triac method of essay writing

Dr. Eric Drown

Reading and Writing are Superpowers*

TRIAC Paragraph Structure

Emerging academic writers often wonder how to beef up their paragraphs without adding fluff. TRIAC can help writers explain their ideas in depth. TRIAC paragraphs (or paragraph sequences) feature these elements:

Topic . Start the paragraph by introducing a topic that supports or complicates your thesis – the central problem or idea that the paragraph aims to explore. Better topic sentences function as a mini-thesis and make a claim about the topic.

Restriction . Because there can be many aspects and approaches to a topic, it makes sense to specify the aspect or approach you’re going to take. Follow the topic with sentences that narrow the scope of the topic. In these sentences, you’re rewriting the topic in more specific terms and setting the direction the paragraph will follow.

Illustration/Example/Evidence . Help your reader understand the restricted topic in concrete terms, and give him or her something to think about by offering an example, exhibit, or evidence.

Analysis . Help your reader see your point by looking at the evidence you offered through your eyes. What parts of it are the most significant? How does the evidence support, complicate, or counter the restricted claim about the topic you (or another writer) are making?

Conclusion/Connections . What, having understood your evidence as you see it, should your reader have learned from your paragraph? How can this conclusion be connected to other relevant ideas in your essay?

Here’s an example of a short TRIAC paragraph.

[TOPIC] Many critics worry that the way we use the Internet is reshaping our minds. [RESTRICTION] Their biggest concern is that our shallow-reading habits are fostering inattention and undermining literacy. [ILLUSTRATION/EXAMPLE] For example, in “ Is Google Making Us Stupid? ,” journalist Nicholas Carr worries that the connection-making state of mind promoted by slow, deep reading is giving way to an information-seeking state of mind best adapted to finding separate bits of information. In his view, instead of diving deep into the ocean of ideas, we merely “zip along the surface like a guy on a Jet Ski.”  [ ANALYSIS ] Carr rightly points out that our reading habits are certainly changing. It is true that much of our everyday reading feeds our information-seeking appetites. It is also true that it takes work to learn how to read and think slowly and deeply. But his insistence that we are losing our ability to think in a complex way is countered by the slow patient thinking that takes place in activities such as prayer, meditation, and scholarship . [CONCLUSION] While it may indeed take conscious and disciplined effort to learn how to read and think well, today’s students are capable of making that effort, provided that we recognize that, like previous generations, some may need guided practice in the habit.

Visit my Barclay’s Formula or Observation-Implication-Conclusion  pages for other useful paragraph structures.

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17 Rhetorical Modes for Paragraphs & Essays

Questions to Ponder

Before you read this chapter, discuss with partners:

• What are rhetorical modes (also called “patterns of organization” and “methods of development”)? Can you list some examples?
• Why are rhetorical modes important in writing? Jot down your ideas.

Now read the graphic below. Can you add to the list of rhetorical modes that you created with your partners?

Rhetorical Modes

Rhetorical modes are also called patterns of organization or methods of development ; they are the ways that authors and speakers organize their ideas to communicate effectively. The rhetorical modes that are covered here are best used as ways to look at what’s already happening in your draft and to consider how you might emphasize or expand on any existing patterns. You might already be familiar with some of these patterns because instructors will sometimes assign them as the purpose for writing an essay. For example, you might have been asked to write a cause and effect essay or a comparison and contrast essay.

Patterns of organization or methods of developing content usually happen naturally as a consequence of the way the writer engages with and organizes information while writing. That is to say, most writers don’t sit down and say, “I think I’ll write a cause and effect essay today.”  Instead, a writer might be more likely to be interested in a topic, say, the state of drinking water in the local community, and as the writer begins to explore the topic, certain cause and effect relationships between environmental pollutants and the community water supply may begin to emerge . And in fact, many times, one essay may incorporate two or more rhetorical modes, as the author makes an argument for their point of view.

Activity A ~ Brainstorming Rhetorical Modes

Pause here to brainstorm ideas with your partner. Using the chart above (“ Choosing Paragraph Patterns “), discuss some of the topics below. Which mode(s) might you use in an essay about these topics? Would you need to explore more than one rhetorical mode for each topic?

• Gender roles
• Race in America
• The value of art in society
• Travel as part of a well-rounded education
• Drugs and alcohol
• Advice to new parents
• Advice to teachers
• The value of making mistakes
• How you’d spend a million dollars
• What a tough day at work taught you about yourself or others
• My family history
• Your idea: ___________

Keep reading to consider some of the ways that these strategies can help you as you revise a draft.

Cause/Effect

Do you see a potential cause-and-effect relationship developing in your draft?  The cause/effect pattern may be used to identify one or more causes followed by one or more effects or results. Or you may reverse this sequence and describe effects first and then the cause or causes. For example, the causes of water pollution might be followed by its effects on both humans and animals. Use the signal words cause ,  effect , and  result , to cue the reader about your about the relationships that you’re establishing.

