essay about world war 2

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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 13, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property. 

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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German and Japanese Expansion

Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan unleashed World War II with the intention of establishing, by military conquest, a permanent dominance over Europe and Asia respectively. These two nations were the most significant members of the Axis partnership, which was based on anti-Communism and dissatisfaction with the world order after World War I .

Under the leadership of dictator Adolf Hitler , Nazi Germany aimed at the acquisition of a vast, new empire of "living space" ( Lebensraum ) in eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. The Nazi leadership calculated that the realization of German hegemony in Europe would require war, and began planning a European war from the day the Nazis came to power in late January 1933.

Imperial Japan followed a policy of military conquest with support of its Emperor, military establishment, and many in the educated elite who sought Japanese rule and influence throughout East Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Germany and Japan formed an anti-Communist front aimed at the Soviet Union in 1936. That same year Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany formed the Axis alliance , shortly after Italy completed its brutal and successful conquest of Ethiopia.

Japan had initiated its policy of military conquest by invading Chinese Manchuria in September 1931. Six years later, in July 1937, Japan invaded China proper to unleash World War II in Asia.

Invasion of Poland

Germany incorporated Austria and the Czech lands without having to resort to war in 1938 and 1939. With a pact of nonaggression , Germany secured the neutrality of the Soviet Union, ruled by dictator Joseph Stalin. Germany then invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, beginning World War II in Europe.

Having permitted Nazi Germany to destroy the interwar Czechoslovak state, Britain and France had guaranteed the integrity of Poland's borders in April 1939. They responded to the German invasion of Poland by declaring war on Germany on September 3. Within a month, German and Soviet forces conquered Poland and partitioned the Polish state.

Invasion of Norway and Denmark

The lull which followed the defeat of Poland ended on April 9, 1940, when German forces invaded Norway and Denmark . Denmark surrendered that day. Norway held out until early June before German forces could occupy the entire country.

Invasion of Western Europe

On May 10, 1940, Germany began its assault on western Europe by invading France and the neutral Low Countries (the Netherlands , Belgium , and Luxembourg ). The Low Countries were under German occupation by the end of May. On June 22, 1940, France signed an armistice with Germany. The armistice provided for the German occupation of the northern half of France and permitted the establishment of a collaborationist regime in the south with its seat in Vichy. From July 10 to October 31, 1940, the Germans waged, and ultimately lost, an air war over England, known as the Battle of Britain.

Russo-Finnish War

In accordance with sphere of influence arrangements with Nazi Germany in 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Finland at the end of November 1939. After a bitterly fought winter war, the Soviets forced the Finns to cede territory along the northern shores of Lake Lagoda north of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) and on the Arctic coastline in March 1940.

Soviet Annexations

The Soviet Union occupied and annexed eastern Poland in 1939. With German encouragement, the Soviet Union occupied the Baltic states in June 1940 and annexed them in August 1940. The Soviets also seized Bessarabia and northern Bukovina from Romania in late June 1940.

Italy Enters the War

Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940, and invaded southern France on June 21. Dissatisfied with Italy's share in the spoils at the armistice negotiations, Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini attacked Greece in October 1940 from Albania (which the Italians had seized in April 1939). The Italians also attacked British forces in Egypt from Italian-controlled Libya in late October 1940. Both adventures resulted in military disaster that required German intervention.

Axis Advances

Germany enticed Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia in November 1940 and Bulgaria in March 1941 to join the Axis . In April 1941, Germany—supported by Italy, Hungary and Bulgaria—invaded and dismembered Yugoslavia . By mid-June, the Axis powers had subdued Greece. Out of the collapse of Yugoslavia arose the so-called Independent State of Croatia under the leadership of the fascist and terrorist Ustasa organization. The new state, which encompassed Bosnia and Herzegovina, formally joined the Axis on June 15. Germany occupied eastern Slovenia, the Serbian Banat and most of Serbia proper. Italy seized Istria and western Slovenia, attached Kosovo province to Albania, and occupied the Croat-Dalmatian coastline and Montenegro. Hungary annexed Backa in northeastern Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria occupied Macedonia and the Pirot province of Serbia. After permitting Bulgaria to occupy Greek Thrace, Germany and Italy divided Greece into occupation zones, with the Italians in the west and the Germans in the east.

Invasion of the Soviet Union

On June 22, 1941, the Germans and their Axis partners (except Bulgaria) invaded the Soviet Union in direct violation of the German-Soviet Pact of August 1939. Finland, seeking redress for its defeat in the winter war of 1939–1940, joined the Axis and the German invasion. By the end of October 1941, German troops had advanced deep into the Soviet Union, overrunning the Baltic states and laying siege to Leningrad in the north; capturing Smolensk and marching on Moscow in the center; and capturing Kiev (Kyiv) and approaching Rostov on the mouth of the Don River in the south. Stiffening Red Army resistance in August and again in November 1941 prevented the Germans from capturing the key cities of Leningrad and Moscow. On December 6, 1941, Soviet troops launched a significant counteroffensive that drove the Germans permanently from the outskirts of Moscow.

United States Enters World War II

One day later, on December 7, 1941, Japan, still engaged in warfare on the Chinese mainland, launched a surprise air attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii. The United States immediately declared war on Japan. Great Britain followed suit. On December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.

War in the Pacific

During the winter of 1941–1942, the Japanese attacked and conquered the Philippines, French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia), and British Singapore. In the late spring and early summer of 1942, the British were able to halt the Japanese advance in Burma; and the US soundly defeated the Japanese navy at Midway in the Pacific. In August 1942, US forces halted the Japanese advance in the Pacific islands towards Australia at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.

Allied Bombing of Germany

In May 1942, the British Royal Air Force carried out a raid on the German city of Köln (Cologne) with a thousand bombers, for the first time bringing war home to Germany. For the next three years, Allied air forces systematically bombed industrial plants and cities all over the Reich, reducing much of urban Germany to rubble by 1945.

The War in North Africa

In late 1942 and early 1943, Anglo-American forces achieved a series of significant military triumphs in North Africa . The failure of Vichy French armed forces to resist enabled the Allies to quickly occupy French North Africa to the Tunisian border within days of landings on the beaches of Morocco and Algeria on November 8, 1942. It also triggered the German occupation of Vichy France on November 11, 1942. The British victory over the German Afrika Korps at El Alamein in Egypt in late October 1942 precipitated the flight of Axis military units west across Libya into eastern Tunisia. Trapped in Tunisia, the Axis forces in Africa, approximately 150,000 troops in all, surrendered in May 1943.

Soviet Counteroffensive

In June 1942, the Germans and their Axis partners resumed their offensive in the Soviet Union, reaching Stalingrad (Volgograd) on the Volga River, securing the Crimean peninsula, and penetrating deep into the Caucasus region by late September 1942. In November, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive northwest and southwest of Stalingrad that cut off the German forces in the city. On February 2, 1943, the German Sixth Army surrendered to the Soviets. The Germans mounted one more offensive at Kursk in July 1943, the biggest tank battle in history, but Soviet troops and tanks blunted the attack and assumed a military initiative that they would not again relinquish. By late 1943, the Germans were forced to evacuate the Caucasus and to relinquish Kiev.

Allied Landings in Italy

In July 1943, the western Allies successfully landed in Sicily. This precipitated the decision of the Italian Fascist Party Grand Council to depose Mussolini. Led by Field Marshal Pietro Badoglio, the Italian Army took advantage of the political vacuum to overthrow the Fascist regime, replacing it with a military dictatorship. In early September, just prior to the landing of Anglo-American forces in Salerno near Naples, the Badoglio government surrendered unconditionally to the Allies on September 8. German troops stationed in Italy seized control of northern Italy, and continued to resist. Mussolini, who had been arrested by Italian military authorities, was rescued by SS commandos in September and established (under German supervision) a neo-Fascist puppet regime in northern Italy.

The Allies successfully landed near Anzio, just south of Rome, but were not able to capture Rome until early June 1944. German troops continued to occupy northern Italy, and resisted tenaciously until they surrendered on May 2, 1945. After the liberation of Rome, Allied air forces could bomb German targets in eastern Europe, such as the synthetic fuel and rubber plants at Auschwitz-Monowitz in Silesia.

