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Body Composition: Definition and Insights Into Health

• Body Composition
• Comparison to BMI
• How to Calculate

Body composition refers to the distribution of fat, muscle, bone, and other tissues that make up your body. It is often expressed as the percentage of total body weight that consists of fat and/or lean body mass. Body composition offers numerous insights into health, fitness, and nutritional status.

Body fat plays a key role in hormone production, insulation, and other important body processes. While the optimal amount of body fat differs from person to person, having too much body fat increases the risk of various health issues, from joint problems to heart disease .

Fortunately, there are several strategies to improve body composition and your overall health. This article discusses what body composition is, why it's important, and how to improve yours.

Joyce Diva / Getty Images

What Is Body Composition?

Body composition is the term used in the fitness and health community to refer to the percentage of fat, water, bone, muscle, skin, and other lean tissues that make up the body. 

While checking your weight on the scale can be helpful for seeing your total weight, it doesn’t tell you how the weight is distributed in your body.

Body composition is typically broken up into two groups:

• Fat mass refers to the body's stored fat. Fat insulates the body, surrounds your organs, and is used for energy.
• Non-fat mass refers to all of your body's components except fat. Non-fat mass includes bones, liver, kidneys, intestines, muscles, and other organs and tissues your body needs to function.

Many health risks are tied to the ratio of fat mass to non-fat mass. Research shows that the risk of premature death is greater in people who have higher percentages of fat compared to non-fat mass.

In comparison, people with higher percentages of non-fat mass compared to fat mass tend to be leaner with more muscle. These individuals have a lower risk of many diseases.

Importance of Measuring Body Composition

Body composition is a valuable tool for assessing:

• Health status: Body composition assesses the percentage of fat in the body. Having excessive body fat, especially fat around organs (visceral body fat), increases the risk of many health conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, and several cancers .
• Fitness levels: Athletes and fitness enthusiasts can use body composition as a tool to track their lean muscle-building progress. Body composition helps athletes optimize their strength, endurance, and overall athletic performance.
• Nutritional status: Body composition can help you and your healthcare provider understand if you have too much or too little body fat relative to your weight. This information can be used to design a safe and effective diet intervention or meal plan.
• Metabolic health: Having excess fat increases the risk of metabolic health issues, including insulin resistance , imbalances of cholesterol and triglycerides , high blood pressure, uncontrolled blood sugar, and slowed metabolism. Body composition is therefore an effective tool for monitoring and reducing these risks.
• Weight control: Weight loss is often accompanied by a loss in lean body mass, especially muscle, which can impede long-term weight loss by slowing metabolism and increasing fatigue . Monitoring body composition helps maintain lean body mass while also shedding body fat.

Body Composition vs. Weight and Body Mass Index

BMI is a screening tool commonly used to assess a person's weight in relation to their height. The tool provides a general evaluation of a person's health risks relative to their weight. But, unlike body composition, it does not provide specifics about the distribution of a person's weight.

BMI is calculated by taking total body mass in kilograms (kg) and dividing it by height in meters (m) squared. The results are written as kg/m 2 .

The number is then put into a chart to find the category. The BMI categories include:

• BMI less than 18.5 = Underweight
• BMI 18.5 to 24.9 = Normal
• BMI 25 to 29.9 = Overweight
• BMI 30 to 34.9 = Obese class I
• BMI 35 to 39.9 = Obese class II
• BMI more than 40 = Obese class III

Whereas BMI measures weight relative to height, body composition measures fat in proportion to lean body mass. For this reason, body composition offers a more accurate and comprehensive insight into a person's overall health.

Take, for example, an athlete with excessive muscle and very little fat. This individual will likely have a high BMI. In this instance, though, having a high BMI does not mean they have obesity or a greater risk of health conditions that are associated with obesity.

In order to get an accurate evaluation of how much fat, muscle, and all-around lean mass this individual has, an evaluation of their body composition is needed.

How do you figure out your healthy body weight?

Many calculations for finding healthy body weight use factors like age, sex, and height. These measures can be limited and provide an estimated range. Still, finding your height on a BMI chart can give you an idea of what a healthy weight may be for you.

Calculating Body Composition

Body composition is measured using tools to estimate your body fat percentage. The ways to measure body composition vary. Some are more accessible but may be less accurate, while others may be harder to access and more accurate. Here are different ways body composition is measured.

Skinfold Measurement

Skinfold measurements use a special type of caliper tool designed to measure the thickness of a skinfold. It's done by gently pinching the skin and fat under the skin on several body parts.

Skinfold measurements are usually done on the following:

• Side of the torso
• Upper thigh
• Beneath the shoulder blade
• Tricep or upper arms 

This type of measurement is accurate. However, there is a large possibility of "user error" if the person performing the test doesn't have proper training.

Body Circumference

Body circumference or waist circumference measurements are a simple and easy way to estimate body fat. It uses a tape measure to see how wide around specific body parts are. Circumference is often assessed on body parts like the waist, arms, chest, thighs, and hips. 

Research suggests carrying more weight on your abdomen is associated with an increased risk for health problems. The circumference method helps assess the risk for disease based on the weight you carry on your belly.

However, this method may not be the best if your goal is to assess your overall body fat percentage because it only measures the circumference and not the percentage of fat and muscle. 

Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry 

The dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scan, known as a DEXA scan , uses low-energy X-rays to accurately measure the weight of bone, muscle, and body fat. After the scan, you receive an assessment of your bone density , body fat percentage, and mass of each body part. 

Many professionals consider the DEXA scan the gold standard for measuring muscle mass.  However, it can be harder to find a place to have a DEXA scan done depending on where you live, and it may be a more expensive option.

Hydrostatic Weighing

Hydrostatic weighing measures the water displacement when someone is fully submerged in water. Because fat floats and lean tissues sink in water, the more lean body mass you have, the heavier you’ll be under water. 

Hydrostatic weighing was long considered the gold standard for assessing body composition until other methods, like DEXA scans, were developed. While this method is accurate, some people find it difficult to stay submerged in water long enough for the assessment, and it may not be accessible. 

Bioimpedance Analysis 

A bioimpedance analysis (BIA) uses a painless, low-energy electrical current to assess fat mass, muscle mass, and hydration (water mass). 

Muscle contains more water than fat, so it conducts the energy current better than fat. Fat tissue impedes the movement of the current. The BIA scanner can assess body composition based on how the energy moves through the body. This test tends to cost less and may be easier to find than other types of scans.

However, the accuracy of this assessment changes based on how hydrated you are. If you drink too much water before the test, you could appear leaner than you are. If you’re dehydrated, the test may say you have more body fat than you do.

Other Methods

Some other methods of assessing body composition include:

• BodPod: Uses air displacement to determine body composition
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) : Uses strong magnetic currents to generate an image
• Computed tomography (CT) scan : Uses X-rays and a computer to generate an image

How to Improve Body Composition

The best way to improve your body composition is to make healthy changes, like:

Dietary Changes

Eating a diet full of highly processed foods that provide large amounts of sugar and fat is associated with gaining weight and body fat. To improve your body composition, you’ll have to focus on healthy diet changes.

Try to be mindful of how much you’re eating and aim to fill your plate with mostly:

• Whole grains
• Lean proteins
• Healthy fats

Physical Activity

Moving more and exercising regularly helps improve body composition.

Research shows all types of exercise programs help improve the body composition of people who are sedentary . Strength training programs that develop the whole body have the biggest impact on body composition while also improving bone density.

Here are some tips to help you increase your physical activity:

• Try group fitness classes.
• Find a type of exercise you enjoy.
• Meet with friends to exercise.
• Find an accountability partner.
• Hire a trainer.
• Walk during part of your lunch break.
• Take the stairs.

Sleep Quality

The amount of time you sleep and your sleep quality can greatly impact your body composition. 

A 2018 study found poor sleep quality was associated with:

• Lower bone mineral density
• Lower muscle mass
• Higher body fat mass

So, if you’re looking to improve your body composition, you may want to place a higher priority on sleep. 

Here are some tips to help increase your sleep quality:

• Have a consistent bedtime routine, including going to bed and waking up at the same time daily.
• Sleep in a cool, dark, quiet environment.
• If you need background noise, use a fan or noise machine for a consistent sound.
• Avoid caffeine and alcohol before bed.
• Exercise regularly.

Lifestyle Changes

In addition to the above lifestyle changes, other changes that may help your body composition include:

• Managing your stress levels
• Limiting the amount of alcohol you drink
• Prioritizing your mental health

Body composition is a measurement of the amount of body fat and lean tissue in your body. It’s important because having more body fat is associated with an increased risk for some chronic diseases and health problems.

Body composition can be measured with tests like skinfold assessment, DEXA scan, body circumference, hydrostatic weighing, and bioimpedance analysis. In addition, you may be able to improve your body composition by focusing on lifestyle changes like a healthy diet, exercise, sleeping better, and managing stress.

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Sedlmeier A, Baumeister S, Weber A, et al. Relation of body fat mass and fat-free mass to total mortality: Results from 7 prospective cohort studies . Am J Clin Nutr . 2021 Mar;113(3):639-646. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa339

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Salmón-Gómez L, Catalán V, Frühbeck G, Gómez-Ambrosi J. Relevance of body composition in phenotyping the obesities . Rev Endocr Metab Disord . 2023;24(1):809-823. doi:10.1007/s11154-023-09796-3

Willoughby D, Hewlings S, Kalman D. Body composition changes in weight loss: Strategies and supplementation for maintaining lean body mass, a brief review . Nutrients . 2018 Dec;10(12):1876. doi:10.3390/nu10121876

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Defining adult overweight and obesity .

