archaeology research paper topics

121 Archaeology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best archaeology topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on archaeology, 🎓 good research topics about archaeology, ⭐ simple & easy archaeology essay titles, ❓ archaeology research questions.

• Archeology: The Bull-Headed Harp and Sound Box In total, four scenes are depicted in the sound box, and scholars think that they are depicting a party in the spirit world, or the land of the dead. Also, the depictions of the men […]
• Umm Al-Nar: Geoarchaeology and Cultural Heritage This report aims at revealing the essentials of the Umm al-Nar site along with its significance in the framework of cultural heritage and tourism to understand the role of this geoarchaeological complex in nowadays national […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• History and Theory of Archaeology: Museum Field Trip One can argue that the principles of archeological theory manifest themselves in the collections that are showcased in the museum. This is one of the details that can be identified.
• Pompeii: A Popular Archaeological Site In light of this brief background, the discovery of Pompeii as an archaeological site was thus a rediscovery of the ancient town of Pompeii.
• Fieldwalking in Archaeology: A Method of Archaeological Research The second technique, which is grid walking, is where the survey area is divided into squares, and the field walkers use the fixed amount of time to work on each square collecting all the materials […]
• Teotihuacan: The Importance of the Site to the Archaeologists The big population made the site one of the largest cities of the world during the 1st millennium of the AD era.
• Archaeological Thematics of Sites The aim of this paper is to examine the methods for analysis and interpretation of archaeological sites, artifacts, ecofacts, and features.
• Mohenjo-Daro: Historical Analysis of Archaeological Site In short, Mohenjo-Daro’s sophisticated urban planning system is a testament to the advanced level of urban planning, governance, and administration of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• The Jamestown Ruins as an Archaeological Site As they talked, they were surrounded by evidence of the first permanent British colony in America, up to the partial reconstruction of the remains of the first church building built on the site where Pocahontas […]
• Jamestown as an Archaeological Site The Jamestown rediscovery project began in 1994, intending to uncover the original site of the James Fort, presumed to have been lost due to the river’s erosion.
• The Early History of the Israelites: What Archeology Confirms The rationale is that this is the period that covers their emergence and the final settlement of the land of Israel after being freed from servitude in Egypt.
• Assessment of Historical Archaeology Collections Due to the significance of the materials, academic research has collaborated with salvage excavation which has led to the continuous creation of many collections and the elements that can boost conserving the archaeological materials Archaeologists […]
• The Archaeology Grants: Justification for Congress In addition, the government of the United States is urged to increase the funding of policies that promote a higher standard of living in the country.
• Historical Archaeology & Misrepresentation of Past In its general sense, historical archaeology implies the review of artifacts and written records through the prism of a broader social and political context.
• Carrying Out a Personal Study of Garbology In the study, I scrutinized myself in terms of eating habits and compared this information with the one that I had gathered from my garbage. Most importantly, the data that I gathered in this study […]
• Roman Archaeology and Architecture From Augustus to Nero Among several architecture achievements, it is necessary to single out the construction of the Forum Augustum and the evolution of the citizens’ dwellings. The Temple of Mars Ultor reflected the martial character of the Roman […]
• Dendrochronology and Tree-Ring Studies in Archaeology The majority of general factors that avoid the use of dendrochronological dating include: An insufficient quantity of rings, the existence of a group inappropriate for dating through dendrochronology, the lack of convincing indication of chronologies […]
• Archaeological Theory Today The internal reasons dealt on the development of archaeological theory which emphasizes the New Archaeology on a critical approach to method and theory.
• Fulacht Fiadh – Exploring the Archeological Cites in the United Kingdom First, it is argued that in the overwhelming majority of cases, Fulacht fiadh can be found in Ireland, though archeological findings indicate that similar constructions exist not only in Ireland but also in other parts […]
• Ethical Aspects of Archaeology The caretakers of the archaeological records should harness their profession for the gain of all populace; this in practice occurs when they investigate and construe the records. The next ethical issue in this order is […]
• Archaeology: The Nan Madol and the Lapaha of Tonga as the Wonders of the World Some of these architectural structures that some people consider as mystical and mysterious are the pyramids of Egypt, the Sphinx, The Aztec pyramids, The Leaning Tower of Pisa, the Great Wall of China, the Hanging […]
• Narmer Palette, an Egyptian Archeological Find The evidence shows that it was created in the era of the unification of Egypt and possibly tells about the victory of Upper Egypt over the Lower.
• The Expression of “Hong Kong Obsession” in Xi Xi’s “Marvels of a Floating City” and Dung Kai Cheung’s “The Atlas: Archeology of an Imaginary City” 1 However, irrespective of the choice of the level of imagery, both authors employ it, which gives their stories a peculiar character and arouses mixed feelings on the part of the reader.
• Events in Archaeology: Buried Cities and Lost Tribes The article “2,000 year old nails may be tied to the crucifixion” by the Associated Foreign Press details how two Roman nails found in the burial cave of a Jewish high priest, supposedly the very […]
• Archaeological Study of Roman Life and Behavior Although this discovery may lack the size and drama of the Muse Cycle that has been discovered at the Hospitium de Sulpicii or the visual beauty of the fresco that once covered the back wall […]
• Radiocarbon Dating as an Archaeological Tool It will also describe the use of accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon dating for establishing the age of beeswax figures and charcoal paintings in the Kimberley region of Western Australia.
• Archaeological Evidence Perceptions: Early Civilizations Finally, sites are the last category of excavated evidence and refer to complete sets of all the above-mentioned archaeological objects, the analysis of which defines the nature of a place and the quality of life […]
• Pueblo Culture and Archeology in National Parks People enter the condition of trance and are able to access great resources of their own body, as well as the power of the Great Force.
• Virtual Archaeological Site’s Possibilities Therefore, archaeologists are likely to understand the major purpose of the area but will fail to reconstruct the full picture and understand the space, people, and epoch correctly.
• The Tel Burna Archeological Excavation Project The purpose of this paper is to discuss the importance of the Tel Burna site, the methodology employed by the archeologists, and the contributions made by the project.
• Archaeological Sites in Oregon At the same time, many shallow bodies of freshwater which could support weed growth eventually turned into marches, which altered the vegetation of the region and the dietary habits of the tribes in the area.
• Feminist Archaeologists’ Interpretations of the Past Feminist archeology examines the roles and activities of women in the past societies. They strive to understand the roles that women and men played in the past societies.
• Alpine Archaeology Study Evaluation The study has also revealed the shift in lifestyle of the inhabitants of the French Alps from hunting and gathering of food to mechanised agriculture.
• Crusades in Geoarchaeology and Artifact Analysis In the case of the Crusades, the type of information that can be discovered is the probable dates of the Crusades, the type of people involved, and the rationale for the happening.
• Archeology: Scientific Approach vs. Mysticism Despite the vast number of such kind of writings, the scientific approach that is commonly implemented in archeology proves that there is no room for mystery in the history of humankind, showing the importance of […]
• Ceramics Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis On the other hand, archaeologists use the chemical constituents of a ceramic to identify the origin of the ingredients used in its manufacture.
• The Neolithic Period: Areas of Archaeological Discoveries The archaeological team examined the site and discovered many similarities between the famous Stonehenge and Woodhenge the entrances of the wooden circle are aligned in the way that would allow the sun rays to enter […]
• The Neolithic Period Archaeological Sites Discovering The site is situated in Gloucestershire, and the settlement dates back to ca. The site is also remarkable as it sheds light on one of the most questionable religious practices in the history of humanity.
• Forbidden Archeology Against Mainstream Evolution Theories Most of the views about forbidden archeology are contained in a 1993 book titled “Forbidden Archeology: The Hidden History of the Human Race”.
• Archeological Discovery: African Frankenstein The scientists were determined to find out the origins of the creature and to solve the secret of the grave. The scientists associated all of these objects with the remnants of the mummy and came […]
• Archeology: The Enigma of Queen Hatshepsut Queen Hatshepsut’s remains have not been found completely, and there is much evidence to discuss the role of Thutmose III in the female pharaoh’s disappearance.
• Archaeology of Ancient People This was followed by the discovery of Australopithecus africanus that dated between 3 million and 4 million years ago. The next fossils discovered were of Australopithecus robustus that dated between 2 million and 3 million […]
• Gesher Benot Ya’akov Archeological Site The sediment layers at the site indicate that the occupants had used fire for thousands of years considering the burnt flints found in lower parts of the pollen diagram.
• Comparison of Two Archaeological Papers on the Extinction of Animals Due to the Activities of Human Societies. In this study, the varying trends on the abundance of certain species were used to describe changes observed in the hunting practices and the animal species that were hunted.
• Human Evolution and Archaeology Therefore, natural selection can lead to the extinct of a specific population or individual. In brief, natural selection, mutation, gene flow and genetic drift are evolution forces, which determine the viability or continuation of a […]
• Examining an Archeological Site: The Pyramids of Egypt Another Issue in relation to the construction of the pyramids is with regard to how the huge blocks of stones used for the pyramid construction were transported from the quarries up to the site of […]
• Ice Mummies: The Siberian Ice Maiden’s Discovery Reveals Much About Archeology The characteristics and location of the long-dead young woman may suggest just how complex the diffusion of culture and the movement of peoples in ancient times must have been.
• Archaeological Site Report From the Ancient Near East: Carchemish The excavation of the site was done and documented on behalf of the British museum and most of the material is derived from the report by Hogarth commissioned by the museum.
• Cultural Innovations: An Archaeological Examination of Prehistoric Economics, Agriculture and Family Life The type of structures made were and still are determined by the availability of building materials, the level of development of building tools, the climatic conditions, and the economic resources available to the builder.
• Jamestown Rediscovery Artifacts: What Archeology Can Tell Us An analysis of just three of them an iron cooking pot leg, a horse bridle bit, and the so-called JR102C can provide some significant insights into the lifestyle, the social structure, and even the political […]
• Chichen Itza Archeologic Site The archeological site is located in Yucatan Peninsula and presents one of the most famous archeological sites in Mexico, “Chichen Itza has been considered one of the most important sites in the north portion of […]
• Archaeology: Applying Typological Concepts to a World You Know Well
• Cultural Influences, Archaeology, and City Morphology of Classical Athens
• Archaeology and Mortuary Practices: The Ancient Human Remains
• Classical Athens: City Morphology, Archaeology, and Cultural Influences
• Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls
• Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology
• Archaeology: Processual and Post Processual
• World Systems Theory in Archaeology
• Archaeology and the Polis of Ancient Greece
• Interpreting Archaeology and Historical Texts
• Archaeology, Cultural Heritage and Modern Greek Identity
• Connection Between Nationalism and Archaeology
• Archaeology: Jordan and Petra Great Temple
• Early Farmers: The View From Archaeology and Science
• Archaeology: Imperialism, Colonialism, and Nationalism
• Creating Heritage: Vikings, Jorvik, and Public Interest Archaeology
• Artifacts of History: Archaeology, Historiography and Indian Pasts
• Relationship Between Archaeology and History
• Archaeology Value and Weaknesses
• Who Owns the Past: The Ethical Problems and Issues Faced by Archaeology in Terms of Questions
• Archaeology, Traditional Cultures, and Oral History
• Experimental Archaeology and Its Forms
• Archaeology: The History and Early Human
• Scientific Methods for Accurate Dating in Archaeology
• Archaeology, Authenticity, and Aesthetics of Douris’s Dionysiac Scenes “Dancing Satyrs and Maenads” Cup
• Archaeology and the Academic Study of the Bible
• Dancing Satyrs and Maenads Cup and a Consideration of Douris’s Dionysiac Scenes in Terms of Aesthetics, Archaeology, and Authenticity
• Archaeology and the People of the Dizzy Valley
• Archaeology and Modern Human Origins in Europe
• Psychology Meets Archaeology: Psychoarchaeoacoustics for Understanding Ancient Minds and Their Relationship to the Sacred
• Archaeology: Pompei and Herculaneum
• Deviant Burial Practices Within the Field of Archaeology
• Archaeology Theory and Methods: Harappan
• The Economic, Social, Political, and Environmental Importance of Information Learned Due to Archaeology
• Arguing Against Lawful Explanations in Archaeology
• Archaeology: Ireland the Archaeological Site of Tara
• Maritime Archaeology and Ancient Trade: Approaches Protecting Classical Underwater Archaeology Sites
• Archaeology and the Trojan War
• Bringing History and Archaeology Together
• Archaeology and Aerial Photography’s Advantages and Disadvantages
• What Does Archaeology Show About the Life of a Roman Soldier in Roman Britain?
• How Has Agriculture Affected Archaeology and Natural Heritage in Syria?
• What Are the Goals of Archaeology?
• Why Is Archaeology Important?
• What Are the Main Goals of Classical Archaeology?
• How Do Archaeologists Identify Sites for Excavation?
• What Kinds of Differences Are There in the Social Experience of Sound Between Different Types of Archaeological Context?
• How Does Ethnoarchaeology Help the Study of History?
• Are Archaeology and Paleontology the Same?
• What Limits Does Archaeological Evidence Have as a Historical Source?
• How Do Archaeologists Make Use of LiDAR Technology?
• What Are Archaeological Sources of History?
• How Does Surveying Limit Archaeological Research?
• What Is the Importance of Studying Zooarchaeology?
• When Was the Method of Underwater Archaeology Created?
• What Is Social Zooarchaeology?
• How Is Underwater Archaeology Different From Land Archaeology?
• What Is Urban Archaeology?
• What Distinguishes Historical Archaeology From Prehistoric Archaeology?
• How Is Geoarchaeology Useful to Archaeology?
• What Are the Different Methods of Studying Prehistoric Archaeology?
• Who Was Considered the Father of Post-processual Archaeology?
• What Type of Questions Does Experimental Archaeology Address?
• How Do Archaeologists Reconstruct the Archaeological Record?
• Why Do Archaeologists Use Experimental Archaeology?
• How Has Climate Change Affected the Archaeological Record?
• What Is Meant by Environmental Archaeology?
• How Does Theory Help Archaeology?
• Why Is Photogrammetry an Important Analytical Method in Archaeology?
• What Is Cultural Resource Management in Archaeology?
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111 Archaeology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Archaeology is a fascinating field that allows us to unearth the mysteries of our past. It involves the study of human history through the excavation and analysis of artifacts, structures, and other physical remains. If you're an archaeology student or enthusiast looking for an essay topic, you're in luck! In this article, we will provide you with 111 archaeology essay topic ideas and examples to inspire your next writing project.