D-Day: Photographs On June 6, 1944 ( D-Day ), over 150,000 Allied soldiers landed on the Normandy beaches of France. Trapped on the Normandy coast for six weeks, the British and Americans broke loose on July 25 and liberated Paris by August 25. On September 11, 1944, the first US troops crossed into Germany. By December, all of France, most of Belgium, and part of the southern Netherlands had been liberated.

Soviet Advances

On June 22, 1944, Soviet forces destroyed the German Army Group Center in Eastern Belorussia. They swept west to the Vistula River across from Warsaw by August 1, 1944. In early August, Soviet troops, having conquered the eastern Romanian province of Bessarabia, appeared on the Prut River and prepared to strike into the heart of Romania, precipitating a Romanian surrender on August 23. The Bulgarians surrendered on September 8, 1944. These developments forced the Germans to evacuate Greece, Albania, and southern Yugoslavia.

To forestall Hungarian government efforts to pursue a separate peace, Germany had occupied Hungary on March 19, 1944. Germany had then, in October, sponsored a coup d'état of the radical Arrow Cross Party to prevent another Hungarian effort to surrender.

Finally, with the appearance of Soviet troops on the Finnish border, Finland sued for an armistice on September 12, 1944.

In August 1944, the underground Polish Home Army and the Slovak National resistance organizations rose against the Germans to liberate Warsaw and Slovakia from German rule; the Germans were able to quell both uprisings.

Defeat of Germany

On December 16, 1944, the Germans launched an unsuccessful counterattack in Belgium and northern France, known as the Battle of the Bulge . By New Year's Day, British and US troops had driven the Germans back into Germany. On January 12, 1945, the Soviets resumed the offensive, liberating Warsaw and western Poland. In December the Soviets had encircled Budapest, though the city did not fall until February 13, 1945. By early April, the Soviets had driven the remnants of the Arrow Cross regime out of Hungary and forced the surrender of the fascist Slovak Republic with the fall of Bratislava on April 4, 1945. On April 13, the Soviets captured Vienna, while Marshal Josip Tito's Partisans compelled the flight of the Ustasa leaders and the collapse of the so-called Independent State of Croatia.

In mid-February 1945, the Allies bombed Dresden, killing up to 25,000 German civilians. US troops crossed the Rhine River at Remagen on March 7, 1945. A final Soviet offensive on April 16, 1945, enabled Soviet forces to encircle Berlin. As Soviet troops fought their way towards the Reich Chancellery, Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. On May 7, 1945, Germany surrendered unconditionally to the western Allies at Reims and on May 9 to the Soviets in Berlin.

Defeat of Japan

After clearing the Japanese from the Solomon Islands in November 1942, British and US forces began slowly to move northward, island-hopping toward the Japanese mainland, while British forces worked with the Nationalist Chinese government to fight the Japanese in China. In a parallel campaign, the Chinese Communist movement fought the Japanese, while it defended itself against attacks from the Nationalists. In October 1944, US troops landed in the Philippines; by May 1945, British and US troops had conquered Okinawa, the last major Japanese base before the mainland itself.

On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima, following with a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki on August 9. On August 8, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan and invaded Japanese-occupied Manchuria.

Less than a week later, on August 14, 1945, Japan agreed to surrender; the formal ceremony took place on September 2. World War II was over.

Deaths during World War II

World War II resulted in an estimated 55 million deaths worldwide. While many of the following statistics are subject to variation in the available source material, they serve as benchmarks for estimates. In battle, the United States lost 292,129 dead and 139,709 missing in action. The Soviet Union suffered 8,668,400 dead and another 4,559,000 missing. Germany lost 2,049,872 dead and 1,902,704 missing. China lost 1,324,516 dead and 115,248 missing. Japan lost 1,506,000 dead and 810,000 missing. Great Britain lost 397,762 dead and 90,188 missing.

The large number of civilian dead was equally appalling. The Soviet Union lost 14,012,000 civilians, including between 1.0 and 1.5 million Jews. China lost more than a million civilians; while Poland lost nearly five million civilians, including nearly three million Jews.

Series: World War II

World War II in Europe

World War II Dates and Timeline

The Holocaust and World War II: Key Dates

Axis Powers in World War II

Blitzkrieg (Lightning War)

Invasion of Poland, Fall 1939

German Invasion of Western Europe, May 1940

Allied Military Operations in North Africa

Invasion of the soviet union, june 1941.

World War II in Eastern Europe, 1942–1945

The Eastern Front: The German War against the Soviet Union

World War II in the Pacific

Pearl Harbor

Allied Military Advances in the West

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• What was the relationship between the progress of the war and the mass murder of Europe’s Jews?

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World War II Research Essay Topics

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• Writing Research Papers
• Writing Essays
• English Grammar
• M.Ed., Education Administration, University of Georgia
• B.A., History, Armstrong State University

Students are often required to write a paper on a topic as broad as World War II , but you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis. This is especially true if you are in high school or college. Narrow your focus by making a list of words, much like the list of words and phrases that are presented in bold type below. Then begin to explore related questions and come up with your own cool WWII topics. The answer to questions like these can become a good starting point for a thesis statement .

Culture and People

When the U.S. entered into war, everyday life across the country changed drastically. From civil rights, racism, and resistance movements to basic human needs like food, clothing, and medicine, the aspects of how life was impacted are immense.

• African-Americans and civil rights. What impact did the war years have on the rights of African-Americans? What were they allowed or not allowed to do?
• Animals. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used? Did they play a special role?
• Art. What art movements were inspired by wartime events? Is there one specific work of art that tells a story about the war?
• Clothing. How was fashion impacted? How did clothing save lives or hinder movement? What materials were used or not used?
• Domestic violence. Was there an increase or decrease in cases?
• Families. Did new family customs develop? What was the impact on children of soldiers?
• Fashion. Did fashion change significantly for civilians? What changes had to be made during wartime?
• Food preservation. What new preservation and packaging methods were used during and after the war? How were these helpful?
• Food rationing. How did rationing impact families? Were rations the same for different groups of people? Were soldiers affected by rations?
• Love letters. What do letters tell us about relationships, families, and friendships? What about gender roles?
• New words. What new vocabulary words emerged during and after WWII?
• Nutrition. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the foods available? How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products?
• Penicillin and other medicine. How was penicillin used? What medical developments occurred during and after the war?
• Resistance movements. How did families deal with living in an occupied territory?
• Sacrifices. How did family life change for the worse?
• Women's work at home. How did women's work change at home during the war? What about after the war ended?

Economy and Workforce

For a nation that was still recovering from the Great Depression, World War II had a major impact on the economy and workforce. When the war began, the fate of the workforce changed overnight, American factories were repurposed to produce goods to support the war effort and women took jobs that were traditionally held by men, who were now off to war.

• Advertising. How did food packaging change during the war? How did advertisements change in general? What were advertisements for?
• Occupations. What new jobs were created? Who filled these new roles? Who filled the roles that were previously held by many of the men who went off to war?
• Propaganda. How did society respond to the war? Do you know why?
• Toys. How did the war impact the toys that were manufactured?
• New products. What products were invented and became a part of popular culture? Were these products present only during war times, or did they exist after?

Military, Government, and War

Americans were mostly against entering the war up until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, after which support for the war grew, as did armed forces. Before the war, the US didn't have the large military forces it soon became known for, with the war resulting in over 16 million Americans in service.   The role the military played in the war, and the impacts of the war itself, were vast.

• America's entry into the war. How is the timing significant? What factors are not so well known?
• Churchill, Winston. What role did this leader play that interests you most? How did his background prepare him for his role?
• Clandestine operations. Governments went to great lengths to hide the true date, time, and place of their actions.
• Destruction. Many historic cities and sites were destroyed in the U.K.—Liverpool, Manchester, London, and Coventry—and in other nations.
• Hawaii. How did events impact families or society in general?
• The Holocaust. Do you have access to any personal stories?
• Italy. What special circumstances were in effect?
• " Kilroy was here ." Why was this phrase important to soldiers? 
• Nationalist Socialist movement in America. What impact has this movement had on society and the government since WWII?
• Political impact. How was your local town impacted politically and socially?
• POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war!
• Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects?
• Spies. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies that were caught?
• Submarines. Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war?
• Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled?
• Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics?
• Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded?
• Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere?
• War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried?
• Weather. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather?
• Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II?

Technology and Transportation

With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment.

• Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies?
• Communication. How did radio or other types of communication impact key events?
• Motorcycles. What needs led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government?
• Technology. What technology came from the war and how was it used after the war?
• TV technology. When did televisions start to appear in homes and what is significant about the timing? What TV shows were inspired by the war and how realistic were they? How long did World War II affect TV programming?
• Jet engine technology. What advances can be traced to WWII needs?
• Radar. What role did radar play, if any?
• Rockets. How important was rocket technology?
• Shipbuilding achievements. The achievements were quite remarkable during the war. Why and how did they happen?

"America's Wars Fact Sheet." U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2017.

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(page 123) p. 123 Conclusion

• Published: November 2014
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The ‘Conclusion’ shows how the world was changed forever by World War II, during which around sixty million people had been killed, the majority of them civilians. There were huge losses in the Soviet Union and China, but the country most damaged was Poland. Massive destruction and economic dislocation characterized much of Europe, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and portions of North Africa. The war and its ending also brought about enormous population movements. Countries faced massive reconstruction, the defeated had reparations to pay, and war criminals had to be dealt with. The war also provided new developments in technology and medicine, which transformed post-war life.

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World War 2 Essay: Outline + 100 WW2 Research Topics

This time you have to write a World War II essay, paper, or thesis. It means that you have a perfect chance to refresh those memories about the war that some of us might forget.

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🔝 top 10 ww2 essay topics.

• Was the battle of Dunkirk a failure?
• WWII technologies that changed our lives
• The outcome of the Nuremberg trials
• Medical experiments during the Holocaust
• Battle of Midway as a turning point in WWII
• Why is penicillin a wonder of World War 2?
• Why is the Bataan Death March a war crime?
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• What makes the Battle of Stalingrad the deadliest in WWII?

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• Contributions of women pilots in World War II
• “Gesture Life” and “Maus”: post-World War II injuries
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• Rebuilding Europe after World War II
• World War II in Europe: development and costs
• World War II: maskirovka military deception and denials operations
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• The second World War’s historical aspects 
• The rise and fall of communism after World War II 
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• Battle of the Midway during World War II 
• World War II: the history of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 
• What effect did the World War II wartime experience have on African Americans? 
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• World War II was a continuation of World War I
• Communism in Europe and America after World War II 
• Camps for displaced persons after the end of World War II 
• Nazis prosecution for the World War II crimes 
• World War II was avoidable
• Nazi Germany’s resources and demise in World War II 
• The United States and East Asia since World War II
• Japan after World War II: main events and modifications
• Atomic bomb technology and World War II outcomes 
• Pacific theater of World War II
• Impact of World War II on Balkan nationalism, states and societies 
• World War II: internment of the Japanese Americans 
• World War II in “The Rape of Europa” Documentary 
• The characteristics of successful warfare after the second World War
• Great Depression and World War II impact on the United States economy 
• Battle of the Bulge during World War II
• Escape from Sobibor: World War 2 holocaust
• World War II: why Germans lost and allies won
• World War II impact on racial issues in the United States 
• Women’s representations before and after World War II
• United States-Japan relations during World War II
• Second World War: cause and technology
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• The Crete battle of World War II
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🎖️ WW2: Argumentative Essay Topics

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• Exploring the effects of WWII on life in Hawaii. Research the impact of those events on the social life of families living there.
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• The transformation of the prisoner-of-war camps . Write about what happened to the POW camps after the end of the war.
• The fate of the prisoners of war. Study the documents to get to know what happened to them and whether they continued their healthy lives.
• Describe the spies that participated in WWII . Who were they? What usually happened to those who were caught by different sides?
• The role of women . Discover the contribution of the weaker sex in warfare and write about the most surprising facts.
• How important were the weather conditions for the outcomes of WWII ? Find out which battles were lost or won due to the weather.
• War crimes: consequences. Conduct research to answer the questions about the war crime trials, their outcomes, and the most notorious cases.
• Research the role of the US government in WWII . Compare it to the other governments and analyze the strategies they were using.
• The sense of freedom during the war. For this WW2 essay topic, you would need to look critically at how freedom was suppressed or expanded.
• What was so special about the movements of the troop? Here, you would be expected to provide the answers concerning the secrecy and challenges.
• The experiences of the attack survivors. Find out what was happening during the attack on the military units and the planes.

🤖 World War 2 Essay Topics: Technology

• The role of the submarines in the war. This World War II research topic is all about the importance of the submarines.
• Estimate the destruction in the UK. Find out how many historical places were wiped out as a result of the war.
• Was Winston Churchill prepared for it? Write about the background of that influential leader and how it helped him at the wartime.
• Write about the time the US entered the war. Are there any facts that we still don’t know well enough? What about the timing?
• The miracle of the radar. This WW2 essay topic would be interesting for those who are fascinated by technology. What was the role of that device in WWII?
• Rocket technology and the war. Write about the importance of the rockets and what the moment when they changed the course of the war.
• Building the ultimate warship. What was the driving force of the developments in the field of shipbuilding during WWII?
• Describe the main means of communication during the war. Don’t forget to mention the radio and its impact on the major events in your World War 2 essay.
• The development of bridges and roads. What were the main technological achievements in this field that still impact our everyday life?
• Explain the rise of the popularity of motorcycles during the war. Feel free to mention the folding bikes and their invention.
• The technology we have thanks to the war. Dedicate your WW2 essay to the inventions we can’t live without nowadays that were created during the war.
• What about TVs? You can narrow down this World War II essay question as you wish. For example, write about the shows dedicated to the war.
• The jet engines developed by the needs of war. Look into the reasons why those engines were created during WWII.

💰 WW2 Research Topics: Economy

• What about propaganda? This WWII essay should describe how people in the US were reacting to the war and why.
• The product of war: pop culture elements. Think about products that became popular and maybe even stayed a part of culture after the war ended.
• Toy story: WWII edition. Find out how the war influenced the toy production and whether it was a part of propaganda.
• The major changes in the job market sponsored by WWII. What new roles suddenly appeared on the job market, thanks to the war?
• The power of advertising . To narrow it down, you can even mention how the food packaging was adjusted and why.

🎨 WW2 Research Topics: Culture

• Discover the world of fashion during the wartime . It is one of the cool WWII essay topics. It should be about the new trends for civilians at the time.
• The analysis of artworks created during WWII. Choose a piece of art inspired by war and analyze it. What is its story?
• New times require new family traditions. How were the customs inside the families changed by the war? What about raising children? Highlight these issues in your World War 2 essay.
• The secrets of the love letters during the war. This short essay would require you to dig into the archives and find out what the letters could tell us about the relationships back then.
• What was the unique role of animals in WWII? Dedicate your writing to some type of animal and discuss how they were used.
• The rights of African-Americans during the time of war. Write about how their civil rights were changed and try to find the root causes.
• Food preservation methods: another revolution. This example is all about food and how it was packed and preserved during the war.
• The cases of domestic violence during the cold war. Were the rates higher at the time? Did political tension cause it? This is also a great World War 2 essay topic.
• Expanding the vocabulary. Just like any other part of life, the language also went through some changes. What were the new words that emerged?
• The troubled life of housewife during WWII. Describe the work women used to do at the wartime and how it was changed.
• Still resisting: the movements created by families. Here, you should concentrate on the experience of the families that live in the occupied territories.
• Lifesaving food: the role of nutrition in WWII. Try to research and find the battles that were lost or won due to the availability of food.
• The impact of food rationing on soldiers and families. Write your WW2 essay about the struggles of families and different groups of people.
• What were the common sacrifices of families during the war ? In this essay, you would need to look into the negative changes in families’ lifestyles.
• The miracle of penicillin: WWII. This research aims to uncover the importance of penicillin or any other medicine of your choice.
• The clothes that saved lives. Write about different types of clothing and materials that were used to help the soldiers on the battlefield.

💡 World War 2 Essay: More Topic Examples

Below, other suggestions on what you might write about in essays on World War II are presented:

Present in Your World War 2 Essay Alternative Decisions That Could Have Changed the Course of the War Dramatically

Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest decision making mistakes of the world leaders. We do not mean that you should discuss some miraculous history events like “what if Hitler had a heart attack.” In the World War 2 essay devoted to this problem, give realistic alternative decisions that were considered but not realized. Analyze those alternatives that could have changed the end of the war.

“In Your World War Ii Essay, Try to Answer the Question “When Did Hitler Lose the War?”

When did Adolf Hitler lose his chance to win World War II? What was it? These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2.

