consulting research reflects a key characteristic of the latter in that management consulting is not an academic discipline, but an occupation—a type of management—or an industry. Thus, research tends to be led by empirical phenomena and/or reflect theoretical and conceptual concerns of different academic disciplines or perspectives. Thus, for example, the growth of global consulting firms is of interest in the context of theoretical debates about transnational institutions (Morgan, Quack, and Sturdy 2006 ), or client–consultant interactions are explored in relation to, say, the anthropological concept of liminality (Czarniawska and Mazza 2003 ; see Czarniawska and Mazza, Chapter 21 , this volume). Such an emphasis on theoretical contribution or novelty can be a source of frustration for consultants, clients, and policy-makers who, understandably, have more pragmatic interests. To a large extent, these concerns have not been addressed in the recent wave of academic consultancy research (O’Mahoney et al. 2007 ).

This is not to say that academic consulting research has nothing to offer a wider audience, including the public and media. Indeed, a key contribution of research has been to challenge the claims of consultants, clients, and the media, and other taken-for-granted assumptions of consultancy such as that of the objective, concrete, and/or innovative nature of consulting expertise (Clark 1995 ; Alvesson 2004 ; Sturdy et al. 2009 ). Furthermore, some academic consulting research is more empirically led, using preferred and sometimes implicit theoretical perspectives to make sense of developments in the industry, such as the changing nature of the client–consultant relationship (Werr and Styhre 2003 ). Indeed, some of this research is more applied, such as in the case of client purchasing practices (Werr and Pemer 2007 ).

What frustrates academics, however, relates to a second key characteristic of consulting research—the inaccessibility or secrecy of consultancy in terms of both client and consultant practices and reliable statistical data at firm and industry levels. Indeed, while research over the last twenty or so years has shed considerable light on consultancy as a phenomenon, in many respects, it has barely touched the surface. Most has relied upon post hoc interviews and documentary evidence and focused on the specific domains of the consulting project (Sturdy et al. 2009 ), the industry structure (Kipping and Engwall 2002 ), and, to a lesser extent, product development (Heusinkveld and Benders 2005 ; Anand, Gardner, and Morris 2007 ) and HR practices in consulting firms (Kinnie et al. 2006 ; Domsch and Hristozova 2006 ). The lack of empirical depth of much consulting research is illustrated in the contrasting richness in, albeit mostly sensationalist, accounts of former consultants (e.g. Pinault 2001 ; Craig 2005 ). Indeed, at the micro-level in particular, almost any consultant or client can shed more light on consulting practice than the leading consultancy researchers. The partial exception here is that of historical research studies (e.g. Kipping 2002a ; Kipping and Armbrüster 2002 ; McKenna 2006 ), although these have other limitations such as a reliance on documentary sources and a common focus on individual firms.

The inaccessibility of consulting arises mostly from concerns of commercial, political, and existential sensitivities. However, there is also an element of competition between consultants and academics in that both sustain an identity based on claims to expertise (Kieser 2002 ). Thus, while consulting firms may be interested in what academics might contribute to their understanding of a particular client sector or organization within it, they are generally as sensitive about research on consulting as academics would be of consulting advice on academic practice. This does not mean that the best research is that performed by consultant-academics. While this can offer considerable empirical insight (which is often neglected by non-practitioners), it almost always serves to justify a particular consulting approach and consultancy in general. An ‘outsider’ view of consultancy is neither better nor worse, but different (cf. Merton 1972 ).

While relative inaccessibility to consulting practice will continue to hamper the future potential of much consulting research, the developing importance and profile of the sector, combined with its increasing geographical spread and a growing interest from different academic fields, mean that there is considerable scope for future work. Indeed, some consulting studies are already focused thus by default , in that the main focus is a related empirical domain or an area of policy such as management innovation (Birkinshaw, Hamel, and Mol 2008 ), small firms (Crucini and Kipping 2001 ; Christensen and Klyver 2006 ), or business and professional services (Løwendahl, Revang, and Fosstenløkken 2001 ). The following explores the possibilities for the future by examining some of the key drivers of research activity of particular relevance to the field of management consultancy.

The chapter is organized by addressing distinct, but closely related, themes. Firstly, empirical areas of neglect are identified, including new developments in the sector. This is followed by the related issue of under-used sources of data and research methods. Some theoretical concerns are then discussed along with the possible contribution of related fields of academic enquiry. Finally, practitioner concerns are discussed, both in terms of the consulting industry and client groups, before examining the areas of policy and explicitly political issues. The account is necessarily selective, reflective of some personal theoretical and political interests and, as already noted, partly speculative. It is, however, based on a longstanding and ongoing reading of consulting and related literatures in English (cf. Villette 2003 ); continuing involvement in empirical research and other writing projects; and a personal involvement in the consultancy policy issues of state, sector, and occupational organizations and forums in the UK, USA, and elsewhere. These activities have revealed a number of areas of empirical neglect in the academic literature to which we now turn and which could form the first basis for future research agendas.

23.2 Empirical Areas: Neglect and New Prospects

The difficulty of gaining research access to consultancy in action, which was mentioned above, combined with institutional pressures within academia, which tend to discourage intensive and longitudinal research, means that some core consulting activities remain neglected. For example, despite years of calls to examine the client–consultant relationship in action, through observation for example, there remain very few studies which actually do this (see, for a discussion, Sturdy et al. 2009 ; Nikolova and Devinney, Chapter 19 , this volume). In particular, given that consultants are typically seen as key agents in the promotion of management ideas, their formal and informal sales pitches to prospective clients and other interactive practices, in projects and presentations for example, are a surprising area of neglect. Indeed, except perhaps for an often overlooked study by de Jong and van Eekelen (1999) and consultant exposés, very little is known about what consultants, especially at senior levels, exactly do day to day.

This echoes the call by Mintzberg ( 1973 ) over forty years ago about research on managers. Similarly, consultant's recruitment, training, performance evaluation, and development have been largely overlooked (cf. Armbrüster 2006 ; Alvesson and Robertson 2006 ; Alvesson and Kärreman 2007 ). Client practices, except perhaps in relation to purchasing (Macdonald 2006 ), have been, at least until recently, even more neglected (see special issue of Scandinavian Journal of Management (2009) on the consulting client). Indeed, here, we even lack the resource of practitioner exposés to shed light on the life of clients. Similarly, consultancy as an occupation has been overlooked. Some research has been directed towards professionalization and, to a lesser extent, the subjective experience of consulting work (Kirkpatrick, Muzio, and Ackroyd, Chapter 9 , this volume; also Meriläinen et al. 2004 ; O’Mahoney 2007 ), but broader structural concerns with the supply and demand of consultants and with consulting careers have been neglected (cf. Kitay and Wright 2007 ; Sturdy and Wright 2008 ).

