economics of education research paper

Search Menu
Advance articles
Featured articles
Virtual Issues
Prize-Winning Articles
Browse content in A - General Economics and Teaching
Browse content in A1 - General Economics
A11 - Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists
A12 - Relation of Economics to Other Disciplines
Browse content in B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches
Browse content in B4 - Economic Methodology
B41 - Economic Methodology
Browse content in C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods
Browse content in C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General
C10 - General
C11 - Bayesian Analysis: General
C12 - Hypothesis Testing: General
C13 - Estimation: General
C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General
C18 - Methodological Issues: General
Browse content in C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables
C22 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes
C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models
C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
Browse content in C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables
C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models
C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models
C33 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models
C36 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation
Browse content in C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics
C40 - General
C44 - Operations Research; Statistical Decision Theory
C45 - Neural Networks and Related Topics
Browse content in C5 - Econometric Modeling
C52 - Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection
C53 - Forecasting and Prediction Methods; Simulation Methods
C55 - Large Data Sets: Modeling and Analysis
Browse content in C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling
C61 - Optimization Techniques; Programming Models; Dynamic Analysis
C62 - Existence and Stability Conditions of Equilibrium
C63 - Computational Techniques; Simulation Modeling
Browse content in C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory
C70 - General
C71 - Cooperative Games
C72 - Noncooperative Games
C73 - Stochastic and Dynamic Games; Evolutionary Games; Repeated Games
C78 - Bargaining Theory; Matching Theory
Browse content in C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs
C81 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access
Browse content in C9 - Design of Experiments
C90 - General
C91 - Laboratory, Individual Behavior
C92 - Laboratory, Group Behavior
C93 - Field Experiments
C99 - Other
Browse content in D - Microeconomics
Browse content in D0 - General
D00 - General
D01 - Microeconomic Behavior: Underlying Principles
D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact
D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles
Browse content in D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics
D11 - Consumer Economics: Theory
D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis
D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation
D14 - Household Saving; Personal Finance
D15 - Intertemporal Household Choice: Life Cycle Models and Saving
D18 - Consumer Protection
Browse content in D2 - Production and Organizations
D21 - Firm Behavior: Theory
D22 - Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis
D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights
D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity; Capacity
Browse content in D3 - Distribution
D30 - General
D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions
D33 - Factor Income Distribution
Browse content in D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design
D40 - General
D42 - Monopoly
D43 - Oligopoly and Other Forms of Market Imperfection
D44 - Auctions
D47 - Market Design
Browse content in D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
D50 - General
D52 - Incomplete Markets
Browse content in D6 - Welfare Economics
D60 - General
D61 - Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis
D62 - Externalities
D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement
D64 - Altruism; Philanthropy
Browse content in D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making
D70 - General
D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations
D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior
D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations; Corruption
D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions
D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation
Browse content in D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty
D80 - General
D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty
D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design
D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief; Unawareness
D84 - Expectations; Speculations
D85 - Network Formation and Analysis: Theory
D86 - Economics of Contract: Theory
D87 - Neuroeconomics
D89 - Other
Browse content in D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics
D90 - General
D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making
D92 - Intertemporal Firm Choice, Investment, Capacity, and Financing
Browse content in E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
Browse content in E0 - General
E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts
E02 - Institutions and the Macroeconomy
E1 - General Aggregative Models
Browse content in E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy
E20 - General
E21 - Consumption; Saving; Wealth
E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity
E23 - Production
E24 - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity
E25 - Aggregate Factor Income Distribution
E26 - Informal Economy; Underground Economy
E27 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
Browse content in E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles
E30 - General
E31 - Price Level; Inflation; Deflation
E32 - Business Fluctuations; Cycles
E37 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications
Browse content in E4 - Money and Interest Rates
E43 - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects
E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy
Browse content in E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit
E51 - Money Supply; Credit; Money Multipliers
E52 - Monetary Policy
E58 - Central Banks and Their Policies
Browse content in E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook
E61 - Policy Objectives; Policy Designs and Consistency; Policy Coordination
E62 - Fiscal Policy
E63 - Comparative or Joint Analysis of Fiscal and Monetary Policy; Stabilization; Treasury Policy
E65 - Studies of Particular Policy Episodes
Browse content in F - International Economics
Browse content in F0 - General
F01 - Global Outlook
F02 - International Economic Order and Integration
Browse content in F1 - Trade
F10 - General
F11 - Neoclassical Models of Trade
F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies; Fragmentation
F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations
F14 - Empirical Studies of Trade
F15 - Economic Integration
F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions
F17 - Trade Forecasting and Simulation
Browse content in F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business
F20 - General
F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements
F22 - International Migration
F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business
Browse content in F3 - International Finance
F31 - Foreign Exchange
F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements
F33 - International Monetary Arrangements and Institutions
F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems
F35 - Foreign Aid
Browse content in F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance
F41 - Open Economy Macroeconomics
F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission
F43 - Economic Growth of Open Economies
F45 - Macroeconomic Issues of Monetary Unions
Browse content in F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy
F50 - General
F51 - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions
F52 - National Security; Economic Nationalism
F55 - International Institutional Arrangements
Browse content in F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization
F60 - General
F61 - Microeconomic Impacts
F66 - Labor
F68 - Policy
Browse content in G - Financial Economics
Browse content in G0 - General
G01 - Financial Crises
Browse content in G1 - General Financial Markets
G10 - General
G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions
G12 - Asset Pricing; Trading volume; Bond Interest Rates
G15 - International Financial Markets
Browse content in G2 - Financial Institutions and Services
G20 - General
G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages
G24 - Investment Banking; Venture Capital; Brokerage; Ratings and Ratings Agencies
G28 - Government Policy and Regulation
Browse content in G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance
G30 - General
G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity
G32 - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill
G33 - Bankruptcy; Liquidation
G34 - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance
Browse content in G4 - Behavioral Finance
G41 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making in Financial Markets
Browse content in G5 - Household Finance
G51 - Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth
G53 - Financial Literacy
Browse content in H - Public Economics
Browse content in H0 - General
H00 - General
Browse content in H1 - Structure and Scope of Government
H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government
H12 - Crisis Management
Browse content in H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
H20 - General
H21 - Efficiency; Optimal Taxation
H22 - Incidence
H23 - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies
H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes inheritance and gift taxes
H25 - Business Taxes and Subsidies
H26 - Tax Evasion and Avoidance
Browse content in H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents
H30 - General
H31 - Household
Browse content in H4 - Publicly Provided Goods
H41 - Public Goods
H42 - Publicly Provided Private Goods
H44 - Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets
Browse content in H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies
H50 - General
H51 - Government Expenditures and Health
H52 - Government Expenditures and Education
H53 - Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs
H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock
H55 - Social Security and Public Pensions
H56 - National Security and War
H57 - Procurement
Browse content in H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt
H62 - Deficit; Surplus
H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt
H68 - Forecasts of Budgets, Deficits, and Debt
Browse content in H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations
H71 - State and Local Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue
H72 - State and Local Budget and Expenditures
H75 - State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions
H76 - State and Local Government: Other Expenditure Categories
H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession
Browse content in H8 - Miscellaneous Issues
H87 - International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods
Browse content in I - Health, Education, and Welfare
Browse content in I1 - Health
I10 - General
I11 - Analysis of Health Care Markets
I12 - Health Behavior
I14 - Health and Inequality
I15 - Health and Economic Development
I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health
I19 - Other
Browse content in I2 - Education and Research Institutions
I20 - General
I21 - Analysis of Education
I22 - Educational Finance; Financial Aid
I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions
I24 - Education and Inequality
I25 - Education and Economic Development
I26 - Returns to Education
I28 - Government Policy
Browse content in I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty
I30 - General
I31 - General Welfare
I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty
I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs
Browse content in J - Labor and Demographic Economics
Browse content in J0 - General
J00 - General
J01 - Labor Economics: General
J08 - Labor Economics Policies
Browse content in J1 - Demographic Economics
J10 - General
J11 - Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts
J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse
J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth
J14 - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor Market Discrimination
J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination
J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination
J17 - Value of Life; Forgone Income
J18 - Public Policy
Browse content in J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor
J20 - General
J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure
J22 - Time Allocation and Labor Supply
J23 - Labor Demand
J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity
J26 - Retirement; Retirement Policies
J28 - Safety; Job Satisfaction; Related Public Policy
Browse content in J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs
J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials
J32 - Nonwage Labor Costs and Benefits; Retirement Plans; Private Pensions
J33 - Compensation Packages; Payment Methods
Browse content in J4 - Particular Labor Markets
J42 - Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets
J43 - Agricultural Labor Markets
J45 - Public Sector Labor Markets
J46 - Informal Labor Markets
J47 - Coercive Labor Markets
Browse content in J5 - Labor-Management Relations, Trade Unions, and Collective Bargaining
J50 - General
J51 - Trade Unions: Objectives, Structure, and Effects
J53 - Labor-Management Relations; Industrial Jurisprudence
Browse content in J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers
J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers
J62 - Job, Occupational, and Intergenerational Mobility
J63 - Turnover; Vacancies; Layoffs
J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search
J65 - Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings
J68 - Public Policy
Browse content in J7 - Labor Discrimination
J71 - Discrimination
Browse content in K - Law and Economics
Browse content in K1 - Basic Areas of Law
K10 - General
K12 - Contract Law
K14 - Criminal Law
Browse content in K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law
K36 - Family and Personal Law
Browse content in K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior
K40 - General
K41 - Litigation Process
K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law
Browse content in L - Industrial Organization
Browse content in L0 - General
L00 - General
Browse content in L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance
L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms
L12 - Monopoly; Monopolization Strategies
L13 - Oligopoly and Other Imperfect Markets
L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks
L15 - Information and Product Quality; Standardization and Compatibility
L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices
Browse content in L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior
L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure
L25 - Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope
L26 - Entrepreneurship
Browse content in L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise
L31 - Nonprofit Institutions; NGOs; Social Entrepreneurship
L32 - Public Enterprises; Public-Private Enterprises
L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out
Browse content in L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies
L41 - Monopolization; Horizontal Anticompetitive Practices
L42 - Vertical Restraints; Resale Price Maintenance; Quantity Discounts
L44 - Antitrust Policy and Public Enterprises, Nonprofit Institutions, and Professional Organizations
Browse content in L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy
L51 - Economics of Regulation
L52 - Industrial Policy; Sectoral Planning Methods
Browse content in L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing
L60 - General
L67 - Other Consumer Nondurables: Clothing, Textiles, Shoes, and Leather Goods; Household Goods; Sports Equipment
Browse content in L8 - Industry Studies: Services
L81 - Retail and Wholesale Trade; e-Commerce
L82 - Entertainment; Media
L83 - Sports; Gambling; Recreation; Tourism
L86 - Information and Internet Services; Computer Software
Browse content in L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities
L91 - Transportation: General
L94 - Electric Utilities
L96 - Telecommunications
L98 - Government Policy
Browse content in M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics
Browse content in M1 - Business Administration
M10 - General
M12 - Personnel Management; Executives; Executive Compensation
M13 - New Firms; Startups
Browse content in M2 - Business Economics
M21 - Business Economics
Browse content in M3 - Marketing and Advertising
M30 - General
M31 - Marketing
Browse content in M5 - Personnel Economics
M50 - General
M51 - Firm Employment Decisions; Promotions
M52 - Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects
M55 - Labor Contracting Devices
Browse content in N - Economic History
Browse content in N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations
N10 - General, International, or Comparative
N12 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
N13 - Europe: Pre-1913
N14 - Europe: 1913-
N15 - Asia including Middle East
Browse content in N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions
N20 - General, International, or Comparative
N23 - Europe: Pre-1913
N26 - Latin America; Caribbean
Browse content in N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy
N30 - General, International, or Comparative
N32 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
N33 - Europe: Pre-1913
N34 - Europe: 1913-
N35 - Asia including Middle East
Browse content in N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation
N40 - General, International, or Comparative
N41 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
N42 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
N43 - Europe: Pre-1913
N44 - Europe: 1913-
N45 - Asia including Middle East
Browse content in N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries
N50 - General, International, or Comparative
N51 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
N53 - Europe: Pre-1913
N55 - Asia including Middle East
N57 - Africa; Oceania
Browse content in N6 - Manufacturing and Construction
N63 - Europe: Pre-1913
Browse content in N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services
N70 - General, International, or Comparative
N71 - U.S.; Canada: Pre-1913
N72 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
N73 - Europe: Pre-1913
N75 - Asia including Middle East
Browse content in N9 - Regional and Urban History
N90 - General, International, or Comparative
N92 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-
N94 - Europe: 1913-
N95 - Asia including Middle East
Browse content in O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth
Browse content in O1 - Economic Development
O10 - General
O11 - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development
O13 - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other Primary Products
O14 - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology
O15 - Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration
O16 - Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate Finance and Governance
O17 - Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional Arrangements
O18 - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure
O19 - International Linkages to Development; Role of International Organizations
Browse content in O2 - Development Planning and Policy
O22 - Project Analysis
O24 - Trade Policy; Factor Movement Policy; Foreign Exchange Policy
O25 - Industrial Policy
Browse content in O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights
O30 - General
O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives
O32 - Management of Technological Innovation and R&D
O33 - Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion Processes
O34 - Intellectual Property and Intellectual Capital
O38 - Government Policy
O39 - Other
Browse content in O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity
O40 - General
O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models
O43 - Institutions and Growth
O44 - Environment and Growth
O47 - Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity; Cross-Country Output Convergence
Browse content in O5 - Economywide Country Studies
O50 - General
O52 - Europe
O53 - Asia including Middle East
O55 - Africa
Browse content in P - Economic Systems
Browse content in P0 - General
P00 - General
Browse content in P1 - Capitalist Systems
P14 - Property Rights
P16 - Political Economy
Browse content in P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies
P26 - Political Economy; Property Rights
Browse content in P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions
P39 - Other
Browse content in P4 - Other Economic Systems
P48 - Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies
Browse content in P5 - Comparative Economic Systems
P50 - General
P51 - Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems
Browse content in Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics
Browse content in Q1 - Agriculture
Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets
Q14 - Agricultural Finance
Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation; Agriculture and Environment
Q16 - R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension Services
Q17 - Agriculture in International Trade
Q18 - Agricultural Policy; Food Policy
Browse content in Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation
Q23 - Forestry
Q28 - Government Policy
Browse content in Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation
Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development
Q33 - Resource Booms
Browse content in Q4 - Energy
Q41 - Demand and Supply; Prices
Q48 - Government Policy
Browse content in Q5 - Environmental Economics
Q51 - Valuation of Environmental Effects
Q52 - Pollution Control Adoption Costs; Distributional Effects; Employment Effects
Q53 - Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Noise; Hazardous Waste; Solid Waste; Recycling
Q54 - Climate; Natural Disasters; Global Warming
Q55 - Technological Innovation
Q56 - Environment and Development; Environment and Trade; Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental Equity; Population Growth
Q58 - Government Policy
Browse content in R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics
Browse content in R1 - General Regional Economics
R10 - General
R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes
R12 - Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity
R13 - General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies
R15 - Econometric and Input-Output Models; Other Models
Browse content in R2 - Household Analysis
R21 - Housing Demand
R23 - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population; Neighborhood Characteristics
Browse content in R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location
R30 - General
R31 - Housing Supply and Markets
Browse content in R4 - Transportation Economics
R41 - Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time; Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise
Browse content in R5 - Regional Government Analysis
R52 - Land Use and Other Regulations
R58 - Regional Development Planning and Policy
Browse content in Z - Other Special Topics
Browse content in Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology
Z10 - General
Z12 - Religion
Z13 - Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Social and Economic Stratification
Z19 - Other
Browse content in Z2 - Sports Economics
Z20 - General
Author Guidelines
Submission Site
Open Access
Self-Archiving Policy
About The Economic Journal
About the Royal Economic Society
Editorial Board
Advertising and Corporate Services
Journals on Oxford Academic
Books on Oxford Academic