• The Importance of Archaeology in Understanding Human History
• Archaeological Techniques: Excavation, Survey, and Analysis
• The Role of Archaeology in Preserving Cultural Heritage
• The Use of Drones in Archaeological Surveys
• The Impact of Climate Change on Archaeological Sites
• The Ethics of Archaeological Excavation and Repatriation
• Ancient Egyptian Burial Practices: A Journey to the Afterlife
• The Discovery of Pompeii: A Glimpse into Ancient Roman Life
• Stonehenge: Unraveling the Mysteries of a Megalithic Monument
• The Impact of Archaeology on National Identity and Tourism
• The Role of Archaeology in Debunking Pseudoscientific Claims
• The Relationship Between Archaeology and Anthropology
• The Evolution of Archaeological Techniques over Time
• The Significance of Pottery in Archaeological Studies
• The Role of Gender in Archaeological Interpretations
• The Influence of Archaeology on Popular Culture and Media
• The Challenges of Archaeological Research in Remote Locations
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Prehistoric Art
• The Archaeology of Ancient Shipwrecks: Insights into Maritime History
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Trade Routes
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Warfare
• The Impact of Archaeology on Indigenous Communities
• The Archaeology of Colonialism: Uncovering the Dark Past
• The Use of Isotopic Analysis in Archaeological Studies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Agriculture
• The Archaeology of Ancient Cities: From Mesopotamia to Mesoamerica
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Religious Practices
• The Archaeology of Ancient Medicine: From Herbal Remedies to Surgery
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Human Evolution
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Food and Diet
• The Archaeology of Ancient Texts: From Cuneiform to Hieroglyphs
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Social Hierarchies
• The Archaeology of Ancient Burial Grounds: Insights into Funeral Rituals
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Technologies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Music and Dance
• The Archaeology of Ancient Games: From Chess to Gladiator Fights
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Climate Change
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Architecture
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade: From Silk Road to Transatlantic Trade
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Warfare Tactics
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Clothing and Fashion
• The Archaeology of Ancient Sports: From Olympics to Mayan Ball Games
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Human Migration
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Prehistoric Music
• The Archaeology of Ancient Rituals: From Sacrifices to Shamanism
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Education
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Warfare Weapons
• The Archaeology of Ancient Gardens: Insights into Horticulture
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Astronomy
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Mining Techniques
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade Networks: From Silk to Spices
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Maritime Navigation
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Cosmetics and Beauty
• The Archaeology of Ancient Festivals: From Carnival to Harvest Celebrations
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Climate Patterns
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Religion and Mythology
• The Archaeology of Ancient Writing Systems: From Hieroglyphs to Runes
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Warfare Strategies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Medicine and Healing
• The Archaeology of Ancient Toys: Insights into Childhood in the Past
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Fishing Techniques
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Food Preparation
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade Routes: From Silk Road to Spice Trade
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Maritime Warfare
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Textile Production
• The Archaeology of Ancient Feasts: From Banquets to Religious Ceremonies
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Climate Change Adaptation
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Ritual Objects
• The Archaeology of Ancient Musical Instruments: Insights into Music History
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Warfare Tactics and Training
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Healing and Herbalism
• The Archaeology of Ancient Games and Toys: From Board Games to Dolls
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Seafaring Cultures
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Agricultural Techniques
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade: From Silk to Spices and Beyond
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Naval Warfare
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Textile Technology
• The Archaeology of Ancient Feasting: Insights into Social Hierarchies
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Climate Disasters
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Ritual Performances
• The Archaeology of Ancient Musical Notation: Insights into Music Theory
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Siege Warfare
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Medical Practices
• The Archaeology of Ancient Childhood: From Toys to Education
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Fishing Communities
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Food Preservation
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade Networks: From Silk to Spices and Beyond
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Naval Technologies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Clothing and Textiles
• The Archaeology of Ancient Festivals: Insights into Cultural Identity
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Environmental Changes
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Ritual Landscapes
• The Archaeology of Ancient Musical Genres: From Classical to Folklore
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Fortification Techniques
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Surgical Techniques
• The Archaeology of Ancient Childhood: From Games to Education
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Fishing Technologies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Food Distribution
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Naval Battles
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Clothing and Adornment
• The Archaeology of Ancient Festivals: Insights into Social Cohesion
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Climate Migration
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Rituals and Ceremonies
• The Archaeology of Ancient Music: From Notation to Performance
• The Impact of Archaeology on Understanding Ancient Siege Warfare Techniques
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Medical Beliefs
• The Archaeology of Ancient Childhood: From Toys to Socialization
• The Contribution of Archaeology to the Study of Ancient Fishing Economies
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Ancient Food Cultivation
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade Networks: From Silk to Spices and Luxury Goods

These 111 archaeology essay topic ideas and examples cover a wide range of subjects within the field. Whether you're interested in ancient civilizations, burial practices, trade routes, or even music and games, there is a topic here for you. Remember to choose a topic that sparks your curiosity and allows you to delve deeper into the fascinating world of archaeology. Happy writing!

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Why Archaeology Topics Are Great Options for Research Papers

Ancient Civilizations

• Excavations
• History of Animal and Plant Domestication
• M.A., Anthropology, University of Iowa
• B.Ed., Illinois State University

Let's face it--one of the toughest jobs of the student is to find a research paper topic, especially if your professor has assigned you a term paper with an open-ended subject. May I recommend archaeology as a starting point? People generally think of archaeology as simply a set of methods: "Have trowel, will travel" is the theme song for many an archaeological field worker . But in fact, the results of two hundred years of fieldwork and laboratory research means that archaeology is the study of a million years of human behavior , and as such it intersects evolution, anthropology, history, geology, geography, politics, and sociology. And that's just a start.

In fact, archaeology's breadth is why I was drawn to the study in the first place. You can just about study anything--even molecular physics or computer science--and still be a working archaeologist. After more than fifteen years running this website, I've built a number of places which you can use as a jumping off point to a fascinating paper, whether you are studying in the field of archaeology or outside of it. And with any luck, you can have fun doing it.

I have organized the resources for this website using a broad areal coverage of world history, and in the meantime I've developed a handful of encyclopedic directories that will help you in your search for the perfect paper topic. In each pocket you'll find tidbits about ancient cultures and their archaeological sites compiled from provided references and other suggestions for further research. Somebody should benefit from my particular brand of lunacy!

The History of Humans on Planet Earth

The History of Humanity includes information on archaeological studies beginning with the very first stone tools of our human ancestors in the Stone Age of 2.5 million years ago, ends with medieval societies about 1500 AD and includes everything in between. Here you'll find information on our human ancestors (2.5 million-20,000 years ago), as well as hunter-gatherers (20,000-12,000 years ago), first farming societies (12,000-5,000 years ago), early civilizations (3000-1500 BC), ancient empires (1500-0 BC), developing states (AD 0-1000) and the medieval period (1000-1500 AD).

Don't miss my collection of Ancient Civilizations , which brings together resources and ideas on Egypt, Greece, Persia, the Near East , the Incan and Aztec Empires, the Khmer, Indus and Islamic Civilizations , the Roman Empire , the Vikings and the Moche and the Minoans and others too many to mention.

Domestication Histories

Food naturally fascinates all of us: and more to the point, archaeology is the main source of information about how the domestication of the animals and plants that make up our meals came about. Over the last couple of decades, with the addition of genetic studies, what we've understood about the timing and process of animal and plant domestication has changed greatly.

I recommend that you can get a taste of what science has learned about when and how we domesticated cattle, cats and camels, or chickpeas, chiles and chenopodium, can be found linked from the Tables of Animal Domestication and Plant Domestication , and the scientific literature I used to write those articles can serve as starting points for a possible paper.

The World Atlas of Archaeology

Want to study a particular continent or region? The World Atlas of Archaeology is a great place to kick off your investigations: it is an atlas of archaeological sites and cultures in the world sorted by modern geographic continent and political country boundaries. 

The Ancient Daily Life pages includes links to archaeological investigations of roads and writing, battle sites and ancient houses, prehistoric tools and climate change.

Scientist Biographies

Interested in writing a biography of a famous archaeologist? Then the Biographies in Archaeology should be the starting place for you. There are nearly 500 biographical sketches listed in the Biographies pocket so far. In there you'll also find a Women in Archaeology section. I segregated the women out for my own nefarious purposes, and you might as well take advantage of it.

A Vast Glossary of Ideas

Another resource for piquing your interest is the Archaeology Dictionary , which includes over 1,600 entries of cultures, archaeological sites, theories and other tidbits of archaeological information. I recommend that you simply pick a letter at random and scroll down through the entries. Some of the entries are full-fledged articles; others are short definitions, covering nearly twenty years of my exploration in archaeology, and I bet anything that something will pique your interest.

Once you've chosen your topic, you can begin searching for information on which to write your essay. Good luck!