Cover the Themes of Atrocity and War-Crimes in the World War 2 Essay

Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. When disclosing this theme in the Second World War essay, tell about Nazi concentration camps, “Death-camps,” the Holocaust , etc.

If you are interested in other  history essay  topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays . And don’t forget to tell us in comments below your opinion about the World War 2.

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📑 World War 2 Essay: Outline Examples

The next is creating a neat outline, which would become a massive help for you during the process of writing. Find examples of World War II essay outlines below!

Example 1. Analyze how some alternative decisions could have changed the course of World War II

Try to pick something realistic. Merely writing that if Hitler suddenly died and the war had never happened is just dull. Get creative and maybe take as a basis some real facts that were considered but never came into life.

• In your World War II essay introduction , present the chosen decision. Include your thesis statement in this part as well. It should be your hypothesis concerning the topic.
• In the main body , give at least three arguments why and how that decision would have changed things. Here, you prove your hypothesis to be right. You may add one counter-argument if you wish. For instance, include the opinion of a historian saying that it wouldn’t change anything.
• In conclusion , state your opinion once again, which is now supported by arguments.

Example 2. When did it happen that Germany lost the war?

Think about when Adolf Hitler might have missed his chance to win World War II. What was it? Include some details. Once again, do your research and consider the opinions of different historians.

• In the introduction to this World War 2 essay , present your point of view. In the thesis statement, write the answer to World War II essay questions clearly and coherently.
• The main body here is for you to include three to five pieces of evidence that may prove you right. If you decide to write an argumentative essay, you might add some contradicting facts, too.
• In the last part of your writing, focus on paraphrasing your thesis statement.

Example 3. World War II: discuss war crimes and atrocity

This essay title is related to all acts of cruelty against the civil population, including genocides. You may want to narrow it down according to your preferences. For instance, you can talk about how concentration camps created by Nazis have changed the people’s psyche.

• Introduce this WW2 essay topic by stating how people have changed after surviving the Death Camps. It might be a good idea to include a sentence at the beginning that may serve as a hook to make your readers interested.
• In the body , present not less than three examples of what you think might be relevant. Those should be proven historical facts if you want your essay to be persuasive.
• Conclude by providing a summary of the facts presented in the main body. Add the paraphrased thesis statement.

💁 World War 2: General Information

World war ii: timeline.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. And on September 3, 1939, France and Britain, fulfilling their obligations to Poland, declared war on Germany and World War II began.

However, the beginning of World War II was preceded by some events, inextricably related:

• September 18, 1931. Japan attacked Manchuria
• October 2, 1935 – May 1936. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia, conquered and annexed it
• October 25 – November 1, 1936. On October 25, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy concluded a cooperation agreement. November 1 announced the creation of the “ Rome-Berlin Axis “
• November 25, 1936. Nazi Germany and imperialist Japan concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the international communist movement
• July 7, 1937. Japan invaded China. The World War II began in the Pacific
• 11-13 March 1938. Germany joins Austria (the so-called Anschluss)
• September 29, 1938. Germany, Italy, Great Britain and France signed the Munich agreement obliging the Czechoslovak Republic to cede Nazi Germany to the Sudetenland (where the critical Czechoslovak fortifications were located)
• 14-15 March 1939. Under pressure from Germany, the Slovaks declared their independence and created the Slovak Republic. The Germans broke the Munich agreement , occupied the Czech lands, and established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

• March 31, 1939. France and the United Kingdom provided guarantees of the inviolability of the borders of Poland
• 7-15 April 1939. Fascist Italy attacked Albania and annexed it
• August 23, 1939. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact and a secret annex to it, according to which Europe was divided into spheres of influence

Some scientists think that the World War II was a continuation of the World War I ended in 1918.

September 2, 1945, is the date when the World War II ended. Japan, agreed to unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945, officially capitulates, thereby putting an end to World War II.

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World War II: Key Facts

• Perhaps, the World War II was one the most destructive wars in modern history. About 27,000 people were killed each day from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945.
• The primary opponents were Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, Imperial Japan on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France the United States , and China on the other.
• Germany capitulated on May 7, 1945 . At the same time, Japan continued to fight for another four months before their capitulation on September 2. Atomic bombs, dropped by American troops on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were first used against Japan.
• The end of the war was marked by Britain losing most of its empire . At the same time, World War II accelerated the revival of the US and Soviet economies as global superpowers.
• After the end of the World War II, the “Cold War” between the US and the USSR started.

World War 2: Casualties

The exact World War II casualties remain unknown. However, historians name that the total number of victims was over 60 million people including military and civilians killed. Below you’ll find the list of states suffered the highest losses:

• 42,000,000 people–USSR
• 9,000,000 people–Germany
• 4,000,000 people–China
• 3,000,000 people–Japan

World War II: Causes

Perhaps, there were many prerequisites for World War II:

• Japan’s victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) opened the door for Japanese expansion in the Asia-Pacific region
• The US Navy first developed plans to prepare for a naval war with Japan in 1890
• The Great Depression, and the global recession that followed
• The coming to power of Hitler and his statement about the injustice of the Versailles Treaty, signed in 1918
• The creation in 1935 of the Luftwaffe, as a direct violation of the 1919 treaty
• Remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936
• Anschluss of Austria and the annexation of part of Czechoslovakia
• Italy’s desire to create a Third Rome and Japan’s goal to create an independent state with the Pan-Asian sphere of influence

World War II: Results

The results of World War II are not limited to losses and destruction. As a result of the war, the face of the world changed: new borders and new states appeared, new tendencies of social development emerged, and significant inventions were made.

The war gave a strong impetus to the development of science and technology. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many other discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the war. The foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which transformed and continued to change the postwar world.

The ideology of fascism, Nazism, racism, colonialism thoroughly discredited itself; on the contrary, the ideas of anti-fascism, anti-colonialism, democracy, and socialism gained wide popularity.

The human rights recorded in the UN Charter are internationally recognized. The influence of parties and groups that fought for democracy and social transformations–communists, socialists, social democrats, Christian democrats and other democratic forces, has sharply increased.

In many countries, significant reforms carried out: partial nationalization of industry and banks, the creation of a state system of social insurance, the expansion of workers’ rights. In some countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Japan, have adopted new, democratic constitutions. There was a profound renewal of the society, democratization of state and public institutions.

The colonial system disintegration was another significant result and consequence of the Second World War. Before the war, the vast majority of the world’s population lived in colonies, the area, and population of which many times exceeded the metropolitan countries: Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, and Japan.

During the World War 2 and after its end, part of the dependent and colonial countries (Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Burma, Philippines, and Korea) declared itself independent. In 1947, India became independent, divided into two dominions: India and Pakistan. The intense process of liberation of the colonial peoples began, which continued until the complete abolition of the colonies in the second half of the twentieth century.

As a result of the war, the balance of forces in the world has changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan were defeated, for a time turned into dependent countries, occupied by foreign troops. The war destroyed their economy, and they for many years could not compete with their former competitors.

Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and even Great Britain weakened considerably. The USA came out of the war significantly strengthened. Having surpassed all other countries economically and militarily, the United States became the sole leader of the capitalist world.

The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. The USSR Armed Forces were in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, East Germany and North Korea.

Some countries liberated by the Soviet Union took the road of non-capitalist development. After the liberation from the occupiers in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, people’s democratic governments were established with the participation or under the leadership of the Communists, who began profound social transformations. By the Yalta agreements , these countries were considered to be the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and were in fact under its control.

If the United States became the leader of the capitalist world, then the Soviet Union led the social forces that opposed capitalism. Two main poles of attraction of the world forces, conventionally called the East and the West, were formed; began to build two ideological and military-political blocs, the confrontation of which largely determined the structure of the post-war bipolar world.

The anti-fascist coalition split. Its participants came into conflict with each other, and the “ Cold War ” that lasted more than 45 years, until the collapse of the USSR.

This might be interesting for you:

• Interesting History Essay Topics and Events to Write About
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Thanks for these ideas for essays on World War II. These are what I need for my paper about WWII. Now I can start writing my essay on World War II.

To write World War II essays is very instructive – to know the reasons, the course of war events, the results. These all are necessary to comprehend and debar World War III as humanity won’t go through it!

The World War 2 Positive and Negative Repercussions Expository Essay

Introduction, struggle for national independence, works cited.

