the making of global world assignment

• CBSE Notes For Class 10
• Class 10 History Notes
• Chapter 3 The Making Of A Global World

CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World

Globalisation means the integration of markets in the global economy, leading to the increased interconnectedness of national economies. By having an idea of the history of globalisation, students can precisely understand the causes which led to such social and economic change. The nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution was one of the significant periods in the history of globalisation. History Chapter 3 – The Making of a Global World explains how globalisation has its effect on the world as well as the Indian economy. These CBSE Class 10 History notes for Chapter 3 help students to get a brief overview of all the concepts. By referring to these notes, students can recall all the essential topics from the chapter and can quickly revise the entire section.

• Chapter 1: The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
• Chapter 2: Nationalism in India
• Chapter 4: The Age of Industrialisation
• Chapter 5: Print Culture and The Modern World

CBSE Class 10 History Notes Chapter 3 – The Making of a Global World

The pre-modern world.

Globalisation refers to an economic system that has emerged in the last 50 years or so. But, the making of the global world has a long history – of trade, of migration, of people in search of work, the movement of capital, and much else. From ancient times, travellers, traders, priests and pilgrims travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and spiritual fulfilment or to escape persecution. As early as 3000 BCE, an active coastal trade linked the Indus Valley civilisations with present-day West Asia.

Silk Routes Link the World

Silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world. Several silk routes have been identified by historians, overland and sea, connecting vast regions of Asia and linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa. In exchange for textiles and species from India, precious metals – gold and silver – flowed from Europe to Asia.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

Food offers many examples of long-distance cultural exchange. New crops were introduced by traders and travellers. Ready foodstuff such as noodles travelled west from China to become spaghetti. Our ancestors were not familiar with common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chillies, sweet potatoes, and so on about five centuries ago. Many of our common foods came from America’s original inhabitants – the American Indians.

Conquest, Disease and Trade

The Indian Ocean, for centuries before, had known a bustling trade, with goods, people, knowledge, customs, etc., crisscrossing its waters. The entry of Europeans helped redirect these flows towards Europe. America’s vast lands and abundant crops and minerals began to transform trade and live everywhere. The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of America were decisively underway by the mid-sixteenth century.

Europeans’ most powerful weapon was not a conventional military weapon, but germs such as those of smallpox that they carried on their person. It proved to be a deadly killer. Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe. Until well into the eighteenth century, China and India were among the world’s richest countries. However, from the fifteenth century, China is said to have restricted overseas contacts and retreated into isolation. Europe now emerged as the centre of world trade.

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

In the nineteenth century, economic, political, social, cultural and technological factors interacted in complex ways to transform societies and reshape external relations. Three flows or movements were identified by economists.

• The first is the flow of trade, referred largely to trade in goods (e.g., cloth or wheat).
• The second is the flow of labour – the migration of people in search of employment.
• The third is the movement of capital for short-term or long-term investments over long distances.

A World Economy Takes Shape

In the nineteenth-century, self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social conflict in Britain. It happened because of population growth from the late eighteenth century. Corn laws were imposed, which means restrictions on the import of corn. British agriculture was unable to compete with imports, and vast areas of land were left uncultivated. So, thousands of men and women flocked to the cities or migrated overseas.

In Britain, food prices fell, and in the mid-nineteenth century, industrial growth led to higher incomes and more food imports. In order to fulfil British demand, in Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia, lands were cleared to expand food production. In order to manage the linking of railways to agricultural fields and building homes for people required capital and labour. London helped in terms of finance and terms of labour people emigrated from Europe to America and Australia in the nineteenth century.

By 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape, adapting to complex changes in labour movement patterns, capital flows, ecologies and technology. In West Punjab, the British Indian government built a network of irrigation canals to transform semi-desert wastes into fertile agricultural lands to grow wheat and cotton for export. Even the cultivation of cotton expanded worldwide to feed British textile mills.

Role of Technology

Some of the important inventions in the field of technology are the railways, steamships, and the telegraph, which transformed the nineteenth-century world. But technological advances were often the result of larger social, political and economic factors.

For example, colonisation stimulated new investments and improvements in transport: faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped move food more cheaply and quickly from faraway farms to final markets. Animals were also shipped live from America to Europe till the 1870s. Meat was considered an expensive luxury beyond the reach of the European poor. To break the earlier monotony of bread and potatoes, many could now add meat (and butter and eggs) to their diet.

Late Nineteenth-Century Colonialism

Trade flourished, and markets expanded in the late nineteenth century. But, it has a darker side, too, as in many parts of the world, the expansion of trade and a closer relationship with the world economy meant a loss of freedoms and livelihoods. In 1885 the big European powers met in Berlin to complete the carving up of Africa between them. Britain and France made vast additions to their overseas territories. Belgium and Germany became new colonial powers. The US also became a colonial power in the late 1890s by taking over some colonies earlier held by Spain.

Rinderpest, or the Cattle Plague

In Africa, in the 1890s, a fast-spreading disease of cattle plague impacted people’s livelihoods and the local economy. Africa had abundant land and a relatively small population. In the late nineteenth century, Europeans were attracted to Africa due to its vast resources of land and minerals.

Europeans came to Africa hoping to establish plantations and mines to produce crops and minerals for export to Europe. But there was an unexpected problem – a shortage of labour willing to work for wages. Inheritance laws were changed, and according to the new one, only one member of a family was allowed to inherit the land. In the late 1880s, Rinderpest arrived in Africa carried by infected cattle imported from British Asia to feed the Italian soldiers invading Eritrea in East Africa. The loss of cattle destroyed African livelihoods.

Indentured Labour Migration from India

Indentured labour illustrates the two-sided nature of the nineteenth-century world. A world of faster economic growth as well as great misery, higher incomes for some and poverty for others, technological advances in some areas and new forms of coercion in others. In India, indentured labourers were hired under contracts, and most of them came from the present-day regions of eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and the dry districts of Tamil Nadu.

Indian indentured migrants’ main destinations were the Caribbean islands (mainly Trinidad, Guyana and Surinam), Mauritius and Fiji. Indentured workers were also recruited for tea plantations in Assam. Nineteenth-century indenture has been described as a ‘new system of slavery’. In Trinidad, the annual Muharram procession was transformed into a riotous carnival called ‘Hosay’ in which workers of all races and religions joined.

Similarly, the protest religion of Rastafarianism is also said to reflect social and cultural links with Indian migrants to the Caribbean. From the 1900s, India’s nationalist leaders began opposing the system of indentured labour migration as abusive and cruel. It was abolished in 1921.

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

People need a huge capital to grow food and other crops for the world market. So, for the humble peasant Shikaripuri shroffs and Nattukottai Chettiars were amongst the many groups of bankers and traders who financed export agriculture in Central and Southeast Asia, using either their own funds or those borrowed from European banks.

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

Cotton from India was exported to Europe. In Britain, tariffs were imposed on cloth imports. Consequently, the inflow of fine Indian cotton began to decline. Over the nineteenth century, British manufacturers flooded the Indian market. By helping Britain balance its deficits, India played a crucial role in the late-nineteenth-century world economy. Britain’s trade surplus in India also helped pay the so-called ‘home charges’ that included private remittances home by British officials and traders, interest payments on India’s external debt, and pensions of British officials in India.

The Inter-War Economy

The First World War (1914-18) was fought in Europe, but its impact was felt around the world. During this period, the world experienced widespread economic and political instability and another catastrophic war.

Wartime Transformations

The First World War was fought between the Allies – Britain, France and Russia (later joined by the US); and the Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey. The war lasted for more than four years and involved the world’s leading industrial nations. It was considered the first modern industrial war, which saw the use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc., on a massive scale. During the war, industries were restructured to produce war-related goods. Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks as well as the US public, transforming the US from being an international debtor to an international creditor.

Post-War Recovery

Post-war economic recovery, Britain, the world’s leading economy, faced a prolonged crisis. Industries had developed in India and Japan while Britain was preoccupied with the war. Britain, after the war, found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in the Indian market and to compete with Japan internationally. At the end of the war, Britain was burdened with huge external debts. Anxiety and uncertainty about work became an enduring part of the post-war scenario.

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

The US economy recovered quicker and resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s. Mass production is one of the important features of the US economy, which began in the late nineteenth century. Henry Ford is a well-known pioneer of mass production, a car manufacturer who established his car plant in Detroit. The TModel Ford was the world’s first mass-produced car. Fordist industrial practices soon spread in the US and were also copied in Europe in the 1920s. The demand for refrigerators, washing machines, etc., also boomed, financed once again by loans. In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas lender.

The Great Depression

The period of The Great Depression began around 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s; most parts of the world experienced catastrophic declines in production, employment, incomes and trade. The most affected areas were agricultural regions and communities. A combination of several factors led to depression. The first factor is agricultural overproduction, the second is in the mid-1920s, many countries financed their investments through loans from the US. The rest of the world is affected by the withdrawal of US loans in different ways. The US was also severely affected by depression. Unfortunately, the US banking system collapsed as thousands of banks went bankrupt and were forced to close.

India and the Great Depression

Indian trade is immediately affected by the depression. The prices of agriculture fell sharply but still, the colonial government refused to reduce revenue demands. In those depression years, India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold. Rural India was thus seething with unrest when Mahatma Gandhi launched the civil disobedience movement at the height of the depression in 1931.

Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-War Era

Two decades after the end of the First World War, the Second World War broke out. It was fought between the Axis powers (mainly Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (Britain, France, the Soviet Union and the US). The war continued for six years over land, on the sea, and in the air. The war caused an immense amount of economic devastation and social disruption. Post-war reconstruction was shaped by two crucial influences. The first one is that the US emerged as the dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world. The second was the dominance of the Soviet Union.

Post-War Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions

Two-key lessons were drawn out from inter-war economic experience. First, mass production cannot be sustained without mass communication. The second lesson related to a country’s economic links with the outside world. The Bretton Woods conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and deficits of its member nations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was set up to finance postwar reconstruction. The IMF and the World Bank commenced financial operations in 1947.

The Early Post-War Years

An era of unprecedented growth of trade and income was inaugurated by the Bretton Woods for the Western industrial nations and Japan. During this decade, technology and enterprise were spread worldwide.

Decolonisation and Independence

After the end of the Second World War, large parts of the world were still under European colonial rule. The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries. The IMF and the World Bank from the late 1950s shift their attention more towards developing countries. Most developing countries were not benefited from the fast growth the Western economies experienced in the 1950s and 1960s. They organised as a group – the Group of 77 (or G-77) – and demanded a new international economic order (NIEO). NIEO meant a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, more development assistance, fairer prices for raw materials, and better access to their manufactured goods in developed countries’ markets.

End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’

The US’s financial and competitive strength was weakened due to the rising costs of its overseas involvement from the 1960s. In the mid-1970s, the international financial system also changed and the industrial world was also hit by unemployment. MNCs began to shift their production to low-wage Asian countries. China became an attractive destination for investment by foreign MNCs. In the last two decades, the world’s economic geography has been transformed as countries such as India, China, and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 10 Political Science Notes Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World

What are the benefits of ‘globalisation’.

1. Access to foreign cultures 2. Technological innovation 3. Improved living standards 4. Emergence of new talent 5. Higher standards of living

What are the main elements of globalisation?

Principle elements of globalisation are 1. International trade 2. Foreign investment 3. Capital market flows 4. Labor migration 5. Diffusion of technology

What are the different types of globalisation?

Political, economic and cultural globalisation are the main types of globalisation.

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NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World are given in this article. These solutions will help you learn the facts and events easily. With these solutions, you will also learn the right way to write your answers perfectly in exams. We have updated the  NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History  Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World for the current session so that you can easily score high marks in the exams. You can also download PDF of the solutions and use them whenever you are offline.

Class 10 History Chapter 3 NCERT Solutions PDF Download

Write in Brief

Question 1: Give two examples of different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from Asia and one from the Americas.

Answer:  Examples of the different types of global exchanges which took place before the seventeenth century:

• Textiles, spices and Chinese pottery were exchanged by China, India and Southeast Asia in return for gold and silver from Europe.
• Gold and foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, tomatoes and chillies were first exported from the Americas to Europe.

Question 2: Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas.

Answer: The global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonisation of the Americas because the native Americans had no immunity against the disease that came from Europe. Before the discovery of America, it had been cut off from the rest of the world for millions of years. So, they had no defence against the disease. In particular, Smallpox proved a deadly killer. It killed and decimated whole communities, paving the way for conquest.

Question 3: Write a note to explain the effects of the following:

(a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws. (b) The coming of rinderpest to Africa. (c) The death of men of working-age in Europe because of the World War. (d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

Answer: (a) The British government’s decision to abolish the Corn Laws resulted in losses for the agricultural sector, but progress in the industrial sector. Food began to be imported more cheaply into Britain, and thousands of workers involved in cultivation became unemployed. However, consumption increased and the industrial sector grew, with more workers being available in cities than in rural areas.

(b) Rinderpest arrived in Africa in the late 1880s. Within two years, it spread in the whole continent reaching Cape Town within five years. Rinderpest had a terrifying impact on people’s livelihoods and the local economy. It killed about 90 percent of the cattle. Planters, mine owners and colonial governments became successful to strengthen their power and to force Africans into the labour market.

(c) The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War reduced the able-bodied workforce in Europe, leading to a steady decline in household incomes and a consequent struggle to meet the living expenditure by families whose men were handicapped or killed.

(d) By the early twentieth century, the global economy had become an integral one. The depression immediately affected Indian trade. India was a British colony that exported agricultural goods and imported manufactured goods. Under the impact of Great Depression, the Indian economy was closely becoming integrated into the global economy. As international prices crashed so did the prices in India. Between 1928 and 1934, wheat prices in India fell by 50 percent. The fall in agricultural price led to a reduction of farmers’ income and agricultural export. The government did not decrease their taxes due to which peasants’ indebtedness increased all across India. In these depression years, India became an exporter of precious metals, notably gold.

(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries led to a stimulation of world trade and capital flows. This relocation was on account of low-cost structure and lower wages in Asian countries. It also benefitted the Asian nations because employment increased, and this resulted in quick economic transformation as well.

Question 4: Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.

Answer: Two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability were:

(i) Improvement in transportation system:  Faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships helped transport food more cheaply and quickly from production units to final markets.

(ii) Refrigerated ships:  Refrigerated ships helped transport perishable foods like meat, butter and eggs over long distances.

Question 5: What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

Answer: In order to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world, the post-war international economic system was established. To execute the same, the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference was held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. The Bretton Woods Conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to deal with external surpluses and shortages of its member-nations. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (popularly known as the World Bank) was set up to financial post-war reconstruction, and they started the financial operations in 1947.

Under the agreement, currencies were pegged to the price of gold, and the US dollar was seen as a reserve currency linked to the price of gold. Decision-making authority was given to the Western industrial powers. The US was given the right of veto over key IMF and World Bank decisions. The Bretton Woods system was based on fixed exchange rates. The Bretton Woods system Opened an era of unique growth of trade and incomes for the Western industrial nations and Japan.

Question 6: Imagine that you are an indentured Indian labourer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.

Answer: Dear Family, I hope you all are fine there. I am working in Caribbean as an indentured labourer. Through this letter, I want to tell you about my work life and hardships. I have been hired by the colonisers under a contract which included wrong information regarding the place of work, mode of travel and living and working conditions. The contractor uses harsh and abusive language for us. There is a lot of work at the plantations with a heavy workload and sometimes I have to finish all of it in just one day. The contractor cuts my wages if he is not satisfied with my work. I am living here a slave’s life. I know you will be very upset to know my situation but the governments here are thinking to introduce new laws to protect the labourers like us. So, I hope this situation will pass soon. Your Loving, Suresh

Question 7: Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Find one example of each type of flow which involved India and Indians, and write a short account of it.

Answer: The three types of movements or flows within the international economic exchange are:

(i) Flow of trade (trade in goods such as cloth or wheat): India was involved in trade relations since ancient times. It exported textiles and spices in return for gold and silver from Europe.

(ii) Flow of labour (the migration of people to new areas in search of work): In the nineteenth century, thousands of Indian labourers went to work on plantations, in mines, and in road and railway construction projects around the world. Indentured labourers were hired under contacts which promised their return to India after working for five years in the plantation. The living conditions were harsh and the labourers had very few legal rights.

(iii) Flow of capital (short-term and long-term loan to and from other nations): To finance the World War, Britain took high loans from the USA. Since India was under British rule, the impact of these loan debts was felt in India too. The British government increased taxes, interest rates, and lowered the prices of products it bought from the colony. This affected the Indian economy very strongly.

Question 8: Explain the causes of the Great Depression

Answer: The Great Depression was a result of many different factors. The post-war global economy was weak. Also, agricultural over-production proved to be a nuisance, which was made worse by falling food grain prices. To counter this, farmers began to increase production and bring even more produce to the markets to maintain their annual incomes. This led to such a glut of food grains that prices plummeted further and farm produce was left to rot. Most countries took loans from the US, but American overseas lenders were wary about the same. When they decreased the amount of loans, the countries economically dependent on US loans faced an acute crisis. In Europe, this led to the failure of major banks and currencies such as the British pound sterling. In a bid to protect the American economy, USA doubled import duties. This worsened the world trade scenario. All these factors contributed to the Great Depression. It affected USA the worst on account of its being a global loan provider and the biggest industrial nation.

Question 9: Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

Answer: G-77 countries is an abbreviation for the group of 77 countries that demanded a new international economic order (NIEO); a system that would give them real control over their natural resources, without being victims of neo-colonialism, that is, a new form of colonialism in trade practised by the former colonial powers.

The G-77 can be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins (the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) because these two institutions were designed to meet the financial needs of industrial and developed countries, and did nothing for the economic growth of former colonies and developing nations.

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World: Chapter Overview

In this chapter you learn about the following topics:

• The Pre-modern World
• The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)
• The Inter-war Economy
• Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era

The Making of a Global World: A+ Class 10 Notes

Welcome to your go-to resource for Class 10 History Chapter 3, "The Making of a Global World," within the realm of Social Science. Our Class 10 Notes are thoughtfully curated, aligning seamlessly with the CBSE 2023-24 latest syllabus.

All deleted topics from the latest syllabus have been excluded, so you can be confident that you are getting the most up-to-date and relevant information.

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The Making of a Global World Class 10 Notes

Table of contents, the pre-modern world.