More Tips for Writing Research Papers

• How to Conduct Background Research for a Paper
• Top Steps to Writing a Research Paper
• Seasonality
• How to Write a Research Paper That Earns an A
• A Beginner's Guide to the Paleolithic Period or Stone Age
• How to Study Archaeology in High School
• Broad Spectrum Revolution
• A Beginner's Guide to the Neolithic Period
• Site Formation Processes in Archaeology
• Archaeology and History of Olive Domestication
• Ethnoarchaeology: Blending Cultural Anthropology and Archaeology
• What Is a Research Paper?
• Maps of the Levant
• Top 10 Inventions in Ancient Human History
• Reindeer Domestication
• Defining Archaeology: 40 Different Ways to Describe Archaeology
• Feasting: The Archaeology and History of Celebrating Food
• Archaeology Subfields

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Archaeology articles within Scientific Reports

Article 28 March 2024 | Open Access

Automatic analysis of the continuous edges of stone tools reveals fundamental handaxe variability

• Antoine Muller
• , Gonen Sharon
•  &  Leore Grosman

Article 22 March 2024 | Open Access

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Article 19 March 2024 | Open Access

A remarkable assemblage of petroglyphs and dinosaur footprints in Northeast Brazil

• Leonardo P. Troiano
• , Heloísa B. dos Santos
•  &  Aline M. Ghilardi

Article 15 March 2024 | Open Access

Exploring the utility of Geometric Morphometrics to analyse prehistoric hand stencils

• V. Fernández Navarro
• , R. M. Godinho
•  &  D. Garate Maidagan

Article 07 March 2024 | Open Access

Identification of microbial pathogens in Neolithic Scandinavian humans

• Nora Bergfeldt
• , Emrah Kırdök
•  &  Anders Götherström

Article 28 February 2024 | Open Access

Segmental femoral fracture malunion: evidence and prognostic analysis of medical intervention in the third century BC

• Haiyang Xing
• , Ruiqi Zou
•  &  Yanguo Qin

Article 22 February 2024 | Open Access

Biomolecular evidence for changing millet reliance in Late Bronze Age central Germany

• Eleftheria Orfanou
• , Barbara Zach
•  &  Patrick Roberts

Article 21 February 2024 | Open Access

Lead isotopes of prehistoric copper tools define metallurgical phases in Late Neolithic and Eneolithic Italy

• Gilberto Artioli
• , Ivana Angelini
•  &  Igor Maria Villa

Article 16 February 2024 | Open Access

Kinship practices at the early bronze age site of Leubingen in Central Germany

• Sandra Penske
• , Mario Küßner
•  &  Wolfgang Haak

Article 08 February 2024 | Open Access

Identification of Maya ruins covered by jungle using Sentinel-1

• Florent Michenot
• , Israel Hinostroza
•  &  Laetitia Thirion-Lefevre

Article 05 February 2024 | Open Access

Use of hare bone for the manufacture of a Clovis bead

• Todd A. Surovell
• , McKenna L. Litynski
•  &  Robert L. Kelly

Article 02 February 2024 | Open Access

The invention of writing on Rapa Nui (Easter Island). New radiocarbon dates on the Rongorongo script

• Silvia Ferrara
• , Laura Tassoni
•  &  Sahra Talamo

Article 31 January 2024 | Open Access

Early human occupation of Australia’s eastern seaboard

• Shaun Adams
• , Kasih Norman
•  &  Chris Clarkson

Article 18 January 2024 | Open Access

Metagenomic analysis of Mesolithic chewed pitch reveals poor oral health among stone age individuals

• Emrah Kırdök
• , Natalija Kashuba

Article 02 January 2024 | Open Access

Animal movement on the hoof and on the cart and its implications for understanding exchange within the Indus Civilisation

• C. A. Petrie
• , E. Lightfoot
•  &  T. C. O’Connell

Earliest known funerary rites in Wallacea after the last glacial maximum

• Stuart Hawkins
• , Gabriella Ayang Zetika
•  &  Sue O’Connor

Article 29 December 2023 | Open Access

The first petrographic characterisation of a prehistoric rock crystal mine in the Swiss Alps

• Thomas Hess
• , Josef Mullis
•  &  Leander Franz

Article 20 December 2023 | Open Access

Platinum and microspherule peaks as chronostratigraphic markers for onset of the Younger Dryas at Wakulla Springs, Florida

• Christopher R. Moore
• , Mark J. Brooks
•  &  James K. Feathers

Naïve, adult, captive chimpanzees do not socially learn how to make and use sharp stone tools

• Elisa Bandini
•  &  Claudio Tennie

Article 11 December 2023 | Open Access

Multiproxy bioarchaeological data reveals interplay between growth, diet and population dynamics across the transition to farming in the central Mediterranean

• E. W. Parkinson
• , S. Stoddart
•  &  J. T. Stock

Article 07 December 2023 | Open Access

Morpho-chemical characterization of individual ancient starches retrieved on ground stone tools from Palaeolithic sites in the Pontic steppe

• , E. Badetti
•  &  L. Longo

Article 04 December 2023 | Open Access

Infantile scurvy as a consequence of agricultural intensification in the 1st millennium BCE Etruria Campana

• Rachele Simonit
• , Ségolène Maudet
•  &  Giulia Riccomi

Article 01 December 2023 | Open Access

The provenance of the stones in the Menga dolmen reveals one of the greatest engineering feats of the Neolithic

• José Antonio Lozano Rodríguez
• , Leonardo García Sanjuán
•  &  Francisco Martínez-Sevilla

Article 13 November 2023 | Open Access

Beaver exploitation, 400,000 years ago, testifies to prey choice diversity of Middle Pleistocene hominins

• Sabine Gaudzinski-Windheuser
• , Lutz Kindler
•  &  Wil Roebroeks

Article 03 November 2023 | Open Access

The deep past in the virtual present: developing an interdisciplinary approach towards understanding the psychological foundations of palaeolithic cave art

• Izzy Wisher
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Article 01 November 2023 | Open Access

A double-blind comparison of morphological and collagen fingerprinting (ZooMS) methods of skeletal identifications from Paleolithic contexts

• Eugène Morin
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•  &  Michael Buckley

Article 31 October 2023 | Open Access

Biological and substitute parents in Beaker period adult–child graves

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Article 26 October 2023 | Open Access

Comparing extraction method efficiency for high-throughput palaeoproteomic bone species identification

• Dorothea Mylopotamitaki
• , Florian S. Harking
•  &  Frido Welker

Article 25 October 2023 | Open Access

Terminal ballistic analysis of impact fractures reveals the use of spearthrower 31 ky ago at Maisières-Canal, Belgium

• Justin Coppe
• , Noora Taipale
•  &  Veerle Rots

Digital twin models of replicative ground stones: insight into simulating usage of Upper Paleolithic tools

• Maria Rosaria Marulli
• , Giusi Sorrentino
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Article 13 October 2023 | Open Access

Unravelling the skills and motivations of Magdalenian artists in the depths of Atxurra Cave (Northern Spain)

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Article 12 October 2023 | Open Access

First direct evidence of lion hunting and the early use of a lion pelt by Neanderthals

• Gabriele Russo
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•  &  Thomas Terberger

Article 06 October 2023 | Open Access

Mapping sexual dimorphism signal in the human cranium

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Article 05 October 2023 | Open Access

Chemical analysis of pottery reveals the transition from a maritime to a plant-based economy in pre-colonial coastal Brazil

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• , Andre C. Colonese
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Article 03 October 2023 | Open Access

Mandibular morphology and the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition in Westernmost Iberia

• Ricardo Miguel Godinho
• , Cláudia Umbelino
•  &  Patricia Smith

Article 02 October 2023 | Open Access

Lateral river erosion impacts the preservation of Neolithic enclosures in alluvial plains

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• , Patrick Gouge
•  &  Daniel Mordant

Article 29 September 2023 | Open Access

Isotopic and proteomic evidence for communal stability at Pre-Pottery Neolithic Jericho in the Southern Levant

• Xiaoran Wang
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•  &  Philipp W. Stockhammer

Article 28 September 2023 | Open Access

Computer simulation of scavenging by hominins and giant hyenas in the late Early Pleistocene

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• , Ericson Hölzchen
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Article 22 September 2023 | Open Access

Measuring ancient technological complexity and its cognitive implications using Petri nets

• Sebastian Fajardo
• , Paul R. B. Kozowyk
•  &  Geeske H. J. Langejans

Article 21 September 2023 | Open Access

Multi-isotope analysis of bone collagen of Late Pleistocene ungulates reveals niche partitioning and behavioural plasticity of reindeer during MIS 3

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• , Elodie-Laure Jimenez
•  &  Marie Soressi

Article 20 September 2023 | Open Access

Hafted technologies likely reduced stone tool-related selective pressures acting on the hominin hand

• , Julie Lierenz
•  &  Alastair Key

Article 08 September 2023 | Open Access

First identification of an evolving Middle Stone Age ochre culture at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia

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• , Martine Regert
•  &  Francesco d’Errico

Article 07 September 2023 | Open Access

Scaling Palaeolithic tar production processes exponentially increases behavioural complexity

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• , Sebastian Fajardo

Identifying Palaeolithic birch tar production techniques: challenges from an experimental biomolecular approach

• , Liliana I. Baron

Article 06 September 2023 | Open Access

Osteological, multi-isotope and proteomic analysis of poorly-preserved human remains from a Dutch East India Company burial ground in South Africa

• Judyta Olszewski
• , Rachael A. Hall
•  &  Sarah A. Schrader

Article 29 August 2023 | Open Access

Analysis of starch grains trapped in human dental calculus in Áspero, Peru during the Initial Formative Period (3000–1800 BCE)

• Marco Yseki
• , Luis Pezo-Lanfranco
•  &  Ruth Shady

Article 16 August 2023 | Open Access

Atlatl use equalizes female and male projectile weapon velocity

• Michelle R. Bebber
• , Briggs Buchanan
•  &  Dexter Zirkle

Article 09 August 2023 | Open Access

A 36,200-year-old carving from Grotte des Gorges, Amange, Jura, France

• Francesco d’Errico
• , Serge David
•  &  Luc Doyon

Article 04 August 2023 | Open Access

Anatomically modern human in the Châtelperronian hominin collection from the Grotte du Renne (Arcy-sur-Cure, Northeast France)

• Arthur Gicqueau
• , Alexandra Schuh
•  &  Bruno Maureille

Article 01 August 2023 | Open Access

Ancient DNA confirms diverse origins of early post-Columbian cattle in the Americas

• Nicolas Delsol
• , Brian J. Stucky
•  &  Robert Guralnick

Browse broader subjects

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Articles on Archaeology

Displaying 1 - 20 of 480 articles.

First evidence of ancient human occupation found in giant lava tube cave in Saudi Arabia

Mathew Stewart , Griffith University ; Huw Groucutt , University of Malta , and Michael Petraglia , Griffith University

Aboriginal people made pottery and sailed to distant offshore islands thousands of years before Europeans arrived

Sean Ulm , James Cook University ; Ian J. McNiven , Monash University , and Kenneth McLean , Indigenous Knowledge

We have revealed a unique time capsule of Australia’s first coastal people from 50,000 years ago

Peter Veth , The University of Western Australia ; David W. Zeanah , California State University, Sacramento ; Fiona Hook , The University of Western Australia ; Kane Ditchfield , The University of Western Australia , and Peter Kendrick , The University of Western Australia

Nigeria’s ancient Ilorin city - archaeologist uncovers over 1,000 years of history

Bolaji Owoseni , University of Cambridge

The bog is where forensics and archaeology meet to solve ‘cold cases’

Rosie Everett , University College Cork ; Benjamin Gearey , University College Cork , and Karl Harrison , Cranfield University

The Russia-Ukraine War has caused a staggering amount of cultural destruction – both seen and unseen

Ian Kuijt , University of Notre Dame ; Pavlo Shydlovskyi , Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv , and William Donaruma , University of Notre Dame

Out of Darkness: I’m an expert on human origins – here’s how this stone age thriller surprised me

Penny Spikins , University of York

Ancient DNA reveals children with Down syndrome in past societies. What can their burials tell us about their lives?