Although often partially hidden under the label of professional service firm research, we do know a little about the organization of consultancy, in terms of organizational structures in large firms for example (cf. Greenwood, Suddaby, and McDougald 2006 ). However, some recent research on global firms suggests, perhaps unsurprisingly, that these structures do not work in the way that is typically claimed or assumed. In particular, whether based on partnership or corporate models, firms are far from transnational in relation to how they mobilize their human resources, but instead are strongly shaped by ‘local’ profit motives or fiefdoms (Boussebaa 2009 ). This, combined with similar critiques of knowledge-management systems and structures (Morris 2001 ; Fosstenløken, Løwendahl, and Revang 2003 ), highlights the need to get beyond formal accounts, based on interviews with senior staff and public documents, towards an understanding of firms in practice . This applies particularly to small consulting firms and sole practitioners where research is least evident, but where access might be less problematic (cf. Ram 1999 ). Indeed, empirical variation within the field of management consultancy is another area of research neglect in that studies tend to make claims about consultancy in general regardless of whether or not this is justified methodologically.

At the same time, although there has been some interesting research on the corporate promotion practices of firms, through their websites for example (Bäcklund and Werr 2004 ), the branding practices of large firms especially is another surprising area of neglect (cf. Kärreman and Rylander 2008 ), not least because of its likely importance in the sustainability of the industry in that much rests on reputation (Glückler and Armbrüster 2003 ). Indeed, although a number of empirical studies of the industry have pointed to some of the key ways in which consultancy has changed over time (e.g. Kipping 2002a ), there remains space to develop accounts of sector dynamics further, especially when the sustained period of industry growth comes to an end, as it must do at some point. Indeed, market uncertainty exists for some firms even in the context of a buoyant sector, yet such experiences have been ignored. Finally and relatedly, in terms of core dimensions of consultancy where empirical neglect presents a prospect for further research, it is important to note the non-use or rejection of consulting at individual, organizational, sectoral, and regional levels (cf. Furusten and Werr 2005 ; Armbrüster 2006 ). For some time, for example, Japan and Germany were low users of management consultancy (as well as MBA graduates) although their economies were strong; however, this level of analysis is rarely explored (cf. Wood 2001 ; Kipping 2002b ; Wright and Kwon 2006 ; Kipping and Wright, Chapter 8 , this volume) even though global statistical data has become more available (see Gross and Poor ( 2008 ) for various sources). Non-use may occur for a number of reasons, including active resistance to the use of consultants or, simply, because alternatives are used. Here, there has been some recent attention to the use of internal consultants (Wright 2009 ) in favour of externals and, as we shall see, it has periodically been an area of policy concern in the public sector especially. In addition, the non-use of consultancy is evident in some historical and comparative studies, which point to the role of alternative channels such as firm networks or state bodies (see Kipping and Wright, Chapter 8 , this volume), especially in ‘peripheral’ nations (Kipping, Engwall, and Üsdiken 2009 ; Frenkel and Shenhav, Chapter 26 , this volume). However, there is rarely any mutual recognition between research on consultancy and that on other forms and sources of innovation (cf. Birkinshaw, Hamel, and Mol 2008 ), or on human resource planning or skills development and transfer for example. In short, what are the alternatives to the various consultancy processes and to what extent are they adopted or consciously considered?

23.3 Developments in Consulting Practice

Having identified some of the core, ongoing features of consultancy, which have been neglected in research, we now turn our attention to new and emerging developments. These have often stimulated research in the past, and therefore current trends and emerging issues in the industry are likely to shape future research. Outlining these is necessarily highly speculative, not least because of the uncertainty created by changing economic conditions over time. Nevertheless, I shall suggest a few themes here and return to this topic when considering practitioner concerns later on. Firstly, while the scope of what constitutes consultancy has long been ambiguous or contested, it is clear that consulting has increasingly become concerned with the practical implementation of organizational reforms as well as simply advising clients or engaging in facilitation. Indeed, change implementation, combined with IT and related outsourcing income, means that consulting as advice represents only a fraction of the fee income of most large management consulting firms (see McDougald and Greenwood, Chapter 5 ; Galal, Richter, and Wendlandt, Chapter 6 ; both this volume). At the same time, the extension of what might constitute management consultancy has coincided with the recent emergence of offshoring and outsourcing of consultancy itself, as part of a broader development within professional services, especially in terms of analytical work.

Indeed, more generally, although consultancy has been compared with other professional and business services in terms of professionalization (McKenna 2008 ; Muzio, Ackroyd, and Chanlat 2008 ), product development, and client relations (Løwendahl, Revang, and Fosstenløkken 2001 ; Miozzo and Grimshaw 2006 ), another area of potential interest is the interactions and interrelations between these different occupational groups in practice. For example, multi-party projects might include accountants, bankers, lawyers, and IT staff (Coffee 2006 ). Studies of such relations could shed light on the nature of consultancy in much the same way that situations, where cultures meet reveal otherwise unnoticed dimensions of each one. However, even this situation may be changing, with some recently suggesting a blurring of boundaries between professional services (Gross and Poor 2008 ), although, following Enron, for example, and a longer history of maintaining occupational demarcations, regulatory developments may impede this development.

What certainly is evident in practice and has some potential as an empirical focus are interrelations between consulting firms. This occurs in various contexts such as networking, tendering, firm partnerships/joint ventures, and the not uncommon phenomenon of consulting projects, where consultants from more than one firm are employed. In the latter case, although this is apparently still quite rare, consultants—third party, counter, or meta-consultants—can be used to assess consultancy usage itself (Mohe 2007 ). Likewise, relations between internal and external consultants have only just begun to be explored as a particular variant of the client–consultant relationship (Sturdy and Wright, 2011 ). Here too, interesting developments may be in progress in terms of consultancy beginning to be seen as part of a more general management (i.e. potential client) skill, approach, or discourse. This has long been the view or aspiration of Schein ( 1988 ; see also Butler 2010 ) in his articulation of process consultancy as integral to organizational change. It has also been debated in the context of accountancy and other management occupations (Stevens 1981 ; McKenna 2006 ).

This is also evident in more recent developments. Firstly, the growth of project working means that a key dimension of consultancy, project management, has become more widespread (Hodgson 2005 ). Secondly, the human resource management (HRM) function has tentatively appropriated consultancy discourse alongside business partnering (Wright 2008 ), and similar developments are evident in internal auditing and the emerging field of business improvement (Selim, Woodward, and Allegrini 2009 ). Thirdly, in the UK at least, the consultancy occupation's own professionalization strategy marries consulting and management skills in general—the Institute of Consulting (formerly the Institute of Management Consultants) is part of the Chartered Management Institute. Fourthly, there is some evidence that ambitious managers identify more with a consultant role (along with notions of enterprise, change, and leadership) than with that of ‘manager’ (Sturdy and Wright 2008 ; Brocklehurst, Grey, and Sturdy 2010 )—perhaps ‘we are all consultants now’ or, at least, becoming so (Sturdy, 2011 ; cf. Grey 1999 )?

23.4 Research Methods and Data Sources

The empirical topics discussed above as areas of research neglect or emerging developments in consulting can each be researched using a variety of methods and sources of data, even if some may suit certain topics more than others. However, under-utilized methods and data sources open up the possibility of new insights into consultancy and, therefore, new research agendas. Indeed, the problems of research access in consultancy have sometimes stimulated more innovative approaches to empirical research, such as the study of firms’ websites (Bäcklund and Werr 2004 ) or of publicly available tenders for business, and, in the case of consulting methods, even the use of simulation (Werr 1999 ). Nevertheless, given the dominance of the interview method, there remains considerable scope for further innovation in methods and sources of data.