The Economics of Education and Education Policy

Virtual issue.

Jump to Articles

This virtual issue showcases 12 papers published in The Economic Journal, focusing on the economics of education and education policy. In addition to long-standing issues such as school choice, tracking and teacher effectiveness, this issue highlights recent research on complex education policy problems such as intergenerational mobility and inequality. The issue is timely, as the tremendous negative impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on learning outcomes still persist worldwide.

The issue is organized around four themes. The first set of papers examines enduring questions about school choice and school quality, including issues related to student tracking. The second set deals with distributional and intergenerational issues from the education policy perspective. The final two sets explore teacher effectiveness and the identification of peer effects. These 12 papers together represent cutting-edge research in the education and education policy literature and offer new avenues for future research.

Sule Alan, Joint Managing Editor, The Economic Journal

School Choice Design, Risk Aversion and Cardinal Segregation

Learning and mechanism design: an experimental test of school matching mechanisms with intergenerational advice, better together heterogeneous effects of tracking on student achievement, does educational tracking affect performance and inequality differences‐ in‐differences evidence across countries, intergenerational mobility and unequal school opportunity, the hahn lecture: the long-term distributional and welfare effects of covid-19 school closures, long-term and intergenerational effects of education: evidence from school construction in indonesia, teacher effectiveness and classroom composition: understanding match effects in the classroom, education quality and teaching practices, the long-run effects of peers on mental health, friendship and female education: evidence from a field experiment in bangladeshi primary schools, competitive pressure widens the gender gap in performance: evidence from a two-stage competition in mathematics.

Recommend to your Librarian

Affiliations

Online ISSN 1468-0297
Print ISSN 0013-0133
Copyright © 2024 Royal Economic Society
About Oxford Academic
Publish journals with us
University press partners
What we publish
New features
Open access
Institutional account management
Rights and permissions
Get help with access
Accessibility
Advertising
Media enquiries
Oxford University Press
Oxford Languages
University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
Cookie settings
Cookie policy
Privacy policy
Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Subject List
Take a Tour
For Authors
Subscriber Services
Publications
African American Studies
African Studies
American Literature
Anthropology
Architecture Planning and Preservation
Art History
Atlantic History
Biblical Studies
British and Irish Literature
Childhood Studies
Chinese Studies
Cinema and Media Studies
Communication
Criminology
Environmental Science
Evolutionary Biology
International Law
International Relations
Islamic Studies
Jewish Studies
Latin American Studies
Latino Studies
Linguistics
Literary and Critical Theory
Medieval Studies
Military History
Political Science
Public Health
Renaissance and Reformation
Social Work
Urban Studies
Victorian Literature
Browse All Subjects

How to Subscribe

Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Economics of Education

Introduction, general overviews.

Working Papers
Quantitative Methods
Human Capital and the Returns to Education
School Choice
Educational Inputs
Health and Education
Peer Effects
Teacher Labor Markets
Early Childhood Education
Higher Education
Educational Finance
Education and Economic Development
Achievement Gaps

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

English as an International Language for Academic Publishing
Girls' Education in the Developing World
History of Education in Europe
Find more forthcoming articles...
Export Citations
Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Economics of Education by Kevin A. Gee LAST REVIEWED: 15 December 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0055

The economics of education is a rapidly growing and evolving field that applies a diverse array of economic theories, models, and quantitative methodologies to understand, analyze, and improve the performance of education systems. Economic theories, such as the theory of human capital, economic models, such as the input–output based model of educational production, and rigorous experimental and quasi-experimental designs that seek to establish causal relationships have been developed and used by economists to shed light on a host of substantive issues that span education sectors, from formal to informal, and education levels, from early childhood education to higher education. Some of the most prominent issues in education that economists currently research include school choice (charter schools and voucher systems), teacher accountability, and closing growing achievement gaps. Because the field is rapidly evolving and the topics that are at the forefront of scholarly research in the economics of education are often responsive to current policy debates in education, these entries reflect the most salient and up-to-date references with an emphasis on topics most relevant to educational issues, both domestic and global, in the first decade of the 21st century.

Readers who are interested in understanding the breadth and depth of topics and research in the field should refer to several comprehensive resources on the economics of education. Brewer and McEwan 2010 and the two-volume Hanushek and Welch 2006 provide the reader with research on the most important topics in the economics of education, including the link between schooling and wages, issues of teacher supply and quality, as well as financing higher education. Johnes and Johnes 2004 provides a compendium of research articles that examines issues from an international perspective. Carnoy 1995 also provides coverage on topics in the economics of education organized into eight thematic units, including the benefits of education and educational finance. Finally, readers who would like to understand three core theories underlying the economics of education from a nontechnical perspective should refer to Brewer, et al. 2010 .

Brewer, Dominic J., Guilbert C. Hentschke, and Eric R. Eide. 2010. Theoretical concepts in the economics of education. In International Encyclopedia of Education . Edited by Penelope L. Peterson, Eva L. Baker, and Barry McGraw, 193–198. Oxford: Elsevier.

Particularly suited to readers without a background in economics, provides a nontechnical explanation of three core concepts underlying the field of the economics of education: human capital, market failures, and educational production.

Brewer, Dominic J., and Patrick J. McEwan, eds. 2010. Economics of education . Oxford: Academic.

The most recent, up-to-date collection of research articles spanning the field of the economics of education. Provides comprehensive coverage in topic areas such as teacher labor markets and incentives in education. Focuses primarily on K–12 education and includes research drawn from international settings.

Carnoy, Martin, ed. 1995. International encyclopedia of economics of education . Resources in Education. Oxford: Pergamon.

A comprehensive collection of articles organized by eight thematic units on topics in the economics of education.

Hanushek, Eric A., and Finis Welch, eds. 2006. Handbook of the economics of education . 2 vols. Handbooks in Economics 26. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

A two-volume compilation of research in the economics of education from leading scholars in the field. Provides comprehensive coverage of key topic areas in the economics of education and includes extensive reference lists at the end of each article.

Johnes, Geraint, and Jill Johnes, eds. 2004. International handbook on the economics of education . Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.

This handbook provides an overview of core topics that economists research in education and includes selections on the returns to education and teacher labor markets. Examples and evidence are grounded in international contexts. This handbook also includes a topic not often included in research in the field—the economics of secondary education.