Adam "Ben" Rohrlach , University of Adelaide and Kay Prüfer , Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

Stone Age ‘megastructure’ under Baltic Sea sheds light on strategy used by Palaeolithic hunters over 10,000 years ago

Stephanie Piper , University of York

Early humans reached northwest Europe 45,000 years ago, new research shows

Geoffrey Smith , University of Kent ; Dorothea Mylopotamitaki , Collège de France ; Karen Ruebens , Collège de France , and Marcel Weiss , Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

European immigrants introduced farming to prehistoric North Africa, new research shows

Rafael M Martínez Sánchez , Universidad de Córdoba

3D scanning: we recreated a sacred South African site in a way that captures its spirit

Stephen Wessels , University of Cape Town ; Benjamin Schoville , The University of Queensland ; Jayne Wilkins , Griffith University , and Sechaba Maape , University of the Witwatersrand

Valley of lost cities found in the Amazon – technological advances in archaeology are only the beginning of discovery

Jay Silverstein , Nottingham Trent University

New analysis unlocks the hidden meaning of 15, 000-year -old rock art in Arnhem Land

Jarrad Daniel Kowlessar , Flinders University ; Alfred Nayinggul , Indigenous Knowledge ; Daryl Wesley , Flinders University , and Ian Moffat , Flinders University

Africans discovered dinosaur fossils long before the term ‘palaeontology’ existed

Julien Benoit , University of the Witwatersrand ; Cameron Penn-Clarke , University of the Witwatersrand , and Charles Helm , Nelson Mandela University

The strange story of the grave of Copernicus

Darius von Guttner Sporzynski , Australian Catholic University

People once lived in a vast region in north-western Australia – and it had an inland sea

Kasih Norman , Griffith University ; Chris Clarkson , The University of Queensland ; Corey J. A. Bradshaw , Flinders University ; Frédérik Saltré , Flinders University , and Tristen Anne Norrie Jones , University of Sydney

Madagascar cave art hints at ancient connections between Africa and Asia

David Burney , University of Hawaii

Was King Herod the Great really so ‘great’? What history says about the bad guy of the Christmas story

Aaron Gale , West Virginia University

Carved trees and burial sites: Wiradjuri Elders share the hidden stories of marara and dhabuganha

Caroline Spry , La Trobe University ; Brian J Armstrong , The University of Melbourne ; Greg Ingram , Indigenous Knowledge ; Ian Sutherland , Indigenous Knowledge , and Lawrence Conyers , University of Denver

Related Topics

• Ancient DNA
• Anthropology
• Climate change
• Global perspectives
• Homo sapiens
• Human evolution
• Neanderthals
• Stone tools

Top contributors

Associate Professor of Archaeology, Griffith University

Honorary Associate Professor, UNSW Sydney

Australian Research Council Future Fellow, Archaeology, School of Social Science, The University of Queensland

Assistant Curator of Human Evolution., University of Alberta

Head, Public Engagement, Chau Chak Wing Museum, University of Sydney

Professor of Environmental and Geographical Sciences, Bournemouth University

Director, Australian Research Centre for Human Evolution, Griffith University

Associate Professor and Director, Flinders Microarchaeology Laboratory, Flinders University

Associate Professor of Anthropology, Rice University

Professor, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology

Director, ARC Centre of Excellence for Australian Biodiversity and Heritage (CABAH), University of Wollongong

Associate Professor, Southern Cross University

Professor of Archaeology, College of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University

Associate Professor in Archaeology and Space Studies, Flinders University

Postdoctoral researcher, Centro Nacional de Investigación sobre la Evolución Humana (CENIEH)

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Writing Guide in Archaeology

Introduction.

The ability to write a good research paper is an essential skill and this handout will help you improve your paper writing skills in archaeology. Two helpful publications are W. C. Booth, G. G. Colomb, J. M. Williams, J. Bizup, and W. T. Fitzgerald,  The Craft of Research (2016, Chicago, 4 th edition) and The Chicago Manual of Style (2017, Chicago, 17 th edition). The former gives practical advice on how to plan your research and write a formal paper. The latter is an essential reference for the preparation of all kinds of research papers.

Getting Started

What subject do you find interesting? What is known, and not known, about the subject? What questions remain to be answered? What would be the significance of the answers for your readers? Use your interest in a particular subject and the unanswered questions about it as a starting point to formulate a specific problem that you wish to analyze. Example: you might be interested in the Greek Bronze Age and the Mycenaeans. That is a subject , which is both broad and unspecific. A specific topic might be “Why did the Mycenaean Empire collapse?” A good topic can always be posed as a question. A possible answer to this topical question is an hypothesis or thesis , e.g. “The Mycenaean Empire collapsed because of a prolonged drought.” Once you have formulated this sequence of subject, topic, and hypothesis, you are ready to start.

An hypothesis is a thesis or proposition such as “the Maya collapse resulted from an increase in population that surpassed the productive capacity of the available agricultural technology” or “the Neanderthals became extinct as the result of new diseases introduced by contact with anatomically modern humans.” The hypothesis posits a cause and effect relationship between events or variables and engages the reader’s interest by telling the reader what the research is about. The hypothesis guides your research and requires evaluation, explanation, and testing. A good topic and an interesting hypothesis are the heart and soul of any paper. A strong paper typically states the hypothesis at the beginning of the introduction.

Your paper should convey your interest and engagement in the subject. Do not describe other people’s work or reiterate an author’s arguments, and do not rely on other writers’ interpretations of the sources. Evaluate all arguments and evidence yourself. Be skeptical. Challenge the arguments. Dig deeper. Try to think like a member of a jury in a trial. Think of your sources as the attorneys who are presenting their arguments for and against your hypothesis. You must reach a verdict by deciding in favor of one or the other. Which one is right? Why? Be explicit when you explain your reasons for your conclusions. Don’t be afraid to conclude that the hypothesis you began with is not supported by the evidence. Negative results are a productive form of research.

The Abstract

Every paper should have an abstract of 100 to 300 words identifying the subject, topic, and hypothesis. The abstract summarizes the research, the results, and the conclusions. An abstract is not a statement of what you are going to do, but what you have done in the paper. Tip: write the abstract twice, once before you begin writing the paper to clarify your thinking about the question or questions you are trying to answer, and again after you are done with the paper and you know how it all came out.

Structure of the Paper

The first paragraph of your paper is important. It must introduce your subject, topic, and hypothesis, discuss the significance of the problem, describe your research, and give an outline of your conclusions. The introduction must get the reader’s attention and let the reader know what is in the paper. After the introduction each paragraph should follow in a smooth logical sequence. Your last paragraph is equally important because it summarizes your findings and convinces the reader that your conclusions are supported by the evidence. State your conclusions clearly in the first sentence of the last paragraph.

Other Points to Remember

Write a detailed outline before you begin your research. As you work, consult the outline frequently, adding to it, turning it from a subject outline to a sentence outline, and ultimately expanding it to full paragraphs. Once you start writing, bear in mind that one draft of your paper is inadequate. Experienced writers write many drafts, typically three or more. Include a title page and an abstract; double space everything; paginate the text; use headings and subheadings to divide the text; make sure that every citation in the text is in the bibliography and vice versa; use dates consistently and explain conventions (e.g., are you using calendar dates B.C. and A.D., or uncalibrated or calibrated 14 C?); do not use slang or vague expressions (“cool” or “a lot”), double negatives, or contractions.

Keep your writing simple and use declarative sentences and direct verbs, avoiding the passive voice (e.g., “they found artifacts in the ravine” not “artifacts were found in the ravine”). When you are finished, proofread your paper to check spelling, grammar, and punctuation, paying attention to the agreement of tense (has/had), number (one/they; phenomenon/phenomena), possessives versus plurals (artifact’s/artifacts), case (who/whom), and other common errors such as confusing “its” (possessive pronoun) with “it’s” (contraction of “it is”) or “affect” with “effect.”

Cite only the references you use. Do not cite titles that you have not read or consulted. Use primary sources such as published books and articles in peer-reviewed journals, and limit your use of secondary sources such as textbooks, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. If a source has not been subjected to peer review or editorial control, you should be skeptical of its contents. Remember that web sites, blogs, and similar sources may be unfiltered opinion and not data. Always provide sufficient detail for the reader to know where you obtained your information, and include the author, year of publication, place of publication, and specific page numbers. Specific page numbers for large books must be cited. For web sites include the author (s), date of creation, and the complete URL address.

End notes are generally preferred to footnotes, and are placed at the end of the text and before the bibliography. Citations in the text are placed in parentheses immediately following the information you are referencing. The format is “author’s name-date-page numbers” (e.g., Potter 1979: 15-20). The entry in the bibliography corresponding with this citation is Potter, Timothy W., 1979, The Changing Landscape of South Etruria . New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Figures (maps, plans, photographs, or other images) are grouped at the end of the paper, each with a number and a caption explaining the figure and identifying the source. Figures are not window dressing: each should add something to your paper. A map is useful for putting archaeological sites in context, and other images should convey information that cannot be adequately expressed in words alone. Photographs or drawings may be used to show the details of a building or an artifact being described in the text. Graphs, charts, and tables should be used sparingly. A simple line graph depicting declining rainfall in the Bronze Age may show the severity of a drought affecting the Mycenaeans more clearly than the presentation of quantitative data in a table.

When you are finished, have someone read your abstract, or the whole paper, and comment on it. Are your arguments logical? Are they supported by the evidence? Do you present only positive evidence to support your hypothesis (this weakens a paper), or do you consider negative evidence in an attempt to challenge the hypothesis (always best)?

Do not commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious offense. Never take credit for other people’s ideas or words. Your paper must be your work entirely with your own thoughts, ideas, and words. You are responsible for creating your work from your own imagination and based on original research. It is not acceptable to paraphrase or copy the work of others. Just as you cannot cut and paste from a printed source, it is completely unacceptable, under any circumstances, to cut and paste even a word from the Internet without attribution. When you use any source it is absolutely necessary to provide a full and accurate citation of it. Anything less is a form of theft and will have serious consequences. Do not plagiarize yourself. You may not submit the same paper, or substantial portions of one paper, to more than one instructor. Every paper, in every course, should be completely original. If you have questions about the line between original scholarship and plagiarism, or if you have questions about specific practices, ask your instructor and consult Boston University’s Academic Conduct Code . ( www.bu.edu/academics )

Updated by Curtis Runnels and Priscilla Murray

Archaeology Essay Topics

Explore Compelling Archaeology Essay Topics to Craft an A-Worthy Paper

16 min read

Published on: May 8, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 31, 2024

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Do you want to uncover the mysteries of the past and impress your professors with an academically rigorous essay topic? 

Are you tired of staring at a blank screen, struggling to come up with ideas? Look no further!

We have got you covered!

In this blog, we've compiled a list of the most fascinating and thought-provoking archaeology essay topics. They will transport you to ancient civilizations and captivate your imagination. From the secrets of the pyramids to the Incas, we've got everything you need to ignite your passion. 

So, get ready to dive into the past and discover the wonders of humanity's rich history!

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Lower Paleolithic Period Topics

The Paleolithic periods were crucial times for human evolution. Let's dive deeper into these topics which can help you gain a better understanding of this time in human history.

• Tools and technology used by early humans during the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The significance of fire in the Lower Paleolithic period.
• Homo habilis and their contributions to the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The relationship between climate change and early human migration
• The role of scavenging in early human societies during the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The emergence of bipedalism during the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The use of cave art by early humans during the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The challenges for the Lower Paleolithic period due to the scarcity of fossil evidence.
• The development of language and communication during the Lower Paleolithic period.
• The cultural dynamics of early human groups during the Lower Paleolithic period.

Middle Paleolithic Period Topics

• The emergence of Neanderthals during the Middle Paleolithic period.
• The evolution of tool-making and technology during the Middle Paleolithic period.
• The role of hunting and gathering in Middle Paleolithic societies.
• The symbolism and meaning behind Middle Paleolithic cave art.
• The emergence of abstract thinking and creativity in Middle Paleolithic societies.
• The impact of climate change on Middle Paleolithic human societies.
• The social organization and hierarchy of Neanderthal communities. 
• The evidence of cannibalism and violence in Middle Paleolithic societies.
• The use of fire and its significance in Middle Paleolithic societies.
• The transition from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic period and the factors that led to it.

Upper Paleolithic Period Topics

• The emergence of anatomically modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic period.
• The development of complex language and communication in Upper Paleolithic societies.
• The symbolism and meaning behind Upper Paleolithic cave art.
• The emergence of religion and spirituality in Upper Paleolithic societies.
• The role of women in Upper Paleolithic societies.
• The use of bone and ivory in Upper Paleolithic tool-making and art.
• The impact of climate change on Upper Paleolithic human societies.
• The evolution of hunting and gathering techniques in Upper Paleolithic societies.
• The emergence of music and dance in Upper Paleolithic societies.
• The importance of trade and exchange networks in Upper Paleolithic societies.

Mesolithic Period Topics

• The transition from the Paleolithic to Mesolithic period and the factors that led to it.
• The development of agriculture and animal domestication in Mesolithic societies.
• The impact of climate change on Mesolithic human societies.
• The evolution of fishing and seafood gathering techniques in Mesolithic societies.
• The emergence of settled communities and permanent dwellings in Mesolithic societies.
• The role of social and economic inequality in Mesolithic societies.
• The use of pottery and other ceramics in Mesolithic societies.
• The emergence of new art forms and symbolism in Mesolithic societies.
• The transition from a hunter-gatherer to a farming lifestyle in Mesolithic societies.
• The emergence of new technologies and innovations in Mesolithic societies.

Neolithic Period Topics

• The Rise of Megalithic Monuments: Stonehenge and Beyond
• The Birth of Pottery: Techniques, Uses, and Social Significance
• The Domestication of Plants: Cultivating Crops for Food and Medicine
• The Emergence of Social Hierarchies: Burials, Art, and Elite Power
• The Neolithic Revolution: How Agriculture Changed the Course of History
• The Spread of Agriculture: Technological Diffusion and Cultural Exchange
• The Role of Women in Neolithic Societies: Gender Roles and Domestication
• The Impact of Climate Change on Neolithic Communities: Adaptation and Migration
• The Neolithic in Global Perspective: Comparative Studies and Cross-Cultural Connections
• The Legacy of the Neolithic: How Our Ancestors Shaped the Modern World. 