• Globalization is a long-term process, not just a recent phenomenon.
• Trade, migration, the movement of capital, and the spread of ideas and diseases have all contributed to globalization.
• Evidence of globalization can be found as far back as 3000 BCE.
• Cowries from the Maldives were used as currency in China and East Africa for over a millennium.
• The long-distance spread of disease-carrying germs can be traced back to the seventh century.
• By the thirteenth century, globalization was an unmistakable link between different parts of the world.

Silk Routes Link the World

The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world:

• Historians have identified several silk routes over land and by sea connecting vast regions of Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
• The name ‘silk routes’ points out the importance of West-bound Chinese silk cargoes along this route.
• Chinese pottery also traveled the same route, as did textiles and spices from India and Southeast Asia.
• In return, precious metals (gold and silver) flowed from Europe to Asia.
• Early Christian missionaries and Muslim preachers traveled this route to Asia. Much before all this, Buddhism from Eastern India spread in several directions through intersecting points on the silk routes.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

• Traders and travelers introduced new crops to the lands they traveled.
• Even ‘ready’ foodstuff in distant parts of the world might share common origins like spaghetti and noodles or, perhaps, Arab traders took pasta to 5th century Sicily, an island now in Italy.
• Similar foods were also known in India and Japan, so the truth about their origins may never be known. Yet such guesswork suggests the possibilities of long-distance cultural contact even in the pre-modern world.
• Many of our common foods such as potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chilies, sweet potatoes, and so on were not known to our ancestors until about five centuries ago.
• These foods were only introduced in Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered the vast continent that would later become known as the Americas.

Sometimes the new crops could make the difference between life and death:

• Europe’s poor began to eat better and live longer with the introduction of the humble potato.
• Ireland’s poorest peasants became so dependent on potatoes that when disease destroyed the potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died of starvation.

Conquest, Disease, and Trade

After the discovery of America, its vast lands and abundant crops and minerals began to transform trade and lives everywhere.

Precious metals, particularly silver, from mines located in present-day Peru and Mexico also enhanced Europe’s wealth and financed its trade with Asia.

European conquest was not just a result of superior firepower :

The Spanish conqueror’s most powerful weapon was not a conventional military weapon because

• they used germs like smallpox which spread deep into the continent before any European could reach there.
• America's original inhabitants had no immunity against these diseases that came from Europe. This disease erased the whole community, leading to conquest. This biological warfare in the mid-sixteenth century made it easy for the Spanish to overpower the Americans.

European flee to America in the 19th century:

• Poverty and hunger were common in Europe.
• Cities were crowded and deadly diseases were widespread.
• Religious conflicts were common and religious dissenters were persecuted.
• Therefore, thousands fled Europe for America where plantations were worked by slaves captured in Africa for growing cotton and sugar for European markets.

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CBSE Class 10 Social Science -The making of a Global World -Study Notes

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• Discuss the developments of the 1937-47 period, that led to the creation of Pakistan
• Diwani Rights
• Name the two main Associations that were the precursors of Indian National Congress
• What was the Role of Mahatma Gandhi in Champaran Movement?
• Satavahana Dynasty - Introduction, History, Rulers, FAQs
• The Bahmani Kingdom: Impacts on the Indian Subcontinent
• Bahmani Kingdom
• Bhagat Singh and Role in Indian Nationalism
• Emergence of New Dynasties
• Significance of Quit India Movement
• Ryotwari and Mahalwari Systems
• Tipu Sultan Biography
• B.R.Ambedkar and his Contribution
• Education as a Civilizing Mission
• Write a short note on Nalanda University
• Role of Planning Commission with reference to the First Five Year Plan
• Describe the Language Policy of India

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Social Science Chapter 3 : The Making of a Global World

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3, the students will gain an understanding of how the world became interconnected via the development of trade, beginning in ancient times with the silk road and continuing through the industrial revolution. We understand how imperial nations took advantage of colonialism to advance their economic interests for the benefit of commerce. NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 The Making of Global World, focuses on significant events such as the movement of people forced to work as indentured laborers, the traffic of slaves, the Great Depression, and the development of the current financial system. For aspiring students here detailed Making Of A Global World NCERT Solutions.

NCERT Solutions History Chapter 3

NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Social Science Chapter 3: The Making of a Global World

Write in brief, 1. give two examples of different types of global exchanges before the seventeenth century, choosing one example from asia and one from the americas..

 Answer-

Here are two examples of different types of global exchange-

• Prior to the 17th century, China traded gold and silver for gold and silver produced in Europe in exchange for goods such as silk and pottery. The old “silk route” was used to do business for these transactions.
• After its discovery in the Americas by Christopher Columbus at the tail end of the 15th century, a great deal of the food that is now consumed in Europe originated in the Americas. These include potatoes, soybeans, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, and chili peppers.

2. Explain how the global transfer of disease in the pre-modern world helped in the colonization of the Americas.

After America was discovered, waves of Europeans, including Spaniards and Portuguese, immigrated to the continent.

• They unknowingly carried the bacteria that caused smallpox in their bodies.
• Since the Native American Indians in the Americas did not have immunity to the diseases that the settlers, as well as colonizers, carried with them, the colonization of the Americas was aided by the global spread of disease that occurred in the pre-modern world.
• Because they had been isolated from the rest of the world for millions of years, Native Americans lacked any kind of immunity to the disease known as smallpox. On the other hand, Europeans were more or less immune to it.
• These pathogens were responsible for the death and eradication of entire communities, which paved the way for the dominance of alien nations.
• It was possible to eliminate weapons and soldiers by capture or destruction; however, there was no defense against sickness. However, diseases such as smallpox, which the conquerors had significant immunity to, did not affect them.

3. Write a note to explain the effects of the following:

(a) the british government’s decision to abolish the corn laws..

Food could be brought into Britain at a lower cost through the importation process than it could have been produced domestically.

Huge swaths of land were not used for agricultural purposes. Consequently, thousands of working-age men and women lost their jobs. They moved to cities and resided there, and many of them moved abroad in search of employment opportunities.

(b) The coming of Rinderpest to Africa.

In the late 1880s, the illness known as rinderpest, which is a rapid-spreading form of cow plague, was brought to Africa. It had a devastating effect on people’s means of subsistence as well as the economy of the area. It first appeared in East Africa, but it didn’t take long for it to reach the rest of the continent. It arrived in 1892 on the Atlantic coast of Africa, and within the next five years, it made its way to the Cape, which is the southern point of Africa.

The Italian troops that were conquering Eritrea in East Africa were fed sick livestock that had been brought from British Asia. The Italian troops were in Eritrea. Utilizing this circumstance to their advantage, colonizing powers conquered and enslaved Africa by monopolizing limited cattle resources in order to coerce Africans into entering the labor market. This allowed the colonizing nations to subjugate and rule over Africa.

(c) The death of men of working age in Europe because of the World War.

The majority of those who perished in the First World War were members of younger generations of employed men. As a consequence of this, the labor force in Europe shrunk, which in turn led to a decrease in household income. The advancement of women in society ultimately resulted in a need for more equality in status. The feminist movement became more powerful as a result. In time, women joined the workforce alongside males in every industry. The long-term impacts led to women and children becoming more self-sufficient and having greater freedom.

(d) The Great Depression on the Indian economy.

In the late 1880s, Europeans were responsible for introducing rinderpest, a rapidly contagious disease of cattle plague, to Africa. Rift Valley fever spread through Africa ‘like a forest fire’ after entering the continent from the east, wiping off roughly 90 percent of the continent’s cattle population. It had a devastating effect on people’s means of subsistence as well as the economy of the area.

Plantation owners, mine proprietors, and colonial administrations were all able to successfully monopolize the scant cattle resources that were still available to bolster their power and coerce Africans into entering the labor market. Rapidly moving to seize control of Africa’s riches prepared the path for European colonization of the continent.

(e) The decision of MNCs to relocate production to Asian countries.

The abbreviation MNC refers to multinational corporations. These huge corporations operate concurrently and make financial investments in several nations. Multinational corporations decided to move production to Asian countries in the late 1970s. The following are the repercussions of this decision:

• It was a catalyst for increased global trade as well as capital flows.
• It brought about a dramatic change in the economic landscape. Creating more options for work, assisted Asian countries in addressing the issue of high unemployment rates.
• People in Asian countries could purchase and use new products since they were manufactured on a huge scale in those countries.

4. Give two examples from history to show the impact of technology on food availability.

Numerous examples throughout history illustrate how technological advancements have affected the quantity of food that is available.

•  The development of refrigerated ships allowed for the more cost-effective transport of meat and other perishable food items, which resulted in a general decrease in the cost of meat.
• Improvements in transportation, including faster railways, lighter wagons, and larger ships, helped convey food from distant farms to end markets more swiftly and affordably.

5. What is meant by the Bretton Woods Agreement?

Near the close of World War II in 1944, monetary negotiators met in Bretton Woods and agreed. Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, was the site of a conference amongst Allied nations to examine the global economy. The negotiations resulted in an agreement to peg other countries’ currencies to the U.S. dollar and to fix the importance of the U.S. dollar to the value of gold. The accord also led to the formation of the International Monetary Fund. After the United States abandoned the gold standard in 1971, the Bretton Woods System remained in effect.

Each participating currency’s value was fixed relative to the dollar or gold under the Bretton Woods System. Anyone could exchange their foreign cash for dollars, and for anyone to exchange their dollars for gold. The agreement established a dollar worth equal to one-thirtieth of an ounce of gold.