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times , “ Rough Times Take Bloom Off a New Year’s Rite, the Rose Parade ,” that explores the cause and effect relationship (from 2011) between Pasadena’s budgetary challenges and the ability of their Rose Parade floats to deck themselves out in full bloom.

Problem/Solution

At some point does your essay explore a problem or suggest a solution? The problem/solution pattern is commonly used in identifying something that’s wrong and in contemplating what might be done to remedy the situation. For example, the problem of water pollution could be described, followed by ideas of new ways to solve the problem. There are probably more ways to organize a problem/solution approach, but here are three possibilities:

• Describe the problem, followed by the solution
• Propose the solution first and then describe the problems that motivated it
• Explain a problem, followed by several solutions, and select one solution as the best

Emphasize the words problem  and  solution  to signal these sections of your paper for your reader.

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times , “ Monks Embrace Web to Reach Recruits ,” that highlights an unexpected approach by a group of Benedictine monks in Rhode Island; they’ve turned to social media to grow their dwindling membership.

Compare/Contrast

Are you trying to define something? Do you need your readers to understand what something is and what it is not? The compare-and-contrast method of development is particularly useful in extending a definition, or anywhere you need to show how a subject is like or unlike another subject. For example, the statement is often made that drug abuse is a medical problem instead of a criminal justice issue. An author might attempt to prove this point by comparing drug addiction to AIDS, cancer, or heart disease to redefine the term “addiction” as a medical problem. A statement in opposition to this idea could just as easily establish contrast by explaining all the ways that addiction is different from what we traditionally understand as an illness. In seeking to establish comparison or contrast in your writing, some words or terms that might be useful are by contrast ,  in comparison ,  while ,  some , and  others .

Here’s an example article from T he New York Times “ Who Wants to Shop in a Big Box Store, Anyway? ” The author explores some interesting differences between the average American and average Indian consumer to contemplate the potential success of big box stores in India and also to contemplate why these giant big box corporations, like Walmart or Target, might have to rethink their business model.

These three methods of development—cause/effect, problem/solution, and compare/contrast—are just a few ways to organize and develop ideas and content in your essays. It’s important to note that they should not be a starting point for writers who want to write something authentic, to discuss something that they care deeply about. Instead, they can be a great way to help you look for what’s already happening with your topic or in a draft, to help you to write more, or to help you reorganize some parts of an essay that seem to lack connection or feel disjointed.

Sometimes writers incorporate a variety of modes in any one essay. For example, under the umbrella of an argument essay, and author might choose to write paragraphs showing cause and effect, description, and narrative. The rhetorical mode writers choose depends on the purpose for writing. Rhetorical modes are a set of tools that will give you greater flexibility and effectiveness in communicating with your audience and expressing ideas.

In addition to cause/effect , problem/solution , and compare/contrast , there are many other types of rhetorical modes:

• Classification and division , often used in science, takes large ideas and divides them into manageable chunks of information, classifying and organizing them into types and parts.
• Definition  clarifies the meaning of terms and concepts, providing context and description for deeper understanding of those ideas.
• Description  provides detailed information using adjectives that appeal to the five senses (what people see, hear, smell, taste, and touch) as well as other vivid details that help readers visualize or understand an item or concept.
• Evaluation  analyzes and judges the value and merit of an essay, a concept, or topic.
• Illustration  provides examples and evidence in detail to support, explain, and analyze a main point or idea.
• Narrative  uses fictional or nonfictional stories in a chronological sequence of events, often including detailed descriptions and appeals to the senses and emotions of readers while storytelling to reveal a theme or moment.
• Persuasion  (i.e., argumentation) logically attempts to convince readers to agree with an opinion or take an action; the argument also acknowledges opposing viewpoints and accommodates and/or refutes them with diplomatic and respectful language, as well as provides precise and accurate evidence and other expert supporting details.
• Process analysis  describes and explains, step by step, chronologically, in detail, and with precision and accuracy, how to do something or how something works.

Assignment prompts for college essays may require a specific rhetorical mode, or you may be able to choose the best mode(s) to express your ideas clearly. Either way, be sure to ask your instructor if you are not sure which rhetorical mode(s) to use.

Key Takeaways

Why are rhetorical modes important?

• As readers, understanding an author’s rhetorical mode helps us to understand the text, and to read and think critically.
• Knowing the rhetorical mode helps us to identify the author’s main ideas, which helps us to summarize the author’s work.
• As writers, we use rhetorical modes to make our writing clearer; they help us signal our topic and direction to our readers.
• Rhetorical modes also help us to develop support and keep our readers interested.

Activity B ~ Identifying Rhetorical Modes

• Read a printed or online essay or article. A letter to the editor or an editorial from a newspaper would be perfect. Then, with a partner, identify the modes of writing found in the article. (Use the lists above to help.) Analyze the different choices the writer has made about language and organization to express a point of view. Notice how the author may combine rhetorical modes (for example, a problem-solution article that uses cause-and-effect organization in some paragraphs, or a definition pattern that uses narrative or compare and contrast paragraphs to develop similarities or differences).
• Select, read, and annotate a sample student essay in a specific style as provided in “ Readings: Examples of Essays ” from Saylor Academy . Note in the margins or on another sheet of paper what rhetorical mode each paragraph uses, how those modes and paragraphs support the overall rhetorical mode of the essay, and whether each paragraph does so successfully or not. Discuss in small groups and summarize your findings to report to the rest of the class.