Kasper AM, Langan-Evans C, Hudson JF, et al. Come back skinfolds, all is forgiven: a narrative review of the efficacy of common body composition methods in applied sports practice . Nutrients . 2021;13(4):1075. doi:10.3390/nu13041075

Ross R, Neeland IJ, Yamashita S, et al. Waist circumference as a vital sign in clinical practice: a consensus statement from the IAS and ICCR Working Group on Visceral Obesity . Nat Rev Endocrinol . 2020;16(3):177-189. doi:10.1038/s41574-019-0310-7

Scafoglieri A, Clarys JP. Dual energy X‐ray absorptiometry: gold standard for muscle mass ? J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle . 2018;9(4):786-787. doi:10.1002/jcsm.12308

Hall KD, Ayuketah A, Brychta R, et al. Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: an inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake . Cell Metab . 2019;30(1):67-77.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.008

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Healthy eating for a healthy weight .

Amaro-Gahete FJ, De-la-O A, Jurado-Fasoli L, Ruiz JR, Castillo MJ, Gutiérrez Á. Effects of different exercise training programs on body composition: a randomized control trial . Scand J Med Sci Sports . 2019;29(7):968-979. doi:10.1111/sms.13414

Jurado-Fasoli L, Amaro-Gahete FJ, De-la-O A, et al. Association between sleep quality and body composition in sedentary middle-aged adults . Medicina (Kaunas). 2018;54(5):E91. doi:10.3390/medicina54050091

By Ashley Braun, MPH, RD Ashley Braun, MPH, RD, is a registered dietitian and public health professional with over 5 years of experience educating people on health-related topics using evidence-based information. Her experience includes educating on a wide range of conditions, including diabetes, heart disease, HIV, neurological conditions, and more. 

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Body Composition: What It Is and Why It Matters

Jill is a registered dietitian who's been writing about nutrition, health, and fitness for more than 20 years.

Rachel Goldman, Ph.D., FTOS, is a licensed psychologist, clinical assistant professor, speaker, and wellness expert specializing in weight management and eating behaviors.

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• What is Body Composition?
• What is Body Fat?
• Body Composition vs. BMI

How to Measure Body Composition

Factors to consider, changing your body composition, frequently asked questions.

Do you have a love-hate relationship with your bathroom scale? The bathroom scale may be a good tool for measuring weight, but it may not accurately reflect your true health. Body composition takes your weight measurement one step further, figuring out what percentage of your weight comes from fat, muscle, and bone.

The difference between fat mass and non-fat mass (muscle and bone) paints a more complete picture of your health and fitness. This article reviews the basics of your body composition, what it means, and what you can do about it.

We've tried, tested, and reviewed the best bathroom scales . If you're in the market for scale, explore which option may be best for you.

What Is Body Composition?

Body composition is the phrase used by medical professionals and the health community to refer to the percentage of fat, water, bone, muscle, skin, and other lean tissues that make up the body. Knowing your body composition provides more detailed information about your health. Two people can weigh the same, but have very different wellness and fitness needs because of their body composition.

Why It’s Important

Body composition is important because it measures your overall health and fitness level in terms of your body fat percentage. Your bathroom scale can’t tell the difference between how much of your weight comes from fat and how much from muscle. But body composition measurements can.

Less fat and more muscle tends to point toward a better level of health.

What Is Body Fat?

Body fat includes all the stored fat in your body. There are two types of body fat:

• Subcutaneous fat : This is the layer of fat under your skin. It insulates and protects your body. 
• Visceral fat : This is the fat that surrounds and cushions your abdominal organs. 

In addition to insulating and protecting your body, fat provides energy, carries fat-soluble vitamins , makes certain hormones, and serves as a building-block for cell membranes.

You need a certain amount of body fat to perform these functions—this is known as essential fat. 

Body Fat Percentage

Body fat percentage is the percent of fat that makes up your total body weight. Many factors influence your body fat percentage, including sex, age, fitness level, and lifestyle.

The body fat percentage ranges come from the American Council on Exercise (ACE).

Athletes tend to have a lower body fat percentage than people who are physically fit because having less fat improves their athletic performance. However, when body fat percentages dip too low, athletic performance suffers and immune function declines.

On the flip side, a body fat percentage that’s too high is a risk factor for chronic illnesses like diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease.

Body Composition vs. Body Mass Index

Body composition and body mass index (BMI) are tools that assess body fatness. However, the methods used to measure body composition and BMI differ. Additionally, BMI may not provide accurate results in all situations.

Body Mass Index (BMI)  is a dated, biased measure that doesn’t account for several factors, such as body composition, ethnicity, race, gender, and age. Despite being a  flawed measure , BMI is widely used today in the medical community because it is an inexpensive and quick method for analyzing potential health status and outcomes.

Body Mass Index

BMI is a tool that has been used by health professionals to assess body fatness and health. It’s a mathematical equation that compares your weight to your height.

• BMI = (weight in pounds)/(height squared) X 703

For example: (150 pounds)/(66 inches x 66 inches) X 703 = 24

This BMI table is from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

• Less than 18.5 = underweight
• 18.5 to 24.9 = healthy weight
• 25.0 to 29.9 = overweight
• 30 or higher = obesity

You don’t need any special equipment to measure BMI, making it a quick tool to assess body fat and health.

There are a number of ways to measure body composition. However, you need more than a bathroom scale and calculator to figure out what percentage of your weight comes from fat and what percentage comes from muscle. A smart scale can help you monitor various key metrics.

Bioelectrical Impedance

Bioelectrical impedance (BIA) is a tool that estimates your body composition by measuring your body’s resistance to a low-level electric current, or impedance. Muscles have a lower resistance to an electric current than fat. 

Painless, quick, and easy

You can purchase scales with BIA technology to use at home

Not a good predictor of body fat percentage in all people

Hydration affects results

Skinfold Measurements

Skinfold measurements involve the use of special calipers that measure the skinfold—subcutaneous fat—on different parts of your body. Fitness trainers use skinfold measurements to assess body fat because it’s quick and convenient.

You can wear shorts and a t-shirt when getting measured

The test is quick and painless

Difficult to get accurate results when performed by someone without proper training

Not a good tool for measuring body composition in people with weight challenges

The DEXA scan, or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scan, uses a low-level X-ray to measure bone, muscle, and body fat.

Fast and painless test

Provides regional body composition

Measures bone mineral density

Requires trained medical professionals for testing

Not suitable for all body types

Hydrostatic Weighing

Hydrostatic weighing involves full submersion in a water tank, using water displacement to measure body composition. Since fat floats and muscle sinks, a person with more lean body mass weighs more underwater.

Gives the most accurate results

Not widely available

Requires special equipment and professional testers

Bod pod is similar to hydrostatic weighing, but uses air displacement instead of water displacement to measure body composition. For this test, you sit in an egg-shaped chamber, which uses your body weight and volume to determine your body composition.

Test is quick and provides a print out of your measurements, including calorie needs

Results are accurate

Overestimates body fatness in lean individuals

Clothing and facial hair may affect results

Body composition provides valuable information about body fat percentage. However, your body shape is unique to you and there are uncontrollable factors that affect your body composition including:

• Age : You lose muscle as you get older, which affects your body composition. However, age-related muscle loss is most often due to a decrease in physical activity.
• Genes : Your genes determine your body type and composition and your inherited body type may have more body fat that’s hard to lose.
• Hormones : Hormones also influence body composition. Testosterone is a male sex hormone that increases muscle mass.
• Sex : Due to a combination of genetics and hormones, women have more body fat than men.

To change your body composition, you need the right balance of physical activity and nutrition to reach your goals. Slow and steady changes work best when you want to increase muscle and lose fat. It's important to remember that some factors will remain out of your control.

Before making any changes to your diet or workout routine, consult with your primary care provider or a registered dietitian for guidance. 

A Word From Verywell

Your body composition may help you better understand your current level of health and fitness. It can also serve as a measuring tool to monitor progress when starting a new fitness or wellness program.

When trying to change your physique to improve your fitness level, it’s important to implement a safe and effective workout routine and a balanced eating plan. Seek advice from a health care professional before making any major changes to your diet or exercise routine.

The three somatotypes include ectomorphs, endomorphs, and mesomorphs. These body types are determined by your genetics. 

A person with an ectomorph body type has very little body fat and muscle and struggles to gain weight. Someone with an endomorph body type, on the other hand, has a high percentage of body fat and muscle and has no problems gaining weight. Mesomorphs have an athletic build and can gain and lose weight easily.

The 4-component model of body composition measures body fat, water, mineral, and protein content to assess body composition. By comparison, the traditional 2-component model only uses fat mass and fat-free mass to assess body composition.

Because the 4-component model measures multiple components to assess fat mass and fat-free mass, it provides more accurate measurements for those who don’t fit the traditional body composition references.

This model is often used to measure body composition in children.

According to data from the American Council on Exercise, body fat percentages for males generally range from 18% to 24% and for females 25% to 31%. Body fat percentages that measure higher than that range classify someone with obesity.

If you’re an athlete or regular gym-goer, it’s possible to have a body fat percentage lower than the acceptable range for your sex and still be healthy. However, a body fat percentage less than 5% for males and 10% for females is unhealthy.

University of California at Davis. Sports Medicine. Body composition .

Mittal B. Subcutaneous adipose tissue & visceral adipose tissue . Indian J Med Res . 2019;149(5):571-573. doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_1910_18

American Council on Exercise. Percent body fat calculator: skinfold method .