6. Imagine that you are an indentured Indian laborer in the Caribbean. Drawing from the details in this chapter, write a letter to your family describing your life and feelings.

Dear family,

It’s not easy being an indentured worker in Trinidad (Caribbean). In this letter, I hope to convey my struggles, the contractor’s rude treatment of me, and the depth of my need for you.

When the contractor hired me, he lied about my employment location, transportation options, and working and housing conditions.

We are given very little protection under the law. The contractor’s language on the job site is hostile and insulting. We are a marginalized group on the cocoa plantations of Trinidad, and he treats us like livestock. We aren’t allowed to complain about our working circumstances or even speak up about them.

I get prosecuted and put to jail every time I miss work. Sometimes, I must complete a whole day’s worth of labor on the plantations.

If my performance is deemed unsatisfactory, my pay will be reduced.

I’ve been reduced to a slave’s existence and am in deep distress.

 7. Explain the three movements or flows within the international economic exchange. Find one example of each flow type involving India and Indians, and write a short account of it.

Trade flows, human capital flows, and capital flows or investments are the three different kinds of movements or flows that take place within the context of international economic exchange. These may constitute three categories: the exchange of agricultural goods, the movement of labor, and the giving and receiving of financial loans across countries.

In the pre-modern period, India was a major trading center. India received precious metals such as gold and silver in exchange for textiles and spices sold to Europe. After Christopher Columbus found the Americas, many various kinds of food, including potatoes, soya, groundnuts, maize, tomatoes, chili peppers, and sweet potatoes, were brought from the Americas to India.

In the nineteenth century, a significant number of people were held in servitude as indentured laborers to work in mines, plantations, and factories located in other countries. The British used this to exert their dominance over their colonies.

In the end, to finance the World War, the United Kingdom accepted large loans from the United States. Because India was an English colony at the time, the consequences of these loan debts were also experienced in India. The government of Great Britain imposed higher taxes and interest rates while simultaneously reducing the prices of the goods it purchased from the colony. This had a significant impact, although an indirect one, on the economy and people of India.

8. Explain the causes of the Great Depression.

• Overproduction in the agricultural sector was one of the primary factors that contributed to the Great Depression, which in turn, caused prices to decrease. Due to a reduction in prices and income from agriculture, farmers attempted to increase their production and bring more products to market to retain their overall income. This was done to keep their overall income stable. This worsened the market’s surplus, which drove prices considerably lower than they already were. The lack of buyers led to the spoilage of the farm’s produce.
• The lack of available credit was another factor that contributed to the Great Depression. Around the middle of the 1920s, the United States provided numerous other countries with loans so that those countries could finance their investments. However, the United States stopped providing loans whenever there was a problem. Therefore, countries that were critically dependent on US loans suffered an extreme crisis that disrupted international trade.
• During the period of expansion necessary to meet the growing demand for commodities related to the war, the conditions produced by the conflict were also responsible for the Great Depression. However, once the war was over, there was a significant drop in demand for military and war-related products, which led to an economic crisis.

9. Explain what is referred to as the G-77 countries. In what ways can G-77 be seen as a reaction to the activities of the Bretton Woods twins?

For a system that would provide them genuine control over their natural resources without falling prey to neo-colonialism, an innovative kind of colonialism in the trade carried out by the former colonial powers, the G-77 countries demanded a New International Economic Order (NIEO).

The Group of 77 (G77) at the United Nations is an alliance of 134 developing countries to advance the economic interests of its members and strengthen their ability to negotiate as a bloc.

Since the Bretton Woods institutions (the International Monetary Fund, as well as the International Monetary Fund, was established to serve the monetary demands of industry while creating countries while doing little to promote the economic development of former colonies as well as emerging nations, the G-77 can be seen as a reaction to their actions.

Find out more about gold and diamond mining in South Africa in the nineteenth century. Who controlled the gold and diamond companies? Who were the miners, and what were their lives like?

Gold and diamond mining in South Africa in the nineteenth century

  Before the immense mineral wealth of South Africa was found in the late nineteenth century, it was a popular idea that southern Africa was nearly destitute. This belief was based on the assumption that the rest of the continent possessed the same wealth that had lured Europeans to the region. By then, South Africa had no known gold reserves comparable to those that the Portuguese had been searching for in West Africa in the 15th century. Both the finding of diamonds in 1869 and gold in 1886 brought about dramatic shifts in the economic landscape of South Africa. The amount of money invested in Africa by Europeans reached a level that, by the completion of the nineteenth century, was equal to all of the other Europeans’ investments in Africa combined.

 South Africa became more integrated into the global economy due to its exports, most notably diamonds and gold, as well as an increase in domestic demand for a wide range of agricultural goods imported from other countries. The never-ending rise of the mining industry was the driving force behind the economic expansion cycle. As a result of the newly acquired wealth, consumer demand drove increasing levels of commercial activity.

Control over the gold and diamond mines in South Africa

Europeans controlled all the gold and diamond mines in South Africa at the time. Families of African descent worked in such mines as miners.

They were confined inside the mine compound and were not permitted to roam freely there. They were subjected to treatment based on their race. Their wages, revenue, and tax levels did not meet the requirements. Families were often forced to work in mines after being evicted from their land.

The discovery of diamonds in South Africa led to the development of institutionalized forms of labor control, such as the compound and hostel system. Additionally, exploitative relations in the industrial setting took on the same racial shape as those previously existing in rural areas.

Therefore, when Africans went to work in the diamond mines, they were not ‘free’ wage laborers in the sense of laborers who were ‘free’ to sell their ability to work and laborers who were ‘free’ from the land. Their obligations to the community prevented them from exercising their own agency about using their labor. The mines discovered that jail labor was both inexpensive and easy to manage. They quickly came up with the concept of housing their employees in totally self-sufficient closed compounds under the pretext of preventing theft.

Important Topics from the Chapter

• The Pre-Modern World
• The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)
• The Inter-War Economy
• Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-War Era

FAQs on NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3

Q 1. what are the topics which the students can learn from ncert solutions for class 10 history chapter 3.

The important topics which are covered in NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 include: The Pre-Modern World The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914) The Inter-War Economy Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-War Era

Q 2. How to use the NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 for CBSE examinations?

The NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History for Class 10 History includes the certain idea of globalization and important aspects like migration, people in search of work, and capital movement. NCERT Solutions are important for students to answer the NCERT questions correctly and they are designed in a student-friendly manner and students can easily understand and score well in examinations.

Q 3. What are topics discussed under Inter-War Economy in NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3?

The important topics discussed in NCERT Solutions for Class 10 History Chapter 3 are: Wartime Transformations Post-war recovery The Great Depression  India and the Great Depression

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• The Making of a Global World

The world today is globalized. All the countries have become so interdependent that no nation today can survive in isolation. The world was not always connected this way. When people began to migrate in search of work or an even better lifestyle, it marked the beginning of the process of globalization. The greatest gift of globalization to mankind is that it has made it easy for us to connect even if we stay in two different countries.

The Making of the Global World : Till the Nineteenth Century

The internet has now helped us all to connect. The internet has connected the world in this millennium. However, have you ever wondered how life was many years ago? All through history, people have been interlinked for various reasons. 

The Pre-Modern World

Before the beginning of the nineteenth century, travellers, traders, scholars had travelled across different continents for gaining knowledge, for collecting religious text, or for various other reasons. The three things that will help us to understand the making of a global world in the pre-Modern era is:

Food Travels

Diseases and Trade

The Silk Route was a historic trade route that stretched from Asia to the Mediterranean traversing China, India, Persia, Arabia, Greece, and Italy. The route was called the silk route due to a large amount of silk trading that used to take place from the second century B.C. until the 14th century A.D.The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world. These routes were used to trade various types of goods ranging from Chinese pottery, silk, silver etc. Not only did the silk route provide a link between countries for importing and exporting goods but it also became important for the export of art, literature, and philosophies.

Food Travels – Spaghetti and Potato

Food is another way to understand how a  worldwide world existed in pre-modern times since traders or travellers introduced a new food to the place they visited. Indians, five centuries ago, were not aware of potatoes, maize, groundnut, etc. All these food items were only introduced to Europe and Asia after Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas.

Another interesting story is about noodles or Spaghetti. According to many historians, noodles travelled from China to Europe and became spaghetti. However, this points to the very fact that there was an extended cultural contact within the pre-modern world.

European traders in the sixteenth century found a sea-route to Asia and an ocean-route to America.  Countries like Peru and Mexico, in South America, were full of mines with precious metals like silver which helped Europe finance its trade. Portuguese and Spaniards colonized South  America by the mid-sixteenth century.

What was unique in their conquest was that they did not use conventional military weapons; rather they used Biological warfare. Hunger and poverty in the 18th century were so common in the whole of Europe. Diseases like smallpox were widespread too.

The Americans never had strong immunity so when they would go for battles they would carry the germs of such diseases and thus fall sick and also transmit these germs to other Americans.

Until the Mid-eighteenth century, the world's two richest countries were China and India. Asia was the center of trade and commerce for the entire world. However, China slowly reduced its international contacts and retreated into isolation. Also, America was a  rising power. This led to a shift in trade and Europe became the center of world trade.