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

About Education »
Meet the Editorial Board »
Academic Achievement
Academic Audit for Universities
Academic Freedom and Tenure in the United States
Action Research in Education
Adjuncts in Higher Education in the United States
Administrator Preparation
Adolescence
Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Courses
Advocacy and Activism in Early Childhood
African American Racial Identity and Learning
Alaska Native Education
Alternative Certification Programs for Educators
Alternative Schools
American Indian Education
Animals in Environmental Education
Art Education
Artificial Intelligence and Learning
Assessing School Leader Effectiveness
Assessment, Behavioral
Assessment, Educational
Assessment in Early Childhood Education
Assistive Technology
Augmented Reality in Education
Beginning-Teacher Induction
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
Black Undergraduate Women: Critical Race and Gender Perspe...
Blended Learning
Case Study in Education Research
Changing Professional and Academic Identities
Character Education
Children’s and Young Adult Literature
Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
Children's Rights in Early Childhood Education
Citizenship Education
Civic and Social Engagement of Higher Education
Classroom Learning Environments: Assessing and Investigati...
Classroom Management
Coherent Instructional Systems at the School and School Sy...
College Admissions in the United States
College Athletics in the United States
Community Relations
Comparative Education
Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Computer-Based Testing
Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Evaluating Improvement Net...
Continuous Improvement and "High Leverage" Educational Pro...
Counseling in Schools
Critical Approaches to Gender in Higher Education
Critical Perspectives on Educational Innovation and Improv...
Critical Race Theory
Crossborder and Transnational Higher Education
Cross-National Research on Continuous Improvement
Cross-Sector Research on Continuous Learning and Improveme...
Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education
Culturally Responsive Leadership
Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
Culturally Responsive Teacher Education in the United Stat...
Curriculum Design
Data Collection in Educational Research
Data-driven Decision Making in the United States
Deaf Education
Desegregation and Integration
Design Thinking and the Learning Sciences: Theoretical, Pr...
Development, Moral
Dialogic Pedagogy
Digital Age Teacher, The
Digital Citizenship
Digital Divides
Disabilities
Distance Learning
Distributed Leadership
Doctoral Education and Training
Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Denmark
Early Childhood Education and Development in Mexico
Early Childhood Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
Early Childhood Education in Australia
Early Childhood Education in China
Early Childhood Education in Europe
Early Childhood Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
Early Childhood Education in Sweden
Early Childhood Education Pedagogy
Early Childhood Education Policy
Early Childhood Education, The Arts in
Early Childhood Mathematics
Early Childhood Science
Early Childhood Teacher Education
Early Childhood Teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand
Early Years Professionalism and Professionalization Polici...
Economics of Education
Education For Children with Autism
Education for Sustainable Development
Education Leadership, Empirical Perspectives in
Education of Native Hawaiian Students
Education Reform and School Change
Educational Statistics for Longitudinal Research
Educator Partnerships with Parents and Families with a Foc...
Emotional and Affective Issues in Environmental and Sustai...
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Environmental and Science Education: Overlaps and Issues
Environmental Education
Environmental Education in Brazil
Epistemic Beliefs
Equity and Improvement: Engaging Communities in Educationa...
Equity, Ethnicity, Diversity, and Excellence in Education
Ethical Research with Young Children
Ethics and Education
Ethics of Teaching
Ethnic Studies
Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention
Family and Community Partnerships in Education
Family Day Care
Federal Government Programs and Issues
Feminization of Labor in Academia
Finance, Education
Financial Aid
Formative Assessment
Future-Focused Education
Gender and Achievement
Gender and Alternative Education
Gender, Power and Politics in the Academy
Gender-Based Violence on University Campuses
Gifted Education
Global Mindedness and Global Citizenship Education
Global University Rankings
Governance, Education
Grounded Theory
Growth of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools in t...
Higher Education and Globalization
Higher Education and the Developing World
Higher Education Faculty Characteristics and Trends in the...
Higher Education Finance
Higher Education Governance
Higher Education Graduate Outcomes and Destinations
Higher Education in Africa
Higher Education in China
Higher Education in Latin America
Higher Education in the United States, Historical Evolutio...
Higher Education, International Issues in
Higher Education Management
Higher Education Research
Higher Education Student Assessment
High-stakes Testing
History of Early Childhood Education in the United States
History of Education in the United States
History of Technology Integration in Education
Homeschooling
Inclusion in Early Childhood: Difference, Disability, and ...
Inclusive Education
Indigenous Education in a Global Context
Indigenous Learning Environments
Indigenous Students in Higher Education in the United Stat...
Infant and Toddler Pedagogy
Inservice Teacher Education
Integrating Art across the Curriculum
Intelligence
Intensive Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ...
International Perspectives on Academic Freedom
Intersectionality and Education
Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
Leadership Development, Coaching and Feedback for
Leadership in Early Childhood Education
Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
Learning Analytics in Higher Education
Learning Difficulties
Learning, Lifelong
Learning, Multimedia
Learning Strategies
Legal Matters and Education Law
LGBT Youth in Schools
Linguistic Diversity
Linguistically Inclusive Pedagogy
Literacy Development and Language Acquisition
Literature Reviews
Mathematics Identity
Mathematics Instruction and Interventions for Students wit...
Mathematics Teacher Education
Measurement for Improvement in Education
Measurement in Education in the United States
Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis in Education
Methodological Approaches for Impact Evaluation in Educati...
Methodologies for Conducting Education Research
Mindfulness, Learning, and Education
Mixed Methods Research
Motherscholars
Multiliteracies in Early Childhood Education
Multiple Documents Literacy: Theory, Research, and Applica...
Multivariate Research Methodology
Museums, Education, and Curriculum
Music Education
Narrative Research in Education
Native American Studies
Nonformal and Informal Environmental Education
Note-Taking
Numeracy Education
One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
Online Education
Open Education
Organizing for Continuous Improvement in Education
Organizing Schools for the Inclusion of Students with Disa...
Outdoor Play and Learning
Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education
Pedagogical Leadership
Pedagogy of Teacher Education, A
Performance Objectives and Measurement
Performance-based Research Assessment in Higher Education
Performance-based Research Funding
Phenomenology in Educational Research
Philosophy of Education
Physical Education
Podcasts in Education
Policy Context of United States Educational Innovation and...
Politics of Education
Portable Technology Use in Special Education Programs and ...
Post-humanism and Environmental Education
Pre-Service Teacher Education
Problem Solving
Productivity and Higher Education
Professional Development
Professional Learning Communities
Program Evaluation
Programs and Services for Students with Emotional or Behav...
Psychology Learning and Teaching
Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of English Language ...
Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Samp...
Qualitative Research Design
Quantitative Research Designs in Educational Research
Queering the English Language Arts (ELA) Writing Classroom
Race and Affirmative Action in Higher Education
Reading Education
Refugee and New Immigrant Learners
Relational and Developmental Trauma and Schools
Relational Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education
Reliability in Educational Assessments
Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the Unit...
Researcher Development and Skills Training within the Cont...
Research-Practice Partnerships in Education within the Uni...
Response to Intervention
Restorative Practices
Risky Play in Early Childhood Education
Scale and Sustainability of Education Innovation and Impro...
Scaling Up Research-based Educational Practices
School Accreditation
School Culture
School District Budgeting and Financial Management in the ...
School Improvement through Inclusive Education
School Reform
Schools, Private and Independent
School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
Science Education
Secondary to Postsecondary Transition Issues
Self-Regulated Learning
Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
Service-Learning
Severe Disabilities
Single Salary Schedule
Single-sex Education
Single-Subject Research Design
Social Context of Education
Social Justice
Social Network Analysis
Social Pedagogy
Social Studies Education
Sociology of Education
Standards-Based Education
Statistical Assumptions
Student Access, Equity, and Diversity in Higher Education
Student Assignment Policy
Student Engagement in Tertiary Education
Student Learning, Development, Engagement, and Motivation ...
Student Participation
Student Voice in Teacher Development
Sustainability Education in Early Childhood Education
Sustainability in Early Childhood Education
Sustainability in Higher Education
Teacher Beliefs and Epistemologies
Teacher Collaboration in School Improvement
Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Effectiveness
Teacher Preparation
Teacher Training and Development
Teacher-Student Relationships
Teaching Critical Thinking
Technologies, Teaching, and Learning in Higher Education
Technology Education in Early Childhood
Technology, Educational
Technology-based Assessment
The Bologna Process
The Regulation of Standards in Higher Education
Theories of Educational Leadership
Three Conceptions of Literacy: Media, Narrative, and Gamin...
Tracking and Detracking
Traditions of Quality Improvement in Education
Transformative Learning
Transitions in Early Childhood Education
Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities in the Unite...
Understanding the Psycho-Social Dimensions of Schools and ...
University Faculty Roles and Responsibilities in the Unite...
Using Ethnography in Educational Research
Value of Higher Education for Students and Other Stakehold...
Virtual Learning Environments
Vocational and Technical Education
Wellness and Well-Being in Education
Women's and Gender Studies
Young Children and Spirituality
Young Children's Learning Dispositions
Young Children's Working Theories
Privacy Policy
Cookie Policy
Legal Notice
Accessibility

[66.249.64.20|185.66.14.236]
185.66.14.236

The new economics of education: methods, evidence and policy

Original Paper
Published: 07 November 2007
Volume 21 , pages 1–19, ( 2008 )

Cite this article

Stephen Machin 1 , 2 , 3

701 Accesses

8 Citations

3 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

In this paper (my keynote talk from the 2006 ESPE conference), I discuss the recent upsurge in research on the economics of education that has occurred, especially in Europe. I discuss the reasons for the increased interest and present some examples from my recent research in the area. The paper concludes that the increased research interest seems likely to be sustained for some time to come.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

At all costs: educational expansion and persistent inequality in the Philippines

Global Comparison of Education Systems

Lifelong Learning in the Educational Setting: A Systematic Literature Review

The journals are the following: American Economic Review ; Economic Journal ; Econometrica ; Economica ; Journal of Political Economy ; Quarterly Journal of Economics ; RAND Journal of Economics ; Review of Economic Studies .

Of course, the number of papers per journal may well have also risen through time (especially in those journals that now have more issues per year than in the past) but not by enough to explain the scale of the recent upsurge. Similarly, specialist journals that were set up in this time period and that have published a lot of economics of education papers (e.g. the Journal of Human Resources , the Economics of Education Review and the Journal of Labor Economics ) were not considered in this suggestive analysis.

Many examples of ongoing research using these data are given in the Discussion Paper series of the Centre for the Economics of Education at http://cee.lse.ac.uk .

These cohorts, respectively, cover everyone born in Britain in a week of March 1958 and everyone born in a week of April 1970.

Ideally, one might like to have measures of the same permanent economic status (be it wages or income) for both generations from both cohort studies. Unfortunately, due to different survey design, this is not possible. One is therefore forced to base estimates on the relationship between the cohort member’s earnings or income and combined parental income. Whilst this will produce different estimates to the usual regression of child earnings or income on one parent’s earnings or income, it remains the case that changes in the intergenerational parameter over time are measured on a consistent basis, thus allowing a discussion of changes over time in the extent of intergenerational mobility.

See Blanden and Machin ( 2004 ) for much more discussion on the choice of functional form and a range of sensitivity and robustness checks on the findings summarized here.

There is a quite sizable body of work in the USA, which is often highly controversial in nature. See, for example, the work of Hoxby ( 2000 , 2003 ) who argues competition to be a ‘tide that raises all boats’ and her (acrimonious) exchange with Rothstein ( 2006 ) (and Hoxby 2006 ).

All state schools in England are funded largely by central government and are organized through administrative units known as Local Education Authorities (LEAs) that are responsible for schools in their geographical domain. There are 150 LEAs in England.

Gibbons et al. ( 2006 ) experimented with a number of alternative choice and competition measures, including the number of alternative schools and number of ‘competitors’ within a fixed radius, and a Herfindahl index of pupil shares in schools available within travel zones. These alternatives gave qualitatively similar results.