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Schnurr TM, Gjesing AP, Sandholt CH, Jonsson A, Mahendran Y, Have CT, et al. (2016) Genetic correlation between body fat percentage and cardiorespiratory fitness suggests common genetic etiology . PLoS ONE 11(11): e0166738. doi.10.1371/journal.pone.0166738

Karastergiou K, Smith SR, Greenberg AS, Fried SK. Sex differences in human adipose tissues - the biology of pear shape . Biol Sex Differ . 2012;3(1):13.doi:10.1186/2042-6410-3-13

University of Houston. Center of Wellness Without Borders. The 3 somatotypes .

Wells JC, Fuller NJ, Dewit O, Fewtrell MS, Elia M, Cole TJ. Four-component model of body composition in children: density and hydration of fat-free mass and comparison with simpler models . Am J Clin Nutr . 1999;69(5):904-912. doi:10.1093/ajcn/69.5.904

Kravitz L, Heyward VH. The University of New Mexico. Getting a grip on body composition .

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By Jill Corleone, RD Jill is a registered dietitian who's been learning and writing about nutrition for more than 20 years.

Flexibility and Body Composition Essay

Types of flexibility, factors limiting flexibility, body composition, assessing the body composition, works cited.

According to Kenneth (1998), flexibility is a term that describes how much body parts such as tendons, ligaments, and muscles around the joints can freely move. This indicates that flexibility is not something general but specific to a particular joint or set of joints that is attainable in a momentary effort with the help of a partner or a piece of equipment (Kenneth, p. 45).

Kenneth, therefore, notes that being flexible in one particular area does not mean the entire body is flexible ( Kenneth, p. 60). Flexibility, therefore, is associated with the specific action performed by the joint which means the ability to do front splits does not mean the ability to do side splits even though both actions occur at the hip(Kenneth, p. 75). Kenneth further argues that flexibility plays a major role when it comes to sports which include; gymnastics, ice skating, driving, and even field events that involve the stretching of muscles such as high jump and hurdles(Kenneth, p. 100).

According to Kenneth flexibility can be classified into different groups according to the various types of activities involved in athletic and training (Kenneth 120).Flexibility can be classified as Dynamic or active flexibility that is commonly associated with motion and Static or passive flexibility that is commonly associated with static (Kenneth, p. 122).

To begin with, dynamic or active flexibility can be termed as the ability of the muscles to perform dynamic or kinetic movements through the limbs in a full range of motion in the joints (Kenneth, p. 125). Kenneth furthermore describes Static or active flexibility as the ability to assume at the same time maintain extended positions through the use of tension of the agonists and synergists example could be lifting of a leg by keeping it high without any external support (Kenneth, p. 126). Kenneth argues that active flexibility is more related to sports achievement more than passive since active flexibility is harder to develop. In addition, Kenneth notes that both active and passive flexibility is required in order for a person to maintain initial extended positions since in both cases muscles are required to strengthen for the person to be able to hold and maintain the positions (Kenneth, p. 128).

Kenneth describes static or passive flexibility as the ability to assume extended positions by maintaining the positions using weight to support the limbs or other apparatus such as a chair. The ability to keep these positions does not come from muscles but it does with static-active flexibility (Kenneth, p. 127). An example could be the performance of splits.

According to Kenneth flexibility can be affected by two main factors. To begin with, Kenneth notes that the major factor affecting flexibility is the Connective Tissue (Kenneth, p. 128). Since the resistance to the lengthening of muscles is dependent upon its connective tissue when muscles elongate the surrounding connective tissues become tauter. Flexibility can also be restricted in certain joints of the muscles when changes occur in certain tissues leading to a chemical reaction that can cause joint stiffness (Kenneth 130).

According to Kenneth age is also an important factor affecting flexibility since as a person becomes old the tissues become less flexible as a result of certain changes that take place in the connective tissues (Kenneth, p. 130).This comes as a result of gradual change in the bodies due to dehydration. Kenneth states that stretching of the muscles causes the stimulation, production, and retention of lubricants between the connective tissue fibers, which further prevents the formation of adhesions which in the end leads to loss of flexibility (Kenneth, p. 133).

According to Kenneth body composition can be defined in relation to the relative proportions of fat, proteins,, water and mineral composition existing in the body. The compositions vary due to the differences in body density and degree of obesity (Kenneth, p. 170).The term body composition generally refer to the percentages of fat a person has that in the end determines the general health and fitness when linked to other factors like age, sex, weight (Kenneth, p. 171).

Kenneth argues that our bodies are made of water, fat, protein, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. The body composition mostly is made of a fat mass which is made up of muscles, water and bones. When people get older their body composition changes hence making the body to become weaker this therefore implies that a health body composition is determined by how much food a person eats and the exercise he/she does (Kenneth, p. 175).Kenneth notes that lean muscles burn calories faster which decreases the fat mass and bone density leading to low risk of osteoporosis.

According to Kenneth body composition can be measured in three ways. The first way is hydrostatic or weighing which is a technique for assessing the body composition by estimation of the body volume and density. Bioelectrical is the second method and it based on the intracellular or extracellular fluids which are capable of electrical conduction Kenneth, p. 180).

The last method is Skinfold that involves the measuring of fat practically, economically and administratively through the field technique for body composition analysis. The process involves using skin tissues to estimate body density from which fat is calculated.

Flexibility and body composition are major elements that heavily contribute to good health of an individual.

Kenneth.N.Anderson, Moby’s Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary, Publisher: St Louis, ISBN: 0815146310 5 th Edition, Pg 60-296, (1998)

• Chicago (A-D)
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Bibliography

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Body Composition Analysis Essay

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The Utility of Body Composition Assessment in Nutrition and Clinical Practice: An Overview of Current Methodology

Clifton j. holmes.

1 Program in Physical Therapy, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; ude.ltsuw@settecar

Susan B. Racette

2 Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA

Associated Data

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Body composition is a key component for maintaining good general health and longevity. It can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and lifestyle choices. The assessment of body composition is an essential tool for nutrition specialists to effectively evaluate nutritional status and monitor progression during dietary interventions. As humans age, there is a natural increase in fat mass coupled with a gradual decline in lean mass, specifically in bone and muscle mass. Individuals with a high body fat percentage are at a greater risk of cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, several types of cancer, and early mortality. Significant decreases in bone mineral density signify osteopenia and osteoporosis, while reductions in skeletal muscle mass increase the risk of developing sarcopenia. Moreover, undernutrition exacerbates the effects of many medical conditions and is important to address. Though weight tracking and calculation of BMI are used commonly by clinicians and dietitians, these measures do not provide insight on the relative contributions of fat mass and fat-free mass or the changes in these compartments that may reflect disease risk. Therefore, it is important that healthcare professionals have a critical understanding of body composition assessment and the strengths and limitations of the methods available.

1. Introduction

An individual’s nutritional status is defined as “the condition of the body, resulting from the balance of intake, absorption, and utilization of nutrients and the influence of particular physiological and pathological status” [ 1 , 2 ]. The assessment of nutritional status has major relevance at both the individual level, as is the case for clinical practice, and among populations, as used in epidemiologic and public health research, to determine the presence of increased risk for nutrition-related conditions [ 2 ]. Anthropometric and body composition assessments are used to routinely detect or diagnose several important nutritional problems among adults and youth, including being overweight, obesity, undernutrition, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, and sarcopenic obesity.

When determining a patient or client’s nutritional status, nutrition specialists (e.g., dieticians, expert clinicians) begin with a nutritional risk screening. The tools used in this screening assessment must be easy to use, time efficient, accurate, and standardized, allowing for adequate reliability between different assessments and assessors without a substantial increase in measurement error. Because there is no “silver bullet” measurement tool, practitioners are prompted to use a holistic approach to increase the validity of the screenings. Clinicians and dieticians most commonly use recent weight loss, current body mass, recent food intake, and medical history questionnaires during daily routine assessments [ 3 , 4 ]. Additional nutritional risk screening tools exist, including the Nutritional Risk Screening 2002, the Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool, and the Mini Nutritional Assessment, each one varying in its intended population [ 3 , 5 ]. However, as useful as the aforementioned tools are, certain inherent weaknesses exist amongst them, such as subjectivity, lack of sensitivity and precision to subtle changes in nutritional status, and inability to account for specific tissues of the body (e.g., fat mass, bone mineral content, and skeletal muscle mass). For these reasons, clinicians, dieticians, and other nutrition specialists should look to incorporate specific body composition assessment techniques for further insight into an individual’s nutritional status.

Body composition assessment divides an individual’s total body mass into the relative proportions of fat mass (FM) and fat-free mass (FFM); FFM is comprises muscles, bones, organs, ligaments, tendons, and water. The quantification of fat, muscle, bone, and water are highly informative in the diagnosis, management, and treatment of several nutrition-related conditions that impact individual and population health. Once an individual’s nutritional status has been determined following a nutritional risk screening, clinicians, dieticians, and other practitioners are then responsible for developing a protocol to achieve certain health-related outcomes. These outcomes can range from weight loss in overweight or obese clients with or at-risk for diabetes mellitus type 2 to significant increases in lean tissue mass or bone mineral density in patients with sarcopenia or osteoporosis. Though baseline assessments allow for the initial construction of a dietary program, frequent adjustments and the tracking of changes are necessary throughout its duration in order to gauge progression and establish realistic short-term goals. Understanding the best body composition assessment techniques and practices will allow nutrition specialists to perform these duties more effectively. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of various body composition assessment methods that are relevant to common nutrition-related conditions.