The Nineteenth Century

In the nineteenth century, three sorts of flow existed within international economic exchanges. They were:

Labour flow

Capital flow

Formation of the World Economy

Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Britain's population began to rise and so was the demand for food grains. This led to an overall increase in the price of food grains. Corn laws that restricted the import of corn into Britain had been abolished due to tremendous pressure from the industrialists and the local people. This encouraged cheaper import of food items, much cheaper than the cost of production within Britain. This led to vast areas of land being left uncultivated and those who were engaged in agriculture, now moved to cities for employment opportunities. Britain at the same time experienced rapid Industrial growth which led to higher income for locals as well as higher consumption of food. Countries like Australia, America, Russia, and Eastern Europe began to grow food items to export them to Britain. However, there was no connectivity to export these goods. Eventually, Britain started to provide capital to these countries and the people from Europe began to migrate to America due to the requirement of high Labour. Products other than food items also began to be produced because of the rising demands in the British Markets.

Significance of Technology

New and Modern Technology was required to transport edible and perishable products from one country to another. There was a need for a faster medium of transportation and also new advancements for the delivery of fresh goods. Technology ensured that the trains were faster, wagons were lighter and ships were larger to accommodate the increasing demands.

Another problem that was being faced was the shipment of meat from America and Australia to Europe. The meat was considered a luxury in Britain. However, live animals were difficult to transport as they took up a lot of space and many also fell ill. The invention of ships with cold storage stepped in to solve this problem. Meat could easily be transported now.

Colonialism in Late Nineteenth Century

A Lot of Colonialism was taking place towards the end of the 19th century. European countries like Britain, France, Portugal were colonizing countries in Africa and Asia for increasing their trade. These countries would provide them with cheap raw material which then would be exported to their native countries and finally, the finished products would have been sold at high prices in these colonized countries.

Indentured Labor Migration from India

Thousands of Indian Labourers migrated to work in Mines, Plantations, and other construction projects. When the cotton industry declined it became difficult for the labourers to meet their expenses. Thus they migrated in search of better living conditions and work. But that was not the case. They were asked to sign a 5-year contract on the completion of which they could return to India and the living conditions were also not what they were told. While some of them escaped into the jungles, a few stayed back and adapted to the new culture leading to a fusion of cultures.

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Indian Trade

Due to the Industrial Revolution, Britain now began to produce cotton which they used to earlier export from India. This led to a decline in the demand for Indian cotton. There has been constant importing and exporting of various goods between India and Britain. But the export of Indian goods to Britain remained extremely low as compared to the British export to India. Thus Britain had a ‘trade surplus’ with India. 

Did You Know?

Indentured labour means a bonded labourer who had to work on a contract basis for free for his employer for a certain period because of any unpaid loan or for transportation cost to a job location.

FAQs on The Making of a Global World

Q. Write a Short Note on the Silk Route.

Answer: The Silk Route was a historic trade route that stretched from Asia to the Mediterranean traversing China, India, Persia, Arabia, Greece, and Italy. The route was called the silk route due to a large amount of silk trading used to take place from the second century B.C. until the 14th century A.D.The silk routes are a good example of vibrant pre-modern trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world.

Q. What was Rinderpest?

Ans. Rinderpest was a cattle plague that had hit Africa in the late 1880s. Rinderpest was a deadly plague that killed over 90% of the cattle within five years.

CBSE 10 History

04 the making of a global world, lesson materials.

Notes Free NCERT Solutions

Lesson Topics

• 4.01 The Premodern World - 1
• 4.02 The Premodern World - 2
• 4.03 The Nineteenth Century (1815 - 1914)
• 4.04 The Nineteenth Century - 2
• 4.05 The Nineteenth Century - 3
• 4.06 The Nineteenth Century - 4
• 4.07 The Nineteenth Century - 5
• 4.08 The Inter-war Economy - 1
• 4.09 The Inter-war Economy - 2
• 4.10 The Inter-war Economy - 3
• 4.11 The Inter-war Economy - 4
• 4.12 The Inter-war Economy - 5
• 4.13 Rebuilding a world economy: The Post-war Era -1
• 4.14 Rebuilding a world economy: The Post-war Era -2
• 4.15 Rebuilding a world economy: The Post-war Era -3

Chapter 4 The Making of a Global World - Test

The Making of the Global World (Assignment 04)

Answer the following questions:.

Note: Students have to cover from 1.1 to 1.3 for this session (2023-2024) in boards.

Q.1 Which route is the oldest route that connected the entire world in ancient times? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.2 What did the people of Maldives exchange in return for goods? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.3 Which metals were used by Europeans for exchange with Asia? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.4 For which purposes did the people travel long distances? (5) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.5 Who accidentally discovered the vast continent ‘America’ in 1492? (1) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.6 Which crops were introduced to the world by America? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.7 which continents were connected through the silk route? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.8 How did the introduction of crops like potatoes created a new difference between life and death? (3) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.9 What was El Dorado? (2) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.10 How did the European colonizers conquer the Americas in 16th century? (3) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.11 ‘Small pox became the most powerful weapon of Spanish conquerors’ Explain. (3) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Some other Questions:

Q.12 Which countries were among the richest countries in the world till 18th century? (2)

Q.13 Write a note to explain the effects of The Great depression on the Indian economy. (3) (Previously asked question)

Q.14 What is meant by the Bretton woods agreement. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.15 Define the term trade surplus. How was the income received from trade surplus with India used by Britain. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.16 Explain the role of New International Economic Order (NIEO). (2) (Previously asked question)

Q.17 ”No country can survive without international trade in the present global world”. Explain the statement. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.18 What is G77? What did the G77 countries want to gain from new International Economic Order? (5) (Previously asked question)

Q. 19 What were the Corn Laws? (2) (Previously asked question)

Q.20 Analyse any two factors that were responsible for the Great Depression in America during 1929. (2) (Previously asked question)

Q.21 Write a short note on G-77? (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.22 Why were Corn Laws scrapped? Explain any two reasons. (2) (Previously asked question)

Q.23 What do you know about the Great Depression? Explain the major factors responsible for the Great Depression. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.24 Explain the effects of the Great Depression of 1929 on the Unites States. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.25 Describe any five factors that led to the end of the Bretton Woods System and the beginning of globalization. (5) (Previously asked question)

Q.26 How had Indian trade been beneficial for the British during seventeenth century? Explain. (3) (Previously asked question)

Q.27 How did silk routes link the world? Explain with two examples. (3) (Recently asked question) FOR SESSION 2023-2024

Q.28 Indian trade had played an important role in the late nineteenth century world economy.” Analyze the statement. (5) (Previously asked question)

Answer 1: The Silk Road stands as the ancient world’s oldest transcontinental trade route. It interconnected diverse cultures, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies between the East and West during antiquity (the ancient past of Middle ages).

Answer 2: Maldivians engaged in trade using cowrie shells as a widely accepted currency. These small shells, abundant in the Maldives, served as a valuable medium of exchange for goods in ancient commerce.

Answer 3: European-Asian Trade Metals were:

• Silver: Europeans extensively utilized silver in trade with Asia. Silver became a key commodity exchanged for Asian goods, contributing to the economic dynamics of the European-Asian trade routes.
• Copper: Copper was another metal employed by Europeans for transactions in the Asian trade networks. Its malleability and conductivity made copper a sought-after resource in exchange for Asian products.

Answer 4: People have traveled long distances for various reasons throughout history. The following are five common purposes for long-distance travel:-

• Trade and Commerce: People traveled extensively for business, seeking unique items and making connections for trade.
• Cultural Exchange: Traveling to distant places enabled the sharing of ideas, languages, and interesting traditions, making societies more diverse.
• Religious Journeys: Some individuals undertook challenging trips to sacred places for their faith, fostering a stronger connection to their beliefs.
• Exploration and Expansion: Explorers journeyed to far-off lands to discover new territories and resources, aiming to claim these areas for their countries.
• Diplomacy: Diplomats and messengers traveled to build friendships and discuss important matters between countries, contributing to global peacekeeping efforts.

Answer 5: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, accidentally discovered the vast continent of America in 1492.

Answer 6: America introduced essential crops to the world, including maize (corn), potatoes, and tomatoes. These additions revolutionized global agriculture, becoming staples in diverse cuisines and diets worldwide.

Answer 7: The Silk Road connected the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa, fostering trade and cultural exchange across vast regions during ancient times.

Answer 8: Potatoes created a new difference between life and death in following ways:-

• Potatoes, introduced globally from the Americas, significantly boosted food production. Their adaptability to diverse climates ensured a stable food supply, reducing the risk of famines.
• Potatoes are rich in essential nutrients. Their widespread cultivation enhanced diets, preventing malnutrition and improving overall health.
• While potatoes saved lives, over-reliance on them in Ireland led to disaster during the 19th-century Potato Famine. A devastating potato disease caused widespread starvation, highlighting the risks of depending solely on a single crop.

Answer 9: El Dorado was a legendary city or region rumored to be rich in gold and treasures. Explorers and adventurers, particularly during the Spanish colonization of the Americas, sought El Dorado, believing it to be a place of immense wealth. The quest for El Dorado became a symbol of the unattainable, often leading to expeditions and explorations in search of this mythical city of gold.