Parents can send their children to schools outside their home LEA, but rarely do so. This is in part because there are institutional barriers to doing so as the schools that LEAs tell parents are available are in the home LEA (i.e. the form they ask their residents to complete only lists schools within the LEA).

The instruments are individually significant and the F statistic for the joint test of the instruments is always high. In a nutshell, LEA boundary distance measures are indeed strong predictors of choice availability and school competition. Gibbons et al. ( 2006 ) also present a barrage of balancing tests for the instruments to show that school or residence distance from LEA boundaries is uncorrelated with unobserved pupil and school characteristics that may influence educational outcomes.

Remarkably, the results are similar whether or not the full set of controls is included—this is reassuring for the validity of the instrumental variable approach.

A Hausman test of the hypothesis that the IV coefficient on the choice index in column (4) is equal to the OLS estimate of column (2) rejects the null with a p value of 0.036.

A test that the IV estimate in column (4) is equal to the OLS coefficient in column (2) rejects the null with a p value of 0.048.

In this case, the test statistic of whether the two IV coefficients in column (4) being jointly equal to the OLS estimates in column (2) has a p value of 0.087.

This is the bottom line finding of the Gibbons et al. ( 2006 ) work. In their paper, they study heterogeneous effects relating to school type, and do uncover some positive competition effects, but only for a small minority of schools which have more autonomy and control over admissions and teacher appointments.

Adda J, Dustmann C, Meghir C, Robin JM (2006) Career progression and formal versus on-the-job training. IZA Discussion Paper 2260

Altonji J, Blank R (1999) Race and gender in the labor market. In: Ashenfelter O, Card D (eds) The handbook of labor economics. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Google Scholar

Angrist J (1990) Lifetime earnings and the Vietnam era draft lottery: evidence from Social Security Administrative Records. Am Econ Rev 80:313–336

Angrist J, Krueger A (1999) Empirical strategies in labor economics. In: Ashenfelter O, Card D (eds) The handbook of labor economics. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Angrist J, Lavy V (1999) Using Maimonides’ Rule to estimate the effect of class size of scholastic achievement. Q J Econ 114:533–576

Article Google Scholar

Barro R (1991) Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Q J Econ 106:407–443

Becker G (1964) Human capital: a theoretical analysis with special reference to education. Columbia University Press, New York

Ben-Porath Y (1967) The production of human capital and the life-cycle of earnings. J Polit Econ 75:352–356

Berman E, Bound J, Machin S (1998) Implications of skill-biased technological change: international evidence. Q J Econ 113:1245–1280

Bjorklund A, Clark M, Edin PA, Fredriksson P, Kreuger A (2005) The market comes to education in Sweden. Russell Sage Foundation, New York

Bjorklund A, Lindahl M, Plug E (2006) The origins of intergenerational associations: lessons from Swedish Adoption Data. Q J Econ 121:999–1028

Black S, Devereux P, Salvanes K (2005a) Why the apple doesn’t fall far: understanding intergenerational transmission of human capital. Am Econ Rev 95:437–449

Black S, Devereux P, Salvanes K (2005b) The more the merrier? The effect of family size and birth order on children’s education. Q J Econ 120:669–700

Blanden J, Machin S (2004) Educational inequality and the expansion of UK higher education. Scott J Polit Econ 51:230–249 (Special Issue on Economics of Education

Blanden J, Goodman A, Gregg P, Machin S (2004) Changes in intergenerational mobility in Britain. In: Corak M (ed) Generational income mobility in North America and Europe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Blaug M (1972) An introduction to the economics of education. Penguin, Harmondsworth

Blaug M (1976) The empirical status of human capital theory: a slightly jaundiced survey. J Econ Lit 14:827–855

Burgess S, Briggs A, McConnell B, Slater H (2006) School choice in England: background facts. CMPO Discussion Paper 01/159

Bratsberg B, Roed K, Raaum O, Naylor R, Jantti M, Eriksson T, Osterbacka E (2007) Nonlinearities in intergenerational earnings mobility: consequences for cross-country comparisons. Econ J 117:C72–C92

Card D (1999) The causal effect of education on earnings. In: Ashenfelter O, Card D (eds) Handbook of labor economics, vol 3. Elsevier, North Holland

Card D (2006) Research design and the practice of labor economics. 2006 Royal Economic Society Lecture

Carneiro P, Heckman J (2003) Human capital policy. In: Heckman J, Krueger A (eds) Inequality in America: what role for human capital policy? MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

Dustmann C, Meghir C (2005) Wages, experience and seniority. Rev Econ Stud 72:77–108

Duflo E (2001) Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in India: evidence from an unusual policy experiment. Am Econ Rev 91:795–813

Freeman R (1976) The overeducated american. Academic, New York

Gibbons S, Machin S (2003) Valuing English primary schools. J Urban Econ 53:197–219

Gibbons S, Machin S (2006) Paying for primary schools: admissions constraints, school popularity or congestion? Econ J 116:C77–C92

Gibbons S, Machin S, Silva O (2006) Choice, competition and pupil achievement. J Eur Econ Assoc, in press

Hanushek E (1986) The economics of schooling: production and efficiency in public schools. J Econ Lit 24:1141–1177

Hanushek E (2003) The failure of input-based schooling policies. Econ J 113:F64–F98

Hanushek E, Woessman L (2006) Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality: difference in differences estimates across countries. Econ J 116:C63–C76

Hanushek E, Rivkin S, Kain J (2005) Teachers, schools and academic achievement. Econometrica 73:417–458

Heckman J (2000) Policies to foster human capital. Res Econ 54:3–56

Heckman J, Lochner L (2000) Rethinking myths about education and training: understanding the sources of skill formation in the modern economy. In: Danziger S, Waldfogel J (eds) Securing the future: investing in children from birth to college. Russell Sage Foundation, New York

Heckman J, Lalonde R, Smith J (1999) The economics and econometrics of active labor market programmes. In: Ashenfelter O, Card D (eds) Handbook of labor economics, vol 3. Elsevier, North Holland

Hoxby C (2000) Does competition among public schools benefit students and taxpayers? Am Econ Rev 90:1209–1238

Hoxby C (2003) School choice and school productivity (or, could school choice be a rising tide that lifts all boats?). In: Hoxby C (ed) The economics of school choice. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Hoxby C (2006) Competition among public schools: a reply to Rothstein (2004). NBER Working Paper, 11216 (forthcoming Am Econ Rev)

Jacobson L, Lalonde R, Sullivan D (1993) Earnings losses of displaced workers. Am Econ Rev 83:685–709

Katz L, Murphy K (1992) Changes in relative wages, 1963–87: supply and demand factors. Q J Econ 107:35–78

Krueger A (1999) Experimental estimates of education production functions. Q J Econ 114:497–532

Krueger A (2003) Economic considerations and class size. Econ J 113:F34–F63

Krueger A, Lindahl M (2001) Education for growth: why and for whom. J Econ Lit 39:1101–1136

Krueger A, Whitmore D (2001) The effect of attending a small class in the early grades on college-test taking and middle school test results: evidence from Project Star. Econ J 111:34–63

Layard R, Psacharopoulos G (1974) The screening hypothesis and the returns to education. J Polit Econ 82:985–998

Lewis HG (1986) Union relative wage effects: a survey. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL

Machin S, McNally S (2004) The literacy hour. IZA Discussion Paper 1005

Machin S, McNally S, Meghir C (2004) Improving pupil performance in english secondary schools: excellence in cities. J Eur Econ Assoc 2:396–405

Machin S, Van Reenen J (1998) Technology and changes in skill structure: evidence from seven OECD countries. Q J Econ 113:1215–1244

Machin S, Vignoles A (2005) What’s the good of education? Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ

Meghir C, Palme M (2005) Educational reform, ability and parental background. Am Econ Rev 95:414–424

Miguel E, Kremer M (2004) Worms: identifying impacts on education and health in the presence of treatment externalities. Econometrica 72:159–217

Mincer J (1958) Investment in human capital and personal income distribution. J Polit Econ 66:281–302

Mincer J (1974) Schooling, experience and earnings. Columbia University Press, NBER, New York

Psacharopoulos G (1973) Returns to education: an international comparison. Joessey-Bass, San Francisco

Roed K, Raaum O (2003) Administrative registers—unexplored reservoirs of scientific knowledge? Econ J 113:F258–F281

Rothstein J (2006) Does competition among public schools benefit students and taxpayers? A comment on Hoxby (2000). NBER Working Paper, 11215 (forthcoming Am Econ Rev)

Schultz T (1961) Investment in human capital. Am Econ Rev 51:1–17

Schultz T (1963) The economic value of education. Columbia University Press, New York

Solon G (1999) Intergenerational mobility in the labor market. In: Ashenfelter O, Card D (eds) Handbook of labor economics. North Holland, Amsterdam

Spence M (1973) Job market signalling. Q J Econ 87:355–374

Spence M (1974) Market signalling: informational transfer in hiring and related screening processes. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass

Stiglitz J (1975) The theory of ‘screening’, education and the distribution of income. Am Econ Rev 65:283–300

Teixeira P (2001) The economics of education: an exploratory portrait. History of Political Economy. Annual Supplement 257–287

Todd P, Wolpin K (2003) On the specification and estimation of the production function for cognitive achievement. Econ J 113:F3–F33

Topel R (1991) Specific capital, mobility and wages: wages rise with job seniority. J Pol Econ 99:145–176

Download references

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank a number of participants at the 2006 ESPE conference, Anders Bjorklund, Christian Dustmann, Marco Francesconi, Sandra McNally and an anonymous referee for some useful discussions and comments on this paper. I would also like to thank my co-authors for their help in the joint research I summarise in Section 3 of the paper.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics, University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT, UK

Stephen Machin

Centre for the Economics of Education, London School of Economics, London, UK

Centre for Economic Performance, London School of Economics, London, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen Machin .