If you want to learn more about three common rhetorical modes, read what the New York Times  has to say in their learning blog article, “ Compare-Contrast, Cause-Effect, Problem Solution: Common ‘Text Types’ in The Times .”

Note: links open in new tabs.

This chapter was modified from the following Open Educational Resources:

“Patterns of Organization and Methods of Development ” from The Word on College Reading and Writing by Carol Burnell, Jaime Wood, Monique Babin, Susan Pesznecker, and Nicole Rosevear, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

“ Introduction ” from  English Composition   by Karyl Garland, Ann Inoshita, Jeanne K. Tsutsui Keuma, Kate Sims, and Tasha Williams, is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

“ Chapter 10: The Rhetorical Modes ” and “ Chapter 15: Readings: Examples of Essays ,” from  Writing for Success from Saylor Academy, which is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0.

to think about

to write quickly

to come out, to be revealed

to decorate themselves

to fix; to make right

getting smaller

ENGLISH 087: Academic Advanced Writing Copyright © 2020 by Nancy Hutchison is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Beef Up Critical Thinking and Writing Skills: Comparison Essays

Organizing the Compare-Contrast Essay

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The compare/contrast essay is an excellent opportunity to help students develop their critical thinking and writing skills. A compare and contrast essay examines two or more subjects by comparing their similarities and contrasting their differences. 

Compare and contrast is high on Bloom's Taxonomy of critical reasoning and is associated with a complexity level where students break down ideas into simpler parts in order to see how the parts relate. For example, in order to break down ideas for comparison or to contrast in an essay, students may need to categorize, classify, dissect, differentiate, distinguish, list, and simplify.

Preparing to Write the Essay

First, students need to select pick comparable objects, people, or ideas and list their individual characteristics. A graphic organizer, like a Venn Diagram or top hat chart, is helpful in preparing to write the essay:

• What is the most interesting topic for comparison? Is the evidence available?
• What is the most interesting topic to contrast? Is the evidence available?
• Which characteristics highlight the most significant similarities?
• Which characteristics highlight the most significant differences?
• Which characteristics will lead to a meaningful analysis and an interesting paper?

A link to 101  compare and contrast essay topics  for students provides opportunities for students to practice the similarities and differences such as

• Fiction vs. Nonfiction
• Renting a home vs. Owning a home
• General Robert E. Lee vs General Ulysses S. Grant

Writing the Block Format Essay: A, B, C points vs A, B, C points

The block method for writing a compare and contrast essay can be illustrated using points A, B, and C to signify individual characteristics or critical attributes. 

A. history B. personalities C. commercialization

This block format allows the students to compare and contrast subjects, for example, dogs vs. cats, using these same characteristics one at a time. 

The student should write the introductory paragraph to signal a compare and contrast essay in order to identify the two subjects and explain that they are very similar, very different or have many important (or interesting) similarities and differences. The thesis statement must include the two topics that will be compared and contrasted.

The body paragraph(s) after the introduction describe characteristic(s) of the first subject. Students should provide the evidence and examples that prove the similarities and/or differences exist, and not mention the second subject. Each point could be a body paragraph. For example, 

A. Dog history. B. Dog personalities C. Dog commercialization.

The body paragraphs dedicated to the second subject should be organized in the same method as the first body paragraphs, for example:

A. Cat history. B. Cat personalities. C. Cat commercialization.

The benefit of this format is that it allows the writer to concentrate on one characteristic at a time. The drawback of this format is that there may be some imbalance in treating the subjects to the same rigor of comparing or contrasting.

The conclusion is in the final paragraph, the student should provide a general summary of the most important similarities and differences. The student could end with a personal statement, a prediction, or another snappy clincher.

Point by Point Format: AA, BB, CC

Just as in the block paragraph essay format, students should begin the point by point format by catching the reader's interest. This might be a reason people find the topic interesting or important, or it might be a statement about something the two subjects have in common. The thesis statement for this format must also include the two topics that will be compared and contrasted.

In the point by point format, the students can compare and/or contrast the subjects using the same characteristics within each body paragraph. Here the characteristics labeled A, B, and C are used to compare dogs vs. cats together, paragraph by paragraph.

A. Dog history A Cat history

B. Dog personalities B. Cat personalities

C. Dog commercialization C. Cat commercialization

This format does help students to concentrate on the characteristic(s) which may be may result in a more equitable comparison or contrast of the subjects within each body paragraph(s).

Transitions to Use

Regardless of the format of the essay, block or point-by-point, the student must use transition words or phrases to compare or contrast one subject to another. This will help the essay sound connected and not sound disjointed.