Answer 10: The European colonizers conquer the Americas in 16th century in following ways:-

• Military Superiority: European colonizers possessed advanced weaponry, including firearms and armor, giving them a significant military advantage over the indigenous populations.
• Disease Impact: The introduction of diseases like smallpox, to which Native Americans had no immunity, caused devastating epidemics, leading to a drastic reduction in indigenous populations.
• Colonial Exploitation: European powers exploited their military advantage to establish colonies, exploiting resources and subjugating native civilizations, marking the beginning of European dominance in the Americas.

Answer 11: Smallpox became the Powerful Weapon for Spanish Conquerors due to:

• Lack of Immunity: Native American populations had no previous exposure to smallpox, making them highly susceptible to the disease. The absence of immunity led to devastating and widespread outbreaks among indigenous communities.
• Epidemic Impact: Smallpox epidemics caused staggering mortality rates, decimating large portions of the Native American population. This demographic collapse weakened indigenous societies, making them more vulnerable to Spanish conquest.
• Psychological Warfare: The devastating impact of smallpox created fear and panic among native populations. Spanish conquerors, often unknowingly, used the disease as a form of unintentional biological warfare, contributing significantly to the success of their conquests.

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The Making of a Global World

05 the making of a global world.

The Pre-modern World

‘Globalisation’ is often referred to as an economic system that has emerged since the last 50 years or so. The making of the global world has a long history of trade, migration of people in search of work, the movement of capital, etc.

Silk Routes Link the World:

• The silk routes linked together vast regions of Asia, Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
• They are known to have existed since before the Christian era and thrived almost till the fifteenth century.

Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato

• Europe’s poor began to eat better and live longer with the introduction of potato.
• The poor peasants of Ireland were so dependent on potatoes that when disease destroyed the potato crop in the mid-1840s, hundreds of thousands died of starvation.

Conquest, Disease and Trade

• But from the sixteenth century, America’s vast lands and abundant crops and minerals began to transform trade and lives everywhere.
• The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of America was decisively under way by the mid-sixteenth century.
• The most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors was the germs such as those of smallpox that they carried.
• Once introduced, smallpox spread deep into the continent, ahead even of any Europeans reaching there.
• Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in Europe.
• Religious conflicts were common, and religious dissenters were persecuted.

The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)

• In the nineteenth century, economic, political, social, cultural and technological factors transformed societies and reshaped external relations.

A World Economy Takes Shape

• In nineteenth-century Britain, self-sufficiency in food meant lower living standards and social conflict.
• In Eastern Europe, Russia, America and Australia lands were cleared and food production expanded to meet the British demand.
• By 1890, a global agricultural economy had taken shape, accompanied by complex changes in labour movement patterns, capital flows, ecologies and technology.

Role of Technology

• Technological advances like the railways, steamships, the telegraph, were the result of larger social, political and economic factors.
• Colonisation stimulated new investments and improvements in transport resulting in faster railways, lighter wagons and larger ships.

Late nineteenth-century Colonialism

• Trade flourished and markets expanded in the late nineteenth century.
• The expansion of trade and increased prosperity had many negative repercussions.

Rinderpest or the Cattle Plague:

• In the late 1880s Africa was hit by rinderpest, a devastating cattle disease.
• As rinderpest spread, it killed 90 per cent of the cattle which in turn destroyed African livelihoods.
• Whatever little cattle resources remained, were monopolised by planters, mine owners and colonial governments.

Indentured Labour Migration from India

• In India, indentured labourers were hired under contracts which promised return travel after they had worked five years on their employer’s plantation.
• The main destinations of Indian indentured migrants were the Caribbean islands, Mauritius and Fiji.
• Recruitment was done by agents engaged by employers and paid a small commission.
• On arrival at the plantations, labourers found living and working conditions were harsh, and there were few legal rights.
• Most indentured workers stayed on after their contracts ended, or returned to their new homes after a short spell in India.

Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad

• Many groups of bankers and traders had a sophisticated system to transfer money over large distances, and even developed indigenous forms of corporate organisation.
• Indian traders and moneylenders also followed European colonisers into Africa.

Indian Trade, Colonialism and the Global System

• With industrialisation, British cotton manufacture began to expand.
• Tariffs were imposed on cloth imports into Britain.
• From the early nineteenth century, British manufacturers also began to seek overseas markets for their cloth.
• While exports of manufactures declined rapidly, export of raw materials increased equally fast.
• Over the nineteenth century, British manufactures flooded the Indian market.
• But the value of British exports to India was much higher than the value of British imports from India.
• Thus Britain used the surplus to balance its trade deficits with other countries.

The Inter-war Economy

• During the First World War the world experienced widespread economic and political instability, and another catastrophic war.

Wartime Transformations

• The First World War involved the world’s leading industrial nations which harnessed the powers of modern industry to inflict the greatest possible destruction on their enemies.
• Millions of soldiers had to be recruited from around the world and moved to the frontlines on large ships and trains.
• The scale of death and destruction was unthinkable without the use of industrial arms.
• The war led to the snapping of economic links between some of the world’s largest economic powers.
• Britain borrowed large sums of money from US banks as well as the US public.
• Thus the war transformed the US from being an international debtor to an international creditor.

Post-war Recovery

• Britain, which was the world’s leading economy in the pre-war period, faced a prolonged crisis.
• After the war Britain found it difficult to recapture its earlier position of dominance in the Indian market, and to compete with Japan internationally.
• When the war boom ended, production contracted and unemployment increased.

Rise of Mass Production and Consumption

• After a short period of economic trouble in the years after the war, the US economy resumed its strong growth in the early 1920s.
• Mass production became a characteristic feature of industrial production in the US.
• The housing and consumer boom of the 1920s created the basis of prosperity in the US.
• In 1923, the US resumed exporting capital to the rest of the world and became the largest overseas lender.

The Great Depression:

• The Great Depression began around 1929 and lasted till the mid1930s.
• Most parts of the world experienced major declines in production, employment, incomes and trade.
• Agricultural regions and communities were the worst affected.

Causes of the depression:

• Agricultural overproduction:
• Indebtedness:
• The withdrawal of US loans affected much of the rest of the world.
• The US was also the industrial country most severely affected by the depression.

India and the Great Depression:

• Due to the depression India’s exports and imports went down to half between 1928 and 1934.
• Peasants and farmers suffered more than urban dwellers.
• The depression proved less grim for urban India.

Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era:

• The Second World War was fought between the Axis powers and the Allies.
• Two crucial influences shaped post-war reconstruction.
• The first was the US’s emergence as the dominant economic, political and military power in the Western world.
• The second was the dominance of the Soviet Union.

Post-war Settlement and the Bretton Woods Institutions:

• The main aim of the post-war international economic system was to preserve economic stability and full employment in the industrial world.
• Its framework was agreed upon at the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference held in July 1944 at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA.
• The IMF and the World Bank are referred to as the Bretton Woods institutions or the Bretton Woods twins.

The Early Post-war Years:

• With the Bretton Woods system came an era of unprecedented growth of trade and incomes for the Western industrial nations and Japan.
• Developing countries tried to catch up with the advanced industrial countries.

Decolonisation and Independence:

• Over the next two decades after the Second World War, most colonies in Asia and Africa emerged as free, independent nations.
• The IMF and the World Bank were designed to meet the financial needs of the industrial countries.
• From the late 1950s the Bretton Woods institutions began to shift their attention more towards developing countries.

End of Bretton Woods and the Beginning of ‘Globalisation’:

• From the 1960s the US’ overseas involvements weakened its finances and competitive strength.
• The industrial world was also hit by unemployment that began rising from the mid-1970s and remained high until the early 1990s.
• The relocation of industry to low-wage countries stimulated world trade and capital flows.
• In the last two decades the world’s economic geography has been transformed as countries such as India, China and Brazil have undergone rapid economic transformation.

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Assignments Class 10 Social Science The Making of a Global World

Please refer to Assignments Class 10 Social Science The Making of a Global World Chapter 3 with solved questions and answers. We have provided Class 10 Social Science Assignments for all chapters on our website. These problems and solutions for Chapter 3 The Making of a Global World Class 10 Social Science have been prepared as per the latest syllabus and books issued for the current academic year. Learn these solved important questions to get more marks in your class tests and examinations.

The Making of a Global World Assignments Class 10 Social Science

ONE MARK QUESTIONS

Question. How frozen meat reached European market at reduced cost ? Ans : Animals were slaughtered for food in America, Australia or New Zealand and then transported to Europe as frozen meat at reduced cost.

Question. Which common foods were introduced to our ancestors after Columbus discovered America ? Ans : Potatoes, soya, maize, tomatoes, chillies, groundnuts and sweet potatoes were introduced in Europe and Asia after the discovery of America by Columbus.

Question. What were ‘Silk Routes’ ? Ans : Silk routes were dynamic pre-modem trade and cultural links between distant parts of the world.

Question. What is El Dorado ? Ans : El Dorado was deemed to be the fabled city of gold.

Question. What was Rastafarianism ? Ans : Rastafarianism means a protest religion that reflected social and cultural connections with Indian emigrants in the Caribbean region.

Question. Who was indentured labourer ? Ans : Indentured labourer signifies a ‘bonded labourer1 who obtained contract to work for an employer for a particular period of time.

Question. What kind of cultural exchanges were made through ‘Silk Route’ ? Ans : ‘Silk Route’ was a popular network as it was frequented by the Christian missionaries, Muslim and Buddhist preachers.

Question. Why did people migrate from Europe to Australia and America ? Ans : Due to the increasing demand for food and employment, people from Europe migrated to Australia and America in search for better future prospects.