Additional information

Responsible editor : Christian Dustmann

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Machin, S. The new economics of education: methods, evidence and policy. J Popul Econ 21 , 1–19 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0166-3

Download citation

Received : 12 February 2007

Accepted : 13 July 2007

Published : 07 November 2007

Issue Date : January 2008

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-007-0166-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Education Policy

JEL Classification

Find a journal
Publish with us
Track your research

2021 Theses Doctoral

Essays in the Economics of Education

Nguyen, Dieu Hoa Thi

Education is at the center of upskilling human capital in developing countries, thereby positively influencing economic growth and development. For decades, many education policies targeted at developing countries have been narrowly focused on improving access to basic education (Barrett et al., 2015). However, access to education does not always translate into educational attainment. Thus, beyond the initial goal of expanding access to education in developing countries, there has been a growing focus on delivering quality education on the development agenda for developing countries in recent years. One popular policy instrument in enhancing education quality has been school choice. Analysis of school choice and the subsequent academic performance outcomes can provide new insight on the economics of education to policymakers, schools, parents and students alike. This dissertation consists of three essays, which focus on understanding the demand for public schools and the returns to school quality in a merit-based competitive school assignment system. In particular, these papers investigate how positive recognition of ability through awards can affect the students’ decision-making process; what the students might gain from attending a more selective school; and how students balance between their preferences for school characteristics and maximizing their chances of admission in a competitive school choice market. Altogether, this dissertation highlights the role of information as well as educational background in explaining differences in school choice decisions and achievement outcomes. In chapter 1, I examine the role of positive recognition on students’ school choice decisions and achievement outcomes in the context of academic competitions. Academic competitions are an essential aspect of education. Given the prevalence and the amount of resources spent organizing them, a natural question that arises is the extent of the impact on winners’ education outcomes when their talent is recognized. I exploit the award structure in Vietnam’s annual regional academic competitions to answer this question. By leveraging the pre-determined share of awards, I apply a regression discontinuity design to assess the effects of receiving a Prize and receiving an Honorable Mention. I find that both types of awards lead to improvements in educational outcomes, and the results are persistent after three years. I also find some evidence of specialization associated with receiving a Prize Award. I hypothesize that long-term effects can be partially explained by school choice: winners are significantly more likely to apply to and consequently enroll in higher-quality schools. There are also prominent differences in educational choices and outcomes along gender lines: female students are more sensitive to award receipts than male students. These findings underscore the positive motivational effects of awards, even among the top performers in a highly competitive schooling market. In chapter 2, I explore the impacts of attending a selective school on students’ educational outcomes. Students in Vietnam are assigned to public high schools based on their performance in a placement exam as well as their ranked choice of schools. Public schools are often oversubscribed, which contributes to exogeneous admission score cutoffs below which students are not considered for admission. By applying a regression discontinuity research design to these admission score cutoffs, I find that students who are marginally admitted to their top-choice public schools are exposed to significantly higher-achieving peers while finding themselves at the bottom of the ability distribution. They experience some improvements in standardized test scores at the end of their high school, but fare worse in school-based achievements and graduation outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of the potential trade-offs between attending more selective schools with better peer quality while receiving a lower ordinal rank in the ability distribution in the assigned school. In addition, the impacts of selective schools on students vary along the lines of the students’ own attitude towards studying as well as their middle school educational background. This substantial heterogeneity collectively highlights the importance of considering the students’ past educational background in interpreting how selective schools might impact students’ outcomes. In chapter 3, I investigate students’ preferences, strategic behaviors and welfare outcomes under a competitive school choice market by conducting a survey on school choice participants in two school districts in Vietnam. The original survey data on school choice participants, coupled with administrative data, afford me the opportunity to understand true preferences and strategies without involving strong assumptions on the students’ beliefs. In order to balance out their own preferences and chance of admission in such a competitive setting, the majority of students exhibit strategic behaviors. However, students from less advanced educational backgrounds tend to have large belief errors and are more likely to make strategic mistakes. Consequently, these students are at a disadvantage, as they find themselves among lower-achieving peers in their new schools. With preference data from the survey, I estimate the students’ preferences for school characteristics and find evidence of heterogeneity in students’ preferences for school characteristics: students from more advanced educational backgrounds value school selectivity and teacher qualification more than their peers. Using these estimates to evaluate students’ welfare under the current assignment mechanism as well as a counterfactual strategy-proof deferred acceptance algorithm, I find that switching to deferred acceptance algorithm can be welfare-improving, particularly for high-performing students. Overall, this paper provides a starting point to directly study the drawbacks of manipulable assignment mechanisms by using survey data and highlight the potential disparity in preferences and application strategies that can further widen the gap in educational mobility.

Geographic Areas

Education--Economic aspects
Public schools
School choice--Econometric models
School contests

This item is currently under embargo. It will be available starting 2026-05-26.

More About This Work

DOI Copy DOI to clipboard

Economics Of Education Research Paper

Sample Economics Of Education Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. iResearchNet offers academic assignment help for students all over the world: writing from scratch, editing, proofreading, problem solving, from essays to dissertations, from humanities to STEM. We offer full confidentiality, safe payment, originality, and money-back guarantee. Secure your academic success with our risk-free services.

The economics of education is conceptually very broad. It could logically cover all aspects of the demand for schooling and of the impacts of schooling on subsequent outcomes. This discussion, however, concentrates on the more limited range of issues related to the organization, funding, and performance of schools.

Academic Writing, Editing, Proofreading, And Problem Solving Services

Get 10% off with 24start discount code.

Many facets of the broader ﬁeld overlap those of labor economics, public ﬁnance, and growth theory, and they can best be put into those contexts—leaving this discussion to the unique facets of schools. The economics of education also borrows from other disciplines such as sociology and psychology, but the underlying behavior perspective remains unique to economics.

The economics of education is naturally linked to the study of human capital. Human capital refers to the skills and productive capacity embodied in individuals. While implicitly part of economics for several centuries (Kiker 1968), this idea has recently developed into a central concept in both theoretical and empirical analyses with the foundational work of T. W. Shultz (1961), Gary Becker (1993 [1964]), and Jacob Mincer (1970, 1974). Nonetheless, while abstractly dealing with skills and capabilities of individuals, human capital—to be both predictive and testable—must be deﬁned in terms of more concrete measures. This requirement most often brings up schooling as a clear, measurable aspect of human capital that can proxy for major skill diﬀerences. While an expansive view could include all research topics that touch on schooling, it is useful to deﬁne the economics of education more narrowly in terms of unique aspects not covered in other subdisciplines: namely, the education sector itself. This discussion is also limited by available data and analyses. Due to a dearth of reliable outcome data from higher education as well as schools in other countries, the economics of education has concentrated its study largely on American K-12 schools. (The study of the economics of higher education, largely lacking student performance information, has directed most attention to issues of access and attendance and particularly of the inﬂuence of ﬁnancial aids and costs on these (see for example McPherson and Schapiro 1990 or Kane 1994). Because these analyses have such a diﬀerent perspective from those related to primary and secondary education, they are not included in this discussion.)

1. Outcomes

It is natural for economists to think in terms of a production model where certain factors and inﬂuences go in, and products of interest come out. This model, called the ‘production function’ or ‘input–output’ approach, is the model behind much of the analysis in the economics of education. The measurable inputs are things like school resources, teacher quality, and family attributes, and the outcome is student achievement. Let us focus on the outcome, ﬁrst, and then move on to inputs, where more controversy exists.

Historically, the most frequently employed measure of schooling has been attainment, or simply years of schooling completed. The United States leads the world in investing in schooling. By the mid-1970s, three-quarters of US students completed high school, culminating a long national investment period that started with just 6 percent graduating from high school at the turn of the century. Many developed and developing countries, however, have recently mimicked this trend, as illustrated in Table 1, which displays the increasing completion of secondary schooling for more recent age cohorts. By tracing schooling across diﬀerent age groups, the growth in attainment is readily seen. The value of school attainment as a rough measure of individual skill has been veriﬁed by a wide variety of studies of labor market outcomes. In the US, Mincer (1974) pioneered the approach that is now standard. Psacharopoulus (1985) has taken this analysis to the rest of the world. The estimation considers the relationship between earnings (viewed as a direct measure of individual productivity) and schooling and labor market experience.

However the diﬃculty with this common measure of outcomes is that it assumes a year of schooling produces the same amount of student achievement over time and in every country. This measure simply counts the time spent in schools without judging what happens in schools—thus, it does not provide a complete or accurate picture of outcomes. Today, more attention is focused on quality outcomes, and the most common measure is tests for cognitive skills. To the extent that the productive value of schooling largely involves the ability to make decisions under uncertainty and to adapt to new ideas and technologies (cf. Nelson and Phelps 1966, Welch 1970), cognitive skills appear to be a valid measure of human capital. This conclusion is supported by recent studies that show a direct correlation between test scores and earnings in the labor market.

While early studies of wage determination indicated relatively modest impacts of variations in cognitive ability after holding constant quantity of schooling, more recent direct investigations of cognitive achievement ﬁnd generally larger labor market returns to measured individual diﬀerences in cognitive achievement (e.g., Bishop 1989, 1991, O’Neill 1990, Grogger and Eide 1993, and Murnane et al. 1995). (A parallel line of research has employed school inputs to measure quality, but, while some controversy exists, this has not been as successful. Speciﬁcally, school input measures have not proved to be good predictors of wage or growth. The strategy faces the measurement problems discussed below and ignores the fact that families, peers, and individual ability also enter into the equation.) Similarly, society appears to gain in terms of productivity; Hanushek and Kimko (2000) demonstrate that quality diﬀerences in schools have a dramatic impact on productivity and national growth rates.

Attention to quality and cognitive skills also matches a growing policy interest. As countries have moved toward more universal access to schooling, they have turned to issues of quality of publicly provided schooling.

2. Production

Let us now look at the other side of the education equation—the inputs, or determinants, of student achievement. Because outcomes cannot be changed by ﬁat, much attention has been directed at inputs—particularly those perceived to be relevant for policy such as school resources or aspects of teachers.

(This is diﬀerentiated from the more common approach in educational research of ‘process-outcome’ studies where attention rests on the organization of the curriculum, the methods of presenting materials, the interactions of students, teachers and administrators, and the like. An entirely diﬀerent approach–true experimentation–has been much less frequently applied, particularly when investigating the eﬀects of expenditure diﬀerences. The best known is an experiment in class size reduction in the United States during the mid-1980s, Project STAR (Word et al. 1990).) ‘Analysis of the role of school resources in determining achievement begins with the ‘Coleman Report,’ the US government’s monumental study on educational opportunity released in 1966 (Coleman et al. 1966). The report was conducted in compliance with a mandate of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to investigate the extent of inequality in the nation’s schools. Although this was not the ﬁrst such eﬀort, it was much larger and much more inﬂuential than any previous (or subsequent) study.

The study’s greatest contribution was directing attention to the distribution of student performance—the outputs as opposed to the inputs. Instead of addressing questions of inequality by simply listing an inventory of diﬀerences of schools and teachers by race and region, it highlighted the relationship between inputs and outputs of schools.

Unfortunately most of the attention the report generated focused on the report’s conclusions rather than its innovative perspective. The controversial conclusion was that schools are not very important in determining student achievement; on the contrary, families and, to a lesser extent, peers are the primary determinants of performance variance. The ﬁndings immediately led to a large (but decentralized) research eﬀort to compile additional evidence about input– output relationships in schools (There were also extensive analyses of the report’s methodology and of the validity of its inferences. See, for example, Bowles and Levin (1968), Cain and Watts (1970), and Hanushek and Kain (1972).)

The underlying model that evolved as a result of this research is very straightforward. The output of the educational process, that is, the achievement of individual students, is directly related to a series of inputs. Some of these inputs—the characteristics of schools, teachers, curricula, and so forth—are directly controlled by policy makers. Other inputs—those of families and friends plus the innate endowments or learning capacities of the students—are generally not controlled. Further, while achievement may be measured at discrete points in time, the educational process is cumulative; inputs applied sometime in the past aﬀect students’ current levels of achievement.

The selected input measures have been fairly similar across studies. Family background is usually characterized by such sociodemographic characteristics as parental education, income, and family size. Peer inputs, when included, are typically totals of a student population’s sociodemographic characteristics for a school or classroom. School inputs include teacher background (education level, experience, sex, race, and so forth), school organization (class sizes, facilities, administrative expenditures, and so forth), and district or community factors (for example, average expenditure levels). Except for the original Coleman Report, most empirical work has relied on data constructed for other purposes, such as a school’s standard administrative records. (As discussed elsewhere (Hanushek 1979, 1986), a variety of empirical problems enter into the estimation and the subsequent interpretation of results. The most signiﬁcant general problems are the lack of measurement of innate abilities of individuals and the imprecise measurement of the history of educational inputs. Both the quality of the data and the estimation techniques are very important in interpreting speciﬁc ﬁndings, but, as discussed below, these ﬁndings have less impact on the aggregate ﬁndings illuminated here.) Based on this, statistical analysis (typically some form of regression analysis) is employed to infer what speciﬁcally determines achievement and what is the importance of the various inputs into student performance.