Stone Age Topics

• The Evolution of Human Technology in the Stone Age
• The Role of Fire in Human Evolution during the Stone Age
• The Cultural Significance of Cave Art from the Stone Age
• The Role of Climate Change in the Evolution of Early Humans during the Stone Age
• The Development of Agriculture during the Neolithic Revolution
• Stone Tool Production Techniques of Early Humans
• The Significance of Megalithic Structures in the Stone Age
• The Evolution of Human Societies during the Paleolithic Period
• The Impact of the Toba Supereruption on Early Human Populations
• The Importance of Trade Networks in the Stone Age

Medieval Periods Essay Topics

• The Role of Religion in Medieval European Society
• The Evolution of Castles and Fortifications in the Middle Ages
• The Crusades: Causes and Consequences
• Women's Roles in Medieval Society
• The Development of Gothic Architecture in the Medieval Period
• The Black Death and Its Impact on Medieval Society
• The Rise and Fall of the Mongol Empire in the Middle Ages
• The Magna Carta: Significance and Impact on Western Civilization
• The Growth of Trade and Commerce in Medieval Europe
• Medieval Warfare: Tactics, Weapons, and Strategies

Late 19th Century Archaeology Essay Topics

• The Birth of Scientific Archaeology in the Late 19th Century
• The Role of Nationalism in Late 19th Century Archaeology
• The History of Archaeological Excavation Techniques
• The Evolution of Archaeological Interpretation from the Late 19th Century to Today
• The Development of Chronological Dating Methods in Archaeology
• The Impact of Darwin's Theory of Evolution on Archaeology
• The Role of Colonialism in Late 19th Century Archaeology
• The Birth of Anthropology as a Discipline in the Late 19th Century
• The First Archaeological Expeditions to the Middle East and Egypt
• The Discovery of Troy and Its Impact on Late 19th Century Archaeology

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Current Topics in Archaeology

Check out these exciting and current topics in archaeology topics to write about:

• The impact of climate change on archaeological sites
• Decolonizing archaeology: confronting colonial legacies and biases
• Digital archaeology: the use of technology in archaeological research
• Investigating the origins of agriculture and domestication
• Archaeology and heritage preservation in conflict zones
• The ethics of excavation and repatriation of artifacts
• Investigating the role of women in ancient societies
• Archaeological evidence of ancient trade and exchange networks
• Studying the health and diseases of ancient populations
• Exploring the cultural significance of burial practices in different societies

Specific Civilization Topics

• Ancient Egypt: Uncovering the Mysteries of the Pharaohs
• The Aztecs: Religion, Rituals, and Sacrifices
• The Inca Empire: Architecture, Technology, and Social Organization
• The Maya Civilization: Mathematics, Astronomy, and Writing Systems
• Classical Greece: Philosophy, Politics, and Culture
• The Roman Empire: Military Might, Law, and Administration
• The Indus Valley Civilization: Trade, Religion, and Urban Planning
• The Han Dynasty: Art, Science, and Imperialism
• The Gupta Empire: Literature, Mathematics, and Medicine
• The Kingdom of Aksum: Christianity, Trade, and Architecture.

Domestication and Food Production Topics

• The Role of Agriculture in Shaping Early Societies
• The Domestication of Animals and Its Impact on Human Civilization
• The Development of Irrigation and Its Role in Agricultural Productivity
• The Use of Fertilizers and Their Effect on Crop Yields
• The Evolution of Food Storage Techniques from Ancient to Modern Time and space
• The Influence of Climate Change on Food Production and Agriculture
• The Rise of Urbanization and Its Impact on Food Systems
• The Role of Trade in Spreading Agricultural Practices and Technologies
• The Impact of Colonialism on Traditional Agricultural Practices
• The Future of Food Production and Sustainability

Complex Society Topics

• The Formation of Early States: Political Organization and Urbanism
• The Rise of Civilization: Trade, Technology, and Social Complexity
• Monumental Architecture and Urban Planning in Ancient Cities
• Warfare and State Formation: Military Strategy and Imperialism
• The Role of Religion in Complex Societies: Belief Systems and Rituals
• Economic Systems in Early States: Trade, Markets, and Production
• Elite Power and Social Inequality in Complex Societies
• Gender and Identity in Ancient Societies: Women, Sexuality, and Social Roles
• Cross-Cultural Interactions in Complex Societies: Contact and great Influence
• The Collapse of Complex Societies: Environmental Change and Societal Decline

Archaeological Paradigms Essay Topics

• The New Archaeology: A Paradigm Shift in Archaeology
• Post-processual Archaeology: A Critical Approach to the Past
• Marxist Archaeology: Class Struggle in the Material Record
• Feminist Archaeology: A Reassessment of Gender Roles in the Past
• Behavioral Archaeology: A Study of Human Behavior in the Material Record
• Cognitive Archaeology: A Study of Human Thought in the Material Record
• Processual-plus Archaeology: An Integration of Multiple Theories and Methods
• Environmental Archaeology: A Study of Human-Environment Interactions in the Past
• Historical Archaeology: An Examination of Modern Society through the Material Record
• Indigenous Archaeology: A Reassessment of Indigenous Histories and Identities through the Material Record

Interesting Archaeology Essay Topics

Uncover the mysteries of the past with these interesting archaeology topics:

• The Mystery of the Ancient Maya Collapse: Environmental, Political, or Social Factors?
• The Search for the Tomb of Alexander the Great: History, Legend, and Archaeology
• The Origins of Writing Systems: Symbolism, Communication, and Literacy
• The Evolution of Artistic Expression: From Paleolithic Cave Paintings to Modern Art
• The Quest for Atlantis: Myth, Legend, and Archaeological Evidence
• The Reconstruction of Ancient Landscapes: Remote Sensing and GIS Applications
• The Science of Archaeological Dating: Methods, Techniques, and Limitations
• The Archaeology of Childhood: Children, Play, and Education in the Past
• The Archaeology of Death and Burial: Funerary Practices, Rituals, and Beliefs
• The Role of Archaeology in Heritage Management: Preservation, Education, and Tourism

Archaeology Essay Example Topics

• An Analysis of the Role of Archaeology in the Study of Human Evolution
• A Comparative Study of Ancient Greek and Roman Architecture
• The Impact of Colonialism on Indigenous Archaeological Heritage
• The Archaeology of the Silk Road: Trade, Cultural Exchange, and Innovation
• An Exploration of the Use of Human Remains in Archaeological Research
• The Contribution of Archaeology to Our Understanding of Prehistoric Art
• The Archaeology of Childhood: A Case Study of Children's Burials in Ancient Egypt
• The Reconstruction of Ancient Environments: The Case of the Sahara Desert
• The Archaeology of Slavery: The Role of Material Culture in Uncovering Hidden Histories
• A Critique of the Role of Archaeology in the Construction of National Identity.

Archaeology Essay Questions 

• What Can Archaeological Evidence Tell Us About the Lives of Prehistoric Humans?
• How Did Domestication of Plants and Animals Shape Human Societies?
• What is the Relationship Between Archaeology and Heritage Management?
• How Does Archaeology Contribute to Our Understanding of Social Inequality in the Past?
• How Do Archaeologists Use Science and Technology to Study the Past?
• What is the Significance of Archaeological Finds for the Study of Ancient Art and Literature?
• What is the Role of Archaeology in the Study of Historical Trauma and Memory?
• How Have Modern Politics and Ideologies Shaped Archaeological Research and Practice?
• What is the Importance of Archaeological Ethics in the 21st Century?
• How Can Archaeology Contribute to Contemporary Debates on Climate Change?

Exciting Archaeology Essay Ideas

• The Use of Forensic Archaeology in the Investigation of Modern Crimes
• The Archaeology of Science Fiction: Fictional Worlds and Real-Life Technologies
• The Use of Social Network Analysis in Archaeological Research
• The Archaeology of Sound: The Role of Music and Noise in the Past
• The Archaeology of Food: The Evolution of Human Diets and Culinary Traditions
• The Intersection of Archaeology and Psychology: Understanding Human Behavior in the Past
• The Archaeology of Sports: Games, Competition, and Social Identity
• The Use of Virtual Reality in Archaeological Reconstruction and Visualization
• The Archaeology of Magic and Witchcraft: Beliefs, Rituals, and Material Culture
• The Archaeology of Climate Change: The Impact of Past Environmental Shifts on Human Societies

Topics for Short Essay on Archaeology

• The significance of the Rosetta Stone in deciphering ancient languages
• The impact of the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun on the field of Egyptology
• The controversy surrounding the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin
• The role of underwater archaeology in uncovering ancient shipwrecks and maritime history
• Radiocarbon dating in wooden structures and artifacts
• The importance of stratigraphy in understanding the chronology of archaeological sites
• The challenges of preserving and protecting archaeological sites in developing countries
• The cultural significance of cave art in different parts of the world
• The history and significance of the archaeological site of Pompeii
• The role of archaeology in challenging historical myths and stereotypes

Archaeology Paper Topics

• The Impact of Climate Change on Human Societies: Evidence from Archaeological record 
• The Archaeology of Industrialization: The Emergence of the Modern World
• The Role of Archaeology in Contemporary Conflict Zones: Ethics and Practice
• The Archaeology of Gender: Women, Men, and Power in the Past
• The Archaeology of Trade and Exchange: Evidence from the Mediterranean World
• The Use of Geophysical Techniques in Archaeological Research
• The Archaeology of Colonialism: Popular Culture, Identity, and Resistance
• The Archaeology of Human Migration: Evidence from Prehistoric and Historic Sites
• The Role of Archaeology in the Study of Ancient Religions: Beliefs, Rituals, and Sacred Spaces
• The Reconstruction of Past Landscapes: The Use of Pollen and Sediment Analysis

Archaeological Research Questions Examples

• How did the development of agriculture impact the social and economic structures of ancient societies?
• What can the analysis of skeletal remains tell us about the health and lifestyles of ancient populations?
• How did the emergence of complex societies impact the environment and natural resources?
• What can the study of ancient art and architecture reveal about the beliefs and values of past cultures?
• How did the use of technology, such as metallurgy and writing, shape ancient societies?
• What role did religion and ritual play in the lives of ancient people?
• How did ancient civilizations develop and maintain long-distance trade networks?
• How did the spread of ideas and cultural practices occur in the ancient world?
• What can the study of ancient urbanism tell us about the organization of early cities?
• How did political power and governance systems evolve in different ancient societies?

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Archaeology Thesis Topic Ideas

• Investigating the role of religion in the rise and fall of ancient empires
• The impact of climate change on ancient civilizations: a comparative study
• A study of the evolution of ancient shipbuilding techniques and their influence on maritime trade
• The cultural significance of ancient burial practices in different societies
• A comparative study of the social and economic structures of ancient Greek and Roman societies
• Investigating the origins and spread of metallurgy in the ancient world
• A study of the impact of colonialism on archaeological practices and interpretations
• The use of stable isotope analysis in studying the diets of ancient populations
• The role of ancient art and architecture in expressing political power and propaganda
• A study of the impact of the Black Death on medieval European society, based on archaeological evidence.

Archaeology Research Paper Topics

• The Archaeology of Death: Burial Customs in Ancient Civilizations
• The Rise and Fall of the Maya Civilization: An Archaeological Analysis
• Ancient Trade Networks and the Archaeological Evidence
• The Archaeology of Ancient Medicine and Healing Practices
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Climate Change
• The Archaeology of Warfare: From the Bronze Age to the Present
• Investigating the Origins of Agriculture: An Archaeological Perspective
• The Archaeology of Ancient Urbanization: Cities of the Ancient World
• The Art of Ancient Civilizations: An Archaeological Study
• The Importance of Site Preservation in Modern Archaeology

Archaeology Research Projects Topic Ideas

Need some inspiration for archaeology projects for students? Look no further than our list of top topic ideas. 