Question. Why were indentured labourer hired from India and China ? Ans : In the nineteenth century, thousands of Indians and Chinese labourers were hired to work on plantations, mines, and road and railways construction projects as indentured labourers.

Question. Can you name some prominent Indians whose descendents were migrant indentured labourers in West Indies ? Ans : Nobel Prize winning writer V.S. Naipaul and West Indies cricketers Shivnarine Chandrapaul and Ramnaresh Sarwan.

Question. What is Al-Dorado in Latin America? Ans.  City of Gold.

Question. Give any two factors which helped in making of global world? Ans.  (1) Trade (2) In search of work

Question. During the First World War women in Europe stepped into jobs which earlier men were expected to do. What was the reason? (a) because men went to battle. (b) because men went to other countries in search of jobs. (c) because of liberalisation of women in society. (d) because menfolk decided to take charge of the household work. Ans.  (a) because men went to battle.

Question. People livelihood and local economy of Asia was badly affected by the disease named Rinderpest. Ans.  False

Question. Carribbean island was an important destination for indentured migrants? Ans.  True

Question. Who adopted the concept of ‘assembly line’ to manufacture automobiles? (a) T. Cuppola (b) Henry Ford (c) Samuel Morse (d) Christopher Columbus Ans.  (b) Henry Ford

Question. How were human societies interlinked in ancient times ? Ans. Human societies interlinked by travellers, traders, priests and pilgrims who travelled vast distances for knowledge, opportunity and spiritual fulfillment

Question. ……………. is a fast spreading cattle plague which hit Africa in the late 1880s. Ans.  Rinderpest

Question. Europeans were attracted to Africa by its natural beauty. Ans.  False

THREE MARKS QUESTIONS

Question. Why did Europeans flee to America in the 19th century? Give three reasons. Ans :  Europe was facing the problems like poverty, hunger, deadly diseases, religious conflicts, slave traders etc. and therefore many Europeans shifted to America by the 18th century.

Question. Describe the circumstances responsible for the formation of G-77. Ans : The developing countries were not benefitted from the fast growing western economies so they organized together and formed a Group of 77 which is commonly referred to as G-77 and demanded a new international economic order. Their demand for NIEO was to get the real control over their own natural resources, development assistance, and fairer prices for the raw materials and access for their manufactured goods in the markets of the developed nations.

Question. “China became an attractive destination for investment by foreign MNCs in the nineteenth and twentieth century.” Justify the statement. Ans : It is true to say that in the 19th and 20th century, China became an attractive destination for investment by the foreign MNCs. This is due to the following reasons: a. MNCs shifted their production units to low wage countries like China by the late 1870s. b. Due to the highly skilled people in large numbers it was easy to get the skilled labour at low cost in China. c. The new economic policy in China and better opportunity for the MNCs to maximize their profit also played an important role in this.

Question. Describe any three problems faced by Indian cotton weavers in the nineteenth century. Ans : The three problems faced by Indian cotton weavers in the nineteenth century were: a. Earlier, India was the main exporter of fine cotton to Britain but when the British cotton industries began to expand after industrialisation, they put pressure on the government to restrict the import of cotton to Britain. b. As a result, tariffs were imposed on the import of cotton cloth from India which protected the local manufacturers in Britain. c. Thus the inflow of the fine cotton from India declined.

Question. Describe in brief the destruction caused during the Second World War. Ans : The Second World War took place from 1939 to 1945 between the Axis powers (which included Nazi Germany, Japan and Italy) and the Allies (which included Britain, France, Soviet Union and US). 60 million people were killed and millions were injured in this war in which civilian deaths were more than the soldiers. Many European and Asian cities were destroyed due to the aerial bombardment and artillery attacks. This war had caused great social and economic fracture. The post war 1 reconstruction was long and difficult.

Question. How was the food problem solved in Britain after scrapping the Corn Laws? Explain. Ans : The abolition of Corn Laws was responsible for the movement of people to the cities and overseas because the imported corn was much cheaper which the British farmers were unable to compete as a result they either left the cultivation or were thrown out of the farm. The consumption of food crops rose in Britain due to the fall in prices. The food imports increased due to the higher income caused by the faster industrial growth in Britain. This increased demand of food crops in Britain was fulfilled by the countries in Western Europe, Russia, America and Australia where the lands were cleared for the expansion of the food grain production.

Question. Explain how the First World War was so horrible a war like none other before. or Why is it said that there was no other war earlier like the First World War? State in three points. Ans : There was no other war earlier like the First World War because of the following reasons: a. The First World War which took place mainly in Europe from 1914 to 1918 had a profound impact on economic and political stability which took over three decades to overcome, b. The leading industrial nations of the world were taking part, they wanted to harness the vast powers of the modern industries for the greatest possible destructions. Modern weapons like tanks, aircrafts, machine guns and chemical weapons were used, large ships and trains were used to move the recruited soldiers. c. Around 9 million died and 20 million injured, the industries were restructured to produce war-related goods and also the societies were reorganized for war.

Question. How did the withdrawal of US loans during the phase of the Great Depression affect the rest of the world? Explain in three points. Ans : During the First World War, the US financed through loans a number of countries. The withdrawal of US loans affected the rest of the world in the following three ways: a. It caused the failure of some major banks and collapse of currencies in Europe. b. The banks in US slashed domestic lending and called back loans but many households were unable to repay the loan due to decline in sale of agricultural products. c. Collapse of business and falling income which finally resulted into collapse of the US banking system. To protect its economy, the US doubled the import duties which led to another severe blow to the world trade.

Question. Explain the impact of First World War on the British economy. Ans : The First World War which took place mainly in Europe from 1914 to 1918 had ; a profound impact on the economy of Britain. a. The large scale deaths and injuries in the First World War reduced the working age people in Europe, declined the family income and the women had to undertake jobs to run the family. b. During the First World War the US became the international creditor from being international debtor because, to finance the war, Britain borrowed huge sums of money from the US banks and US public. c. The debt mounted and thus Britain was not able to produce goods for exports.

Question. How did rinderpest become instrumental in subjugating the Africans? Ans.  (a) It affected the livelihood, economy , the social peace and harmony of the Africans. (b) About ninety-nine per cent of the cattle were killed, which forced Africans to work for the Europeans in the plantations. (c) It enabled the Europeans to colonies and subdue Africa. The colonial government forced Africans into labour – market.

Question. Describe the effects of abolishing the Corn Laws. Ans.  (a) Food could be imported into Britain more cheaply than it could be produced within the country. (b) British agriculture was unable to compete with imports. (c) Vast areas of land were now left uncultivated and thousands of men and women were thrown out of work. (d) Peasants flocked to the cities or migrated overseas.

Question. How did the Great Depression of 1929 affect the farmers and the middle classes in India in different ways? Ans.  (a) Agricultural prices began to fell and finally collapsed in 1930. (b) It became difficult for the peasants to sell their harvest and pay revenues. (c) Peasants ran into huge debts who had mortgaged their land and used their savings. (d) This depression however did not hit the urban areas where the middle class lived and had fixed incomes. (e) Middle class salaried people were not affected and rather they could buy goods at a cheaper rate.

Question. What are ‘canal colonies’ ? Ans.  The British Indian government built a network of irrigation canals in Punjab. The Colonies situated around the areas irrigated by the new canals were called, Canal Colonies.

Question. What do you mean by surplus trade? Why the balance of trade is always favourable for Britain in terms of India? Ans.  When export value is more than import value is known as surplus value (a) The excess of goods in the market of Britain. (b) Increase in export of grains and raw material to Britain and other countries from India. (c) The goods imported to India cost very high whereas the goods exported to Britain cost very less.

Question. Explain the impact of First World War on the British economy. Ans.  (a) 15 – 25 percent of Britain’s wealth was spent on the war. (b) It had borrowed heavily from the United States and after the war, the debts mounted. (c) British industries could not produce goods for exports. (d) Being unable to modernize its industries and compete with the United States, Germany and Japan, British economy crumbled.

Question. Why did Europeans flee to America in the 19th Century? Give three reasons. Ans. (a) Poverty and hunger were common and widespread in Europe in the beginning of the 19th century. (b) Cities were overcrowded and people feared deadly diseases. (c) Religious conflicts

FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS

Question. Explain the three types of movements or flows within international economic exchange. Mention any one example of any one type of flow from India and one from England. Ans :  There were three types of movements or flows noticed by the economist in the international market. a. Flow of trade in which there was large scale trade of goods such as clothes and food stuffs. b. Flow of labour in which the people migrated from one place to another in large numbers in search of employment. c. Flow of capital in which capital moved over long distances for short term or long term investments. Railways, ports, harbours and settlements were developed in America and Australia for the smooth supply of food stuffs and for the industrial raw materials. All this required capital and labour which flowed from the financial centres such as London. During this period, around 50 million people migrated from Europe to America and Australia and around 150 million people migrated all over the world in search of their better future. The indentured labourers were hired from India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, central India and dry districts of Tamilnadu) for a period of five years to work on plantations.