2. Clinical Relevance of Body Composition Assessment

The primary purpose of measuring body composition in clinical settings is to evaluate nutritional status through the quantification of FM, FFM, bone mineral content, and/or body water (intracellular and extracellular). Assessment of nutritional status is recommended in clinical practice for hospitalized patients and at-risk outpatients with nutrition-related conditions [ 5 , 6 ]. While there is currently not a universally accepted best method for the assessment of nutritional status [ 3 , 7 , 8 ], body composition provides valuable information that contributes to the identification, diagnosis, and management of several medical conditions for which nutrition therapy is indicated. A general understanding of the methodology, advantages, limitations, and impracticalities of current and emerging body composition assessment tools is beneficial for clinicians, dietitians, and other practitioners who play an integral role in nutrition management. Moreover, with healthcare becoming more outcome-driven, it is necessary that valid and reliable methods are used to evaluate the efficacy of various nutrition interventions.

Obesity is classified as a worldwide epidemic that adversely affects health and longevity. Excess adiposity increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases [ 9 ], type 2 diabetes [ 10 ], several types of cancer [ 11 ], and early mortality [ 12 ]. In the United States, more than 70% of adults are classified as overweight or obese based on body mass index (BMI) [ 13 ], with over $100 billion spent annually on medical costs related to obesity [ 14 ]. Obesity has even been associated with a higher risk of hospitalization and placement on mechanical ventilation among individuals with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) [ 15 ]. Body composition assessment enhances the diagnosis of obesity and the monitoring of responses to obesity treatment programs, which is highly relevant to the management of obesity-related chronic diseases.

Despite the high prevalence of obesity, undernutrition and malnutrition are significant nutritional problems that are often detected with anthropometric and/or body composition assessments. Chronic undernutrition is defined as a progressive decrease in both FFM and FM that diminishes the general quality of health [ 16 ]. This condition is more prevalent in low-resource settings and can be attributed to multiple factors, including food insecurity, poverty, and illness [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Undernutrition has been linked to negative impacts on morbidity, hospital stay duration, quality of life, health care costs, and mortality [ 16 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. The prevalence of undernutrition among older adults, patients with various chronic diseases, and hospitalized patients has continued to increase over time, with at least one-third of admitted adult patients being malnourished [ 16 , 17 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. According to a meta-analysis involving 240 studies, malnutrition has been reported in 3.0% of community dwelling older adults, 6.0% of those in outpatient care, 8.7% among those receiving home care services, 22.0% of those with in-hospital stay, 17.5% of those in nursing homes, and 29.4% in rehabilitation/sub-acute care [ 24 ].

In the U.S. and Europe, it has been reported that 30% of women have osteoporosis, and that 40% of post-menopausal women and 30% of men will experience osteoporotic fractures [ 25 ]. Osteoporosis is a major public health problem contributing to fractures, loss of independence, and early mortality. Generally, individuals with osteoporosis share the characteristics of being underweight through severely diminished lean tissue and fat mass stores [ 26 ]. In the past, clinicians used low BMI values in older men (<20.9 kg/m 2 ) and women (20.1 kg/m 2 ) to evaluate the risk of losing basic living skills and developing osteoporosis [ 26 ]. Over the years, because its diagnosis is based on the quantification of bone mineral density, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) has become the criterion indicator. The accuracy and precision of DXA scans can give clinicians and dieticians greater knowledge of an individual’s status. Classification as having normal bone mineral density, osteopenia, or osteoporosis allows for nutrition specialists to better prescribe dietary and supplemental intake changes of calcium, vitamin D, and other nutrients to treat the disease [ 27 ].

Another condition plaguing many older adults is sarcopenia, which is characterized by reduced FFM, with a muscle mass index that is more than two standard deviations below the sex-specific reference in a young, healthy population [ 2 ]. In addition to the observed significant atrophy of skeletal muscle, there are simultaneous decreases in muscular strength and overall physical function, further increasing the risk of injury, disability, and mortality [ 28 ]. Both sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity, in which reduced FFM is combined with increased FM, are recognized as important nutritional problems that place older adults at higher risk of morbidity and mortality [ 2 , 29 ]. The combination of low muscle mass and excess adiposity in an older adult poses significant adverse consequences on functional capacity, resulting in diminished cardiorespiratory fitness and declining health status [ 30 ]. Importantly, because BMI does not distinguish FM from FFM, it often does not identify sarcopenia, particularly if the BMI value is in the healthy or overweight range. Having accurate assessments of body composition will allow practitioners to monitor lean tissue changes during a nutrition intervention and more efficiently prescribe protein intake patterns and physical activity to promote optimal muscle building. Moreover, in the case of sarcopenic obesity, simultaneous goals exist to increase skeletal muscle mass while also decreasing fat mass. Greater nuance is needed by clinicians and dieticians to ensure that significant muscle mass is not lost during weight loss phases and that a significant increase in body fat percentage does not occur during weight gain phases. Therefore, it is important to use a body composition assessment method that quantifies FM and FFM.

The routine assessment of body composition has also shown clinical significance for the treatment of cancer, specifically as it pertains to cachexia and lymphedema. Cancer cachexia falls under the umbrella of sarcopenia, where it is defined as a multifactorial syndrome that causes extreme weight loss and muscle wasting, with or without the loss of fat [ 31 , 32 ]. Cachexia can occur in up to 80% of patients with advanced stage cancer and has been associated with nearly 20% of cancer-related deaths [ 33 ]. For the screening and monitoring of cancer-induced cachexia, measuring total caloric and macronutrient amounts are recommended in conjunction with regular and consistent tracking of weight and BMI changes. In 2017, the European Society of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism published evidence-based guidelines for nutritional care and recommended that body composition measures be added to expand nutrition-related assessments, aiding clinicians in treating patients with cancer cachexia and researchers investigating the condition [ 34 ]. With further progression, computer tomography (CT) is used for more in-depth analysis of body composition changes [ 35 ].

Lymphedema is another condition most commonly observed during the treatment of cancer [ 36 ]; however, increasing evidence has shown the potential link between lymphedema and obesity [ 37 ]. Lymphedema refers to the swelling present in the arms or legs caused by damage or the removal of a patient’s lymph nodes, resulting in a blockage in the lymphatic system that prevents lymph from draining properly [ 37 ]. Due to the swelling located in the limbs of patients with lymphedema, segmental bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) has demonstrated significant relationships with clinical measurements and can be used as a practical tool for monitoring individuals during treatment [ 36 , 38 ].

Treatment for all of these conditions—obesity, undernutrition, osteoporosis, sarcopenia, sarcopenic obesity, cachexia, and lymphedema—necessitates accurate diagnosis to implement the proper nutritional intervention and therapy. For these reasons, nutritional management of at-risk patients should integrate strategies to accurately and reliably assess body composition using a cost-effective medico-economic approach [ 6 , 39 , 40 ].

3. Methods for Estimating and Quantifying Body Composition

Several of the most commonly-used body composition assessment methods are presented in this review. Table 1 lists each method, the equipment needed, the assessment time required, and the pros and cons of each. Anthropometric methods that provide proxies for body composition, such as BMI and circumferences, are included for completeness, as they are widely available, widely used, and have reference values that signify different levels of health and disease risk.

Body mass index and waist circumference classifications.

Source: Adapted from World Health Organization. 2008. Waist Circumference and Waist-to-Hip Ratio. Report of a WHO Expert Consultation. Geneva: WHO.

Most body composition assessment methods are based on a two-compartment model that separates the body into fat and fat-free components (i.e., FM and FFM, respectively). Historically, hydrostatic weighing (HW) was the gold-standard assessment technique, but the equipment, space, expertise, and time required, combined with high participant burden, made HW impractical in most non-research settings. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry is currently the preferred criterion measure and has the advantage of quantifying bone mineral content in addition to FM and FFM, making this a three-compartment, or multi-compartment, model. Alternative methods for assessing body composition include skinfolds (SKF), BIA, digital image analysis, air displacement plethysmography (ADP), and sophisticated imaging techniques such as CT and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Attributes that guide the optimal choice of body composition assessment method include accuracy, reliability, the condition for which it is being used, accessibility, cost, ease of use, participant burden, and participant safety.

3.1. Body Mass Index (BMI)

Body mass index is the most commonly used anthropometric method to assess weight-related health risk. The BMI method classifies individuals into specific weight status categories that are associated with different levels of health risk (see Table 1 ) [ 41 ]. Advantages of BMI include the relative ease of performing height and weight measurements, low cost, minimal participant burden, and standardized classification of health risk based on large reference datasets. The utility of BMI is not only for classifying weight status, but also for tracking changes at the individual or population-level over time, particularly in response to individualized treatment or public health measures. The primary limitation of BMI is that it does not distinguish between FM and FFM [ 42 ] and therefore may misclassify some older adults as being a healthy weight (i.e., those with increased FM and decreased FFM) and some athletes as being overweight (i.e., those with increased muscle mass and relatively low FM).

3.2. Waist and Hip Circumferences

Circumference measures require only a tape measure to quantify the circumferences of various anatomical locations, with waist circumference being one of the most notable measures. Waist circumference can be used to identify excess abdominal adiposity, with values >80 and >88 cm in women and >94 and >102 cm in men reflecting increased risk and substantially increased risk, respectively, for metabolic complications [ 43 , 44 ]. Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) also reflect excess abdominal adiposity when WHR values are ≥0.85 in women or ≥0.90 in men or when WHtR ≥0.50 (women and men). High values for these measures are associated with various chronic cardiovascular and metabolic diseases as well as early mortality [ 42 ]. Although circumference measures are informative and practical to obtain, they do not quantify FM and FFM and therefore do not provide a measure of body composition.