It all started on 1 st September 1939 when Germany attacked Poland without warning and that was when the world entered into war with itself. For a period which lasted 6 years, manhood was under the threat of extinction as men slaughtered fellow men like goats and destruction of property worth billions took place (Bachrach 4).

The World War 2 began in the year 1939 and ended in the year 1945 after the United States of America dropped two atomic bombs in the two Japanese islands of Hiroshima and Nagasaki killing more than 120000 in the two islands and leaving thousands of others suffering from the radiation effects. Surprisingly, some Japanese soldiers, who were on the isolated islands in the pacific who never got the message that the war had ended or thought it was just but a trick, continued fighting even after the war had ended.

The war was the deadliest conflict ever experienced in human history with the figures of the possible lost lives being estimated at 50 to 60 million people around the world. Most of these people were civilians who were either killed, maimed or were left homeless by the aerial bombings. With most of the soldiers having gone to the war as young and energetic people, on their return time most of them came missing limbs and also suffering from several diseases.

The Effects Of The 2 nd World War:

The fall of world major powers: The war did not just end, but it had some positive and negative effect to the countries both involved and those that were not involved with the main actors in the war suffering enormously.

To the Germans, with the defeat of Hitler and collapsing of the Nazi regime, its leaders were arrested and tried for crimes against humanity though Hitler, the leader, did not go through the trial as he committed suicide to escape the trial and the execution. Germany was then divided into four zones by the victorious ally sides.

Japan, another casualty of the war, was also in ruins due to the numerous bombings. The leaders were tried and the country was placed under the US rule for some years.

For England, having been bombed severally by its neighbors (Germany), the country economy relied heavily on the aid by the US to develop and prosper to its previous economic level. Centrally to the losses countries like England, France and Germany among others experienced, the Russians in the process of defeating the Germans had established a powerful army which now occupied most of the Eastern part of Europe.

The country’s vast resources made sure that the USSR along with the USA could emerge the superpowers. For the USA, the war stimulated the economy, new industries were built all over the United States of America due to the fact that the country had escaped the physical destruction that many other countries went through thus rather than building a nation it was increasing investments.

With the main colonial powers coming from Europe, the 2 nd World War left many weak and unable to manage their colonies due to the scarcity of resources. Many of them were preoccupied with own problems and the rise of anti- imperialist sentiments back at home easened the process of decolonization. The weakness of England and France and the defeat of Germany greatly encouraged the struggle for independence as these countries concentrated on rebuilding their economies.

War soldiers who had participated in the war came back enlightened and bearing the fact that they had seen white men also die in the war, the belief that whites were immortal was erased and the struggle for independence began. Colonies were not ready to be colonized again after what they saw during the 2 nd World War.

Colonies that had helped their colonial masters during the war were granted independence after the war ended. For example countries that regained their independence were the Philippines from the United States of America in 1946, India from Britain followed in 1947, Ceylon and Burma in 1948 among others (Linter 1). The technologies on fighting diseases were advance and this reduced mortality cases leading to soaring populations.

Upon Science and technology, the World War II brought enormous technological changes for example the English developed the radar, there were also advancements in the world of electronics. The development of the atomic bomb not only did it transform the potential in future wars but also opened up the world of nuclear power industry.

The World War II also resulted in the use of women for comfort, especially in the Asian region. To reduce the stress and depression of the soldiers involved in the war, women as young as eleven years old were abducted and imprisoned where they were raped in the war camps. It is estimated that a single comfort lady could serve about 50 soldiers in a day.

Not only were these women harassed but they were also forced to procure abortions as they were not allowed to get pregnant. The small proportion that survived endured physical and emotional breakdowns through out their lives.

The disproportionate death of mostly young men who were involved in the World War II resulted in changes in sex ratios among the people left behind. This resulted in reduced number of marriages as well as low fertility rate with children born out of wedlock increasing.

With the war ending and human race threatening itself, the world swore never to fight against itself and in 1945, an international organization to oversee peace in the name of the league of nations was formed, which later transformed to the United Nations that had the full support of the world major powers. The World War II also led to the formation of the International Monetary Fund and also for the formation of international tariffs, which were to be regulated through the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT).

The World War 2 had both its positive and negative repercussions. Though human losses cannot be equated with any economic or technological empowerment it is advisable to note that the world also got some benefits from the war. For example, the economies of countries such as the USA expanded and there was also technological advancements and exchange between countries.

Trade relations were also improved by the end of the war as there was formation of the body GATT to guide and ensure there was free trade, colonies gained independence due to the weakening of their colonial masters and there was also the emergence of United States of America and USSR as the world super powers and finally the increased investments in the field of nuclear energy not only for war but also for economy purposes.

One thing that should remain clear is that as the countries develop and compete with others never again should the world ever fight against itself? We should always find alternative ways of solving our problems other than fighting with fellow humans.

Bachrach Susan. “ History Of The Holocaust: An Overview .” Ushmm , 1994. Web.

Linter Bertil. “ How World War II Shaped Burma’s Future .” Asiapacificms, 2005. Web.

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War Crimes in Ww2

This essay about war crimes in World War II provides a comprehensive overview of the atrocities committed during the conflict. It explores the actions of both the Axis and Allied powers, including the Holocaust, firebombing campaigns, and the use of atomic bombs. The essay examines the legal and moral implications of these acts, as well as efforts to hold perpetrators accountable through international tribunals. Overall, it highlights the enduring legacy of war crimes and the importance of confronting the past to prevent similar atrocities in the future.

How it works

World War II stands as an epochal period marred by widespread devastation and human suffering, perpetuated by an array of war crimes that left indelible scars on the collective memory of humanity. Amidst the tumultuous landscape of conflict, various actors were implicated in acts of brutality that defied moral and legal norms.

The Nazi regime, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, perpetrated some of the most egregious war crimes in history, epitomized by the Holocaust. The systematic genocide of six million Jews, alongside millions of other marginalized groups, remains a haunting testament to the depths of human depravity.

Concentration camps like Auschwitz and Treblinka symbolized the grotesque machinery of Nazi oppression, where victims endured unimaginable horrors, from forced labor to mass extermination.

Yet, the spectrum of war crimes during World War II extended beyond the atrocities committed by the Axis powers. The Allied forces, too, were implicated in actions that raised moral and legal quandaries. The firebombing campaigns that ravaged cities such as Dresden and Tokyo resulted in the deaths of countless civilians, sparking debates about the ethics of targeting non-combatants during wartime.

Moreover, the decision to deploy atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki remains a contentious issue to this day. While proponents argue that the bombings hastened the end of the war and averted a prolonged invasion of Japan, critics contend that the use of nuclear weapons constituted an unjustifiable and disproportionate act of violence against civilian populations.

In the aftermath of World War II, efforts were undertaken to hold perpetrators of war crimes accountable through international tribunals and prosecutions. The Nuremberg Trials, alongside subsequent legal proceedings in Tokyo and beyond, established critical precedents for the prosecution of individuals responsible for atrocities committed during armed conflict.

The enduring legacy of war crimes in World War II serves as a somber reminder of the horrors wrought by human conflict and the imperative of upholding principles of justice and accountability even in times of war. By confronting the atrocities of the past with unwavering resolve, we honor the memory of the victims and reaffirm our commitment to preventing such atrocities from recurring in the future.

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Home — Essay Samples — War — Fascism in World War II — The Causes of World War Two

The Causes of World War Two

• Categories: Fascism in World War II

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Published: Apr 11, 2019

Words: 2589 | Pages: 6 | 13 min read

The outbreak of World War II in 1939 was driven by a complex web of interconnected causes. The Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, imposed harsh conditions on Germany, fostering deep resentment and setting the stage for Adolf Hitler's rise to power. Simultaneously, Italy embraced fascism under Benito Mussolini, destabilizing Europe. Japan's imperialist ambitions in Asia went unchecked due to Western powers' policy of appeasement, contributing to the formation of the Axis Powers.

Fear of communism further divided nations, with alliances like the Anti-Comintern Pact heightening ideological tensions. The policy of appeasement pursued by Western powers inadvertently emboldened fascist aggressors, while the League of Nations' failure to maintain order encouraged aggression.

The immediate trigger for the war was Germany's demand for the city of Danzig and the subsequent threat to Polish independence. Britain and France's guarantee of Polish protection led to Germany's invasion of Poland in 1939, prompting the declaration of war. In summary, World War II resulted from a complex interplay of factors, including historical legacies, the rise of fascism, fear of communism, appeasement, and specific trigger events.