Transitions in the essay for comparison can include:

• in the same way or by the same token
• in like manner or likewise
• in similar fashion

Transitions for contrasts can include:

• nevertheless or nonetheless
• however or though
• otherwise or on the contrary
• in contrast
• notwithstanding
• on the other hand
• at the same time

In the final concluding paragraph, the student should give a general summary of the most important similarities and differences. The student could also end with a personal statement, a prediction, or another snappy clincher.

Part of the ELA Common Core State Standards

The text structure of compare and contrast is so critical to literacy that it is referenced in several of the English Language Arts Common Core State Standards in both reading and writing for K-12 grade levels. For example, the reading standards ask students to participate in comparing and contrasting as a text structure in the anchor standard  R.9 :

"Analyze how two or more texts address similar themes or topics in order to build knowledge or to compare the approaches the authors take."

The reading standards are then referenced in the grade level writing standards, for example, as in W7.9  

"Apply grade 7 Reading standards to literature (e.g., 'Compare and contrast a fictional portrayal of a time, place, or character and a historical account of the same period as a means of understanding how authors of fiction use or alter history')."

Being able to identify and create compare and contrast text structures is one of the more important critical reasoning skills that students should develop, regardless of grade level.

• Organizing Compare-Contrast Paragraphs
• How to Teach the Compare and Contrast Essay
• How to Teach Topic Sentences Using Models
• 101 Compare and Contrast Essay Topics
• Write a Compare and Contrast Essay
• Topical Organization Essay
• The Ultimate Guide to the 5-Paragraph Essay
• T.E.S.T. Season for Grades 7-12
• Compare-Contrast Prewriting Chart
• How to Write and Format an MBA Essay
• Expository Essay Genre With Suggested Prompts
• 501 Topic Suggestions for Writing Essays and Speeches
• Writing About Literature: Ten Sample Topics for Comparison & Contrast Essays
• Comparison in Composition
• What Is Expository Writing?
• What an Essay Is and How to Write One

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Table of Contents

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process, the ultimate blueprint: a research-driven deep dive into the 13 steps of the writing process.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

This article provides a comprehensive, research-based introduction to the major steps , or strategies , that writers work through as they endeavor to communicate with audiences . Since the 1960s, the writing process has been defined to be a series of steps , stages, or strategies. Most simply, the writing process is conceptualized as four major steps: prewriting , drafting , revising , editing . That model works really well for many occasions. Yet sometimes you'll face really challenging writing tasks that will force you to engage in additional steps, including, prewriting , inventing , drafting , collaborating , researching , planning , organizing , designing , rereading , revising , editing , proofreading , sharing or publishing . Expand your composing repertoire -- your ability to respond with authority , clarity , and persuasiveness -- by learning about the dispositions and strategies of successful, professional writers.

Like water cascading to the sea, flow feels inevitable, natural, purposeful. Yet achieving flow is a state of mind that can be difficult to achieve. It requires full commitment to the believing gam e (as opposed to the doubting game ).

What are the Steps of the Writing Process?

Since the 1960s, it has been popular to describe the writing process as a series of steps or stages . For simple projects, the writing process is typically defined as four major steps:

• drafting  

This simplified approach to writing is quite appropriate for many exigencies–many calls to write . Often, e.g., we might read an email quickly, write a response, and then send it: write, revise, send.

However, in the real world, for more demanding projects — especially in high-stakes workplace writing or academic writing at the high school and college level — the writing process involve additional  steps,  or  strategies , such as 

• collaboration
• researching
• proofreading
• sharing or publishing.  

Related Concepts: Mindset ; Self Regulation

Summary – Writing Process Steps

The summary below outlines the major steps writers work through as they endeavor to develop an idea for an audience .

1. Prewriting

Prewriting refers to all the work a writer does on a writing project before they actually begin writing .

Acts of prewriting include

• Prior to writing a first draft, analyze the context for the work. For instance, in school settings students may analyze how much of their grade will be determined by a particular assignment. They may question how many and what sources are required and what the grading criteria will be used for critiquing the work.
• To further their understanding of the assignment, writers will question who the audience is for their work, what their purpose is for writing, what style of writing their audience expects them to employ, and what rhetorical stance is appropriate for them to develop given the rhetorical situation they are addressing. (See the document planner heuristic for more on this)
• consider employing rhetorical appeals ( ethos , pathos , and logos ), rhetorical devices , and rhetorical modes they want to develop once they begin writing
• reflect on the voice , tone , and persona they want to develop
• Following rhetorical analysis and rhetorical reasoning , writers decide on the persona ; point of view ; tone , voice and style of writing they hope to develop, such as an academic writing prose style or a professional writing prose style
• making a plan, an outline, for what to do next.

2. Invention

Invention is traditionally defined as an initial stage of the writing process when writers are more focused on discovery and creative play. During the early stages of a project, writers brainstorm; they explore various topics and perspectives before committing to a specific direction for their discourse .

In practice, invention can be an ongoing concern throughout the writing process. People who are focused on solving problems and developing original ideas, arguments , artifacts, products, services, applications, and  texts are open to acts of invention at any time during the writing process.