3.3. Skinfolds (SKF)

The SKF technique is an inexpensive method to estimate %Fat by measuring the thickness of skinfolds at different sites of the body using calipers. This method is based on the principle that the amount of subcutaneous fat is proportional to the amount of total body fat. The specific skinfold sites and number of sites vary depending on which equation is used to estimate body density (Db). Common Db equations are sex-specific and include three, four, or seven skinfold sites; some also include circumference measurements. As examples, a three-site method for men may include triceps, chest, and subscapular skinfolds or chest, abdomen, and thigh skinfolds; three sites for women may include triceps, abdomen, and suprailiac skinfolds. A common seven-site method for men and women includes chest, midaxillary, triceps, subscapular, abdomen, suprailiac, and thigh skinfolds [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. To perform this technique, the assessor pulls the fold of skin and subcutaneous fat away from the underlying muscle and then places a skinfold caliper over the fold. The pressure-sensitive caliper adjusts to the skinfold thickness and provides a measurement in mm. Metal calipers are preferred (see Figure 1 ); plastic calipers also are available. To compute %Fat, FM, and FFM, the SKF measurements are summed and inserted into the applicable sex-specific Db equation. The %Fat is then calculated from the Db using one of the following equations [ 48 , 49 ]:

Skinfold measurement at triceps site; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD.

3.4. Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)

Bioelectrical impedance analysis involves a low-level electrical current that passes through an individual’s body while impedance, or opposition to the flow of the current, is measured. The electrical current flows readily through aqueous compartments because electrolytes in body water conduct this current; fat tissue causes resistance to the current flow. Lean tissue mass comprises approximately 73% water, whereas fat mass has extremely low hydration based on its chemical composition. Therefore, individuals with a high proportion of FFM (i.e., low %Fat) with proper hydration through intracellular and extracellular water have lower resistance and greater reactance measures than those with high %Fat. The sum of the resistance and reactance measured within an individual provides impedance values. Because BIA is extremely sensitive to total body water, measures should be consistently taken in similar states of hydration to reduce error (e.g., fasted, upon waking in the morning). BIA devices quantify impedance, from which they estimate intracellular water, extracellular water, total body water, FFM, FM, and %Fat. BIA devices vary in sophistication and features; some use single-frequency electrical currents, while others implement multi-frequency currents for greater penetration of different tissues and therefore with greater accuracy (see Figure 2 ) [ 50 , 51 ]. Some BIA instruments provide a measure of whole-body FM and FFM only, others provide segmental assessments of FM and FFM in each limb and the trunk, in addition to whole-body measures, and other BIA devices provide estimates of bone mineral content in addition to FM and FFM. Additionally, the raw BIA variable of phase angle, (i.e., ratio of resistance to reactance) provided with certain BIA devices, has gained significance for its potential application in both sports and healthcare. It can change based on the interface between cell membranes and tissues and be used as an index for water distribution, body cell mass, and cellular integrity. Phase angle has been associated with many nutritional markers and can provide viable insight to nutritional status and the effects of the supplementation strategies used by clinicians and dietitians [ 52 ].

Laboratory-based bioimpedance device; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD.

Accuracy and reliability vary widely among BIA instruments. A number of studies have demonstrated the validity of both single-frequency and multi-frequency devices, concluding that BIA may be used as an alternative to DXA for whole-body and segmental body composition assessment in large groups (see Figure 3 ) [ 53 , 54 ]. However, single-frequency devices and segmental measures demonstrate the largest differences when compared to DXA, with the inaccuracy increasing in conjunction with higher levels of BMI [ 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. Previous research has also shown BIA scales to give inaccurate estimates of bone mineral content in comparison to DXA [ 59 , 60 ], while other research has demonstrated that BIA-derived bone mineral content can be used in multi-compartment models in place of DXA [ 61 ]. The accuracy of the devices is also affected by the regression used by the device in question, with many manufacturers using their own equations derived during the internal validity testing of the product in question. However, many of these equations are general, with little specificity to varying populations. Finally, many BIA instruments are portable, while the more sophisticated models designed for clinical and research settings are less portable [ 62 ]. Although relatively inexpensive compared to DXA and ADP instruments, the cost among the wide variety of BIA devices varies significantly, depending on the features.

Home-based bioimpedance device; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD.

3.5. Digital Image Analysis

Three-dimensional (3D) body scanner devices and smartphone digital image analysis applications have emerged as relatively quick and easy-to-use techniques for body composition analysis. Whole-body optical scanners use digital imaging to estimate body volume, size, and circumferences at various anatomical locations to estimate body composition metrics [ 63 ]. Some 3D optical scanners have been validated against multi-compartment models, such as DXA, ADP, and BIA. However, because of the novelty of these devices and applications, more validation research is needed in a wide range of populations and during longitudinal tracking of body composition.

3.6. Air Displacement Plethysmography (ADP)

Air displacement plethysmography, performed using the BOD POD, uses densitometry to estimate body composition [ 64 ] (similar to SKF and HW). The BOD POD contains a chamber with a volume of 450 or 500L and computerized sensors that measure body volume by air displacement while the individual is seated in the chamber (see Figure 4 ). Thoracic gas volume (i.e., the volume of air in the lungs and thorax) can be quantified as an additional measure while in the chamber or estimated by the BOD POD. Once all of the necessary variables are measured, the BOD POD program calculates ~8 body composition metrics. The accuracy of the BOD POD has been deemed high, but it has been shown to overestimate %Fat in lean individuals in some studies when compared to HW [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Potential contributors to inconsistent measures include testing conditions, clothing worn in the BOD POD, and excessive facial or body hair [ 50 , 51 ].

Air displacement plethysmography via BOD POD; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD, in conjunction with the Pediatric Clinical Research Unit at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.

3.7. Dual-Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA)

DXA has become the preferred method for assessing body composition, with a notable advantage being that it provides a multi-compartment assessment that includes bone [ 68 , 69 ]. Multi-compartment models have the ability to distinguish multiple tissue components, which reduces the assumptions from which body composition estimates are based and increases the accuracy [ 70 , 71 ]. The DXA instrument measures tissue absorption of high- and low-energy X-ray beams that pass through the individual lying supine on the scanning bed (see Figure 5 ). It uses the attenuation, or weakening, of those X-ray beams to provide accurate estimates of bone mineral content and soft-tissue composition. This attenuation of the X-ray beams is measurable and heavily dependent on the thickness, density, and chemical composition of the underlying tissue. The major limitation of DXA is radiation exposure (albeit a very low dose). With DXA, practitioners can quantify FM, bone mineral content, and non-bone, fat-free tissue mass, thereby reducing the assumptions being relied on with SKF, ADP, and HW methods [ 68 ]. However, DXA is unable to assess total body water and therefore assumes a constant FEM hydration level and measures excess body water as additionally lean tissue mass, indicative of a source of error.

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD, in conjunction with the Clinical Translational Research Unit at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.

3.8. Computed Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

CT and MRI are imaging techniques that provide cross-sectional images of specific body regions in the form of a plane through the body (see Figure 6 ) [ 51 , 72 ]. The results from these imaging methods are considered the most accurate means of quantifying body composition at the tissue–organ level and have significantly impacted the scientific understanding of body composition and its relation to disease risk and outcome [ 51 , 73 ]. Both CT and MRI allow for the segmentation of specific tissues and provide direct measures of a tissue cross-sectional area [ 72 ]. The CT system comprises an X-ray tube and receiver, both of which rotate in a perpendicular plane to the patient. Similar to the DXA scan, X-rays are emitted from the tube and are attenuated as they flow through the targeted tissues [ 51 , 74 ]. Once the receiver identifies the X-rays, image reconstruction commences using various mathematical techniques. Pixelated cross-sectional images of the target area are illustrated in gray scale, which reflects the composition of the tissue and differs based on the density of the tissues. Similar to a DXA scan, a CT scan exposes the patient to a relatively low-dose of radiation, though it is greater than that of DXA. For example, the average effective dose for a DXA bone density test is 0.001 mSv, while a CT scan of the spine or pelvis is 6 mSv. This higher exposure dosage makes the frequency of CT scans a limiting factor. While the CT system uses ionizing radiation, MRI relies on the interaction between protons and the magnetic fields produced by the MRI system’s instrumentation [ 51 , 72 , 74 ]. MRI uses the radio frequency signals resulting from the interaction between the protons of the tissues and the magnetic fields to generate cross-sectional images. Both CT and MRI provide valid and in-depth body composition information, but these imaging techniques require expensive scanners, certified, trained technicians to perform the scans, analysis software, and expertise to quantify the tissue–organ level components of the produced images. It is worth noting that one drawback of the MRI scan is the adherence of patients in remaining motionless for long periods of time (e.g., 20–120 min) in a small space with potentially loud noises caused by the working equipment. These obstacles presented by the MRI system can diminish compliance and make patients uncomfortable during testing.

Positron Emission Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner; photo courtesy of the Center for Clinical Imaging Research in the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis.