Works Cited:

• Jackson, S. (1948). The lottery. The New Yorker, 27(26), 22-28. doi: 10.1080/00064246.2012.735692
• Felgar, R. (2017). Tradition and Ritual in Shirley Jackson’s “The Lottery”. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 5(5), 41-46. doi: 10.4236/jss.2017.55005
• Allen, D. C. (2014). “The Lottery”: Responses to the Critics. College English, 76(5), 480-488. doi: 10.1642/ce.55.3.407
• Dewey, J. (2016). Shirley Jackson and the Uses of Horror. The Sewanee Review, 124(3), 371-377. doi: 10.1353/sew.2016.0042
• Bunn, G. C. (2016). The Lottery: A Reading of Shirley Jackson’s Classic Short Story. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Research, 4(2), 68-75.
• Allen, M. (2012). Shirley Jackson's 'The Lottery': an Exposition of Conformity in Society. Northwind: A Journal of George MacDonald Studies, 30, 61-69.
• Cheung, Y. K. (2015). The Lottery: Suspense and Surprise. RELC Journal, 46(2), 180-188. doi: 10.1177/0033688215583224
• Levine, E. R. (2019). “The Lottery” and Other Stories: An Exploration of Shirley Jackson’s Work. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
• Seymour, M. J. (2019). Reading The Lottery in a Time of Terror. The Explicator, 77(1-2), 67-71. doi: 10.1080/00144940.2018.1520674
• Nunez, J. A. (2014). “The Lottery” as Sociological Analysis. Journal of Sociology and Social Work, 2(1), 1-7.

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Past Factory

25+ Facts About World War II That Are Actually True

Posted: April 29, 2024 | Last updated: April 29, 2024

World War II was a gruesome war between the Axis and Allies, but the history books didn't tell the whole story. Here are some unbelievable facts and stories about World War II that you have likely never heard before. Which one surprised you the most?

Click through to learn about the new name that hamburgers received during the war...

Princess Elizabeth, The Mechanic

In 1944, the late Queen Elizabeth II (then Princess Elizabeth) turned 18 and joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service. Her father, King George IV, was against this, though, and believed Elizabeth should focus on training as a princess.

She was a driver and a mechanic, and It was hard and honest work for the princess, who had been dubbed by a reporter "Princess Auto Mechanic."

Coca-Cola, the Drink of Soldiers

To help strengthen morale among American soldiers, General Eisenhower worked with Coca-Cola to bring a little piece of home with them to the front lines. For five cents, a soldier could buy a bottle of Coca-Cola.

This led to Coca-Cola building 64 bottling plants in North Africa! The plan was a success; soldiers were excited to see a Coca-Cola bottle with their rations.

Betrayal In The Reich

There were many assassination attempts on Hitler, and from within the Nazi regime alone, historians have discovered 42 assassination attempts.

It's no wonder that Hitler executed no fewer than 84 of his generals throughout the war. The most notable Germans executed were those who were a part of the July 20th assassination plot.

John R. McKinney, Army of One

American soldier John R. McKinney was attacked while on guard duty in the Philippines. 100 Japanese soldiers attacked his position, and surprisingly he withstood the attack with an M1 rifle.

Over the course of 36 minutes and two waves of fighters, McKinney killed 38 Japanese soldiers. He came out of the battle with a partially severed ear and received a Medal of Honor afterward.

Yang Kyoungjong, The Man Of Many Armies

Because Korea was under Japanese rule, many Koreans fought for Japan. Yang Kyoungjong started the war fighting for Japan like his fellow Koreans.

He was then captured by the Soviet army and forced to fight for them. From there, he was captured by Germany and forced to fight for the German Wehrmacht. And at the war's end, Yang was captured by the U.S. Army.

Calvin Graham, Kid Navy Soldier

Calvin Graham wears the mantle of "youngest soldier in World War II." This twelve-year-old from Crockett, Texas, joined the United States Navy and served on the battleship South Dakota.

Graham lied about his age, forged his mother's signature and notary stamp, dressed in his older brother's clothes, and spoke in a deeper voice to fool others. However, Graham was eventually discovered and discharged.

William Hitler, American Soldier

William Hitler was the half-nephew of Adolf Hitler. He was born in Liverpool, England. Before the war, he went to work for his uncle and tried to blackmail him into getting a high-ranking job within Germany.

However, he eventually immigrated to the United States, joined the US Navy, and was awarded the Purple Heart.

Japanese Spy Ring in Mexico

It was dangerous to be Japanese in America after Pearl Harbor, so Japan set up a spy network in Tijuana, Mexico, just 15 miles from the United States destroyer based in San Diego and the North Island Naval Air Station.

Japanese intelligence agents would meet under the Molino Rojo, a brothel in Tijuana's Zone Norte - North America's largest red light district.

Britain and France Fought Each Other During the War

After France lost to Germany, they signed an armistice to separate German-occupied France from the unoccupied lands run by the new French government in Vichy.

Part of the armistice was an agreement that Germany would not touch the now neutral French Navy in the Mediterranean. But, Britain did not trust this, so on July 3rd, 1940, the British Navy attacked Mers-el-Kebir.

Germany Tried to Bug Britain

How do you weaken enemy morale? Attack the food supply lines. That was the Germans' plan for England; the only question was "how?"

Their idea was to drop potato beetles in England; the bugs would destroy the crops and cause famine - the only issue was that they would need about 40 million insects for their plan to work.

Enemies to Friends For Life

While flying his plane in December 1943, German pilot Franz Stigler saw a plane going down. This plane was a B-17, flown by American pilot Charlie Brown.

Instead of blowing it out of the sky, Franz led Brown towards Allied territory. Brown went looking for Franz when the war ended, and the two ended up being friends until they died in 2008.

Juan Pujol Garcia, Iron Cross Spy

Juan Pujol Garcia pretended to be a pro-Nazi Spanish government official. He became a German agent, and his mission was to go to England and set up a spy network there.

He instead went to Lisbon and sent his bosses in Germany fake reports and fake names of recruits. He eventually joined MI5 and misinformed the German high command about the D-Day landings. Unaware of his ties to MI5, Germany awarded Pujol an Iron Cross.

Japanese Holdouts

Japanese soldiers that were stationed throughout the Southeast and Pacific islands either did not believe in the validity of the Japanese surrender in 1945 or did not hear about it.

For the next two and a half decades, Japanese soldiers were found hiding in caves and huts as they fought with local police forces and US and British forces who were trying to help establish new governments.

Hiroo Onada, The Man Who Didn't Stop Fighting

Hiroo Onada was a Japanese intelligence officer and holdout who continued his service while hiding in the Philippines by using guerilla tactics and harassing locals.

Onada refused to believe leaflets and the locals that said: "the war was over." In 1974, as per Onada's demand, his commanding officer had come to his hideout and relieved him of duty.

Teruo Nakamura, The Last Japanese Soldier

Teruo Nakamura was a Japanese soldier stationed on Morotai Island. He was believed to have died in the Ally attack in September 1944.

However, he survived and was in hiding until 1974. That's when a pilot accidentally found his hut on the island. Nakamura was the last Japanese holdout from World War II, being found 29 years and 107 days after the war.

The Axis Death Ray

During the war, both the Allies and the Axis had crazy ideas for inventions to take on the other side. Both Axis powers, Germany and Japan, had projects in the works for a Death Ray.

One of Germany's death ray projects needed a particle accelerator, while the Japanese death ray required a magnetron. It's safe to say, though, that none of their death ray plans panned out.

The Japanese Pilot Who Was Welcomed By US Citizens

Shigenori Nishikaichi took part in the attack on pearl harbor. However, his airplane was damaged during the attack, so he flew his plane and crashed onto the island of Ni'ihau.

There, the locals had not heard of the attack yet and welcomed Shigenori with open arms. When the locals heard what happened, they imprisoned Shigenori. Later, a fight took place, and Shigenori was killed.

Hitler's Train, The "Amerika"

Before setting up a permanent base of operations, Adolf Hitler traveled around in his private train and used it as a mobile headquarters. The train had a conference car, escort car, dining car, and two sleeping cars and was codenamed "Amerika."

Hitler eventually changed the name of the train to "Brandenburg" in 1943.