In particular, and perhaps surprisingly given its growth and variety in organization studies more generally, discourse analyses of consultancy remain relatively rare. Whatever theoretical approach is adopted, many consultant discourses and discourses about consultancy are widely available. The business media, including the internet (e.g. consultancy blogs), newspapers, and specialist magazines as well as consultant exposés, prizes, and prescriptive texts can be seen to shape both our understanding and the nature of consultancy. And yet, aside from some limited consideration of humour and critique in the media—the consultancy joke (Sturdy et al. 2007 ; Sturdy 2009 )—very few popular discourses have been examined. Similarly, the representative bodies of consultants and of their firms, as well as consulting firms, networks, and individuals themselves, produce vast amounts of potential data that could shed light on empirical developments or trends and, for example, on how clients and consulting careers are conceived or constituted.

Other publicly available and, as yet, under-used sources include documents that might have been made accessible through freedom of information legislation, such as public bodies’ documents surrounding consultancy projects and selection. In addition, aside from the high-profile example of the book Dangerous Company (O’Shea and Madigan 1997 ), which was based almost entirely on sources in the litigious context of the USA, legal documents may sometimes become available. Finally, a combination of publicly available sources might be used to study individual consultants and social networks, both of which have hardly been explored, except in the case of high-profile guru/celebrity consultants perhaps. Here, individual careers or consulting histories might be tracked, through biographies and name searches for example. These might be combined into, or inform, a more systematic social network analysis, which could yield important insights into what is typically only claimed anecdotally—the interplay of senior consulting and business/political careers (Jones 2003 ; Craig and Brooks 2006 ). Indeed, as others who seek to revisit debates on social elites have pointed out, senior consultants form an important part of the top strata of many Western societies (Henry 2002 ; Williams and Savage 2008 ).

The above may seem to be quite specialized or esoteric approaches while there remains huge scope for more mainstream research on day-to-day consultancy practice. For the latter, data is less easily accessible and there is no reason to suppose that research access will get any easier (and consultancy is by no means unique in this regard). However, my own experience is that significant access to consultancy can often be gained through client organizations or potential/former clients (Sturdy et al. 2009 ). Here, for example, access may be granted to consulting reports and bids and internal documents relating to projects such as project evaluations, again, not often examined in research except in some historical studies. In addition, as the purchasing function in many large client organizations becomes more important and systematic, it holds new sources of data such as prior assessments of firms and individual consultants (see Bäcklund 2003 ).

More challenging, but not uncommon in other organizational research, is access to less formal client communication such as email correspondence or conversations over coffee about, and with, consultants. These are sometimes reported in in-depth studies of management in organizations (e.g. Jackall 1986 ), but lack the consultancy focus. In addition, there is some scope (and certainly a need) for observational research such as sitting in on consultant bids and meetings (Whittle 2005 ; Sturdy et al. 2009 ), even following them around (Crucini and Kipping 2001 ), or, if not, then perhaps through shadowing a client. The latter method may be perceived as less of a threat or concern by consultants or, at least, as more commonplace. Alternatively, of course, a standard methodological approach in dealing with restricted access is the use of participant diaries and yet, to my knowledge, there are no studies of consultancy (clients and/or consultants) using this method. These issues obviously also apply to consulting activities that occur away from client interaction, in consulting and client organizations such as product development, preparing bids, and research and training.

At the other end of the methodological scale, there are still very few large-scale survey studies of consultancy, matching consultants and their clients or exploring perceived outcomes for example. There are various studies carried out by industry bodies (e.g. the Management Consultancies Association (MCA) in the UK), commercial research organizations (e.g. Kennedy Information in the USA), and the consulting media, but these are mostly focused on practitioner themes and are often poorly targeted or lack methodological rigour. Similarly, although we know something of management consultancy in different geographical locations, especially in different countries (Wood 2001 ; Kipping and Engwall 2002 ), there are very few cross-national comparisons of any aspect of consultancy or studies of the same firm in different locations (see also Mohe 2008 ; Kipping and Wright, Chapter 8 , this volume).

In short, notwithstanding access difficulties, there remains much to be done in terms of exploiting research methods and data sources beyond that of the research interview. Furthermore, even the interview method could be used for new areas of research focus, both in terms of many of the empirical themes outlined in the previous section and others, such as more theoretically informed topics, to which we now turn.

23.5 Consultancy Research by Default

For some, particularly those who span the practitioner–academic boundary, it is both possible and desirable to develop a theory of management consulting, as intervention, meaning-making, or ‘improvement’ for example (e.g. Lundberg 1997 ). However, its highly ambiguous, contested, varied, and political nature means that such a task is futile or, at best, likely to lead to an overly generic approach founded on a particular perspective. Thus, and as noted earlier, aside from a few empirically based and practitioner accounts, consultancy research is typically informed or led by wider theoretical debates and perspectives in the social sciences and organizational studies especially. As a result, typical questions for consulting research do not focus on empirical dimensions and developments of consultancy or new data sources such as those outlined above, but broader conceptual concerns. This is evident in a study of academic consulting literature by O’Mahoney and colleagues ( 2007 : 39), which summarizes common foci of research:

How are consulting identities formed?

How do structures such as the law, the economy and culture affect the actions of consultants?

How might institutions (such as the professions) affect industries?

How can rational choice economics explain consulting strategies?

How do management ideas spread through the consulting industry?

Some theoretical perspectives have dominated the literature, such as institutional theory, transaction-cost economics, psychodynamics, and social constructionism (see Armbrüster ( 2006 ) for one of the few explicit discussions of theory in consulting research; also Faust, Chapter 7 ; Saam, Chapter 10 ; both this volume). These give rise to a focus on various core concepts such as isomorphism, identity, translation, knowing, and boundaries. Clearly, such a pattern is likely to continue, subject to the dynamics and vagaries of academic fashions and debate. There is not the scope here to outline possible theoretical and conceptual developments across the various disciplines, although some themes appear to be (re)emerging as foci for consulting research such as elites, space, discourse, innovation, and ethics. In addition, as management research becomes more established and driven by user agendas, it is possible that more positivist research will emerge on the outcomes of consultancy (cf. Sturdy 2011 ).

In addition to consulting-specific questions and issues, there are considerable opportunities to be gained from research in other empirical fields of organizational studies, both in general, but especially when they touch or focus on management consultancy—what was labelled earlier as consultancy research by default . Insights have already been achieved in this way across a wide spectrum of activities such as small firms (e.g. Christensen and Klyver 2006 ), inter-organizational relations (e.g. Nooteboom 2004 ), and purchasing (e.g. Werr and Pemer 2007 ), but are most evident in four related areas of study and debate. Firstly, consultancy is seen as a part of the broader field of professional and business services (e.g. O’Farrell and Moffat 1991 ; Furusten and Werr 2005 ; Muzio, Ackroyd, and Chanlat 2008 ) where emphasis varies between debates over the nature of professions and of service processes. Secondly, consultants are typically seen as central to, if not emblematic of, knowledge work and associated debates around the organization of knowledge-intensive firms (KIFs), knowledge workers, and associated knowledge-management processes (e.g. Alvesson 2004 ; Kinnie et al. 2006 ; Kipping and Kirkpatrick 2008 ). Thirdly, and as already noted, a number of studies of organizational change, particularly ethnographic accounts, have pointed to the often crucial and controversial role played by management consultants in various rationalization and strategy processes (e.g. Pettigrew 1985 ; Czarniawska and Sevón 1996 ; Born 2004 ) although, surprisingly perhaps, labour process research has rarely focused on this. Fourthly, research on the diffusion or translation of management ideas, practices, and innovations sees consultancy as a key element or mediator in the management knowledge industry or system, alongside business schools, management gurus, and the business media (e.g. Sahlin-Andersson and Abrahamson 1996 ; Suddaby and Greenwood 2001 ; Engwall 2002 ; Sturdy 2004 ; Birkinshaw, Hamel, and Mol 2008 ; Kipping, Engwall, and Üsdiken 2009 ).