Writers have many different ways to engage in acts of invention, including

• What is the exigency, the call to write ?
• What are the ongoing scholarly debates in the peer-review literature?
• What is the problem ?
• What do they read? watch? say? What do they know about the topic? Why do they believe what they do? What are their beliefs, values, and expectations ?
• What rhetorical appeals — ethos (credibility) , pathos (emotion) , and logos (logic) — should I explore to develop the best response to this exigency , this call to write?
• What does peer-reviewed research say about the subject?
• What are the current debates about the subject?
• Embrace multiple viewpoints and consider various approaches to encourage the generation of original ideas.
• How can I experiment with different media , genres , writing styles , personas , voices , tone
• Experiment with new research methods
• Write whatever ideas occur to you. Focus on generating ideas as opposed to writing grammatically correct sentences. Get your thoughts down as fully and quickly as you can without critiquing them.
• Use heuristics to inspire discovery and creative thinking: Burke’s Pentad ; Document Planner , Journalistic Questions , The Business Model Canvas
• Embrace the uncertainty that comes with creative exploration.
• Listen to your intuition — your felt sense — when composing
• Experiment with different writing styles , genres , writing tools, and rhetorical stances
• Play the believing game early in the writing process

3. Researching

Research refers to systematic investigations that investigators carry out to discover new  knowledge , test knowledge claims , solve  problems , or develop new texts , products, apps, and services.

During the research stage of the writing process, writers may engage in

• Engage in customer discovery interviews and  survey research  in order to better understand the  problem space . Use  surveys , interviews, focus groups, etc., to understand the stakeholder’s s (e.g., clients, suppliers, partners) problems and needs
• What can you recall from your memory about the subject?
• What can you learn from informal observation?
• What can you learn from strategic searching of the archive on the topic that interests you?
• Who are the thought leaders?
• What were the major turns to the conversation ?
• What are the current debates on the topic ?
• Mixed research methods , qualitative research methods , quantitative research methods , usability and user experience research ?
• What citation style is required by the audience and discourse community you’re addressing? APA | MLA .

4. Collaboration

Collaboration  refers to the act of working with others to exchange ideas, solve problems, investigate subjects ,  coauthor   texts , and develop products and services.

Collaboration can play a major role in the writing process, especially when authors coauthor documents with peers and teams , or critique the works of others .

Acts of collaboration include

• Paying close attention to what others are saying, acknowledging their input, and asking clarifying questions to ensure understanding.
• Expressing ideas, thoughts, and opinions in a concise and understandable manner, both verbally and in writing.
• Being receptive to new ideas and perspectives, and considering alternative approaches to problem-solving.
• Adapting to changes in project goals, timelines, or team dynamics, and being willing to modify plans when needed.
• Distributing tasks and responsibilities fairly among team members, and holding oneself accountable for assigned work.
• valuing and appreciating the unique backgrounds, skills, and perspectives of all team members, and leveraging this diversity to enhance collaboration.
• Addressing disagreements or conflicts constructively and diplomatically, working towards mutually beneficial solutions.
• Providing constructive feedback to help others improve their work, and being open to receiving feedback to refine one’s own ideas and contributions.
• Understanding and responding to the emotions, needs, and concerns of team members, and fostering a supportive and inclusive environment .
• Acknowledging and appreciating the achievements of the team and individual members, and using successes as a foundation for continued collaboration and growth.

5. Planning

Planning refers to

• the process of planning how to organize a document
• the process of managing your writing processes

6. Organizing

Following rhetorical analysis , following prewriting , writers question how they should organize their texts. For instance, should they adopt the organizational strategies of academic discourse or workplace-writing discourse ?

Writing-Process Plans

• What is your Purpose? – Aims of Discourse
• What steps, or strategies, need to be completed next?
• set a schedule to complete goals

Planning Exercises

• Document Planner
• Team Charter

7. Designing

Designing refers to efforts on the part of the writer

• to leverage the power of visual language to convey meaning
• to create a visually appealing text

During the designing stage of the writing process, writers explore how they can use the  elements of design  and  visual language to signify , clarify , and simplify the message.

Examples of the designing step of the writing process:

• Establishing a clear hierarchy of visual elements, such as headings, subheadings, and bullet points, to guide the reader’s attention and facilitate understanding.
• Selecting appropriate fonts, sizes, and styles to ensure readability and convey the intended tone and emphasis.
• Organizing text and visual elements on the page or screen in a manner that is visually appealing, easy to navigate, and supports the intended message.
• Using color schemes and contrasts effectively to create a visually engaging experience, while also ensuring readability and accessibility for all readers.
• Incorporating images, illustrations, charts, graphs, and videos to support and enrich the written content, and to convey complex ideas in a more accessible format.
• Designing content that is easily accessible to a wide range of readers, including those with visual impairments, by adhering to accessibility guidelines and best practices.
• Maintaining a consistent style and design throughout the text, which includes the use of visuals, formatting, and typography, to create a cohesive and professional appearance.
• Integrating interactive elements, such as hyperlinks, buttons, and multimedia, to encourage reader engagement and foster deeper understanding of the content.