• Excavating a Prehistoric Site: An Analysis of the Artifacts and Their Significance
• Using Drones for Archaeological Surveys: An Innovative Approach
• Investigating the Role of Women in Ancient Societies: An Archaeological Study
• The Archaeology of Slavery: A Comparative Study of Ancient and Modern Slavery
• A Study of the Archaeological Evidence for Human Migration Patterns
• Uncovering the Secrets of Ancient Shipwrecks: An Archaeological Analysis
• The Archaeology of Ancient Games and Sports
• A Comparative Analysis of Ancient Religious Practices: An Archaeological Study
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Colonialism and Post-Colonialism
• The Archaeology of Food: An Analysis of Ancient Diets and Culinary Practices

Good Essay Topics on Archaeology

• The Impact of Archaeological Discoveries on Our Understanding of Human History
• The Ethics of Archaeological Research: Balancing Preservation and Discovery
• The Archaeology of the Industrial Revolution: A Study of the Rise of Modern Society
• The Role of Archaeology in Heritage Management and Tourism
• The Archaeology of the Ancient Silk Road: Tracing the Roots of Globalization
• The Archaeology of Magic and the Supernatural: An Analysis of Ancient Beliefs
• The Archaeology of Resistance: Investigating the Voices of the Oppressed
• The Archaeology of Sound: Music and Performance in Ancient Societies
• The Archaeology of Childhood: An Exploration of the Lives of Ancient Children
• The Future of Archaeology: New Technologies and New Approaches

Simple & Easy Archaeology Essay Topics

• Ancient Tools and Their Uses: An Introduction to Lithic Analysis
• The Art of Pottery: A Beginner's Guide to Ceramic Analysis
• The Role of Archaeology in Understanding Prehistoric Landscapes
• The Archaeology of Clothing: An Analysis of Ancient Textiles
• The Origins of Writing: A Study of Ancient Scripts and Inscriptions
• The Archaeology of Ancient Trade Routes: An Introduction to Exchange Networks
• Investigating the History of Food: An Archaeological Study of Cuisine
• The Significance of Rock Art: An Introduction to Petroglyph Analysis
• The Archaeology of Architecture: A Study of Ancient Buildings and Structures
• The Archaeology of Everyday Life: An Introduction to Household Analysis

How to Choose a Good Archaeology Essay Topic

Choosing a good topic is the first and most important step in writing an archaeology essay. It can be overwhelming to select a topic from the vast array of possibilities in the field of archaeology. 

Here are some key considerations that can help narrow down the options.

• Personal Interest: Choose a topic that you are genuinely interested in. This will motivate you to conduct in-depth research and produce a high-quality essay.
• Relevance: Consider the relevance of the topic to the course or assignment requirements. Make sure that the topic is appropriate in terms of scope and complexity.
• Availability of Research Material: Ensure that there is sufficient literature available on the topic. It will help you support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. Check if there are any primary sources or artifacts available for research.
• Originality and Feasibility: Try to choose a topic that has not been extensively covered in previous studies. Also consider the feasibility of the topic in terms of time and resources available. Ensure that you can complete the research and writing within the given deadline.
• Broaden Your Horizons: Don't be afraid to step outside of your comfort zone and explore topics that are less commonly studied. This can lead to new and exciting insights into the field of archaeology.

By keeping these points in mind, you can choose a good archaeology essay topic that is both interesting and academically rigorous.

In conclusion, this blog has provided a comprehensive list of exciting archaeology essay topics for students to choose from. 

By selecting one of these topics, you can delve deeper into the understanding of archaeology.

Looking for an experienced college essay writer to tackle your assignments? You're in the right place! Our team of skilled writers specializes in crafting top-notch college essays that will impress your professors.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How do i narrow down a broad topic.

Start by doing preliminary research to get a better understanding of the topic. Then, identify a specific aspect or question within the topic that you are interested in exploring. This will help you focus your research and make your essay more manageable.

Can I write about a controversial topic in archaeology?

Yes, you can write about a controversial topic in archaeology, but be sure to present a balanced and well-researched argument. Acknowledge and address counterarguments, and use credible sources to support your claims.

How do I incorporate primary sources into my essay?

When using primary sources in your essay, make sure to properly cite and analyze the source. Use the source to support your argument and provide context for your topic.

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Caleb S. has extensive experience in writing and holds a Masters from Oxford University. He takes great satisfaction in helping students exceed their academic goals. Caleb always puts the needs of his clients first and is dedicated to providing quality service.

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61 Best Archaeology Research Topics

If you have been searching “archaeology research topics,” your search ends here. At HelpForHomework, we have a team of professional researchers with knowledge in research methods, planning, evaluation, ethics, and writing top-quality research papers.

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• Is the political psychology research question possible to answer?
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Appeal: An excellent research topic has to be appealing to you and your audience. Remember, a topic that interests you is easy to write. Therefore, if you want to write a comprehensive research paper, select an idea that fascinates you.

Expert Tip: After you have selected the best archaeology research topics, ensure that you consult us for proposal and research writing. Further, you should engage your supervisor to follow the core guidelines through the research process.

Best Archaeological Research Topics

If you are looking for the best archaeology research topics, HelpForHomework is the place for you.

• The archaeology of the family in ancient Greece
• The archaeology of ancient state economies
• The archaeology of ancient ships and shipwrecks
• The archaeology of urban life in ancient Egypt
• The archaeology of Jewish art
• Archaeology and religion of ancient Israel
• The religion of ancient America
• The archaeology of agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia
• The archaeology of Mexico
• The archaeology of ancient American Beer

Hot Archaeology Research Topics

Are you looking for hot archaeology research topics? Take a look at the list below:

• Ancient synagogues: discoveries and current research
• Archaeology and women: Ancient and modern issues
• Archaeology and science: integrating archaeology with geographical Information System
• The maritime archaeology of ancient Mediterranean shipwrecks
• Archaeology of ancient empires: Ancient Persia
• Use of robotic tools for deep water archaeology
• Reconstructing the ethnicity of ancient Amazonia: The archaeology of linguistics and ethnography
• Satellite remote sensing for archaeology: current discoveries
• Archaeology and arts: ancient muses
• Archaeology of ancient jewellery in Egypt

Exciting Archaeology Research Topics

Getting archaeological research topics can be a hassle. But we have some for you.

• Life in ancient Peru
• Archaeology of ancient India, history and current exploration
• Archaeology perspective on mobility and migration in Europe
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Archaeology Research Guide

Developing a Topic

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• Excavation and Preservation Research Paper

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Excavation and survey are central topics in archaeology, and they constitute the main if not the only way in which the discipline of archaeology collects new data (Roskams, 2001). Our objectives in this research paper are to explore the development of modern archaeological fieldwork and to project a picture of the discipline’s future. To this end, this paper is structured in the following manner. First, we review the historical development of archaeological excavation and survey. Subsequently, we explain the organization of typical excavation and survey projects and their activities in the field. Third, we focus on specifying core claims and criticisms pertaining to processual archaeology and its response to the challenges. Fourth, we suggest an integrated paradigm approach to excavation and survey for future fieldwork, incorporating the identified fundamentals and merits of both processual and postprocessual archaeology. Finally, we close by discussing central issues on conservation and preservation and developing an agenda for future discussion.

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Archaeology has a rather short history as an academic discipline. This also holds true for excavation and survey. During the 17th and 18th centuries, public interest in ancient ruins and history first began to evolve, and the 19th century saw an upsurge in explorations of ancient ruins. However, it was near the end of this century that true scientific excavation methodology was adopted (Renfrew & Bahn, 2008).

Several archaeologists have contributed to the early development of scientific fieldwork. Augustus Pitt-Rivers introduced a scientific, precise recording system into the discipline through his excavation of Cranborne Chase in southern England. He was concerned with not only discovering spectacular treasures, but also recovering “everything,” recording and describing all items, no matter how ordinary they were. One of Pitt-Rivers’s contemporaries was William Petrie, who devised his own method of sequence dating in order to accurately date multiperiod settlements in Egypt and Palestine. The most influential of the early excavation methodologists, however, was Mortimer Wheeler, who brought a strict grid-square system into the archaeological discipline through his famed excavations in England and India. Later, Kathleen Kenyon brought Wheeler’s method to the Middle East and made it the standard tool of modern scientific excavation projects (Joukowsky, 1980). However, in recent years many European excavators have shifted toward the total-excavation techniques of Philip Barker (1996) involving the exposure of large areas of a site and giving careful attention to site drawing and preservation.

About the same time that Wheeler was developing his grid-square system to study Old World history, Alfred Maudslay, Max Uhie, and Alfred Kidder were putting the New World on the archaeological map with their excavations in Peru, Mexico, and the southwest of the United States (Renfrew & Bahn, 2008). In addition, Kidder developed a regional approach to the study of archaeological sites. He recognized the vital link between a particular archaeological site and its surrounding areas, and suggested the employment of reconnaissance methods as a way to create a more detailed regional survey to explore cogent relationships. Several other methodological and theoretical developments also contributed to the birth of scientific field archaeology including underwater archaeology (George Bass), prehistoric archaeology (Gordon Childe), preservation and conservation of cultural heritage, collection and classification of anthropological data (Franz Boas), historical critical archaeology (Martin Hall and Stephen W. Silliman), urban archaeology (Sheppard Frere), ecological archaeology (Julian Steward and Grahame Clark), invention of radiocarbon dating (Willard Libby), and computerized recording systems.

Development is a building process. A discipline grows larger as the radius of significant theoretical and methodological perspectives expands and as the achievements of earlier periods are integrated into those of the next era of development. Likewise, in field archaeology, the 1960s was marked by induction of the “new” archaeology (hereafter processual archaeology) into the discipline under the leadership of Binford (1972) and Clarke (1968). According to O’Brien, Lyman, and Schiffer (2005), any discussion pertaining to modern excavations and surveys must address the issues raised by processual archaeology.

In the past, traditional field archaeology was largely concerned with how to explain the past and how people had lived; processual field archaeology attempted to explain the past based on an explicit theoretical framework, as well as to make valid generalizations based on sampling data. Processual archaeology advocated deductive field reasoning in that researchers began with advancing a hypothesis, collected data to test it, and reflected on whether or not the theory was confirmed by the outcome of the study. In contrast, traditional field archaeology was typical of an inductive approach in that archaeologists became involved in “piecing together the past” based on observation of a limited number of related events or archaeological sites and data. The research methodology of processual field archaeology usually employed quantitative data collection and centered on answering specific research questions, rather than attempting to address general issues with verbal and narrative data.

One important outcome of the processual archaeology movement was the growth of field projects that included well-defined research objectives and sophisticated regional surveys. That is to say that regional surveys had come of age as an important part of archaeological research under the auspices of processual archaeology. Researchers for the first time began to systematically conduct intensive field surveys and selective soundings coupled with sophisticated statistical sampling strategies and improved conservation methods. The influence of the movement was also reflected in the development of world archaeology. A case in point was the field research dealing with the origins of human species and activities, such as Braidwood’s fieldwork in the Middle East for the origins of agriculture and Louis Leakey’s efforts in Africa to understand the early phases of human history.

Applications: Elements of Excavation and Survey

The overall method of excavations used by modern archaeological projects is still closely allied with the original template developed by Wheeler and Kenyon. Even so, the readers must be aware of the fact that there are many variations to this standard and oft-practiced methodology depending on research aims, field conditions, and technical and ideological factors (see Barker, 1996; Roskams, 2001).

Modern excavation teams are composed of a variety of personnel. In general, project directors are responsible for managing an excavation. They develop research goals by studying relevant documents, old maps and drawings, and previous work on the site. Project directors also conduct pre-excavation surveys of the site by examining aerial photographs, studying geophysical surveys, and walking the site. Once the excavation begins, they supervise the excavation in the field, oversee the budget, and guide the publication of the excavation results.

Field supervisors are trained archaeologists who work under the project director. They are responsible for a single area or field of excavation. Their responsibilities are broad and include devising fieldwork strategies for their squares; establishing a coherent stratigraphic picture of the finds from the field; organizing square supervisors and workers into an effective work force; supervising excavations; coordinating balk drawing and field photography; collaborating with the project directors, architects, and other specialists in the field; and keeping the records of the excavation results and findings. They are assisted by square supervisors who excavate and record the singlesquare data and organize the work of volunteers and paid workers in the square. In charge of initial extracting and recording of raw data, the square supervisor’s work is vital to the success of excavation.