These fields of enquiry—business services, knowledge work, organizational change, and management innovation—have informed and even come to constitute consultancy research and will continue to do so. However, further links could be made here, especially in the area of change management and change agency. Moreover, other areas of research, even within the silos of management disciplines could help develop consultancy research further, both empirically and theoretically. For example, and as noted earlier, project management has grown as a discipline and occupation (Hodgson 2005 ) and is, arguably, a core element of consultancy skills and practice, for both clients and consultants (Sturdy et al. 2009 ). Similarly, while there has been some overlap between consultancy and business services research, marketing issues and activities are of obvious relevance to consultancy, as noted earlier in relation to branding and corporate identity. Similar points could be made about accounting and the consultancy business model, and international business. Global integration and links with HRM have already been mentioned. Finally, although much consultancy research is more or less explicitly grounded in the social sciences, these links tend to be implicit and more theoretical than empirical. This means that there is scope for developing an understanding of themes in, say, sociology, through consulting research (e.g. Newton 1996 ). Indeed, until recently at least, broader social and political concerns in particular have been more evident outside of management disciplines, in sociology, public policy, and social theory for example, and yet are highly relevant to management consultancy. The following section will examine some of these concerns.

23.6 Practitioners, Policy, and Politics

This chapter has so far considered empirical, methodological, and conceptual/disciplinary influences on academic research on management consulting and noted how the concerns of the industry (client and consultants) and those of other non-academic groups such as public policy-makers have had relatively little apparent impact. Of course, both have had some impact, in part due to the fact that research often has some level of applied significance in order to secure grant funding. The focus on knowledge and innovation in consultancy is a case in point here. This is likely to continue, if not increase, in many contexts. In addition, many management academics are inclined to conduct research that they consider practically relevant.

Indeed, while there are strong arguments to support a liberal tradition of ‘pure’ academic research, there are also more instrumental, moral, and political arguments, which push for a more applied focus. To many, this means addressing the needs and interests of the industry, in this case, employers, consultants, their representative bodies, and, perhaps, managers or clients (e.g. Heller 2002 ). O’Mahoney and colleagues ( 2007 ), for example, chart a number of areas of interest raised by consulting industry spokespeople (strategic change, procurement, professionalization, operations, innovation, and people management) and decry the fact that very few academic articles examine these concerns in consulting (twenty-seven from over ten thousand between 2000–8). In short, it appears that the consulting literature is polar in character, with prescriptive non-academic accounts based on practical experience at one end and non-applied academic research at the other. Industry concerns differ in some significant respects, however, not least between those of the large firms and small firms/individual practitioners, especially over professionalization (cf. Gross and Poor 2008 ; McKenna 2008 ; Kirkpatrick, Muzio, and Ackroyd, Chapter 9 , this volume). But some common themes are evident. For example, the following have been expressed to me in recent years: future sources of growth; the changing role of client purchasing; clients as competitors; outsourcing/offshoring of consultancy; and the holy grail for all management occupations, how to demonstrate their value and contribution to organizations and society (MCA 2010 ). Meanwhile, clients are also concerned with value, but extend their interest to the question of alternative forms of management innovation.

The question of identifying a contribution or, perhaps, specifying outcomes is one of the few areas of interest shared between practitioners and those with a more critical, political, or policy-oriented perspective (Sturdy 2011 ). In the latter group, broad-ranging critiques of the key role and lack of accountability of management consultancy in contemporary capitalism and government are expressed using such terms as ‘commissars of capitalism’ and ‘consultocracy’ (Froud et al. 2000 ; Saint-Martin 2004 ; Thrift 2005 ; Sennett 2006 ). But there is very little data on the specific consequences of consultancy. Such critiques might be worthy of research in themselves. They are sometimes expressed in the form of protest such as the demonstrations against McKinsey in Germany or the protest group called ‘The Redundants’ mentioned by Mohe ( 2008 ). Typically, they are articulated more tentatively, however, in the media or as humour. Nevertheless, these more popular criticisms cannot be wholly accounted for as a form of defensiveness or resentment. They suggest some implicit concerns and values. For example, the accusation that consultancy plays a neo-imperialist role in spreading managerial discourse points to notions of the ‘integrity of the local’. Likewise, critiques over the lack of accountability of consultancy points to issues of the transparency and legitimacy of power. As I have argued elsewhere, such issues could inform a wider basis for critical perspectives on consulting, such as an exploration of whose voices are dominant and absent in consulting practice and outcomes (Sturdy 2009 ).

Such a critical approach would include, but significantly extend beyond, the common debate in and around consultancy: that is, that it works best when both parties are ‘professional’ or ‘ethical’ in their dealings with each other and recognize their respective interests. This rather conservative view dominates the concerns of the public sector especially, where, in the UK at least, periodic efforts are made to contain and make more effective the use of consultancies including the issue of skills transfer (NAO 2006 ). Again, however, such issues have been largely neglected in consulting research (cf. Kipping and Saint-Martin 2005 ; Saint-Martin, Chapter 22 , this volume). Furthermore, and as noted earlier, little attention is given to exploring or specifying alternative ways of organizing than that which is currently achieved through, or claimed of, consultancy. In the field of consulting ethics, for example, this is clearly more than a question of individual conduct and responsibility and extends towards the role of institutions and regulation (O’Mahoney 2010 ; Freeman and Krehmeyer, Chapter 24 , this volume).

The question of how to organize consultancy seems to have been left entirely to consultants. This is somewhat surprising in that, generally, organization studies and other disciplines are more vocal in this regard, especially in relation to issues of diversity and representation or exclusion. Some attention has been given to the exclusion of women, ethnic minorities, and the working classes in professional services (Hanlon 2004 ), including consultancy (Kumra and Vinnicombe 2008 ). But such work is rare and newly emerging. What, for example, constitutes a feminine form of consultancy (Marsh 2008 ; Kelan, Chapter 25 , this volume)? Furthermore, although there have been a few critical studies of management consultancy in the context of international ‘development’ (Reilly 1987 ; Gow 1991 ), this is another largely unexplored area and one where postcolonial theory may have some purchase (Frenkel and Shenhav, Chapter 26 , this volume). Finally, we might consider the absence or exclusion of various other groups from consultancy processes more generally, such as client employees, unions, citizens, and customers. If consultancy is as influential as is often claimed, then more participation and visibility is required as well as more research.