8. Drafting

Drafting refers to the act of writing a preliminary version of a document — a sloppy first draft. Writers engage in exploratory writing early in the writing process. During drafting, writers focus on freewriting: they write in short bursts of writing without stopping and without concern for grammatical correctness or stylistic matters.

When composing, writers move back and forth between drafting new material, revising drafts, and other steps in the writing process.

9. Rereading

Rereading refers to the process of carefully reviewing a written text. When writers reread texts, they look in between each word, phrase, sentence, paragraph. They look for gaps in content, reasoning, organization, design, diction, style–and more.

When engaged in the physical act of writing — during moments of composing — writers will often pause from drafting to reread what they wrote or to reread some other text they are referencing.

10. Revising

Revision  — the process of revisiting, rethinking, and refining written work to improve its  content ,  clarity  and overall effectiveness — is such an important part of  the writing process  that experienced writers often say  “writing is revision” or “all writing is revision.”  

For many writers, revision processes are deeply intertwined with writing, invention, and reasoning strategies:

• “Writing and rewriting are a constant search for what one is saying.” — John Updike
• “How do I know what I think until I see what I say.” — E.M. Forster

Acts of revision include

• Pivoting: trashing earlier work and moving in a new direction
• Identifying Rhetorical Problems
• Identifying Structural Problems
• Identifying Language Problems
• Identifying Critical & Analytical Thinking Problems

11. Editing

Editing  refers to the act of  critically reviewing  a  text  with the goal of identifying and rectifying sentence and word-level problems.

When  editing , writers tend to focus on  local concerns  as opposed to  global concerns . For instance, they may look for

• problems weaving sources into your argument or analysis
• problems establishing  the authority of sources
• problems using the required  citation style
• mechanical errors  ( capitalization ,  punctuation ,  spelling )
• sentence errors ,  sentence structure errors
• problems with  diction ,  brevity ,  clarity ,  flow ,  inclusivity , register, and  simplicity

12. Proofreading

Proofreading refers to last time you’ll look at a document before sharing or publishing the work with its intended audience(s). At this point in the writing process, it’s too late to add in some new evidence you’ve found to support your position. Now you don’t want to add any new content. Instead, your goal during proofreading is to do a final check on word-level errors, problems with diction , punctuation , or syntax.

13. Sharing or Publishing

Sharing refers to the last step in the writing process: the moment when the writer delivers the message — the text — to the target audience .

Writers may think it makes sense to wait to share their work later in the process, after the project is fairly complete. However, that’s not always the case. Sometimes you can save yourself a lot of trouble by bringing in collaborators and critics earlier in the writing process.

Doherty, M. (2016, September 4). 10 things you need to know about banyan trees. Under the Banyan. https://underthebanyan.blog/2016/09/04/10-things-you-need-to-know-about-banyan-trees/

Emig, J. (1967). On teaching composition: Some hypotheses as definitions. Research in The Teaching of English, 1(2), 127-135. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED022783.pdf

Emig, J. (1971). The composing processes of twelfth graders (Research Report No. 13). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.

Emig, J. (1983). The web of meaning: Essays on writing, teaching, learning and thinking. Upper Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers, Inc.

Ghiselin, B. (Ed.). (1985). The Creative Process: Reflections on the Invention in the Arts and Sciences . University of California Press.

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. (1980). Identifying the Organization of Writing Processes. In L. W. Gregg, & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive Processes in Writing: An Interdisciplinary Approach (pp. 3-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.  

Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369-388. https://doi: 10.1177/0741088312451260

Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1986). Writing research and the writer. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1106-1113. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.41.10.1106

Leijten, Van Waes, L., Schriver, K., & Hayes, J. R. (2014). Writing in the workplace: Constructing documents using multiple digital sources. Journal of Writing Research, 5(3), 285–337. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2014.05.03.3

Lundstrom, K., Babcock, R. D., & McAlister, K. (2023). Collaboration in writing: Examining the role of experience in successful team writing projects. Journal of Writing Research, 15(1), 89-115. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2023.15.01.05

National Research Council. (2012). Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century . Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.https://doi.org/10.17226/13398.

North, S. M. (1987). The making of knowledge in composition: Portrait of an emerging field. Boynton/Cook Publishers.

Murray, Donald M. (1980). Writing as process: How writing finds its own meaning. In Timothy R. Donovan & Ben McClelland (Eds.), Eight approaches to teaching composition (pp. 3–20). National Council of Teachers of English.

Murray, Donald M. (1972). “Teach Writing as a Process Not Product.” The Leaflet, 11-14

Perry, S. K. (1996).  When time stops: How creative writers experience entry into the flow state  (Order No. 9805789). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses A&I; ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (304288035). https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/when-time-stops-how-creative-writers-experience/docview/304288035/se-2

Rohman, D.G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1964). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University.