The proper scientific methods for conducting an archaeological excavation and recording archaeological data are found in excavation handbooks and field manuals (e.g., Barker, 1996; Blakely & Toombs, 1982; Collis, 2001; Herr & Christopherson, 1998; Joukowsky, 1980; Kipfer, 2007; Roskams, 2001). These field manuals and handbooks allow project directors to choose a recording method that best represents the archaeological goals of the project. Before an excavation can begin, a surveyor must establish the location of each square according to the general grid pattern of the site. Then, supervisors and volunteers prepare the squares prior to the actual excavation by removing debris from the square, setting up a benchmark for taking levels, and reviewing the final records of the previous seasons if a formerly excavated square is reopened. When the excavation does begin, volunteers and workers use a variety of tools such as hand picks, trowels, hoes, dustpans, brushes, ladders, and sieves according to the methodologies outlined in the handbook.

To maintain control within an excavation, archaeologists using the Wheeler method establish balks between squares. A balk is a cross section of the excavated areas within a square. In order for the balks to be useful, they must be trimmed regularly. A hand trowel or pick is used to create a vertical surface that reveals the various soil layers, architectural features, or intrusive elements. Usually, the square supervisor will label the various features in a balk with locus tags. Then the various layer and other features are drawn on a cross-section map called a balk drawing. At the end of the season, these cross sections are photographed to keep a permanent record of their location.

Archaeological discoveries, no matter how small, must be handled with great care in order not to lose any data. Pottery pails must be labeled appropriately in order to process them while avoiding pottery contamination. Pottery sherds need to be washed of soil debris so they can be analyzed. Floral, faunal, and bone samples must be placed in paper bags to prevent the introduction of mold spores. Radiocarbon samples are usually placed in aluminum foil to prevent contamination, while the contents of jars and bowl are processed through flotation to separate soil granuals from seeds or other organic material.

Each discovery—from the smallest grains of sand to the architecture within a square—must be recorded accurately. The basic unit of an excavation is a locus, which represents an area being investigated within a square. Locus numbers are assigned to each area and generally recorded on individual locus sheets; these may represent soil, architectural features, or installations. In order to identify pits, burials, foundation trenches, surfaces, and other features, careful excavation is necessary. When archaeological data are collected correctly, new discoveries can be synthesized into existing historical evidence for the evolution of adequate site history and general sociohistorical theories of the site and its vicinity.

Apart from excavations, another important technique for understanding how an ancient settlement originated and thrived is the regional survey (Banning, 2002). Surveys are used as either ad hoc or pre-excavation preparation activities. Two of the most common survey methods are salvage surveys and reconnaissance surveys. A salvage survey looks for and documents as many ancient sites as possible before they are destroyed by modern and natural events and developments. A reconnaissance survey is usually employed when a field archaeologist intends to locate potential excavation sites or to acquire a broad picture of settlement history in relation to the site under consideration for excavation. Following the birth of processual archaeology, archaeologists extended this line of work to develop more extensive and intensive regional surveys. They now can acquire large-scale perspectives on changes in settlement, occupation, and land use through time.

A survey team is regularly made up of four to eight persons, including a field director, an artist, a photographer, and volunteers, although its size and personnel may vary depending on the survey goal and resources of the project. Ideally, the purpose of a survey strategy is to undertake an intensive survey of all parts of the research area in a systematic manner. For example, from 1996 to 2000, Ji (2007) undertook an intensive systematic survey of the entire area of the Dhiban Plateau in Jordan, an area approximately 250 sq. km. The survey area was divided into about 250 parcels of 1 km × 1 km using a 1:50,000 scale Universal Transverse Mercator map. Each square was then assigned a sequence number. To increase the precision in locating the selected parcels, a Global Positioning System (GPS) device was used and each 1 × 1 sq. km was then surveyed in a systematic way, employing a series of 200 m spaced traverses; that is, each square was divided into five 0.2 × 1.0 km sectors through which the survey team walked or drove systematically. In this way, no part of the area was either under- or overrepresented in the survey. When a survey square contained previously known or conspicuous archaeological ruins, these sites were examined first and then their vicinity explored. At each site, a major effort was given to the collection of pottery sherds and artifacts on the surface. The survey team recorded and took photos of each archaeological feature in the site, while artists made field sketches of the site and any significant features. In addition, off-site features (e.g., rock-cut installations, cisterns, tombs, quarries, terraces, water channels, caves) were located and documented. Surface soil was also collected at some selected sites for geological and landscape studies.

In addition to the survey techniques used on the Dhiban Plateau, the non-site or off-site survey is also used to survey large areas. Thomas (1975) conducted the first nonsite survey in the Reese River Valley of central Nevada. Here, Thomas collected artifacts across 140 spatial units (each 500 × 500 m in size), instead of surveying sites, to study how hunter-gatherers dovetailed their economic activities into the environment in the Great Basin area. Similar to Thomas’s study was Foley’s research (1981) in Kenya, where he studied the relationship between an offsite artifact distribution and the formation of central sites in the area. These surveys heralded the advance of landscape archaeology (see subsequent section), an approach that considers the distribution of material remains such as potsherds, fishing holes, stone tools, hunting grounds, seasonal shelters, and pathways as an investigation in their own right, with their own ends (Tilley, 1994).

A more recent example of non-site survey is Christopherson’s random-square survey (Herr & Christopherson, 1998) in the Madaba Plains in Jordan. Here, the surveyor first divided his project area into about 2,000 survey plots, each measuring 200 × 200 m, and then randomly selected 100 out of these squares, roughly 5% of the total area of the region. Christopherson then used a GPS device to locate the random squares. Christopherson’s project shows how Thomas’s and Foley’s early efforts led to the current evolution of a survey method fully grounded in the analysis of spatial units such as random quadrates (see Banning, 2002).

Beyond Processual Archaeology

The concept and movement of processual archaeology grew in popularity in the early 1970s, but soon it came under attack from multiple quarters. Some structuralist scholars argue that ideas and symbolic concepts of past societies are critical in understanding their actions and determining which cultural elements of their civilization survive and thrive (Arnold, 1983; Glassie, 1975). Along with this, some argue that archaeologists should study the structure of ideas in the minds of the ancients who made pottery and artifacts. Recurrent patterns on the material cultures are reflective of human and social thoughts behind the design elements. Hodder and Hutson (2004), on the other hand, viewed all data and knowledge as subjective and thus any attempt to find objective knowledge as illusive (see also Shanks & Tilley, 1987). Here, there is no such thing as objective hypothesis testing. Archaeology, in this perspective, is intrinsically linked with history, and field research needs to be primarily designed for historical inquiries rather than to promote a general sociological and cultural theory for different societies. On the other hand, neo-Marxist archaeologists emphasized the ideology of the elites and their desire to control the society as significant in shaping changes and developments of the society (Leone, 1984). This view emphasized ideology as a powerful force within ancient societies. Accordingly, archaeologists should give relevant attention to the weight of ideology not only in the process of data interpretation, but also at the stages of research design and actual fieldwork.

Processualist archaeologists responded to this wave of criticism by creating a new approach to landscape studies (Roskams, 2001). Formerly, a landscape was nothing more than a physical environment where archaeologists carried out reconnaissance in search of ancient evidence of archaeological sites. It is now perceived as a cultural construct that warrants a careful analysis in relation to an excavation site. The emergence of contextual data collection is also notable, demanding that archaeologists provide detailed, contextualized information in relation to their finds to promote fuller social explanation of the archaeological data.

Postprocessualist challenges, however, were most evident in the area of interpretation and theory evaluation as it ushered in a cognitive-processual approach to archaeological data (Renfrew & Bahn, 2008). This new interpretive framework is different in several ways from the functional approach of conventional processual archaeology. The new processual archaeology now recognizes both ideology and internal conflict as important forces within past societies. Similarly, material culture is defined as having had an integral place within the construction of the early societies, helping later generations understand the cognitive and symbolic aspects of those societies. The new framework also gives increased attention to the historical approach of traditional archaeology, seeking to explain the ideological and socioeconomic evolution of early societies in their context of cyclical change and underlying longterm trends. Cognitive processualist excavators and surveyors continue to reject the extreme relativism of postprocessualist archaeology and Hodder’s critical theory, but acknowledge the linkage between fact and theory as more ambivalent and complex than previously presumed in the 1960s and 1970s.

To Renfrew and Bahn (2008), cognitive processualists currently focus their research agenda in two main directions: (1) inspecting the bearing of symbols in social changes and transformation structure and (2) examining the conventional areas of research interest such as agriculture development and state formation. For example, the work of Flannery and Marcus (1983) in the Oaxaca Valley, Mexico, examined the evidence for religion and social division in addition to traditional issues such as diet, state formation, environment, and technology. Their ethnographic research shows some gender division of work areas in the household. The excavations also yielded evidence for ritual activities at the community and household levels. People were buried according to certain religious beliefs; variations in grave size and quality pointed to the presence of distinctive class division among those who were buried in the valley. The structure of social transformation is another current focus in that some processualists actively incorporate various new concepts such as positive feedback, punctual equilibrium, catastrophe, and selforganizations. The incorporation of these new concepts is designed to generate more effective and complete formal models of social change and cultural transformation. Within these models, human ideas and symbolic elements of human society bear prominent roles.

Future Directions of Archaeological Fieldwork

All archaeological inquisitions ultimately involve a decision to describe something from the past—to ask questions and seek answers about earlier societies, requiring that data of some kind be collected, that the data be analyzed in some way, and that the researchers come to some conclusion or interpretation. However, fieldwork is not necessarily a uniform application of the scientific method. Depending on research paradigm, substantive variances can exist between the types of questions, the form of data collection and analysis, and the meaningful conclusions that field archaeologists can draw with validity.

A question then arises as to how many paradigms currently exist in the discipline of archaeological fieldwork. Renfrew and Bahn (2008) advanced four major models:

(1) structuralism, (2) critical theory, (3) neo-Marxism, and (4) cognitive-processual archaeology. Others see at least several methods of carrying out fieldwork including functionalism, Marxism, feminism, phenomenology, evolutionism, historicism, and cultural-historicism (Johnson, 1999; Trigger, 2006).

Most archaeologists, however, would agree on the salience of two broad research paradigms behind archaeological fieldwork: inductive and deductive (Roskams, 2001). The inductive paradigm proceeds from particular facts or empirical data to a general conclusion; the deductive paradigm involves essentially the reverse process—setting a hypothesis and then testing this assumption with data in order to arrive at a conclusion. The 20th century began with the rule of an inductive approach to archaeological fieldwork and ended with the ascendancy of a deductive approach. This change unfolded during the first half of the century but became dramatically embodied with the movement of processual archaeology in the 1960s and 1970s. The development of this phenomenon, however, was not a case of a deductive approach replacing an inductive approach. An inductive approach to fieldwork is still very much prevalent and it has strong support from many quarters of traditional and postprocessual archaeological communities.

Whether archaeological excavations and surveys can be “purely” deductive/processual or “purely” inductive/ traditional/postprocessual, and as such be guided by one of two opposing approaches, remains uncertain, however. For example, archaeologists with a specific research agenda on the development of Iron Age religious rituals may uncover a variety of architectures and artifacts related to periods other than the Iron Age. In this case, the excavators have moral and academic obligations to gather all the data, albeit unrelated to their research focus, in a systematic manner and eventually describe and explain what has happened across all the periods in their field reports. This example illustrates how one field project can consist of deductive/ processual and inductive/traditional components, although in this case the emphasis of the fieldwork may remain weighed toward one end of the continuum if the excavators continue to center their excavation efforts and resources on the collection of Iron Age cultic data.

In addition, archaeologists should be aware of the danger of the domination of one single paradigmatic view. Research projects that grow out of only one specific perspective tend to illustrate some part of the fieldwork while ignoring the rest. Indeed, what would occur if advocates of deductive processual archaeology paid more attention to the broad range of historical issues and questions that traditional field archaeologists have generated for them? And what if inductive historiographic archaeologists spent more time exploring the range of socioeconomic phenomena that processual archaeology has sought to define and test?

The discipline of archaeological fieldwork may need to move beyond inductive/traditional versus deductive/ processual archaeology arguments because both research paradigms are useful and important. In this context, it is encouraging to note that a mixed-paradigm approach to social science has recently gained favor as an alternative to the exclusive reliance on either a deductive or an inductive framework (Creswell, 2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). For archaeology, a case in point is cognitive-processual archaeology, which seeks to incorporate the research questions of traditional and postprocessual archaeologists about ideology, internal conflicts, historical events, and chronology without giving up their positivist views on theory and data. By doing that, cognitive processualists attempt to bridge the schism between traditional and processual archaeology, as well as to eschew the incompatibility distinctions of those who assert fundamental discrepancies between inductive and deductive research.