23.7 Conclusion

Nothing dates more quickly than predictions of the future. This is evident in looking back at previous predictive analyses of consultancy (e.g. Czerniawska 1999 ; Heller 2002 ). Although a number of these prior observations have proved insightful or remained accurate, looking forward is always as much about the present as the future. In this chapter, therefore, I have concentrated on identifying possibilities through an analysis of the main influences on, and characteristics of, consultancy research in the current context. In particular, consultancy research has been largely pushed by the high profile and status of the occupation/industry and its rapid growth, at least in contexts where organization studies are prevalent. As already intimated, continual expansion at previous rates seems impossible, except perhaps in new regions, as consulting remains highly concentrated (FEACO 2009 ). If one adds to this the currently emerging debates around the economic crisis, which question financialization in favour of greater managerial agency combined with new regulatory mechanisms, then consultancy research may no longer be based around a context or assumption of rapid growth. Research on occupations in stability or decline is likely to have a different tone at least. One wonders, for example, whether such occupations would warrant a handbook of research?

By focusing on that which influences consultancy research, this account has been as much a commentary on the existing field as an outline of its future possibilities. This is particularly evident in the identification of areas of, firstly, empirical and, then, methodological, neglect. Here, a wide range of options were identified, which did not rely upon an overly optimistic view of gaining research access. Rather, inaccessibility can prompt methodological innovation. What seems certain, however, is that there is plenty of room for non-interview-based studies. Empirical and methodological areas are obviously linked to some of the theoretical and conceptual issues and possibilities, which were then discussed, although here attention was also drawn to the role of other related research fields, both within management/business and more generally. If consultancy discourse and practice continue to extend beyond conventional occupational or disciplinary boundaries, this will surely open up the field, but also threaten its coherence.

While empirical, methodological, and disciplinary/conceptual issues can be seen to open up numerous possibilities for further research on consultancy, some additional and quite basic questions about consultancy remain in need of some attention or, where they have been examined, further scrutiny. The following list is by no means exhaustive, but illustrates the potential or undeveloped nature of the field:

•What is understood by ‘management consultancy’ and how does this vary according to context such as cross-nationally? Can it be understood in relation to other forms of advice giving or issue selling (Marsh 2008 )?

•Why has management consultancy grown and changed in the ways that it has (cf. Wood 2001 )? What are the limits to its future growth?

•What is the substantive nature of management consultant knowledge and how does this relate to efforts to standardize and/or professionalize consultancy (Fincham 2006 )?

•How do early consulting methods and their development compare with those currently used (Kipping 2002a ; Wright and Kipping, Chapter 2 , this volume)?

•What is the relationship between organizational development and other forms of management consultancy (Clegg, Rhodes, and Kornberger 2007 )?

Furthermore, as the previous section outlined, a wide range of areas of neglect in relation to the concerns of practitioners, policy-makers, and politics is evident. In particular, establishing more precisely the outcomes of, and alternatives to, consultancy, remains crucial, albeit from the point of view of different groups. Much is claimed of consultancy by its proponents and critics alike and yet little is known, perhaps necessarily so, with any degree of precision. Nevertheless, I would argue that more could be done. Moreover, the occupation attracts its fair share of critics in public discourse and yet equally critical academic research on consultancy is quite rare (Sturdy 2010 ). That is, there is relatively little research which draws on critical theory or engages with issues of an inequality or exploitation of power, however defined. There is some emerging work in these areas, however, including that discussed in the following chapters. More generally, research of all types is likely to be strongly influenced by the future of the sector, whether this be in continued growth, decline, and/or transformation. Will consultancy continue to appear as politically significant, successful, or distinctive to warrant the attention of scholars is a key question.

I would like to thank Joe O’Mahoney, Robin Fincham, Chris Wright, Andreas Werr, Michael Mohe, Mehdi Boussebaa, and the editors for their comments and suggestions on an earlier draft of this chapter. The chapter is partly based on research funded by the ESRC (RES-000-22-1980A), whose support is gratefully acknowledged.

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Home » Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Exploratory Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Exploratory Research

Definition:

Exploratory research is a type of research design that is used to investigate a research question when the researcher has limited knowledge or understanding of the topic or phenomenon under study.

The primary objective of exploratory research is to gain insights and gather preliminary information that can help the researcher better define the research problem and develop hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Exploratory Research Methods

There are several types of exploratory research, including:

Literature Review

This involves conducting a comprehensive review of existing published research, scholarly articles, and other relevant literature on the research topic or problem. It helps to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge and to develop new research questions or hypotheses.

Pilot Study

A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study that helps the researcher to test research procedures, instruments, and data collection methods. This type of research can be useful in identifying any potential problems or issues with the research design and refining the research procedures for a larger-scale study.

This involves an in-depth analysis of a particular case or situation to gain insights into the underlying causes, processes, and dynamics of the issue under investigation. It can be used to develop a more comprehensive understanding of a complex problem, and to identify potential research questions or hypotheses.

Focus Groups

Focus groups involve a group discussion that is conducted to gather opinions, attitudes, and perceptions from a small group of individuals about a particular topic. This type of research can be useful in exploring the range of opinions and attitudes towards a topic, identifying common themes or patterns, and generating ideas for further research.

Expert Opinion

This involves consulting with experts or professionals in the field to gain their insights, expertise, and opinions on the research topic. This type of research can be useful in identifying the key issues and concerns related to the topic, and in generating ideas for further research.

Observational Research

Observational research involves gathering data by observing people, events, or phenomena in their natural settings to gain insights into behavior and interactions. This type of research can be useful in identifying patterns of behavior and interactions, and in generating hypotheses or research questions for further investigation.

Open-ended Surveys

Open-ended surveys allow respondents to provide detailed and unrestricted responses to questions, providing valuable insights into their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. This type of research can be useful in identifying common themes or patterns, and in generating ideas for further research.

Data Analysis Methods

Exploratory Research Data Analysis Methods are as follows:

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing text or other forms of data to identify common themes, patterns, and trends. It can be useful in identifying patterns in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social media posts related to a particular topic, content analysis can help identify the most frequently used words, hashtags, and topics.

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying and analyzing patterns or themes in qualitative data such as interviews or focus groups. The researcher identifies recurring themes or patterns in the data and then categorizes them into different themes. This can be helpful in identifying common patterns or themes in the data and developing hypotheses or research questions. For example, a thematic analysis of interviews with healthcare professionals about patient care may identify themes related to communication, patient satisfaction, and quality of care.

Cluster Analysis

This method involves grouping data points into clusters based on their similarities or differences. It can be useful in identifying patterns in large datasets and grouping similar data points together. For example, if the researcher is analyzing customer data to identify different customer segments, cluster analysis can be used to group similar customers together based on their demographic, purchasing behavior, or preferences.

Network Analysis

This method involves analyzing the relationships and connections between data points. It can be useful in identifying patterns in complex datasets with many interrelated variables. For example, if the researcher is analyzing social network data, network analysis can help identify the most influential users and their connections to other users.

Grounded Theory

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected during the exploratory research process. The researcher develops a theory or explanation that is grounded in the data, rather than relying on pre-existing theories or assumptions. This can be helpful in developing new theories or explanations that are supported by the data.