Rohman, D. G., & Wlecke, A. O. (1975). Pre-writing: The construction and application of models for concept formation in writing (Cooperative Research Project No. 2174). U.S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

Sommers, N. (1980). Revision Strategies of Student Writers and Experienced Adult Writers. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), 378-388. doi: 10.2307/356600

Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Chapter 2: Reading in Writing Class

2.3 How to Read Rhetorically

When we read rhetorically , we are moving beyond simply trying to comprehend what an author is saying at a basic level. Instead, one who reads rhetorically seeks to understand how meaning in a text is shaped not only by the text itself, but also the context.

Rhetorically focusing on the text might include observing the following: what the author says, how he or she arranges information, the types of information that he or she includes.

Rhetorically focusing on the context might include observing and researching the following: the context of the text; the author’s identity, values and biases;  the audience’s interests and needs;  the medium in which the author composes; the purpose for creating the text, and more.

Rhetorically Reading the Text: Understanding What the Author is Trying to Say

• Who is the author? What else has he or she written? What is the author’s occupation? Is the author a journalist, professor, business person, or entertainer? Is the author an expert on the topic he or she is writing about?
• When and where was the piece originally published? Research the original publication. Does that publication have a perceived bias? Is the original publication highly regarded?
• What is the author’s main idea? The main idea is the author’s central claim or thesis. Describe the author’s main idea in your own words. Does the author make his or her claim successfully? Is the claim held consistently throughout the text? Does the thesis appear in one sentence or in bits and pieces throughout the text?
• What information does the author provide to support the central claim? Making a list of each key point the author makes will help you analyze the overall text. Hint: each paragraph should address one key point, and all paragraphs should relate to the  text ’s central claim.
• What kind of supporting evidence does the author use? Is the evidence based more on fact or opinion, and do you feel those choices are effective? Where does this evidence come from? Are the  sources authoritative and credible?
• What is the author’s main purpose? Note that this is different that the  text ’s main idea. The  text ’s main idea (above) refers to the central  claim  or  thesis  embedded in the  text . The author’s purpose, however, refers to what he or she hopes to accomplish. Is the author’s goal to persuade his or her readers to adopt a viewpoint or to act in some way? Does the author intend to provide information or to entertain?
• Describe the  tone  in the piece.  Is it friendly? Authoritative? Does it lecture? Is it biting or sarcastic? Comedic or dire?
• Describe the diction in the piece. What word choices does the author make? Does the author use simple or technical language? Is it full of jargon? Does the language feel positive or negative? Formal or conversational? Does the author use figurative language?
• Is the author  objective ? Why does the author try to persuade you to adopt his or her viewpoint? If the author is biased, does this interfere with the way you read and understand the  text ?
• Does the  text   seem to be aimed at readers like you or at a different audience? What assumptions does the author make about his or her audience? Would most people find these reasonable, acceptable, or accurate? Is the author trying to reach a certain age group, ethnicity, gender, or educational background?
• Does the author try to appeal to your emotions? Does the author use any controversial words in the piece? Do these affect your reading or your interest?
• How is the piece organized? Where does the thesis appear? Toward the beginning or the end of the text and why? Are there sections with bolded subheadings, and if so, do these subheadings accurately reflect the content of the section.
• Does the piece include images or graphics? Are there illustrations, photographs, or graphs? Do these images add to or detract from the written text?

In addition to these textual questions, we need to look at contextual considerations when we read rhetorically.

Rhetorically Reading the Context: Understanding Context

Let’s define context as the  time  and  place  and  setting  of the event, the writing of a text, a film, etc., in a society. In the First-Year Writing class, you will read essays, news articles, scholarly research findings, and to help make sense of it all, you must contextualize these texts. Why? Well, today is not like yesterday. Remember, the current  beliefs  change over time.

An example of how yesterday is different

Think about your smartphone. You may have been born at the end of the 20th century or the start of the 21 stcentury. Your family had a cordless phone. Thirty years ago, most households had landline phones and had to dial a number (see the above photo), which was called a rotary phone. In most households today, there is no landline.

“Western Electric Model 302 Telephone c.1945”  by  fwaggle  is licensed under  CC BY-NC 2.0 

How to consider context

Everything you read, and all that you write must be considered contextually. Some instructors refer to  rhetorical context , or the writing situation. As writers, you have to think of this as you begin any reading or writing assignments. Below are a few questions you might want to consider when analyzing the time, place, and setting of a text:

• Where was the text published?
• Was it published online or in print?
• When was the text published? What does this tell you about the time it was written? Is it still relevant information or outdated?
• What is the author’s main idea? Is it a current belief?

As a student, if you begin to read contextually, you can shift to reading critically. These are the skills a critical thinker employs to make inquiries about the world.

Rhetorically Reading the Context: Understanding Author Bias and Authority

Most reputable websites and news sources will list or cite an author, even though you might have to dig into the site deeper than just the section you’re interested in to find it. Most pages will have a home page or “About Us”/”About This Site” link where an author will be credited

Often, understanding the author’s bias or authority will require some research that goes well beyond any blurb that might be included with the actual article. Google the author, or consider looking at his or her LinkedIn profile. Look at several different sources instead of relying on just one website to understand who the author is.