3.9. Hydrostatic Weighing (HW)

Hydrostatic weighing (aka underwater weighing, hydrodensitometry) is a foundational body composition method that was considered the “gold standard” for assessing FM and FFM for decades. HW is based on Archimedes’ principle, which states that when a body is immersed in water, it is buoyed by a counterforce equal to the weight of the displaced water (see Figure 7 ) [ 50 , 51 ]. Basically, the weight of a person (or an object) in water is less than their mass on land. This difference in weight provides an estimate of body volume. Muscle and bone are denser than water, while fat tissue is less dense; therefore, the more the FFM and less FM someone has, the greater their underwater weight will be, and vice versa. Once the mass and volume of an individual are known, body density can be calculated as mass ÷ volume, and %Fat can be calculated using one of the body composition equations shown above for the SKF method [ 48 , 49 ]:

Hydrostatic weighing; photo courtesy of Clifton J. Holmes, PhD, in conjunction with the Exercise Physiology Laboratory in the Department of Kinesiology at the University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa.

One additional, important component needed for HW assessment is residual lung volume, which is the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal expiration (~1–2 L). Whether practitioners measure residual lung volume or estimate it using various prediction equations, this value must be included in the hydrostatic weighing calculations of body composition to avoid significant overestimations of %Fat. Because HW requires individuals to submerge themselves underwater repeatedly after expiring as much air from their lungs as possible, many find it to be extremely uncomfortable.

4. Practical Applications

Important factors to consider when choosing a body composition assessment method are accuracy, accessibility, and expense. Table 2 provides an overview of the various methods discussed above and provides each method’s requirements as well as the associated pros and cons. In order to achieve the greatest accuracy and reliability, it is important to choose the method that is the most appropriate for the tissue or condition of interest. For example, DXA is optimal for quantifying bone mineral density for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis, whereas BIA, ADP, or DXA may be used to quantify FFM and FM for identifying sarcopenia, cachexia, or sarcopenic obesity. Moreover, BIA stands as an ideal tool for monitoring significant changes in hydration status and body fluid distribution among patients participating in a weight loss intervention and those with or at risk of developing lymphedema. With older adults comprising an increasing proportion of the population, the identification of these age-related conditions is particularly important. Any of the anthropometric and body composition assessment methods can be used to identify obesity, the most prevalent nutrition-related condition in the U.S. and one for which treatment and management approaches are implemented frequently. Likewise, this array of assessment methods can be used to track treatment responses during weight loss interventions for obesity. Waist circumference, alone or expressed as WHR or WHtR, is an effective and simple approach for identifying the excess abdominal adiposity that contributes to metabolic conditions such as type 2 diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. An MRI facilitates the quantification of intra-abdominal and subcutaneous adipose tissues, which pose distinct metabolic risks. SKF, BIA, and ADP are excellent options for quantifying the FFM and FM of athletes and for guiding nutritional strategies to optimize performance. A combination of anthropometric and more sophisticated assessment methods may be advantageous, particularly when tracking changes longitudinally in response to a diet or exercise program.

Overview of Body Composition Assessment Technique Requirements, Pros, and Cons.

The accuracy of body composition assessment is optimized if the individual follows specific pre-testing guidelines: (a) no food within 8 h of testing, (b) no water within 2 h of testing, (c) no exercise within 24 h of testing, (d) no alcohol consumption within 48 h of testing, and (e) empty the bladder/bowels within 30 min before testing. It is recommended to perform body composition assessments in the morning after an overnight fast, which helps to ensure that these conditions are met. Additionally, adequate (but not excessive) hydration is important for accurate assessment and can be estimated by checking the color of urine; if the urine color is dark, the individual should drink water and wait 30–45 min before being assessed (when feasible) [ 50 , 51 ]. Although accuracy is arguably the most important factor when choosing a body composition method, accessibility and expense are important considerations.

5. Conclusions

All of the body composition assessment techniques discussed in this article have some level of scientific literature validating them. Nevertheless, each of the aforementioned methods has limitations and all methods provide estimates of body composition that are dependent on a range of assumptions. Finally, it is worth noting that quantifiable and clinically meaningful changes in body composition take time to occur; therefore, the frequency of assessments should be determined based on the individual, the intervention, and the goals to be achieved. In summary, body composition assessment is an important tool for the identification of common nutrition-related conditions that impact individual and public health and provides valuable information about responses to treatment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.J.H. and S.B.R.; literature search, C.J.H. and S.B.R.; writing, C.J.H. and S.B.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding and the APC was funded by the NIH/NCMRR T32 HD007434 grant through the Program of Physical Therapy, Washington University School of Medicine.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Body Composition

According to Mosbey's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary, Body Composition is defined as the relative proportions of protein, fat, water, and mineral components in the body. It varies as a result of differences in body density and degree of obesity. Basically body composition describes the percentages of fat, bone, and muscle in a persons body. The percentages of body fat a person has determines their overall health and fitness when compared to factors like age, weight, and sex. Body composition also contributes to a persons overall appearance. A healthy male should have about12 to 18 percent of fat. Females should have around 14 to 20 percent. Any thing over or under these percentages would be considered unhealthy.The term's weight and fat are usually used in the same context when discussing physical fitness. Under certain circumstances, being overweight doesn't mean that a person is unhealthy. A person could be in good physical shape but considered overweight because they have excess muscle. People with a lot of muscle mass usually have body weight, which is disproportional to their height. Having a high percentage of fat is unhealthy because it can cause heart disease, high blood pressure, and diabetes.It is important to know your body fat percentage because it can help you put together a realistic exercise program with goals that are attainable. A good exercise program incorporates both aerobic exercises, which burn fat and anaerobic exercises, which build muscle. It is healthier to turn fat into muscle instead of just trying to loose weight without thinking about gaining strength. The best way for a person to change his or her body composition is to improve their fitness levels. Fitness has different meanings to different people. Some people define fitness as having a small waistline. Other people may feel that fitness is the ability to bench-press their body weight ten times.

Occupational Therapy

Obesity is a health problem which is growing very rapidly all over the world. Current health articles such as this one, are emphasizing the importance of diet and exercise, to keep a healthy body weight, and to avoid obesity and its consequences at all costs. It is extremely important to make sure one is maintaining a good body weight in order to avoid other complications later on in life.

Nearly two-thirds of the United States population is overweight. There are several ways to determine if a person is obese or overweight. Experts say that a person’s body mass index is the best way to determine an adults weight in relation to their height. A BMI from 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2 is considered normal, adults with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m2 are considered overweight. There are exceptions with peoples BMI, an athlete can have a high BMI and not be overweight or obese. Adults with a BMI of 30 kg/m2 or higher are considered obese. A person with a high BMI can have a normal amount of body fat if they have more muscle tissue. However, the risk of death and disease is increased for adults who are overweight and obese (Kolata 1)

The Most Effective Method of Losing Body Composition

Body composition is the true definition of an individual’s weight status. Scale weight alone does not necessarily mean that an individual is lean or fat compared to another individual. Lean mass (muscle) actually weighs more than fat tissue; therefore an individual with large amounts of lean mass will have an "elevated" scale weight while they are not over fat (Expert123, 2009). If an individual focus on losing weight and keep it off while at the same time trying to increase lean mass (muscle) it a much better way to lose weight and keep it off and the only way you can do it correctly is threw body composition analysis.

Weight Management Case Study

Healthy weight management is more than a diet; weight management is a lifestyle that aims to regulate caloric intake and expenditure in accordance to the amount of physical activity that occurs daily. The goal of weight management is to keep an individual’s body fat content to a healthy minimum, which is important for maintaining overall health and lowering risks of health threats throughout the lifespan (“Assessing Your Weight”, 2015). To measure healthy body fat rates, a Body Mass Index (BMI) is calculated by dividing the weight of the individual by their height squared. Healthy BMI for an individual changes over time

Body Mass Index and Average Weight

My subject is a nine year old female. She attends the fourth grade which is average for her age. Her height is four feet three inches, and her weight is eighty-five pounds. According to www.disabled-world.com average height for a nine year old female is “47 inches” or three feet nine inches, and the average weight is “63.8 Ibs.” This would mean that she is above average in both weight and height. Being above average in weight does not necessarily mean that a person is obese, it just means they are above average in weight for the population, and in my subjects situation off by just a little. In terms of BMI(Body Mass Index) my subject scored 23, which is in the normal range. This means that my subject is considered healthy in terms of weight, and because of this has a lower chance of getting diseases like diabetes, high blood pressure,heart disease, and high cholesterol levels.

Moral Hazard Of Health Care System

We live in a world where we are always busy doing something. We are doing so much in such little time that we often forget or do not have time to take care of ourselves. Our body should be our temple. If we do not take care of it, we will not be able to do the works that need to do, that always keeps us busy. In modern era being overweight has become a normal thing. People are not expected to have a perfect body. However, they are expected to be healthy. Some people are underweight. Some are overweight and some are obese. When a human body has more than 30.0 BMI is considered obese. BMI represents body index mass. BMI is body to height ratio. Having higher BMI doesn’t always mean someone is unhealthy. A lot of bodybuilder have higher BMI. However their BMI is higher because of their muscle mass and not body fat. Obesity is on the rise and it is growing fast. North America has the highest rate of obese people in the world and the number is going up every day. Different things causes obesity. For example sleep deprivation, lack of fresh food, food, cost of fresh food, lack of time, fast food at ease and lack of

Women's Fitness Magazines

The Department of Medical Oncology at the University of Newcastle states in its online medical dictionary that health is “the state of being hale, sound, or whole, in body, mind, or soul; especially the state of being free from physical disease or pain.” Fitness is defined in the medical dictionary as one’s “well-being” or “A set of attributes, primarily respiratory and cardiovascular, relating to ability to perform tasks requiring expenditure of energy.” One’s cholesterol, body fat, blood pressure, endurance, etc. are all part of fitness and health. A healthy average daily cholesterol intake should be less than 300 milligrams (“Cholesterol” 1). The healthy range of body fat for women ages 18-39 is about 21 to 32 % (shapeup.org 1), and the healthy values for body mass index (BMI) are from 18.5 to 24.9 (“Obesity and Overweight” 1). The average blood pressure is 120/ 80 mm Hg (detecting-hypertension.com 1). These figures are what Americans should strive to obt...