George Elser, Assassin Carpenter

George Elser, a German carpenter, attempted to assassinate Hitler and other German Officers at the Burgerbraukeller in Munich on November 8, 1939.

Elser's weapon killed eight and injured 62 but did not kill Hitler because he had left early. Once soldiers found Elser, he was placed in Dachau concentration camp, where he stayed for five years until he was executed.

Dr. Hans Münch, The Good Man of Auschwitz

Dr. Hans Münch was one of the 40 prominent members on trial at the Auschwitz Trials. However, he was the only one acquitted of all war crime charges because he refused to partake in killing anyone in Auschwitz.

Münch would always find excuses or make elaborate ruses to keep prisoners alive. And to his benefit, many prisoners testified in his favor.

SS Cap Arcona

The SS Cap Arcona was a German Ocean liner that had served many purposes during the war. In 1942, the ship was used as the Titanic in a German propaganda film.

In 1945, it was carrying concentration camp prisoners from Germany. However, British intelligence believed it was carrying German high command, so the Allies bombed the ship. There were 5,000 killed on the Arcona and 2,000 killed on the ships accompanying it.

The Battle of Stalingrad

The Battle of Stalingrad was the bloodiest and most significant battle during World War II. In hopes of gaining access to the oil fields in the Caucasus, Hitler attacked Stalingrad in the summer of 1942.

On February 3, 1943, after months of back and forth fighting, the Soviets defeated the Nazis. Though at a cost - 1.1 million Soviet soldiers were killed, and between 650,000 and 868,000 Nazi soldiers were killed.

Mildred and Arvid and The Red Orchestra

When Hitler and Nazism rose to power, Americans Mildred and Arvid Harnack worked in Germany. Over the years, they had taken a liking to Soviet Communism and made many connections in Russia.

When the war broke out, the Harnacks led an underground espionage ring called The Red Orchestra, sending intelligence reports to their connections in Russia. The Harnacks were eventually found and executed in 1942.

Korean Casualties From Nukes

When the United States Dropped the Nuclear Bombs on Nagasaki and Hiroshima, the devastation that Japan felt was unquestionable.

But what some might not know is that there were more than 20,000 South Koreans who perished from the nuclear strikes. These Koreans were believed to be working in Hiroshima at the time of the bombings.

I'll Have A Liberty Steak With A Side of Liberty Cabbage

Due to the war, many Americans found some foods "unpatriotic" because they sounded German. So to combat this German propaganda, people came up with new terms to call these foods.

Hamburger and Sauerkraut were both changed to "Liberty Steak" and "Liberty Cabbage," respectively. American propaganda at its finest, wouldn't you say?

Stranislawa Leszczyńska, Midwife to Thousands

Stranislawa Leszczyńka was a Polish midwife and a prisoner in Auschwitz. She took on the responsibility of delivering 3,000 babies in Auschwitz.

Unfortunately, 2,500 babies did not survive past infancy, and it is estimated that about 30 of them survived when the Allies liberated the camp in 1945.

Aimo Koivunen, The Lost One

In 1944, Finnish Soldier Aimo Koivunen was on a ski patrol with his squad. They were attacked by Soviet soldiers and were able to escape.

Aimo was carrying the squad's pervitin (also known as methamphetamine). He was tired from skiing for so long when he took all doses. He had skied more than 400km, went missing for a whole week, and when he was found and put into a hospital, his heart rate was 200bpm, and he weighed 43kg.

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The Stark Reality of Israel’s Fight in Gaza

Israel has failed to achieve its two primary goals of the war, while the suffering of Palestinians erodes support even among its allies.

Six months into the conflict in Gaza, the question of what Israel has achieved is creating ever more intense global strains. Credit... Avishag Shaar-Yashuv for The New York Times

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By Julian E. Barnes ,  Adam Goldman ,  Eric Schmitt and Adam Rasgon

Reporting from Washington and Jerusalem

• April 22, 2024

Israel’s military operations in Gaza have weakened Hamas. Most Hamas battalions have been degraded and are scattered. Thousands of its members have been killed, and at least one senior military leader has been eliminated.

Yet Israel has not achieved its primary goals of the war: freeing hostages and fully destroying Hamas.

The war and the tactics of the Israel Defense Forces have come at a great cost. Vast numbers of Palestinian civilians have been killed in the Israeli campaign; hunger is widespread in Gaza; and deaths around relief efforts have generated condemnation.

Six months into the conflict, the question of what Israel has achieved — and when and how the fighting could come to an end — is creating ever more intense global strains around a war that has cost Israel support from even close allies.

Israel’s own military casualties have begun to climb, with about 260 killed and more than 1,500 injured since its pulverizing ground assault began in the weeks after the Hamas-led terrorist attacks on Oct. 7.

Israeli officials say that about 133 of the hostages taken remain in Gaza. But talks to secure the return of at least some of them in exchange for a halt in the fighting and the release of Palestinian prisoners have hit a snag. Hamas has rebuffed the latest proposal and claims it does not have 40 hostages who meet the terms of the first part of the proposed deal, raising questions about how many are still alive and how many are held by other groups.

The war has settled into a deadly pattern of skirmishes and airstrikes as Israeli forces continue to operate in Gaza, targeting Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad fighters. Last week, with tensions between Israel and Iran increased, the Israeli military said it struck more than 100 targets and killed dozens of fighters in the central part of the enclave, including a Hamas security officer who served in the group’s intelligence wing.

The Israeli military says Hamas casualties continue to mount but that no Israeli soldiers have been killed in fighting in Gaza since April 6 . That suggests that the pace of the fighting and Hamas’s capabilities have waned for now.

But both sides are bracing for a larger operation in the southern city of Rafah, Hamas’s last stronghold that Israel has not invaded.

And there is more uncertainty about what will follow Rafah, with questions about who will govern Gaza and provide its security if the fighting is to end.

This article is based on interviews with American and Israeli officials, members of Hamas and Palestinians in Gaza. Some spoke on the condition of anonymity to discuss military planning, sensitive diplomacy or secret intelligence assessments.

Despite Hamas’s heavy losses, much of its top leadership in Gaza remains in place, ensconced in a vast underground network of tunnels and operations centers, calling the shots in the hostage negotiations. Those tunnels will allow Hamas to survive and reconstitute once the fighting stops, current and former U.S. officials say.

“Palestinian resistance to Israel, manifested by Hamas and other militant groups, is an idea as much as it is a physical, tangible group of people,” said Douglas London, a retired C.I.A. officer who spent 34 years at the agency. “So for as much damage Israel might have inflicted on Hamas, it still has capability, resilience, funding and a long line of people most likely waiting to sign up and join after all the fighting and all the destruction and all the loss of life.”

In an annual intelligence assessment released in March, American spy agencies expressed doubts about Israel’s ability to truly destroy Hamas, which the United States has designated a terrorist group.

“Israel probably will face lingering armed resistance from Hamas for years to come,” the report said, “and the military will struggle to neutralize Hamas’s underground infrastructure, which allows insurgents to hide, regain strength and surprise Israeli forces.”

After six intense months, the war has come down to Rafah.

The Israeli military believes four battalions of Hamas fighters are based in the city and that thousands of other fighters have taken refuge there, along with around a million civilians.

The Israeli military says those battalions must be dismantled.

Israeli officials said the only way to destroy those battalions is with a major push into Rafah by ground forces. Israeli security experts contend that destroying the tunnels between Gaza and Egypt that supply Hamas with arms will also be a critical goal.

But the planned invasion has become a point of friction between the United States and Israel.

Israel has not developed a plan to evacuate civilians from Rafah, U.S. officials said. Without one, the death toll in Gaza — already about 34,000, according to health officials there — will climb even higher. The Israeli government disputes those numbers, saying they do not distinguish between Hamas fighters and civilians killed during the war.

“I have not yet seen a credible and executable plan to move people that has any level of detail about how you not only house, feed and provide medicine for those innocent civilians, but also how you deal with things like sanitation, water and other basic services,” Jake Sullivan, President Biden’s national security adviser, told reporters earlier this month.

U.S. military officials say that Israel should model its plan on the siege of Mosul, Iraq, in 2017 by Iraqi forces and the U.S. Air Force. The operation destroyed large swaths of what was once Iraq’s second-largest city. While roughly 3,000 civilians were killed as a result of Iraqi or U.S. military action, by some estimates , the coalition successfully evacuated a million residents from the city ahead of the assault on the city.