3. The Importance Of Measured School Inputs

The state of knowledge about the impacts of resources is best summarized by reviewing available empirical studies. Most analyses of education production functions have directed their attention at a relatively small set of resource measures, and this makes it easy to summarize the results (Hanushek 1997). Table 2 provides a tabulation of estimates of the impact of school inputs. The 90 individual publications that appeared before 1995 and that form the basis for this analysis contain 377 separate production function estimates. The table indicates the sign of the estimated impact of a given resource on student performance; positive estimates imply that more resources are associated with higher student outcomes and the opposite for negative estimates. Additionally, information is provided about statistical signiﬁcance, or our conﬁdence that there is a real eﬀect of the resources.

For classroom resources, only 9 percent of studies on teacher education and 14 percent of studies on teacher–pupil ratios found a positive and statistically signiﬁcant relationship between these factors and student performance. (This summary concentrates on the results. Details of the underlying analyses and the selection of studies for this tabulation are found in Hanushek (1986, 1997). The ﬁrst column provides a count of the total number of estimates addressing the impact of the given resource.) Moreover, these studies were oﬀset by another set of studies that found a similarly negative correlation between those inputs and student achievement. Twenty-nine percent of the studies found a positive correlation between teacher experience and student performance; however, 71 percent still provided no support for increasing teacher experience (being either negative or statistically insigniﬁcant).

Studies on the eﬀect of ﬁnancial resources provide a similar picture. There is very weak support for the notion that simply providing higher teacher salaries or greater overall spending will lead to improved student performance. Per pupil expenditure has received the most attention, but only 27 percent of studies showed a positive and signiﬁcant eﬀect. In fact, 7 percent even suggested that adding resources would harm student achievement. It is also important to note that studies involving pupil spending have tended to be the lowest quality studies, and thus there is substantial reason to believe that even the 27 percent ﬁgure overstates the true eﬀect of added expenditure.

4. Do Teachers And Schools Matter?

Because of the Coleman Report and subsequent studies discussed above, many have argued that schools do not matter, and that only families and peers aﬀect performance. Unfortunately, these interpretations have confused measurability with true eﬀects.

Extensive research since the mid-1960s has made it clear that teachers do indeed matter. The simple deﬁnition of teacher quality used here is an output measure based on student performance, instead of the more typical input measures based on characteristics of the teacher and school. High-quality teachers are ones who consistently obtain higher than expected gains in student performance, while low quality teachers are ones who consistently obtain lower than expected gains. When this approach has been used, large variations in performance have been uncovered.

In fact, the degree to which teacher diﬀerences aﬀect performance is impressive. Looking at the range of quality for teachers within a single large urban district, teachers near the top of the quality distribution can get an entire year’s worth of additional learning out of their students compared to those near the bottom (Hanushek 1992).

If teacher quality is central to the performance of schools, then research and policy quite naturally should focus on this. Unfortunately, it has been diﬃcult to link quality—measured by impacts on student achievement—to labor markets. While considerable work has been done to assess the gross ﬂows of individuals into teaching and how those are aﬀected by economic conditions, this does not provide a reliable link to quality. Murnane et al. (1991),

Hanushek and Pace (1995), and Ballou and Podgursky (1997) show how various characteristics of teachers including test scores and quality of college are related to labor market conditions and school choices in the United States. Similarly, Hanushek and Rivkin (1997) for the US and Dolton and van der Klaauw (1995) for the UK ﬁnd that teacher supply adjusts to salaries and labor markets. Nonetheless, these leave open the essential concern about any systematic impacts on school performance. Accurate assessment of teacher labor markets requires reliable quality measures along with information about hiring, retention, and mobility of teachers, and such data have not been available.

5. Study Quality

The previous discussions do not distinguish among studies on the basis of any quality diﬀerences, so the results could be distorted by not adjusting the tabulations. While ‘study quality’ has a variety of subjective components, the available estimates can be separated by a few objective components of quality. First, while education is cumulative, frequently only current input measures are available, which results in analytical errors. Second, schools operate within a policy environment set almost always at higher levels of government. In the United States, state governments establish curricula, provide sources of funding, govern labor laws, determine rules for the certiﬁcation and hiring of teachers, and the like. In other parts of the world, similar policy setting, frequently at the national level, aﬀects the operations of schools. If these attributes are important—as much policy debate would suggest—they must be incorporated into any analysis of performance, but little progress has been made in identifying or measuring the relevant aspects of policy. Each of these problems potentially leads to biases in the estimated eﬀects of educational inputs. The adequacy of dealing with these problems is a simple index of study quality.

The details of these quality issues and approaches for dealing with them are discussed in detail elsewhere (Hanushek 1997) and only summarized here. The ﬁrst problem is ameliorated if one uses the ‘value added’ vs. ‘level’ form in estimation. That is, if the achievement relationship holds at diﬀerent points in time, it is possible to concentrate on the growth in achievement and on exactly what happens educationally between those points when outcomes are measured. This approach largely eliminates prior inputs of schools and families, which will be incorporated in the initial achievement levels that are measured (Hanushek 1979). The latter problem of imprecise measurement of the policy environment can frequently be ameliorated by studying performance of schools operating within a consistent set of policies—e.g., within states in the US or similar decision making spheres elsewhere. Because all schools within a state operate within the same basic policy environment, comparisons of their performance are not strongly aﬀected by unmeasured policies (Hanushek and Rivkin 1997). If the available studies are divided by whether or not they deal with these major quality issues, the prior conclusions about research usage are unchanged (Hanushek 1997).

An additional issue, which is particularly important for policy purposes, concerns whether this analytical approach accurately assesses the causal relationship between resources and performance. If, for example, school decision makers provide more resources to those they judge as most needy, higher resources could simply signal students known for having lower achievement. In such a case, the statistical results might reﬂect the impact of achievement on resources, instead of the other way around. One way to deal with this is to take into account explicitly the resource allocation process. When done in the case of class sizes, the evidence has been mixed (cf. Angrist and Lavy 1999, Hoxby 2000, Rivkin et al. 2000). An alternative involves the use of random assignment experimentation rather than statistical analysis to break the inﬂuence of sample selection and other possible omitted factors. The beneﬁts of this approach are well demonstrated in other ﬁelds (e.g., medicine or agriculture). By randomizing who gets the treatment and comparing outcomes across treatment and control groups, it is less likely than is the case in standard statistical analyses that problems of model misspeciﬁcation or of selection into treatment situations will bias the estimates of program eﬀects. With one major exception, this approach nonetheless has not been applied to understand the impact of schools on student performance. The exception is Project STAR, an experimental reduction in class sizes that was conducted in the State of Tennessee in the mid-1980s (Word et al. 1990). To date, it has not had much impact on research or our state of knowledge. (While Project STAR has entered a number of policy debates, the results remain controversial (Krueger 1999, Hanushek 1999).)

6. Investigations Outside The United States

Researchers have conducted studies on student performance around the world, although with lower frequency. Because student performance data are much less readily available outside the US, most such studies have been special purpose studies that are frequently diﬃcult to generalize. Nonetheless, the results appear qualitatively very similar.

In less developed countries, there is a slightly stronger correlation between resources and achievement, but the overall picture remains the same (Hanushek 1995). This similarity is surprising, because one might expect more impact of resources in schools that begin with very low levels of resources.

For developed countries, the evidence is even scarcer and more diﬃcult to summarize. A review by Vignoles et al. (2000) points to a small number of studies outside the US and shows variation in results similar to that reported elsewhere. Nonetheless, the limited research makes any generalizations diﬃcult.

7. Eﬃciency

Eﬃciency involves the relationship between inputs and outputs in a production process. The underlying notion is that production is eﬃcient if given inputs produce the maximum output. The simplicity of this statement, however, obscures a variety of complexities that arise when the concept is actually applied.

Typically, economics does not devote much attention to the analysis of eﬃciency. If there are competitive markets, the behavior of producers and consumers tends to drive outcomes toward eﬃcient production. Because of this basic theorem, it is common simply to assume eﬃciency.

In education, however, eﬃciency is never a given. First, education is generally publicly provided. Governmental organizations, which do not face the same incentives as private ﬁrms, cannot be expected to move toward eﬃcient production. In particular, few school personnel are rewarded or punished based on the outcomes students obtain, making the incentives for performance minimal or nonexistent. Second, it is diﬃcult to ﬁnd information on school eﬃciency. With complete information, parents might be expected to pressure schools to use resources more eﬃciently— either through local political processes or through moving to districts that did better (Tiebout 1956). Because student performance is inﬂuenced by factors schools can’t control—i.e., input from family and friends—simply observing student achievement does not accurately reﬂect school contribution. Thus, parental and voter pressures on schools are lessened by imperfect information.

The underlying political economy of schools that can preserve such apparently large ineﬃciencies in resource use deserves considerably more research.

8. Competition And Incentives

The lack of direct incentives within schools has led to investigations of circumstances where incentive forces may be stronger. While there have been a wide variety of proposed changes (e.g., Hanushek et al. 1994), most have not been implemented or analyzed suﬃciently to draw any conclusions about their eﬃcacy.

The classic argument for competition comes from Friedman (1962) with his arguments for vouchers. The well-known arguments suggest that separating the ﬁnance of schooling from the production of schooling by allowing students to choose the school they attend would improve individual satisfaction with the outcomes. Within the United States, this approach has been vigorously debated, but few examples of implementation have occurred.

The most celebrated application has been Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where vouchers have been available to a (constrained) number of poor children since 1990 (Witte 1999). A number of privately ﬁnanced alternatives have also been oﬀered (Howell et al. 2000). Most of the attention to these voucher programs has centered on the student outcomes of students in them compared to public schools. (A variety of controversies have developed in these analyses. Perhaps the primary analytical issue is dealing with a selection of students and an appropriate comparison group. See, for example, the discussions in Witte (1999), Rouse (1998), and Greene et al. 1998).) Because these programs have been very marginal to the education system, there has been little suggestion that the public schools have made any adjustments in response. Thus, these choice experiences have not provided information about how public schools might react to a larger, more institutionalized program.

Private schools oﬀer one possibility for better understanding the eﬀects of competition. They must compete with the public schools in order to attract clients, and thus they are subject to stronger pressures to provide high levels of performance. The literature on Catholic school performance is summarized in Neal (1998) and Grogger and Neal (2000). The evidence has generally indicated that Catholic schools on average outperform public. This superiority seems clearest in urban settings, where disadvantaged students face fewer options than others. This evidence is, nonetheless, subject to some caveats. First, as recognized since some of the earliest work on the topic (Coleman et al. 1982), it is diﬃcult to separate performance of the private schools from pure selection phenomena. Speciﬁcally, since private school students could have attended public schools but instead pay extra for private schooling, they are clearly diﬀerent than the public school students with identical measured characteristics. A variety of alternative approaches have been taken to deal with the selection problem, and a rough summary of the results after those eﬀorts is that there remains a small advantage from attending Catholic schools. (Grogger and Neal (2000) suggest, however, that there is no advantage to attending private elite schools—a surprising result given the extra cost usually involved in that. These results are possibly due to selection problems, but it not a simple relationship because most people would expect positive selection into these elite schools.) Second, this literature says little about the distribution of school quality within the Catholic sector. Within the public sector, it is widely believed that school quality varies considerably across schools, and one might suspect that the same holds true for private schools.