Applications of Exploratory Research

Exploratory research has many practical applications across various fields. Here are a few examples:

• Marketing Research : In marketing research, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs, preferences, and behavior. It can also help businesses understand market trends and identify new market opportunities.
• Product Development: In product development, exploratory research can be used to identify customer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues. This can help companies improve their product offerings and develop new products that better meet customer needs.
• Social Science Research: In social science research, exploratory research can be used to identify new areas of study, as well as develop new theories and hypotheses. It can also be used to identify potential research methods and approaches.
• Healthcare Research : In healthcare research, exploratory research can be used to identify new treatments, therapies, and interventions. It can also be used to identify potential risk factors or causes of health problems.
• Education Research: In education research, exploratory research can be used to identify new teaching methods and approaches, as well as identify potential areas of study for further research. It can also be used to identify potential barriers to learning or achievement.

Examples of Exploratory Research

Here are some more examples of exploratory research from different fields:

• Social Science : A researcher wants to study the experience of being a refugee, but there is limited existing research on this topic. The researcher conducts exploratory research by conducting in-depth interviews with refugees to better understand their experiences, challenges, and needs.
• Healthcare : A medical researcher wants to identify potential risk factors for a rare disease but there is limited information available. The researcher conducts exploratory research by reviewing medical records and interviewing patients and their families to identify potential risk factors.
• Education : A teacher wants to develop a new teaching method to improve student engagement, but there is limited information on effective teaching methods. The teacher conducts exploratory research by reviewing existing literature and interviewing other teachers to identify potential approaches.
• Technology : A software developer wants to develop a new app, but is unsure about the features that users would find most useful. The developer conducts exploratory research by conducting surveys and focus groups to identify user preferences and needs.
• Environmental Science : An environmental scientist wants to study the impact of a new industrial plant on the surrounding environment, but there is limited existing research. The scientist conducts exploratory research by collecting and analyzing soil and water samples, and conducting interviews with residents to better understand the impact of the plant on the environment and the community.

How to Conduct Exploratory Research

Here are the general steps to conduct exploratory research:

• Define the research problem: Identify the research problem or question that you want to explore. Be clear about the objective and scope of the research.
• Review existing literature: Conduct a review of existing literature and research on the topic to identify what is already known and where gaps in knowledge exist.
• Determine the research design : Decide on the appropriate research design, which will depend on the nature of the research problem and the available resources. Common exploratory research designs include case studies, focus groups, interviews, and surveys.
• Collect data: Collect data using the chosen research design. This may involve conducting interviews, surveys, or observations, or collecting data from existing sources such as archives or databases.
• Analyze data: Analyze the data collected using appropriate qualitative or quantitative techniques. This may include coding and categorizing qualitative data, or running descriptive statistics on quantitative data.
• I nterpret and report findings: Interpret the findings of the analysis and report them in a way that is clear and understandable. The report should summarize the findings, discuss their implications, and make recommendations for further research or action.
• Iterate : If necessary, refine the research question and repeat the process of data collection and analysis to further explore the topic.

When to use Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is appropriate in situations where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding of a topic, and where the goal is to generate insights and ideas that can guide further research. Here are some specific situations where exploratory research may be particularly useful:

• New product development: When developing a new product, exploratory research can be used to identify consumer needs and preferences, as well as potential design flaws or issues.
• Emerging technologies: When exploring emerging technologies, exploratory research can be used to identify potential uses and applications, as well as potential challenges or limitations.
• Developing research hypotheses: When developing research hypotheses, exploratory research can be used to identify potential relationships or patterns that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Understanding complex phenomena: When trying to understand complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, exploratory research can be used to identify underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomenon.
• Developing research methods : When developing new research methods, exploratory research can be used to identify potential issues or limitations with existing methods, and to develop new methods that better capture the phenomena of interest.

Purpose of Exploratory Research

The purpose of exploratory research is to gain insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. The objective is to explore and generate ideas that can guide further research, rather than to test specific hypotheses or make definitive conclusions.

Exploratory research can be used to:

• Identify new research questions: Exploratory research can help to identify new research questions and areas of inquiry, by providing initial insights and understanding of a topic.
• Develop hypotheses: Exploratory research can help to develop hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Identify patterns and trends : Exploratory research can help to identify patterns and trends in data, which can be used to guide further research or decision-making.
• Understand complex phenomena: Exploratory research can help to provide a deeper understanding of complex phenomena, such as human behavior or societal trends, by identifying underlying patterns or factors that may be influencing the phenomena.
• Generate ideas: Exploratory research can help to generate new ideas and insights that can be used to guide further research, innovation, or decision-making.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

The following are the main characteristics of exploratory research:

• Flexible and open-ended : Exploratory research is characterized by its flexible and open-ended nature, which allows researchers to explore a wide range of ideas and perspectives without being constrained by specific research questions or hypotheses.
• Qualitative in nature : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observation, to gather rich and detailed data on the research problem.
• Limited scope: Exploratory research is generally limited in scope, focusing on a specific research problem or question, rather than attempting to provide a comprehensive analysis of a broader phenomenon.
• Preliminary in nature : Exploratory research is preliminary in nature, providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem, rather than testing specific hypotheses or making definitive conclusions.
• I terative process : Exploratory research is often an iterative process, where the research design and methods may be refined and adjusted as new insights and understanding are gained.
• I nductive approach : Exploratory research typically takes an inductive approach to data analysis, seeking to identify patterns and relationships in the data that can guide further research or hypothesis development.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

The following are some advantages of exploratory research:

• Provides initial insights: Exploratory research is useful for providing initial insights and understanding of a research problem or question where there is limited existing knowledge or understanding. It can help to identify patterns, relationships, and potential hypotheses that can guide further research.
• Flexible and adaptable : Exploratory research is flexible and adaptable, allowing researchers to adjust their methods and approach as they gain new insights and understanding of the research problem.
• Qualitative methods : Exploratory research typically relies on qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, which can provide rich and detailed data that is useful for gaining insights into complex phenomena.
• Cost-effective : Exploratory research is often less costly than other research methods, such as large-scale surveys or experiments. It is typically conducted on a smaller scale, using fewer resources and participants.
• Useful for hypothesis generation : Exploratory research can be useful for generating hypotheses and testable propositions that can be further explored through more rigorous research methods.
• Provides a foundation for further research: Exploratory research can provide a foundation for further research by identifying potential research questions and areas of inquiry, as well as providing initial insights and understanding of the research problem.

Limitations of Exploratory Research

The following are some limitations of exploratory research:

• Limited generalizability: Exploratory research is typically conducted on a small scale and uses non-random sampling techniques, which limits the generalizability of the findings to a broader population.
• Subjective nature: Exploratory research relies on qualitative methods and is therefore subject to researcher bias and interpretation. The findings may be influenced by the researcher’s own perceptions, beliefs, and assumptions.
• Lack of rigor: Exploratory research is often less rigorous than other research methods, such as experimental research, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Exploratory research is not designed to test specific hypotheses, but rather to generate initial insights and understanding of a research problem. It may not be suitable for testing well-defined research questions or hypotheses.
• Time-consuming : Exploratory research can be time-consuming and resource-intensive, particularly if the researcher needs to gather data from multiple sources or conduct multiple rounds of data collection.
• Difficulty in interpretation: The open-ended nature of exploratory research can make it difficult to interpret the findings, particularly if the researcher is unable to identify clear patterns or relationships in the data.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research or Consultancy Activity?