For Rafah, American military planners want Israel to carry out targeted raids on Hamas strong points, but only after civilians have been relocated.

Israeli officials say they expect civilians to move to safer areas. But U.S. officials have said that with much of the strip nearly uninhabitable, Israel needs a better plan.

“This is an opportune time for Israel to transition to a new phase focused on very precise counterterrorism operations, particularly given the situation of 1.2 to 1.3 million Palestinians all clustered within Rafah and its environs,” said Lt. Gen. Mark C. Schwartz, a retired U.S. Special Operations commander who served as the American security coordinator for Israel and the Palestinian Authority.

The movement of civilians within Gaza, and the Palestinians taking refuge in Rafah, is a major sticking point not just between the United States and Israel but also in the talks about a temporary cease-fire to secure the release of hostages.

On Thursday, William J. Burns, the C.I.A. director, placed the lack of progress in the talks squarely at the feet of Hamas and its negative reaction to a U.S.-backed proposal presented this month.

“It’s a big rock to push up a very steep hill right now,” Mr. Burns said. “It’s that negative reaction that really is standing in the way of innocent civilians in Gaza getting humanitarian relief.”

U.S. officials say privately that the only way to get Israel to stop the Rafah operation is through a hostage release deal.

But Israeli officials say they believe it is only the looming operation in Rafah that has kept Hamas in negotiations.

As the talks continue, there is rising anger among families of hostages about Israel’s failure to bring their loved ones home.

Gilad Korngold, 62, whose son Tal Shoham is one of the hostages, said he was overcome with feelings of “despair, frustration, anger and fear” because of the government’s failure to strike a deal to free the hostages.

“They abandoned them,” he said in an interview. “Time is running out. We don’t know how they’re doing, if they’re eating or drinking, or if they’re getting medicine. We don’t know anything about them.”

Mr. Korngold said three members of his family were killed on Oct. 7 and that six others who had been abducted were released during a short-lived cease-fire in late November.

“Hostage recovery comes down to thoughtful and unified negotiations, and that will likely not happen until Israel withdraws the hammer,” said Jay Tabb, a Marine officer who fought in Iraq and served as a top F.B.I. executive working on counterterrorism and hostage issues.

Since the beginning of the war, Israel has tried to destroy the extensive tunnel network below Gaza.

The system runs for hundreds of miles, at points reaching 15 stories below ground, according to Israeli and U.S. officials. It contains larger complexes of underground rooms, used for command posts and refuges. Hamas has used the tunnels to hide its leaders, hold hostages and allow fighters to escape Israeli attack.

Israel has not been able to destroy the tunnels, which Hamas has spent years building. But Israeli officials say they have taken out most of the key nodes, the underground strategic complexes that Hamas has used to command its forces. About 70 percent of the complexes have been eliminated, said an Israeli military intelligence official, who spoke on the condition of anonymity to comply with army protocols.

Israeli officials also say their military has killed as many as 13,000 Hamas members, though experts caution that any figures are probably imprecise given the chaos of the war. And in March, Israel killed Marwan Issa, who was the deputy commander of Hamas’s military wing and a presumed planner of the Oct. 7 attacks. He is the highest-ranking Hamas military leader eliminated during the war.

As a result of the fighting, 19 of Hamas’s 24 battalions are no longer functioning, the Israelis say.

Between the losses and damage to the underground complexes, Hamas’s ability to command its forces has been severely reduced.

But veterans of the United States’ wars say the number of enemy soldiers killed, or command posts destroyed, has proved a totally irrelevant fact and a deeply misleading measure of success in a military campaign.

To be sure, American intelligence agencies assess that Hamas has lost a significant amount of combat power, and that rebuilding will take time.

But that does not mean Hamas has been destroyed. Israeli officials said the group and other militant organizations still have many forces above and below ground. In northern Gaza, 4,000 to 5,000 fighters have held out, the Israeli military intelligence official said.

U.S. officials and analysts say Hamas is likely to remain a force in Gaza when the fighting is over. But how quickly it can rebuild will depend on Israel’s decisions in the next phases of the war and in its aftermath.

Both the Israeli military and the Palestinians are bracing for what comes next.

While Israel has continued to conduct strikes on Rafah, several Palestinians said they were struggling to survive.

“We’re going through a dreadful experience,” said Khalil el-Halabi, 70, a resident of Gaza City sheltering in a tent in Rafah. “Why do we have to live through this misery when we had nothing to do with Oct. 7? We just want to go back to our homes.”

Despite American pleas for restraint, Palestinians, Israelis and military experts expect that Israel will go into Rafah. The real question is what will happen after that.

Israel’s attacks have devastated Gaza. Palestinians returning to the southern city of Khan Younis after the Israeli military pulled out this month were confronted with an apocalyptic scene — endless islands of rubble, destroyed roads and the smell of human remains.

“I feel like Khan Younis was hit by a magnitude-50 earthquake,” said Mohammed al-Hassi, a medic from the city. “Entire neighborhoods have been erased, and people can’t even recognize where their homes once were.”

Some Israeli officials say grinding down Hamas may take years.

Benny Gantz, a member of Israel’s war cabinet, told a group of Israelis in January that the war could last “a year, a decade or a generation,” according to a person who participated in the meeting.

American officials blanch at suggestions that intense Israeli operations could go on for two more months, let alone two more years.

They say Israel should declare victory over Hamas and move to a different kind of fight: one that targets senior Hamas leaders but does not brutalize civilians; one focused on preventing Hamas from resupplying and rebuilding, rather than pummeling the fighters that remain.

Equally critical, American officials say, is coming up with a plan to return the governance of Gaza to Palestinians. U.S. and Arab officials are pushing to announce steps toward a demilitarized Palestinian state in Gaza and the West Bank.

Benjamin Netanyahu, the Israeli prime minister, and his government are against such moves. But Israeli officials have been reluctant to engage with Americans on their plans for Gaza, including who they intend to hand power over to, and what proposals for security and governance they would accept.

On Thursday, the United States vetoed a Palestinian bid to be recognized as a full member state at the United Nations, saying the step requires negotiations.

In the absence of Israel allowing a functioning Palestinian government to take charge, chaos and lawlessness have taken over as Israeli troops have withdrawn from parts of Gaza.

Current and former U.S. officials said that while Israel has not, and cannot, destroy Hamas, it has made the likelihood of a repeat of the Oct. 7 terrorist attack remote.

Maj. Gen. Amos Yadlin, a former Israeli military intelligence chief, agreed. “We’ve already achieved the most important thing: dismantling Hamas as an organized army capable of an Oct. 7 attack,” he said. “It can’t do it again.”

Julian E. Barnes covers the U.S. intelligence agencies and international security matters for The Times. He has written about security issues for more than two decades. More about Julian E. Barnes

Adam Goldman writes about the F.B.I. and national security. He has been a journalist for more than two decades. More about Adam Goldman

Eric Schmitt is a national security correspondent for The Times, focusing on U.S. military affairs and counterterrorism issues overseas, topics he has reported on for more than three decades. More about Eric Schmitt

Adam Rasgon reports from Israel for The Times's Jerusalem bureau. More about Adam Rasgon

Our Coverage of the Israel-Hamas War

News and Analysis

Israeli negotiators, offering a hint of hope for negotiations over a cease-fire in Gaza, have reduced the number of hostages they want Hamas to release  during the first phase of a truce.

Secretary of State Antony Blinken arrived in Jordan for his second stop on a Middle East tour  to meet with top officials to discuss the war between Israel and Hamas.

President Biden and his national security team see a narrow window to finally seal an agreement  that would at least temporarily halt the war in Gaza and possibly even end it for good, but their optimism has been dashed before.

Campus Protests in the U.S.: On quads and lawns from coast to coast, U.S. colleges are grappling with a groundswell of student activism  over Israel’s military campaign in Gaza. Administrators are having to make controversial decisions .

Cracking Down on Protests: Grief and rage over the Gaza war and Israel have led to demonstrations across the Arab world. Arrests suggest governments fear the outrage could boomerang .

Imagining Gaza’s Reconstruction: International development agencies have been meeting with Middle East business interests and urban planners to map out an economic future for the territory .

Showing Liberal Dismay: Representative Mark Pocan, the progressive Democrat from a rural, mostly white Wisconsin district, is determined to let President Biden know that it is not just young people of color who are concerned about the war .

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