A related issue is the reactions of public schools to the private sector. Hoxby (1994) demonstrates that public schools in areas that have larger concentrations of Catholic schools perform better than those facing less private competition. This analysis provides the ﬁrst consistent evidence suggesting that public schools react to outside competition.

Perhaps the most important potential element competition comes from other public school jurisdictions. Speciﬁcally, households can choose the speciﬁc jurisdiction and school district, a la Tiebout (1956), by their choice of residential location. While adjustment is costly, these choices permit individuals to seek high-quality schools if they wish. Residential location decisions are of course complicated, involving job locations, availability of various kinds of housing, school costs and quality, and availability of other governmental services. Given choice opportunities plus voting responses, this model suggests pressure on schools to use resources eﬀectively. Otherwise one might expect housing values to be aﬀected.

The simple choice model would suggest naturally that larger numbers of schools or school districts per student would oﬀer more opportunities for residents and thus more competition across schools. This simple model motivates the empirical analyses of Borland and Howsen (1992) and its extension and reﬁnement in Hoxby (2000) and in Hanushek and Rivkin (forthcoming). The simple inclusion of measures of concentration indicates that areas with less choice have poorer schools on average (Borland and Howsen 1992). Hoxby (2000) pursues alternative strategies to look at the causal impact of concentrations and ﬁnds a larger estimated impact of competition on the performance of schools. Similarly, Hanushek and Rivkin (forthcoming) ﬁnd competitive impacts on performance of urban schools and that these are particularly important for low income students who have fewer mobility options.

9. Finance Of Schools

Public ﬁnance economists have devoted considerable energy to the study of the ﬁnance of schools, largely from the viewpoint of traditional tax and expenditure policy. The educational policy component of this involves equity in the provision of education. These considerations are largely motivated by the many studies that show wide disparities in achievement by race and socioeconomic background (e.g., Coleman et al. 1966, Hanushek 2001). Nonetheless, the typical discussion of equity concentrates primarily on spending disparities across schools and districts.

Indeed, one of the most signiﬁcant policy issues since the early 1970s in the United States has been the appropriate way for states to fund local schools. While most states have employed a compensatory aid formula to ameliorate some local governments’ diﬃculty in raising taxes, these measures have only partially solved the problem. The issue became the subject of court action in the 1960s, with the case of Serrano s. Priest in California. Suits in many other states followed. As a result, some signiﬁcant narrowing of spending variations occurred (Murray et al. 1998).

However there has been surprisingly little analysis of the impacts of these suits. This is important to undertake, because the prior research discussed above does not show a clear link between increased funding and school quality or student performance. From the perspective of educational outcomes, then, the value of spending changes related to equalization court cases and the related legislative actions remains an open question (Hanushek 1991). To date, little research has focused on the achievement impacts of school ﬁnance policies. The one analysis of the impact of the Serrano case found no lessening of variation in student outcomes after spending was equalized across districts (Downes 1992). A broader, nationwide analysis of district spending on earnings outcomes also found no beneﬁcial relationship between the two, except perhaps for black females (Hanushek and Somers 2001).

10. Some Conclusions And Implications

The existing research suggests ineﬃciency in the provision of schooling. It does not indicate that schools do not matter. Nor does it indicate that money and resources never impact achievement. The accumulated research simply says there is no clear, systematic relationship between resources and student outcomes. The persistence of this raises important questions about current education policy, as well as a real need for further research.

The main conclusion of this research is that policy decisions should not focus on school resources, because the impact of resources on student achievement is unknown at this time. The policy solution seems to be to establish incentives—rewards or consequences related to student outcomes—and then to permit local schools to develop their own game plans for meeting these goals. While a wide variety of incentives have been proposed—such as vouchers, merit pay, or contracting out—most have not been implemented or analyzed suﬃciently to determine their eﬃcacy.

A ﬁnal major issue raised by these analyses is their implication for other kinds of studies (Hanushek 1996). Most studies involving human capital are interested in its eﬀect on other aspects of behavior. For these studies schooling is largely tangential to other interests, and researchers are typically simply looking for an easy and readily available measure of school quality. The most common has been spending per pupil. However, the ineﬃcient production of human capital introduces natural measurement problems. Direct spending is no longer a good measure of quality because it has no perceivable bearing on performance. Second, it is well known that families have considerable inﬂuence on student achievement, implying that school resources are only part of the equation. Both factors suggest that studies which measure student achievement just through resource investment have a high potential for distortion.

Bibliography:

Angrist J D, Lavy V 1999 Using Maimondides’ rule to estimate the eﬀect of class size on scholastic achievement. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114: 533–75
Ballou D, Podgursky M 1997 Teacher Pay and Teacher Quality. W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, Kalamazoo, MI
Becker G 1993 Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education, 3rd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Bishop J H 1989 Is the test score decline responsible for the productivity growth decline? American Economic Review 79: 178–97
Bishop J 1991 Achievement, test scores, and relative wages. In: Kosters M H (ed.) Workers and their Wages. The AEI Press, Washington, DC, pp. 146–86
Borland M V, Howsen R M 1992 Student academic achievement and the degree of market concentration in education. Economics of Education Review 11: 31–9
Bowles S, Levin H M 1968 The determinants of scholastic achievement–an appraisal of some recent evidence. Journal of Human Resources 3: 3–24
Cain G G, Watts H W 1970 Problems in making policy inferences from the Coleman Report. American Sociological Review 35: 328–52
Coleman J S, Campbell E Q, Hobson C J, McPartland J, Mood A M, Weinfeld F D, York R L 1966 Equality of Educational Opportunity. US Department of Health, US Government Printing Oﬃce, Washington, DC
Coleman J S, Hoﬀer T, Kilgore S 1982 High School Achievement: Public, Catholic and Private Schools Compared. Basic Books, New York
Dolton P, van der Klaauw W 1995 Leaving teaching in the UK: A duration analysis. The Economic Journal 105: 431–44
Downes T A 1992 Evaluating the impact of school ﬁnance reform on the provision of public education: The California case. National Tax Journal 45: 405–19
Friedman M 1962 Capitalism and Freedom. University of Chicago, Chicago
Greene J P, Peterson P E, Du J 1998 School choice in Milwaukee: A randomized experiment. In: Peterson P E, Hassel B C (eds.) Learning from School Choice. Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, pp. 335–56
Grogger J T, Eide E 1995 Changes in college skills and the rise in the college wage premium. Journal of Human Resources 30: 280–310
Grogger J T, Neal D 2000 Further evidence on the eﬀects of Catholic secondary schooling. In: Gale W G, Rothenberg Pack J (eds.) Brookings–Wharton Papers on Urban Aﬀairs, 2000. Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC, pp. 151–93
Hanushek E A 1979 Conceptual and empirical issues in the estimation of educational production functions. Journal of Human Resources 14: 351–88
Hanushek E A 1986 The economics of schooling: Production and eﬃciency in public schools. Journal of Economic Literature 24: 1141–77
Hanushek E A 1991 When school ﬁnance ‘reform’ may not be good policy. Harvard Journal on Legislation 28(Summer): 423–56
Hanushek E A 1992 The trade-oﬀ between child quantity and quality. Journal of Political Economy 100: 84–117
Hanushek E A 1995 Interpreting recent research on schooling in developing countries. World Bank Research Observer 10: 227–46
Hanushek E A 1996 Measuring investment in education. Journal of Economic Perspectives 10(Fall): 9–30
Hanushek E A 1997 Assessing the eﬀects of school resources on student performance: An update. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 19: 141–64
Hanushek E A 1999 Some ﬁndings from an independent investigation of the Tennessee STAR experiment and from other investigations of class size eﬀ Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 21: 143–63
Hanushek E A 2001 Black–white achievement diﬀerences and governmental interventions. American Economic Review 91: 24–8
Hanushek E A, Kain J F 1972 On the value of ‘equality of educational opportunity’ as a guide to public policy. In: Mosteller F, Moynihan D P (eds.) On Equality of Educational Opportunity. Random House, New York, pp. 116–45
Hanushek E A, Kimko D D 2000 Schooling, labor force quality, and the growth of nations. American Economic Review 90: 1184–208
Hanushek E A, Pace R R 1995 Who chooses to teach (and why)? Economics of Education Review 14: 101–17
Hanushek E A, Rivkin G forthcoming Does public school competition aﬀect teacher quality? In: Hoxby C M (ed.) The Economics of School Choice. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Hanushek E A, Rivkin S G 1997 Understanding the twentieth-century growth in U.S. school spending. Journal of Human Resources 32: 35–68
Hanushek E A, Somers J A 2001 Schooling, inequality, and the impact of government. In: Welch F (ed.) The Causes and Consequences of Increasing Inequality. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Hanushek E A et al. 1994 Making Schools Work: Improving Performance and Controlling Costs. Brookings Institution, Washington, DC
Howell W G, Wolf P J, Peterson P E, Campbell D E 2000 Testscore eﬀects of school vouchers in Dayton, Ohio, New York
City, and Washington, DC. Evidence from randomized ﬁeld trials. In: Paper Prepared for the Annual Meetings of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC
Hoxby C M 1994 Do private schools provide competition for public schools? National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper no. 4978
Hoxby C M 2000 The eﬀects of class size on student achievement: New evidence from population variation. Quarterly Journal of Economics 115: 1239–85
Kane T 1994 College entry by blacks since 1970: The role of college costs, family background, and the returns to education. Journal of Political Economy 102: 878–911
Kiker B F 1968 Human Capital: In Retrospect. University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC
Krueger A B 1999 Experimental estimates of education production functions. Quarterly Journal of Economics 114: 497–532
McPherson M S, Schapiro M O 1990 Keeping college aﬀordable: Government’s role in promoting educational opportunity. August
Mincer J 1970 The distribution of labor incomes: A survey with special reference to the human capital approach. Journal of Economic Literature 8: 1–26
Mincer J 1974 Schooling Experience and Earnings. NBER, New York
Murnane R J, Singer J D, Willett J B, Kemple J J, Olsen R J 1991 Who Will Teach? Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA
Murnane R J, Willett J B, Levy F 1995 The growing importance of cognitive skills in wage determination. Review of Economics and Statistics 77: 251–66
Murray S E, Evans W N, Schwab R M 1998 Education-ﬁnance reform and the distribution of education resources. American Economic Review 88: 789–812
Neal D 1998 What have we learned about the beneﬁts of private schooling? FRBNY Economic Policy Review 4(March): 79–86
Nelson R R, Phelps E 1966 Investment in humans, technology diﬀusion and economic growth. American Economic Review 56: 69–75
O’Neill J 1990 The role of human capital in earnings diﬀerences between black and white men. Journal of Economic Perspectives 4(Fall): 25–46
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 1996 Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators. OECD, Paris
Psacharopoulos G 1985 Returns to education: A further international update and implications. Journal of Human Resources 20: 583–604
Rivkin S G, Hanushek E A, Kain J F 2000 Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 6691 (revised)
Rouse C E 1998 Private school vouchers and student achievement: An evaluation of the Milwaukee Parental Choice Program. Quarterly Journal of Economics 113: 553–602
Schultz T W 1961 Investment in human capital. American Economic Review 51: 1–17
Tiebout C M 1956 A pure theory of local expenditures. Journal of Political Economy 64: 416–24
Vignoles A, Levacic R, Walker J, Machin S, Reynolds D 2000 The relationship between resource allocation and pupil attainment: A review. Research report No. 228, Department for Education and Employment, UK
Welch F 1970 Education in production. Journal of Political Economy 78: 35–59
Witte J F Jr 2000 The Market Approach to Education. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
Word E, Johnston J, Bain H P, DeWayne Fulton B, Boyd Zaharies J, Nannette Lintz M, Achilles C M, Folger J, Breda C 1990 Student Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR), Tennessee’s K-3 Class Size Study: Final Summary Report, 1985–1990. Tennessee State Department of Education, Nashville, TN

ORDER HIGH QUALITY CUSTOM PAPER

National Bureau of Economic Research

Latest from the nber, a research summary from the monthly nber digest.