The definition of obesity is: the condition of being grossly fat or overweight. In the U.S there are approximately ninety-seven million adults are either overweight or obese. To be obese is considered 100 pounds over your ideal weight. Approximately 300,000 people die from obesity each year according to Stanford Hospital and Clinical. Obesity; Opposing viewpoints mentions that the rates of obesity are skyrocketing every year the prevalence of women are 50% more then they are in men. For the world to stop obesity they would have to know the causes and factors of obesity, the negative effects, and how to prevent obesity.

For the past 10 years, obesity has become an epidemic. Not only adults are obese but children as well. The number of children with obesity keeps increasing each year. There are children being diagnosed with type 2 diabetes and other serious health problems due to their obesity. Some experts are predicting that obesity will became the number one leading cause of premature death, instead of tobacco. There are many ways to prevent obesity in children and is up to the parent, to provide their children with healthier food options.

Overview of Crossfit Fitness

Obesity is a growing issue across the United States. A study in 2009 showed that 35% of Americans were obese (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2012). Those within 35% are not the ones only suffering the effects related to obesity. In 1998, the medical costs of obesity were approximately 78.5 billion dollars. That number had risen to 147 billion as of 2006, and half of the costs were paid by Medicare and Medicaid (Finkelstein, Trogdon, Cohen, & Dietz, 2013). Obesity is defined as a weight higher than a healthy weight for a certain height. Obesity is determined by body mass index, which is calculated using height and weight, which is directly tied to the amount of body fat. A total BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese (Center for Disease Control, 2012). Proper Crossfit training promotes overall health and fitness, and could be a solution to the growing issue of obesity.

Being overweight has become an issue in society today. Often associate overweight people with the word fat, which is demeaning to overweight people. Obese people are now facing the same prejudices what comes from being different in this so-called prefect society. According to Dictionary.com “obese” comes from the word obesus which is past participle of obedere to eat away (“Obese”). There are at least five major theories on what causing childhood obesity epidemic: “1) genetics (the “thrifty gene “) 2) the “weight set point,” 3) low metabolism, 4) the food-rich environment, and 5) sedentary lifestyle” (Pretlow 2). In society, people have a busy schedule, and do not have time to plan meals. Not planning meals leads people to make poor food choices. One of the major contributing factors is the fast food industry. Often people stop at fast food establishments, because of convince, and low food prices. This might be associated to overweight. Being overweight is succumbing to obesity. According to the cdc.gov obesity is determined by using a ratio of height to weight. In general, a healthy weight for people height, determines the risk ones may have to certain diseases. Body Mass Index ( BMI) is the name of the ratio that give people a way to determine healthy weight. (“Defining Overweight and Obesity.")

Body weight status can be measure by Body Mass Index which is the weight of the body (kg) over the square of height(m). Underweight's BMI is less than 18.5, overweight's BMI is 25.0 to 29.9 while obesity's BMI is greater than 30. Obesity has become one of a serious health problem in the world. According to WHO 2008, there was 11% of adults aged 20 years and above in the world were obese and 35% of adults were overweight (WHO,2013).

Nutrition and Fitness

Nutrition and fitness play two of the most important roles in human health, and it is not difficult to understand some of the consequences for ignoring their significance. Ignoring proper nutritional and fitness habits can lead to extreme health risks such as obesity; most of which will eventually cause serious health issues up to and including death. To decrease these serious health risks and promote favorable personal health, one should incorporate positive nutritional and fitness habits.

Body composition is one of the five health related fitness components and it is the percent body fat, bone, water and muscle found in your body. Although fat is associated with negative connotations, it has important functions in our body such as the cushioning of organs, shock absorption and temperature regulations. This ‘positive’ fat is known as essential fat, and the ‘negative’ fat is known as nonessential fat. The percent body fat is used to determine the total fat found in your body and it is based on gender and size of each individual. In the textbook “Concepts of Physical Fitness: Active Lifestyle for Wellness” by Corbin, he states that fat location influences health risk; based on where the fat is located you could be considered an apple or a pear. A person considered an apple has fat in the upper body. This is often found in men and in menopausal women. A pear shape, which is most common in women than men, has more fat located in the hips and upper legs. Corbin defines visceral fat as fat located at the core of the body (abdominal cavity), and subcutaneous fat as fat located under the skin.

The Relationship in Height and Weight of Students

In order to be able to compare girls and boys in each year, I will

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             Our bodies are made of water, fat, protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. Body composition is fat against fat-free mass in the body. Fat-free mass is made of muscle, water, and bones. Body composition can change over the years, and can make people weaker the older they get. How much food we eat and how much we exercise can also change our body composition. If we have lean muscles, we"ll be able to burn calories faster. More muscle mass goes along with bone density, lowering the risk of osteoporosis.              Body fat is the percentage of fat in the body. Fat has nine calories per gram, explaining the reason why foods high in fat are high in calories. When we eat more calories than we need, the calories are converted into fat and is stored. Obesity is the term for when a person has stored way too much body fat in the body. Obesity is a risk factor for heart disease. Some fat is good for us. It's a nutrient that we need, just like protein and vitamins. Fat slows our digestive rate and makes food tastes better to the tongue. Fat, like carbohydrates, helps break up protein.              There are many factors that contribute to body composition and body fatness. Aging can make body composition change, and it also makes people weaker the older they get. Eating can make our body composition change dramatically. Our activity level also makes our body composition change. If we are less active, our fat mass will increase, and we can get weaker. We would also lose skeletal muscles, explaining why we get weaker. Food also contributes to body fatness. If we eat too much food with fat, we"ll get fatter or possibly obese. Being active reduces our body fatness. .              Body composition can be measured different ways. Two of the measurements are waist circumference and body mass index (BMI). Waist circumference measures the distance around your waist and uses BMI measurements to measure body composition. BMI uses numbers of weight related to height.

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1. body composition.

According to Mosbey's Medical, Nursing, & Allied Health Dictionary, Body Composition is defined as the relative proportions of protein, fat, water, and mineral components in the body. ... Basically body composition describes the percentages of fat, bone, and muscle in a persons body. ... Body composition also contributes to a persons overall appearance. ... The best way for a person to change his or her body composition is to improve their fitness levels. ... These components include aerobic endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition....

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2. Body Composition

There are several techniques used to determine body composition including body mass index and underwater weighing. ... There are several problems that are associated with using body mass index to calculate body composition. ... Accurate assessment of body composition is important in many areas of obesity and nutrition-related research. ... Fat and fat-free mass is terms used frequently that refer to the classic two-component body composition model in which body mass is broken down into fat and nonfat tissue masses. ... Body mass index and underwater weighing are two of the test that measu...

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3. How does Eisenstein use montage and shot composition?

How does Eisenstein use montage and shot composition? In this essay I am going to discuss particularly Sergei Eisenstein"s shot composition and montage in the famous scene The Odessa Steps in Sergei's film Battleship Potemkin. ... Like when he singles out one person the focus is on them but the rush of frantic bodies in the background gives it that hectic feeling. ...

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4. Overview of Physical Fitness

The main components of physical fitness are cardiorespiratory endurance, muscle strength, muscle endurance, flexibility and body composition. ... Finally, body composition is the ratio of bone, fat, muscle, and water in the body. Body composition is sometimes described as shapes, such as apple, pear and cola bottle. A lean, toned body burns more calories than a less toned body. ... Body composition can be changed by following a well-balanced exercise plan and by following a well-balanced diet. ...

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5. Obesity and Weight Loss

Studies suggest that aerobic and resistance training, while dieting have certain effects on body composition and the composition of the lost weight. ... Dieting has certain effects on body composition. ... The amount of weight loss varies widely, along with the composition of the weight. A study by Wadden et al. (1992), using underwater weighing as a means of assessing body composition, found that obese women lost an average of 84% fat mass and only 16% fat-free mass while on a cyclical diet over a six month period. In a second study using total body nitrogen and total body water isotope dilut...

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6. examining yourself

For basic hygiene and health reasons we need to modify our bodies in some ways. ... More importantly, our body composition should be about gaining a sense of identity. ... As soon as a person loses this, body composition becomes miniscule to the real problems they"ll incur. There's many ways in which we can enhance our body composition without the drastic steps involved with surgery. ... Therefore, no extreme action will have to be taken to modify our body. ...

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These include Muscular Strength, Muscular Endurance, Flexibility, Body Composition, Agility, Balance, Coordination, Power, Speed, Reaction Time, and Cardio respiratory Fitness. ... Body Composition: The component parts of the body. There are two main parts of the body. Body Fat and Lean Body Mass Agility: The ability to change and control the direction of your body while in motion. ... Body Composition is two factors of the body. ...

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8. Metabolism

Each person's metabolism will be different as each person's body Composition is different. ... However, body composition is not the only variable that can determine an Individuals metabolic rate (What is Metabolism and Why is it Important? ... Most people who exercise on a regular basis, including aerobic and resistance training (i.e. lifting weights, using exertubes, rubberbands, dynabands, hand weights, etc.) will have a higher metabolic rate to maintain a consistent and healthy body composition. Healthy body composition would consist of a ratio of higher muscle...