An overview of the broad differences between research and consultancy activity is provided below, and is designed as a basic guide only. Should you require further information, please contact one of the following areas:

• Grants Services
• Division of Infrastructure and Commercial

Research involves a creative program of systematic investigation. All research involves potential innovation and risk. With research, it is not possible to predict whether a given objective can be achieved. An essential characteristic of research is that it leads to publicly verifiable outcomes that are open to peer appraisal. At a broad level, there are two categories of research activity – Sponsored Research and Contract Research which are elaborated below.

Department of Education Definition of Research :

"Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies and understandings. This could include synthesis and analysis of previous research to the extent that is leads to new and creative outcomes."

Sponsored Research

Sponsored research is frequently initiated by a research application. Funds are often provided on a highly competitive basis by government agencies such as the Australian Research Council (ARC) (opens in a new window) and the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (opens in a new window)

Historically, such research activity has generally not been concerned with commercial outcomes but with the advance of knowledge. Increasingly, however, government agencies are keen to ensure the protection and development of Intellectual Property (IP) arising from such research – see the  National Principles of Intellectual Property Management for Publicly Funded Research (opens in a new window) for further information.

The ARC Linkage Program is an example of sponsored, collaborative research funded by both the Commonwealth Government and industry partners. In this scheme, the Commonwealth seeks to ensure that IP arrangements between the industry partner/s and the University players are negotiated before commencement of the project. Sponsorship for such research does not normally cover total project costs – the University also contributes its own resources to support the research.

The Intellectual Property arising from the research is owned by the University which claims an unfettered right to publish the results of the research. The essential characteristic of such research activity is that it leads to publicly verifiable outcomes that are open to peer appraisal.

Sponsored research projects are administered by Research Services. Sponsored research funds can be reported to the Department of Education (opens in a new window) as part of the annual research income return, which forms an essential component of the Higher Education Research Data Collection (HERDC). Such research activity returns funding to the University through the following research block grants:

• Research Training Program (RTP)
• Research Support Program (RSP)

Such income feeds into the Research Investment Framework (RIF) that is used to the strategic advantage of the University. Much sponsored research is difficult to obtain and it is prestigious to do so; gaining an ARC grant is recognition of the esteem and significance of individual researchers and teams.

Research Services is actively engaged in assisting staff gain sponsored research funding. For more information, please contact the Grants Services team.

Contract Research

Contract research may arise from a jointly initiated collaborative project between the University and an external agency (industry, government, semi-government body, commercial organisation etc.) or may follow on from a specific request from an external agency for a research project to be undertaken. Contract research has identified aims and objectives as well as project milestones, and often involves commercial outcomes. Like all research, it involves potential innovation and risk.

The contract may arise as a result of a competitive bid, or may follow on from extensive negotiations between the University and an external agency. With contract research, the intellectual property arising from the research is negotiated between the parties on a case by case basis and may depend on:

• The financial and intellectual contributions of the parties
• The existing intellectual property (background intellectual property) brought to the project by each partner.

The external partner will often seek to negotiate the right to commercially exploit the final intellectual property arising from the project in return for a royalty stream to be paid to the University. Most contract research conducted by the University operates through Research Services, although the Division of Finance and Resources (opens in a new window) also supports staff engaged in contract research. The University always seeks to ensure the right to publish, in peer review media, the research arising from such collaboration, mindful of any commercialisation or confidentiality constraints.

Contract research funds can be reported to Department of Education as part of the annual research income return, and thus would return Joint Research Engagement (JRE), Research Training Scheme (RTS) and sometimes Research Infrastructure Block Grant (RIBG) and Sustainable Research Excellence (SRE) funding to the University. Such income also feeds into the Research Investment Framework (RIF) that is used to the strategic advantage of the University.

Research Services is actively engaged in assisting staff gain contract research funding. For more information, please contact your Research Development Officer (RDO)

Consultancy

Consultancy involves the purchase by external agencies of (a) the skills and expertise of University staff and/or (b) access to University equipment or facilities to work on a specific project. Consultancy may cover such activities as expert opinion, analysis and testing services, product and process development and can be usefully defined as professional services based on existing knowledge. Consultancy is fully costed and priced and coordinated by the Business Services team.

Consultancy funds cannot be reported to the Department of Education as part of the annual external research income return, and thus do not return any Joint Research Engagement (JRE) or Research Training Scheme (RTS) funding to the University. In financial management terms, consultancy income cannot operate through a research project account. Such income does, however, provide academic units with income for developmental purposes. Consultancies may also have a percentage of research involved and this can be identified by Business Services for inclusion in the external research income return.

Commercialisation

The Business Services team deals with commercialisation matters that arise from all research conducted by University staff and students. They can guide researchers through the complex activity surrounding effective commercialisation, particularly in protecting any new Intellectual Property (IP) arising from research activity.

Intellectual Property management involves the identification, protection, and commercialisation of IP and is governed by the University's Intellectual Property Policy (opens in a new window)

Ownership of IP that is produced within the University is determined in accordance with this policy, the contractual conditions of research grants, and the agreements with collaborative partners. Western Sydney University believes in rewarding all staff who have produced IP within the University by including them in the share from the commercialisation of IP.

Protected IP can be commercialised through assignment or licenses. Assignment refers to the sale of a patent, design, trademark, copyright or trade secret. Licensing is a common form of exploitation for IP such as copyright, patents, plant breeders rights, designs and trademarks. Businesses pay a licensing fee and usually a royalty stream to the University for the right to use, produce and market the IP. Licenses can be negotiated exclusively or non-exclusively; be time limited; and geographically limited.

For further advice on commercialisation matters, contact Business Services or the Division of Finance and Resources (opens in a new window)

Annual reporting of research activity

All research income received in a calendar year by the University can be reported to the Department of Education, as part of the Higher Education Research Data Collection (HERDC). This income return then feeds into the allocation of JRE, RTS, SRE and RIBG. For the purpose of the annual external research income return to the Department of Education, the definition of Research and Experimental Development (R&D) is as follows:

'Research and experimental development comprises creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man [sic], culture and society and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.'

Any activity classified as research and experimental development is characterised by originality; it should have investigation as a primary object and should have the potential to produce results that are sufficiently general for humanity's stock of knowledge (theoretical and/or practical) to be recognisably increased.

Research includes:

• Pure basis research
• Strategic basic research
• Applied research
• Experimental development

The processes of the Higher Education Research and Development Collection (HERDC), however, involve many exclusions.