• Does the author support a particular political or religious view that could be affecting his or her objectivity in the piece?
• Is the author supported by any special-interest groups (i.e. the American Library Association or Keep America Safe)?
• Is the author a highly educated expert on that topic who is choosing to publish an article for a popular, mainstream audience?
• Is he or she a journalist who specializes in the topic? A journalist whose specialty is unclear? A citizen who is weighing in?
• Is the author writing from personal experience, or is he/she synthesizing and offering commentary on others’ experiences?
• Each of these different levels of expertise will confer a different level of authority on the topic. It is important to understand whether or not an author is truly an expert on the content.

Be careful that you are not using an article that is actually a middle school student essay published in a school newspaper!

Rhetorically Reading the Context: Understand the Publication Ideology and Bias

Certain newspapers or magazines are subject to corporate owners’ political ideologies or biases. Just as you can do some background research on an individual author, do some research on the publication that hosts the article you would like to use. Again, google research can help. Look at several different sources — do not rely on just one website.

• Does the publication have an ideological bias? (conservative? liberal?)
• Is the publication religious? Secular?
• Is the publication created for a very specific target audience?
• If you are looking at a website, what is its purpose? Was the site created to sell things, or are the authors trying to persuade voters to take a side on a particular issue?

If you are looking at a website, the sponsor of the site  (the person or organization who is footing the bill) will often be listed in the same place as the copyright date or author information. If you can’t find an explicit listing for a sponsor, double check the URL: .com indicates a commercial site, .edu an educational one, .org a nonprofit, .gov a government sponsor, .mil a military sponsor, or .net a network of sponsors. The end part of a URL may also tell you what country the website is coming from, such as .uk for the United Kingdom or .de for Germany.

A note on publication bias

You can find many articles indicating that a bias exists in academic publishing. This publication bias means that only certain types of research studies get published in academic journals. In the sciences, the publication bias favors studies that have positive results (“we got some results!”) rather than negative results (“this did not work as we had hypothesized”). In the Arts and Humanities, some have argued that prestigious academic journals favor articles that come from professors at elite colleges and universities. Other speculation about publication bias in academic journals focuses on the bias in the peer reviewer: that a peer reviewer is more likely to accept an article for publication if that article confirms his or her own thinking.

Attributions

This chapter contains material from “The Word on College Reading and Writing”  by Monique Babin, Carol Burnell, Susan Pesznecker, Nicole Rosevear, Jaime Wood , OpenOregon Educational Resources , Higher Education Coordination Commission: Office of Community Colleges and Workforce Development is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0

It also contains material from “About Writing: A Guide” by Robin Jeffrey,  OpenOregon Educational Resources , Higher Education Coordination Commission: Office of Community Colleges and Workforce Development is licensed under CC BY 4.0

A Guide to Rhetoric, Genre, and Success in First-Year Writing by Melanie Gagich & Emilie Zickel is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Jun 7, 2022

THE ESSAY WRITING TECHNIQUE

Updated: May 17, 2023

INTRODUCTION

Begin your essay with an introduction that briefly describes the concept(s) being discussed (and clarifies any essential vocabulary), your approach to answering the topic, and your conclusion. In a nutshell, jot out the main points of your essay.

Do not just rewrite the question's specifics (this can be tempting in a problem scenario). There is a method you should follow called the the essay writing technique. There is a good chance that you will be given a word count, but you will not be penalised for it!

Tip -Writing (or rewriting) your introduction after concluding is a good idea. So that you may ensure that your beginning correctly summarises the content of your essay, employs consistent vocabulary, and ties into the conclusion.

SUBJECT OF INTEREST

Make an effort to keep your essay's thesis consistent throughout. Decide what you want to say, and don't "sit on the fence" while arguing.

WHERE YOU CAN SUPPORT WITH AUTHORITY

Make use of credible sources to bolster your case. Whenever possible, use statutes and case law to support your arguments. Take into consideration the reader's point of view and make sure you're making a strong case. Arguments that aren't backed up by evidence will not be taken seriously.

ACTIVELY PARTICIPATE WITH INTERESTS

The chance to offer and quickly explain alternative counter-arguments and facts that seem to contradict your line of reasoning should be taken advantage of if your exercise is to "critically analyse" (or some such terminology).

This is a great chance to show off your depth of knowledge and critical thinking ability. The data does not support these counter-arguments. Therefore you should criticize them and explain why. However, resist the urge to be caught in counter-arguments. You must always keep to your consistent argument.

Finally, arrive at a logical conclusion that is both concise and unambiguous.

Check -You should double-check. It is your responsibility to ensure that you answer the question exactly as it was asked. To keep from veering off-topic, stick to the terms used in the question.

Here, we have detailed a few of the most important things to consider. Contact us to receive some free promotional material from our Q&A Series. This will help you answering essay questions and other long-form legal writing skills.

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