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9. Figure Painting

Both of these paintings show an abstract view of the human body. ... It is a well-muscled body with the spine protruding from the flesh. ... It is as if the body is stepping into another dimension. ... Several of the colors in the composition have the look of being smeared, smudged, and splattered. ... The compositions display the artist's influences and emotions. ...

• Word Count: 840

Definition and Examples of Body Paragraphs in Composition

Peter Dazeley / Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

The body paragraphs are the part of an essay , report , or speech that explains and develops the main idea (or thesis ). They come after the introduction and before the conclusion . The body is usually the longest part of an essay, and each body paragraph may begin with a topic sentence  to introduce what the paragraph will be about. 

Taken together, they form the support for your thesis, stated in your introduction. They represent the  development  of your idea, where you present your evidence. 

"The following  acronym  will help you achieve the hourglass structure of a well-developed body paragraph:

• T opic Sentence (a sentence that states the one point the paragraph will make)
• A ssertion statements (statements that present your ideas)
• e X ample(s) (specific passages, factual material, or concrete detail)
• E xplanation (commentary that shows how the examples support your assertion)
• S ignificance (commentary that shows how the paragraph supports the thesis statement).

TAXES  gives you a formula for building the supporting paragraphs in a thesis-driven essay." (Kathleen Muller Moore and Susie Lan Cassel,  Techniques for College Writing: The Thesis Statement and Beyond . Wadsworth, 2011)

Organization Tips

Aim for  coherence  to your paragraphs. They should be  cohesive  around one point. Don't try to do too much and cram all your ideas in one place. Pace your information for your readers, so that they can understand your points individually and follow how they collectively relate to your main thesis or topic.

Watch for overly long paragraphs in your piece. If, after drafting, you realize that you have a paragraph that extends for most of a page, examine each sentence's topic, and see if there is a place where you can make a natural break, where you can group the sentences into two or more paragraphs. Examine your sentences to see if you're repeating yourself, making the same point in two different ways. Do you need both examples or explanations? 

Paragraph Caveats

A body paragraph doesn't always have to have a topic sentence. A formal report or paper is more likely to be structured more rigidly than, say, a narrative or creative essay, because you're out to make a point, persuade, show evidence backing up an idea, or report findings.  

Next, a body paragraph will differ from a  transitional paragraph , which serves as a short bridge between sections. When you just go from paragraph to paragraph within a section, you likely will just need a sentence at the end of one to lead the reader to the next, which will be the next point that you need to make to support the main idea of the paper.

Examples of Body Paragraphs in Student Essays

Completed examples are often useful to see, to give you a place to start analyzing and preparing for your own writing. Check these out: 

• How to Catch River Crabs (paragraphs 2 and 3)
• Learning to Hate Mathematics (paragraphs 2-4)
• Rhetorical Analysis of U2's "Sunday Bloody Sunday" (paragraphs 2-13)
• The Ultimate Guide to the 5-Paragraph Essay
• How To Write an Essay
• What Is Expository Writing?
• What an Essay Is and How to Write One
• Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
• Thesis: Definition and Examples in Composition
• Paragraph Writing
• An Introduction to Academic Writing
• Unity in Composition
• How to Structure an Essay
• How to Help Your 4th Grader Write a Biography
• Development in Composition: Building an Essay
• How to Write a Good Thesis Statement
• Understanding Organization in Composition and Speech
• An Essay Revision Checklist
• How to Teach Topic Sentences Using Models

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What Chinese Outrage Over ‘3 Body Problem’ Says About China

The Netflix series showcases one of the country’s most successful works of culture. Instead of demonstrating pride, social media is condemning it.

The first five minutes of the Netflix series “ 3 Body Problem ” were hard to watch.

I tried not to shut my eyes at the coldblooded beating of a physics professor at the height of the Cultural Revolution in 1967. By the end of it, he was dead, with blood and gruesome wounds all over his head and body. His daughter, also a physicist, watched the public execution. She went on to lose hope in humanity.

I made myself sit through this violent scene. I have never seen what was known as a struggle session depicted blow by blow on the screen. I also felt compelled to watch it because of how the series, a Netflix adaptation of China’s most celebrated works of science fiction, has been received in China.

On Chinese social media platforms, commenters objected that the series is not set entirely in China; that the main characters are not all Chinese but instead racially diverse; that one of the main characters has been switched from a man to a woman and, in their eyes, the actress was not pretty enough. They cited many other supposed flaws.

“The Three-Body Problem,” an apocalyptic trilogy about humanity’s reactions to a coming alien invasion that sold millions of copies in Chinese and more than a dozen other languages, is one of the best-known Chinese novels in the world published in the past few decades. Barack Obama is a fan. China doesn’t have many such hugely successful cultural exports.

Instead of pride and celebration, the Netflix series has been met with anger, sneer and suspicion in China. The reactions show how years of censorship and indoctrination have shaped the public perspectives of China’s relations with the outside world. They don’t take pride where it’s due and take offense too easily. They also take entertainment too seriously and history and politics too lightly. The years of Chinese censorship have also muted the people’s grasp of what happened in the Cultural Revolution.

Some commenters said that the series got made mainly because Netflix, or rather the West, wanted to demonize China by showing the political violence during the Cultural Revolution, which was one of the darkest periods in the history of the People’s Republic of China.

“Netflix is just pandering to Western tastes, especially in the opening scene,” said one person on the social media platform Weibo.

The blockbuster books and their author, Liu Cixin, have a cultlike following in China. That’s not surprising because Chinese society, from senior leadership, scientists, entrepreneurs to people on the street, is steeped in techno utopianism.

The English translation of the first volume was published in the United States in 2014. The same year, the e-commerce giant Alibaba pulled off a blockbuster initial public offering in New York, and the world started viewing China as an emerging tech and manufacturing power instead of just a copycat of Western technologies.

The Netflix series portrays China as a scientific giant, speaking to the universe. Mr. Liu’s vast imagination and his probing of the nature of good and evil are key to his books’ success.

He doesn’t seem to view China or even the Earth as exceptional. In a television interview in 2022, he said that the crises described in any science fiction novel are shared “by humanity as a whole.” He added, “From the perspective of the universe, we are all part of a whole.”

The Netflix series adopted a Chinese word “Santi,” or three body, as the alien’s name. The book’s English translation uses “Trisolarian.” When was the last time that a Chinese word made it into the global pop culture? But few people celebrated that on Chinese social media.

Instead, many comments zeroed in on how unflatteringly China is portrayed and how few Chinese elements are included in the series. Netflix isn’t available in China but viewers flocked to see pirated versions of “3 Body Problem.”

The story in the Netflix version takes place mainly in Britain, not Beijing. The actors are racially diverse, including Latino, Black, white, South Asian and Chinese. Some comments call the diverse casting “American-style political correctness,” while others question why the series casts ethnic Chinese only as villains or poor people, which is not true.

If their main complaint about the Netflix adaptation is that the creators took too much liberty with the plot and the main characters, their other major complaint is that the opening scene about the Cultural Revolution is too truthful or too violent.

Some doubted the necessity of mentioning the political event at all. Others accused the show of exaggerating the level of violence in the struggle session.

Scholars believe that 1.5 million to eight million people died in “abnormal deaths” in the decade from 1966 to 1976, while more than 100 million Chinese were affected by the period’s upheaval.

Any discussion of the Cultural Revolution , a political movement that Mao Zedong started in 1966 to reassert authority by setting radical youths against those in charge, is heavily censored in China. Mr. Liu, the author, had to move the depiction of the struggle session from the beginning of the first volume to the middle because his editor was worried it couldn’t get past the censors. The English translation opened with the scene, with Mr. Liu’s approval.

“The Cultural Revolution appears because it’s essential to the plot,” Mr. Liu told my colleague Alexandra Alter in 2019. “The protagonist needs to have total despair in humanity.”

With the topic increasingly taboo, it’s hard to imagine that Mr. Liu would be able to publish a book with that premise now.

In 2007, the independent filmmaker Hu Jie made a documentary about Bian Zhongyun, a vice principal of a middle school in Beijing who was among the first to be beaten to death by the Red Guards. Her husband took photos of her naked, battered body, and Mr. Hu used them at the start of his documentary. The opening scene of “3 Body Problem” reminded me a great deal of it. Mr. Hu’s movie was never publicly screened in China.

Someone on social media recently reposted an old article about Ye Qisong, one of the founders of the study of physics in modern China. In 1967, around the time that the struggle session of the series took place, Mr. Ye, who shared the same family name of the physicist in the opening scene, was detained, beaten and forced to confess crimes he didn’t commit. He went crazy and wandered the streets in Beijing, begging for food and money. The article was circulated widely online before it was censored.

There’s a cottage industry of making videos on Chinese social media about “The Three Body Problem.” But few dare to address what led the daughter, a physicist, to invite the aliens to invade the Earth. A video with more than five million views on the website Baidu referred to the Cultural Revolution as “the red period” without explaining what happened. Another video with more than eight million views on the video site Bilibili called it “the what you know event.”

It's not surprising that fans of the book may have heard of the Cultural Revolution, but they don’t have a concrete idea about the atrocities that the Communist Party and some ordinary Chinese committed. That’s why the reactions to the Netflix series are concerning to some Chinese.

A human rights lawyer posted on WeChat that because of his age, he saw some struggle sessions when he was a child. “If I lived a bit longer, I might even get to experience it firsthand,” he wrote. “It’s not called reincarnation. It’s called history.”

Li Yuan writes the New New World column , which focuses on the intersection of technology, business and politics in China and across Asia. More about Li Yuan

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• Knowledge Base
• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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