Childcare Subsidies and Parental Earnings

In the decade after their first child’s birth, Canadian mothers’ earnings decline by 25 percent relative to the earnings of fathers, Sencer Karademir , Jean-William P. Laliberté , and Stefan Staubli estimate. The unequal distribution of childcare responsibilities is a likely contributor to this gap, with 38 percent of women aged 24–35 providing over 30 hours of unpaid childcare per week compared to 11 percent of men.

In The Multigenerational Impact of Children and Childcare Policies (NBER Working Paper 32204), the researchers examine how formal childcare subsidies affect the labor market effects of childbirth. Using data from the Intergenerational Income Database, they consider new parents who were born between

From the NBER Bulletin on Entrepreneurship

Immigration Policy and Entrepreneurs’ Choice of Startup Location

Immigrants play a significant role in the entrepreneurial landscape. In the United States, immigrants are 80 percent more likely to start businesses than native-born Americans. More than half of America's billion-dollar startup companies trace their roots to immigrant founders. There is limited research, however, on the factors that influence immigrants' decisions about where to locate their startup businesses.

From the NBER Reporter: Research, program, and conference summaries

Program Report: International Finance and Macroeconomics

Affiliates of the International Finance and Macroeconomics (IFM) Program study financial interactions among nations, including cross-border capital flows, exchange rates, responses to global financial crises, and the transmission of economic shocks. Rather than attempting to summarize the more than 1,000 working papers these researchers have distributed since the last program report in 2015, we focus here on three issues that have attracted substantial research attention from this group: impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, global supply chain shocks, and the privileged position of the US dollar in global asset...

From the NBER Bulletin on Health

C-section Rates and Birth Outcomes

Cesarean section (C-section) is the most common surgical procedure performed in the United States. Sarah Robinson , Heather Royer , and David Silver report that C-section rates for first-time, singleton births increased from 24 percent to 32 percent between 1989 and 2017 alongside significant changes in medical practices during this period. In 2001, for example, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists began recommending C-sections for breech births. The rising rate of C-sections has sparked a debate about whether this procedure is being overused.

In Geographic Variation in Cesarean Sections in the United States: Trends, Correlates, and Other Interesting Facts (NBER Working Paper 31871), the researchers study how cross-county differences in C-section usage correlate with infant and maternal...

From the NBER Bulletin on Retirement and Disability

Social Security and Retirement around the World

Over the past 25 years, labor force participation at older ages has increased dramatically. In the 12 countries that are part of the NBER’s International Social Security (ISS) project, participation among those aged 60 to 64 has risen by an average of over 20 percentage points for men and over 25 percentage points for women.

Featured Working Papers

Cultural individualism accounts for about one-third of cross-country variation in work from home (WFH) rates. Countries with high individualism levels have high WFH rates, Pablo Zarate , Mathias Dolls , Steven J. Davis , Nicholas Bloom , Jose Maria Barrero , and Cevat Giray Aksoy find.

A study by Adam Kapor of Texas’ Top Ten Percent Plan finds that increased clarity of the admissions threshold at selective institutions had a significant impact on the likelihood of top-decile applying to flagship institutions. The students who enrolled as a result of this plan were more likely to come from low-income high schools and to academically outperform the students whom they displaced.

Oliver Binz , John Graham , and Matthew Kubic document a strong positive relation between the impact of earnings announcements on a company’s stock price and the level of inflation. The impact of inflation is greater for firms that are more sensitive to discount rate changes.

Using data from an Arizona State University-Uber partnership that allows eligible drivers to enroll in online college courses without charge, Esteban M. Aucejo , A. Spencer Perry , and Basit Zafar find little trade-off between total time spent working and time spent learning, suggesting that flexible hours can help students balance the two.

Reduction in federal authority over education policy following the Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015 led to a retreat from the use of output-based assessments of teachers, which was associated with significantly lower student achievement growth, research by Eric A. Hanushek , Patricia Saenz-Armstrong , and Alejandra Salazar shows.

In the News

Recent citations of NBER research in the media _______________________________________

Research Projects

Conferences, books & chapters.

Through a partnership with the University of Chicago Press, the NBER publishes the proceedings of four annual conferences as well as other research studies associated with NBER-based research projects.

Research Spotlights

NBER researchers discuss their work on subjects of wide interest to economists, policymakers, and the general public. Recordings of more-detailed presentations, keynote addresses, and panel discussions at NBER conferences are available on the Lectures page.

IMAGES

(PDF) The Economics of Education as Educational Science
economics-of-education-research-paper-f1
An Introduction to the economics of education
(PDF) PEDAGOGY IN HIGHER EDUCATION
(PDF) Economics of education research: a review and future prospects
(PDF) Writing Tips For Economics Research Papers

VIDEO

How Technology Has Affected Education?
Haley Wierbicki Rutgers Health Education Research Paper
Comprehensive Exploration of the Archimedean Property: Insights & Proofs for UG Mathematics Students
Mathematical Economics I
Eye on Education: Market impact on college savings
PhD Topics in Economics

COMMENTS

Economics of Education Review
About the journal. Economics of Education Review publishes research on education policy and finance, human capital production and acquisition, and the returns to human capital. We accept empirical, methodological and theoretical contributions, but the main focus of Economics of Education Review is on applied studies …. View full aims & scope.
Economics of education research: a review and future prospects
View PDF. In this paper we offer an appraisal of the economics of education research area, charting its history as a field and discussing the ways in which economists have contributed both to education research and to education policy‐making. In particular, we highlight the theoretical and methodological contributions that economists have ...
Education Economics
Education Economics provides peer-reviewed research across all areas of the economics of education. We seek content of international and interdisciplinary appeal. While a natural outlet for material of a technical nature, we encourage applied work with clear policy implications. Journal readership includes academics in economics, education, and ...
Economics of education research: A review and future prospects
Abstract. In this paper we offer an appraisal of the economics of education research area, charting its history as a field and discussing the ways in which economists have contributed both to ...
PDF Education, Economics of
much of the analysis in the economics of education. The measurable inputs are things like school resources, teacher quality, classroom peers, and family attributes, and the outcome is student achievement. Let us focus on the outcome, rst, and then move on to inputs, where more controversy has fi historically existed.
Program Report: Economics of Education, 2019
The NBER Health Economics Program has historically studied the determinants and consequences of differences in health outcomes, with a focus on education, health insurance coverage, obesity, and risky behaviors such as smoking and drinking. Since the last program report, in 2015, the program has …. 12/31/2022.
Economics of Education
Caroline M. Hoxby is the Scott and Donya Bommer Professor of Economics at Stanford University and a Senior Fellow of the Hoover Institution and the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research. Her research spans the field of education economics, including K-12 as well as college. She has been an NBER affiliate since 1994.
The Economics of Education and Education Policy
This virtual issue showcases 12 papers published in The Economic Journal, focusing on the economics of education and education policy. In addition to long-standing issues such as school choice, tracking and teacher effectiveness, this issue highlights recent research on complex education policy problems such as intergenerational mobility and ...
Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 5
Papers on education now frequently appear in the profession's leading academic journals. The numbers in the following table make clear this publication trend. It shows decade by decade numbers, starting in the 1950s and going up to the first decade of the millennium, for a word-search-based measure of the number of economics of education ...
Economics of Education
A two-volume compilation of research in the economics of education from leading scholars in the field. Provides comprehensive coverage of key topic areas in the economics of education and includes extensive reference lists at the end of each article. Johnes, Geraint, and Jill Johnes, eds. 2004. International handbook on the economics of ...
PDF Economics of Education Review
part of the paper is consideration of the derived demand for teachers that comes from their impact on economic outcomes. 2 Note that the recently graduated group entering teaching also includes a number of people who graduate with degrees other than in education, making the excess supply of education graduates even larger.
Education Economics
Education, Economics of. Eric A. Hanushek, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015 Abstract. The explosion of research work on the economics of education has covered a wide range of issues. A key element of modern analyses is a focus on the outcomes of schooling and how various factors affect outcomes.
PDF The latest research trends in the field of economics of education
International Journal of Educational Research 0.737 19. Education Economics 0.539 20. Citizenship, Social and Economics Education 0.333 21. Economies 0.324 22. ... A very topical issue in several research papers appears to be gender gaps, both in the context of COVID-19 and as an ongoing, still fully unaddressed issue. The topic varies in ...
in the Making of Education Policy*
Policy points. • The economics of education has become a resurgent and growing field. in recent years. • The renewed research effort reflects a number of complementary factors. • A consequence of the significantly larger body of research has been a. greater involvement by economists in education policy.
PDF Behavioral Economics of Education: Progress and Possibilities
investment model and how behavioural economics might explain these deviations. This paper synthesizes the recent and growing literature on the behavioral economics of education and, in doing so, encourages others to recognize opportunities for further research.
Economics of education research: a review and future prospects
In this paper we offer an appraisal of the economics of education research area, charting its history as a field and discussing the ways in which economists have contributed both to education research and to education policy‐making. In particular, we highlight the theoretical and methodological contributions that economists have made to the field of education during the last 50 years.
The new economics of education: methods, evidence and policy
In this paper (my keynote talk from the 2006 ESPE conference), I discuss the recent upsurge in research on the economics of education that has occurred, especially in Europe. I discuss the reasons for the increased interest and present some examples from my recent research in the area. The paper concludes that the increased research interest seems likely to be sustained for some time to come.
(PDF) Economics of Education
PDF | On Jan 1, 2021, Rimmi Datta and others published Economics of Education | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Essays in the Economics of Education
Essays in the Economics of Education. Education is at the center of upskilling human capital in developing countries, thereby positively influencing economic growth and development. For decades, many education policies targeted at developing countries have been narrowly focused on improving access to basic education (Barrett et al., 2015).
PDF Education and Economic Growth
Conclusions. Economic growth determines the future economic well-being of a country, making understanding the determinants of growth a high-priority area of economic research. The analysis of how education affects growth makes a strong case that the skills of the population are by far the most important factor.
Economics Of Education Research Paper
Sample Economics Of Education Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. iResearchNet offers academic assignment help for students all over the world: writing from scratch, editing, proofreading, problem solving, from essays to dissertations, from humanities to STEM. We offer full confidentiality, safe payment ...
Terrorism and education: Evidence from instrumental variables
The Journal of Applied Econometrics is a statistical and mathematical economics journal for the application of econometric techniques to economic problems. Summary This paper estimates the effect of exposure to terrorist violence on education. Since terrorists may choose targets endogenously, we construct a set of novel instruments. ...
National Bureau of Economic Research
The current analysis builds on previous project phases which showed that changes in health and education could…. Founded in 1920, the NBER is a private, non-profit, non-partisan organization dedicated to conducting economic research and to disseminating research findings among academics, public policy makers, and business professionals.
2024 AP Exam Dates
2024 AP Exam Dates. The 2024 AP Exams will be administered in schools over two weeks in May: May 6-10 and May 13-17. AP coordinators are responsible for notifying students when and where to report for the exams. Early testing or testing at times other than those published by College Board is not permitted under any circumstances.