In the 21st century, however, archaeologists may need to go further by adopting a more integrated paradigm. This approach is more appropriate for field archaeologists whose primary goal is not to search for a simple corroboration of processual, traditional, Marxist, or historiographic archaeology but rather to expand their understanding. In other words, the aim of integrated research is not to supplant either the inductive/traditional or deductive/processual archaeology paradigm, but rather to draw from their strengths and minimize the frailties of single-paradigm field studies. Its logic of inquiry requires the skillful use of both induction and deduction in order to uncover and rely on the best of a set of explanations for understanding one’s results (de Waal, 2001). To this end, excavators and surveyors must collect multiple forms of data using divergent strategies and methods in such a way that historical and socioeconomic questions are both best and most fully answered through different data sets.

In an integrated fieldwork model, researchers first need to decide whether to give the inductive/traditional and deductive/processual archaeology components equal eminence or to give one paradigm the dominant position (see Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004, pp. 19–20). A second dimension to consider is time ordering of the inductive/ traditional and deductive/processual phases within or across research, with the phases operating in a simultaneous or consecutive manner. Another dimension to cogitate is where integration would take place: at the stage of research question, data collection, analysis, or interpretation.

Due to these multiple assorted dimensions, the potential number of manners in which archaeological research can integrate inductive/traditional and deductive/processual methods is immense. For example, a variety of research paradigm models can evolve depending on how inductive/traditional and deductive/processual paradigms are arranged along the research procedure of research objective, data collection, and data analysis. Figure 1 presents six integrated designs, which may be called across-research-process-paradigm designs. For another example, once a researcher employs an integrated paradigm approach, he or she should make two principal decisions: whether or not to operate chiefly within one paradigm and whether to blend the two paradigms simultaneously or sequentially. Figure 2 illustrates nine of many possible designs that can be constructed based on these decisions. We can easily come up with more creative and more sophisticated fieldwork designs than those illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. For instance, archaeologists may choose to increase the number of repetitions between deductive and inductive data collection and analysis or formulate a fieldwork design that combines both integrated paradigm design features in Figures 1 and 2.

       Figure 1

      Figure 2

A key point is that the potential for variation is limitless. A variety of integrated methods, research designs are feasible; excavators and surveyors can be innovative, rather than constrained by one dominant orientation once integrated methods research is employed. In integrated methods research, excavators and surveyors should be able to generate designs that more adequately and efficiently address their research questions than the routine conventional fieldwork where one operates completely within either an inductive/traditional or deductive/processual paradigm orientation.

Revolutionizing the archaeological community to ensure that the research designs of all field projects are predominantly integrated-paradigm oriented is an ambitious goal. Yet, the discipline as a whole is apparently transitioning from a strictly hypothetico-deductive method of processual archaeology to a future of an elastic field archaeology that is more inclusive, synthetic, and diverse in scope. For fieldwork paradigms, as stated above, it could mean the integration of inductive/traditional and deductive/ processual excavations and surveys. In regard to field technique, it also could lead to incorporating various new technologies into excavations and field surveys (Roskams, 2001). Many important advances have indeed been made in relation to information technology, ranging from (but by no means limited to) geographical information systems to statistical software programs, geophysical engineering, and aerial and satellite photography. If excavations and surveys are to be truly cutting-edge, then archaeologists must incorporate these techniques and use them for data collection and presentation. There is little doubt that information technology will have a major impact on archaeological fieldwork in the coming decades.

Finally, there are potential problems that field archaeologists should avoid; each is a trap that relates to the complexity and technical bases of fieldwork itself. First, archaeologists should avert the “a priori purposeful” trap because fieldwork is not a latent activity and because the process of excavation and survey demands that archaeologists let research goals and designs evolve with them. Good field research needs working goals, hypotheses, and designs that are not static. Second, excavators and surveyors should be careful not to engage in the “evaluative” trap by interfering with the normative dispute over the inductive/ traditional and deductive/processual paradigms and because both processual archaeology and postprocessual archaeology are consequences of rather similar vigorous scientific processes.The archaeological fieldwork paradigm is, therefore, “both” or “relative” rather than “good” or “bad.” Finally, field archaeologists should avoid the “verification” trap. The goal of archaeology is not merely to “interpret the past but to change the manner in which the past is interpreted in service of social reconstruction in the present” (Shanks & Tilley, 1987, p. 195). It is fundamentally “a political practice” under the influence of dominant political and ideological forces (Palus, Leone, & Cochran, 2006, p. 86). Archaeologists must be aware of the political conditions and the wider ideological battle over power and their influence on archaeological scholarship. Scientific fieldwork may yield knowledge about the nature of an ancient community, but it cannot comment on what are “true or false” political, ideological, or religious claims.

Conservation

Once an integrated model has been selected and the artifacts have been excavated, archaeologists face the problem of how to prevent the artifacts from further deterioration while they are being studied. When artifacts are in situ, they chemically interact with the environment around them. In dryer climates like Egypt and Chile, some artifacts are less likely to be affected by their surroundings. In moist climates like northern England or the Amazon, deterioration can accelerate through contact with bacteria, insects, animals, salts, or minerals, depending on the type of artifacts. Even the most stable artifacts, such as highly fired ceramics or stone bowls, can develop stains and calcification that make them difficult to analyze. Once artifacts are removed from their in situ environment, they begin to interact with their new environment in ways that may be harmful to the artifacts. Removing some types of artifacts, then, can cause permanent damage (Cornyn, 1990).

Artifact conservation is a relatively new phenomenon; its basic purpose is to stabilize artifacts without a negative effect on the archaeological evidence (Banning, 2000, p. 126; Pye, 2001, pp. 9–10). Some archaeologists use an aggressive approach that attempts to remove all corrosion, especially from metal or glass objects that might continue to deteriorate with oxidation. Unfortunately, this approach may render the artifacts useless for certain types of archaeological analyses such as noninvasive spectrography, archaeometry, metallurgic testing, or UV and ultraviolet examination. It may also prevent the application of future technologies for the study of the artifact. Therefore, most archaeologists prefer a less invasive approach that interferes as little as possible with the archaeological evidence preserved on the artifact. Archaeologists should always attempt to create an environment that will not accelerate deterioration.

There are several principles that should be considered when dealing with artifacts. First, wherever possible, archaeologists should consult a conservator throughout the process of conservation. Conservators are professionals who are trained in the art of preserving artifacts and can help create guidelines for their collection, handling, cleaning, repair, and storage. Many specialize in specific material such as bronze, glass, or textiles and should be consulted before entertaining the use of any invasive conservation methods on these materials. Second, most artifacts are fragile; before beginning conservation a plan should be outlined identifying any problems with the artifacts, the objectives for dealing with those problems, the types of conservation techniques that are available, and any risks to the artifacts. It may be that some artifacts have more immediate needs and will benefit from conservation, while others may not need immediate attention or may not benefit at all from conservation (Banning, 2000, pp. 126–127).

Third, all conservation projects should include accurate and well-maintained records. A system for assessing and recording information about each artifact and exactly what conservation methods will be used should be in place prior to conservation. Labels should be securely attached, reliable, and stable. A database or other computer program can be used to record artifacts’ information and should be backed up regularly to ensure long-term preservation. Fourth, any conservation project should be a collaborative effort. Archaeologists, curators, and other specialists may have very different criteria for determining if an artifact should receive special conservation methods. An archaeologist might treat an object because it contributes to an understanding of the stratigraphic sequence within an excavation, a curator might see an artifact for its value as a display piece, and a specialist might need to preserve organic residue for further testing. All interested parties should work together to stabilize an artifact without negatively impacting its archaeological contribution (Pye, 2001, pp. 34–35).

While protecting artifacts from further decay is an important consideration, there may be ethical issues to consider before undertaking a conservation project. Most excavated artifacts belong to the host country. Although archaeologists may take them from that country to be studied outside of the region, they are expected to return the artifacts in a timely manner as specified in the permit. Even artifacts excavated by nationals may be claimed by indigenous peoples if they were found on native lands or have ritual significance. Such groups may have a stake in whether or not a conservation project is undertaken, and archaeologists and curators may need to consider whether conservation is worth the expense if in the end the artifact is returned to the host community. In any event, culturally sensitive artifacts and human remains need to be treated with respect. It is no longer acceptable to display burial artifacts or the bones of someone’s ancestors without permission from or consideration of the interests of indigenous peoples. Wherever possible, excavated sacred remains need to be repatriated—museums and universities with bone collections likely collected in the 19th century should create appropriate protocols for the return of these artifacts to their respective cultures. Archaeologists should always seek to respect the laws of the host countries as outlined in the permits and any international laws and conventions that may apply.

Preservation

Where conservation seeks to stabilize artifacts, archaeological preservation attempts to maintain artifacts in that state indefinitely. Until recently, archaeological preservation was the responsibility of museum curators and specialists. In the past, archaeologists were only interested in what data artifacts could contribute to their understanding of a culture or a civilization. For archaeologists, conservation served the purpose of maintaining an artifact in a state that would allow it to be studied in depth for as long as was necessary. Once the scientific research was completed, artifacts were put into the care of museum curators and archaeologists were no longer involved. Likewise, archaeological sites were turned over to cultural resource managers, indigenous populations, or antiquities authorities to decide whether resources should be allocated for longterm preservation. In recent years, archaeologists have begun to see the value of preserving artifacts not only for their own research or that of future scholars, but also for the contribution to informing and educating the general public (Pearce, 1990, pp. 1–3).

Several factors have contributed to the need for archaeologists to preserve not only artifacts, but also the sites from which they were excavated. Recent destruction of archaeological sites in Iraq and the vandalism of the Iraqi National Museum have served as a wake-up call to those who have a vested interest in archaeological preservation (Emberling & Hanson, 2008). Widespread looting throughout the world has emphasized how fragile archaeological and cultural heritage sites are becoming. With little protection from local authorities, many ancient sites are seriously threatened. Even archaeological sites currently being excavated are at risk of vandalism, forcing archaeologists to re-evaluate their preservation strategies.

Although archaeological and cultural heritage sites are increasingly threatened, archaeology as a discipline has gained widespread popularity. Movies and documentaries have glamorized the role of the archaeologist, and some archaeologists have become pseudo-celebrities, appearing in numerous television shows and documentaries. Television channels such as Discovery, National Geographic, the History Channel, and others have inspired many people to take an interest in archaeology. Many shows have highlighted the threats that historical sites face and brought the need for action into to the public conscience. In addition, historical tourism has also risen in popularity. For more than a century, visitors have flocked to exotic sites such as the Giza Plateau in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, and the ancient city of Machu Picchu in Peru. Most of these sites are well guarded and well preserved to prevent looting or destruction from overuse. However, smaller sites (especially those en route to larger sites) are also attracting visitors and becoming tourist destinations. These sites are frequently unguarded and do not have the resources for long-term preservation. Archaeologists and cultural resource managers have found that attracting visitors to an archaeological site, even a small one, can help reduce looting and vandalism. Unfortunately, most small sites do not have the budget for the long-term preservation needed to prepare them for the general public. In order to preserve a historical site, archaeologists must engage the local community in the process. When local communities are involved in the management of a cultural resource, they often recognize the financial value that tourism brings and frequently take pride in hosting an archaeological site in their community (Hodder, 2004, pp. 164–166).

The future of archaeology is intimately related to the cultural heritage sites that archaeologists investigate and that now hang in the balance. On one hand, American audiences continue to be fascinated by what archaeologists do and what they discover. Although the media has portrayed archaeology in a sensationalist manner, it has provided a medium for archaeologists to correct misunderstanding, introduce new discoveries, and inspire a new generation of archaeologists. However, it has also come at a price. The added attention has not gone unnoticed by desperate communities who see cultural remains as a potential resource. In the face of poverty, many communities near cultural heritage sites have turned to looting as a way to survive. Little is being done to combat the destruction of archaeological sites throughout the world, and the appetite for looted antiquities has not abated. One can hardly blame these individuals and communities for taking advantage of this resource. Unfortunately, this destruction is so severe that some sites may never be excavated scientifically again. Indeed, the future and sustainability of any site lies in developing strategies that engage the local communities in the archaeological process. Local communities must become involved in all aspects of the archaeological process—from its planning and excavation to its management and security. These communities need to be encouraged to take ownership and pride in their cultural heritage and its archaeological sites. Only then will archaeology have a future.

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