The following are some exclusions from the Department of Education annual external research income return:

• National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS), Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage-Infrastructure, Equipment and Facilities (LIEF), and Independent Research Institutes Infrastructure Support Scheme (IIRIS) grants
• Grants from the Higher Education Endowment Fund (HEEF) or the Education Investment Fund (EIF)
• Funds received through the ARC's Research Networks scheme
• Funds from the Commonwealth Grants Scheme (CGS)
• Funds provided specifically for the purpose of hosting, organising or travel to and attending a conference, workshop or meeting unless funds are specifically for enabling access to a program of research
• Funds provided specifically for the purpose of producing research publications (that is, for publishing research rather than conducting it)
• Consultancy fees for projects that do not meet the definition of research
• Income from the High Performance Computing and Communications Program, to or through the Australian Partnership for Advanced Computing
• Income provided for preparation for teaching
• Scientific and technical information services
• General purpose or routine data collection
• Standardisation and routine testing
• Feasibility studies (except into research and experimental development projects)
• Specialised routine medical care
• Commercial, legal and administrative aspects of patenting, copyright or licensing activities
• Routine computer programming, systems work or software maintenance.
• Joint Research Engagement (JRE)
• Sustainable Research Excellence (SRE)
• Research Infrastructure Block Grants (RIBG)
• Australian Postgraduate Awards (APA)
• International Postgraduate Research Scheme Awards (IPRS)
• Collaborative Research Networks (CRN)

A full list of exclusions is available each year as part of the HERDC Specification for the collection of research data. Please see the Department of Education (opens in a new window) for further information.

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FTC Announces Rule Banning Noncompetes

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Today, the Federal Trade Commission issued a final rule to promote competition by banning noncompetes nationwide, protecting the fundamental freedom of workers to change jobs, increasing innovation, and fostering new business formation.

“Noncompete clauses keep wages low, suppress new ideas, and rob the American economy of dynamism, including from the more than 8,500 new startups that would be created a year once noncompetes are banned,” said FTC Chair Lina M. Khan. “The FTC’s final rule to ban noncompetes will ensure Americans have the freedom to pursue a new job, start a new business, or bring a new idea to market.”

The FTC estimates that the final rule banning noncompetes will lead to new business formation growing by 2.7% per year, resulting in more than 8,500 additional new businesses created each year. The final rule is expected to result in higher earnings for workers, with estimated earnings increasing for the average worker by an additional $524 per year, and it is expected to lower health care costs by up to $194 billion over the next decade. In addition, the final rule is expected to help drive innovation, leading to an estimated average increase of 17,000 to 29,000 more patents each year for the next 10 years under the final rule.

Noncompetes are a widespread and often exploitative practice imposing contractual conditions that prevent workers from taking a new job or starting a new business. Noncompetes often force workers to either stay in a job they want to leave or bear other significant harms and costs, such as being forced to switch to a lower-paying field, being forced to relocate, being forced to leave the workforce altogether, or being forced to defend against expensive litigation. An estimated 30 million workers—nearly one in five Americans—are subject to a noncompete.

Under the FTC’s new rule, existing noncompetes for the vast majority of workers will no longer be enforceable after the rule’s effective date. Existing noncompetes for senior executives - who represent less than 0.75% of workers - can remain in force under the FTC’s final rule, but employers are banned from entering into or attempting to enforce any new noncompetes, even if they involve senior executives. Employers will be required to provide notice to workers other than senior executives who are bound by an existing noncompete that they will not be enforcing any noncompetes against them.

In January 2023, the FTC issued a  proposed rule which was subject to a 90-day public comment period. The FTC received more than 26,000 comments on the proposed rule, with over 25,000 comments in support of the FTC’s proposed ban on noncompetes. The comments informed the FTC’s final rulemaking process, with the FTC carefully reviewing each comment and making changes to the proposed rule in response to the public’s feedback.

In the final rule, the Commission has determined that it is an unfair method of competition, and therefore a violation of Section 5 of the FTC Act, for employers to enter into noncompetes with workers and to enforce certain noncompetes.

The Commission found that noncompetes tend to negatively affect competitive conditions in labor markets by inhibiting efficient matching between workers and employers. The Commission also found that noncompetes tend to negatively affect competitive conditions in product and service markets, inhibiting new business formation and innovation. There is also evidence that noncompetes lead to increased market concentration and higher prices for consumers.

Alternatives to Noncompetes

The Commission found that employers have several alternatives to noncompetes that still enable firms to protect their investments without having to enforce a noncompete.

Trade secret laws and non-disclosure agreements (NDAs) both provide employers with well-established means to protect proprietary and other sensitive information. Researchers estimate that over 95% of workers with a noncompete already have an NDA.

The Commission also finds that instead of using noncompetes to lock in workers, employers that wish to retain employees can compete on the merits for the worker’s labor services by improving wages and working conditions.

Changes from the NPRM

Under the final rule, existing noncompetes for senior executives can remain in force. Employers, however, are prohibited from entering into or enforcing new noncompetes with senior executives. The final rule defines senior executives as workers earning more than $151,164 annually and who are in policy-making positions.

Additionally, the Commission has eliminated a provision in the proposed rule that would have required employers to legally modify existing noncompetes by formally rescinding them. That change will help to streamline compliance.

Instead, under the final rule, employers will simply have to provide notice to workers bound to an existing noncompete that the noncompete agreement will not be enforced against them in the future. To aid employers’ compliance with this requirement, the Commission has included model language in the final rule that employers can use to communicate to workers. 

The Commission vote to approve the issuance of the final rule was 3-2 with Commissioners Melissa Holyoak and Andrew N. Ferguson voting no. Commissioners Rebecca Kelly Slaughter , Alvaro Bedoya , Melissa Holyoak and Andrew N. Ferguson each issued separate statements. Chair Lina M. Khan will issue a separate statement.

The final rule will become effective 120 days after publication in the Federal Register.

Once the rule is effective, market participants can report information about a suspected violation of the rule to the Bureau of Competition by emailing  [email protected] . 

The Federal Trade Commission develops policy initiatives on issues that affect competition, consumers, and the U.S. economy. The FTC will never demand money, make threats, tell you to transfer money, or promise you a prize. Follow the  FTC on social media , read  consumer alerts  and the  business blog , and  sign up to get the latest FTC news and alerts .

Press Release Reference

Contact information, media contacts.

Victoria Graham  Office of Public Affairs

Tseytlin Consulting, Inc.

Dr. Simon Tseytlin is the Chief Scientist of Tseytlin Consulting. He is responsible for development of all the mathematical models in our software and is the creator of the patents.

• Hydrodynamics of non-Newtonian and two-phase liquids.
• Heat and mass exchange in complex heterogeneous systems.
• Hydro-dynamic testing of formations.
• Reservoir simulation.
• Well production optimization.
• Mud logging and drilling monitoring.
• Two- and three-dimensional electrodynamics and acoustics.
• Magnetic hydrodynamics

Dr. S. Tseytlin graduated from the Moscow Institute of Physics Engineering with an MS degree in Physics.

He began his career in the Research Institute of Space Industry #1 as a Scientific Research Associate in the laboratory of nuclear and plasma engines.

At the same time, he graduated from the Moscow State University with an M.S. degree in Mathematics.

Three years later he completed a dissertation based on his research work and achieved the Ph.D. degree in Physics.

In 1992 he  completed his second dissertation for Doctor of Science in Petroleum Engineering entitled  “Methods of Early Detection of Gas Kicks and Thermo-hydrodynamic Calculations of Geophysical and Geo-technological Research of Wells”.

During his career Dr. Tseytlin  developed  a number of novel  methods and technologies in geophysics, drilling and production  research of oil and gas wells.

You can see more information about Dr. Tseytlin's work on LinkedIn .

Please click here for the list of his US patents and publications.

You can e-mail Dr. Tseytlin at [email protected]