Question. Explain the following: (a) G-77 (b) The Great Depression Ans :  a. G-77: The developing countries were not benefitted from the fast growing western economies so they organized together and formed a group of 77 which is commonly referred to as G-77 and demanded a new international economic order. Their demand for NIEO was to get the real control over their own natural resources, development assistance, and fairer prices for the raw materials and access for their manufactured goods in the markets of the developed nations. b. The Great Depression: The year 1929 was called the year of Great Depression which lasted till mid-1980s. Production, employment, income and trade declined all over the world due to which the agricultural regions and communities were worst affected because the prices of the agricultural products declined sharply and for long period than the Price fall in the industrial goods. The two main reasons for this Great Depression were the overproduction in the US and the withdrawal of US loans which caused the failure of some major banks and collapse of currencies in Europe.

Question. Explain any three benefits of refrigerated ships. Ans :  The three benefits of refrigerated ships were: a. There was trade in meat till the 1870s from America to Europe. The cattle were slaughtered after they reach the destination. There were number of problems in carrying the five animals into the ships such as they took lot of space, many died on the way, fell ill, lost their weight, became inedible. b. To solve the problems of this meat trade, refrigerated ships were developed for carrying these for a longer distance. The animals were slaughtered at the starting point and then transported as frozen meat to Europe which solved the problems of space, shipping cost and the price of the meat in the European market. c. As the price of the meat reduced in the market, the European poor could also consume butter, eggs and meat which helped in better living conditions and social peace in the country. This condition supported for imperialism abroad.

Question. Describe in brief the world economic condition in the post first world war period. Ans :  a. Before the First World War, Britain was the world’s leading economy but after the war Britain was over burdened with external debts. b. In the meantime, industries in India and Japan developed a lot. Due to these conditions it became difficult for Britain to get its dominance over India back and compete with Japan internationally. ‘ The First World War led to an economic boom which means large increase in demand, production and employment but the production decreased and the unemployment increased when the war ended. In the year 1921, there was huge job losses, almost l/5th of the British workers were out of job. c. Eastern Europe was the major supplier of wheat in the world which was disrupted when Europe was bpsy with the First World War. During this war period the production of wheat rose in Canada, US and Australia. Again after the war Eastern d. Europe revived the wheat production. Due to this there was tremendous supply of wheat in the world market which resulted in falling prices, decline of the rural income and the farmers fell in debt.

Question. How did the Great Depression of 1929 affect the farmers and the middle classes in India in different ways? Ans :  The great depression of US also affected India severely. The exports and imports fell down almost by 50%. a. The peasants who were producing for the world market were hit hard than the urban dwellers because of the sharp decline in the price of the agricultural products in the international market and also the colonial government refused to reduce the revenue. b. The jute producers of Bengal fell into debt due to the collapse of the gunny exports and decline in the price of the raw jute. To come out of the situation of indebtedness, Indian peasants used their savings, mortgaged lands and sold their jewellery and precious metals. c. During this depression period, India became an important exporter of Gold which helped Britain to speed up its recovery and also helped in promoting the global economic recovery. d. The urban India people were not much affected as their income was fixed. Either they were dependent on rental income or they were salaried employees.

SOURCE BASED QUESTIONS

Question. Read the following passage and answer the questions at the end. The Portuguese and Spanish conquest and colonisation of America was decisively under way by the mid-sixteenth century. European conquest was not just a result of superior firepower. In fact, the most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors was not a conventional military weapon at all. It was the germs such as those of smallpox that they carried on their person. Because of their long isolation, America’s original inhabitants had no immunity against these diseases that came from Europe. Smallpox in particular proved a deadly killer. Once introduced, it spread deep into the continent, ahead even of any Europeans reaching there. It killed and decimated whole communities, paving the way for conquest.

(a) What was the most powerful weapon of the Spanish conquerors? Ans.  The germs such as those of smallpox

(b) Why America’s original inhabitants infected easily by the germs that came from Europe? Ans.  They were isolated from the rest of the world and had no immunity.

(c) How Europeans carried germs in America? Ans.  With infected person.

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• The Making of a Global World: World War and the Great Depression

There were two main events that highlighted the Twentieth century as one of struggle and chaos. The first defining event was the first world war, and then immediately after came the great depression of 1929. Both these events have shaped our modern history. Let us take a detailed look.

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Changes during the world war.

The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918, primarily in Europe. During this period, many economic and political changes occurred around the global world. The first modern industrial war, World War I, saw a large-scale use of machine guns, tanks, aircraft, chemical weapons, etc. – industrial arms. The war was fought between the following two blocs:

• Allies – Britain, France, and Russia (the US joined later)
• Central Powers – Germany, Austria-Hungary and Ottoman Turkey

(Source: Wikipedia)

This war left around 9 million dead and 20 million injured. Most of these dead and/or injured were able-bodied men of the working age-group. Post-war, the number of working members in most households reduced, leading to a sharp decline in income .

A restructure of industries followed to accommodate an increased demand for war-related goods. Also, women began stepping out and taking up jobs that only men did earlier. The war needed a steady source of capital as well. The major powers battling against each other created newer ties. For e.g. Britain started borrowing capital from the US and soon the US became an international creditor.

Browse more Topics under The Making Of A Global World

• The Making of a Global World: Till the Nineteenth Century

Recovering from the World War

Britain had a tough time recovering from the First World War for many reasons:

• While Britain was at war, countries like India and Japan developed industries. Post-war Britain could not re-capture the Indian market or compete with Japan on a global level.
• The capital borrowed by Britain during the war led to a huge external debt which needed to be repaid.
• During the war, there was a surge in employment due to the increased demand of war-related goods. Post-war, as these demands decreased, many people were rendered jobless. In 1921, one out of every five British workers was unemployed.
• Pre-war, Eastern Europe supplied wheat to most of the global world. During the war, Canada, Australia, and America stepped up their wheat production. This was because the supply was disrupted from Europe. Post-war, once Europe started producing wheat again, they created a glut in the wheat market leading to a drop in prices and subsequent decrease in rural income.

The US Boom

Mass production helped the US recover from the post-war economic crisis. Henry Ford, a leading car manufacturer, was the pioneer of mass production . He observed the assembly line used in slaughterhouses in Chicago. The slaughtered animals were picked apart as they came down a conveyor belt. Eventually, he devised a cheaper and faster way of producing vehicles using the conveyor belt method.

In this method, the speed of the conveyor belt determined the speed of production. Workers could not take untimed breaks or indulge in friendly chats. The stress of the pace of work led to mass resignations. Ford then doubled the daily wage and banned trade unions from his organization. Now he could ask his workers to work harder and since he paid them double the wages. Soon, this method was copied by other companies across the US and Europe.

The increased wages also led to a subsequent increase in the purchase of durable consumer goods, like cars, refrigerators, washing machines, radios, gramophone players, etc. A system of ‘hire-purchase’ or installment-purchase as is known today, helped people acquire these goods sooner. These purchases were also fuelled by the housing boom in the US, which was also financed by loans.

This cycle of higher employment and incomes, rising consumer demand, more investment, and even more employment and incomes, contributed to the economic boom of the US. Soon the US became the largest international lender.

The Great Depression of 1929

In 1929, the global world experienced sharp declines in employment, production, trade, and incomes. While all industries were impacted, the agricultural sector was the most affected. The post-war global world economy was already crumbling and these factors pushed it towards an economic depression:

• Agricultural overproduction – Post-war, overproduction of crops was already a problem. The falling prices worsened it further. So, with falling prices and decreasing incomes, farmers tried increasing production to maintain their income. However, this led to a worsened glut in the market and a further drop in prices.
• Withdrawal of loans by the US – By mid-1928, the US had over $ 1 billion in overseas loans. Over the next year, these loans were reduced to around 25% of that amount. This led to an economic crisis in countries who depended on the US for loans. For e.g. in Europe, some banks collapsed and the currency de-valued while in Latin America the prices of agricultural products and raw materials slumped further.

The depression adversely affected the US too. Banks started reducing domestic lending, called back loans, harvests remained un-sold and businesses collapsed. The people who could not repay their loans had to forfeit their cars/ homes. Subsequently, people started migrating to places where they could find employment. The US banking system collapsed and many banks went bankrupt.

The Great Depression and India

In the global world, a crisis in one country affected all the other countries. Pre-depression, India exported agricultural products and imported manufactured goods. During the depression, the imports and exports took a huge hit. The wheat prices fell by around 50%.

It hit our agricultural sector the hardest. The jute farmers suffered as prices dropped by around 60%. Overall, the farmers and peasants faced increasing loans, reducing savings, and mortgaged lands. Subsequently, they started selling gold, jewelry and other precious metals to meet their expenses. Soon India became and exporter of gold which helped the global world in recovering from this depression. However, the farmers and peasants were still suffering.

On the other hand, people living in urban areas were much better off. With fixed sources of income and prices going down, they could afford more for a lesser amount of money.

The Post War Period

Around two decades after the end of the First World War, the Second World War broke out. Fought between the Axis powers of Nazi Germany, Japan, and Italy and the Allies Britain, France, Soviet Union and the US, it went on for around six years.

Source: Wikipedia

Around 60 million people or 3% of the world’s population died. This war caused more civilian deaths than soldiers. Economic and Social disruption was immense. The US and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers post this war.

Lessons Learned from the World War

The economist and world leaders learned two strong lessons from this war:

• The Government must ensure the economic stability of a nation. This can lead to stable employment for people thereby ensuring a stable income. And, this would eventually increase mass consumption further boosting an industrial society based on mass production.
• The government should have complete control over the flow of goods, labour, and capital to be able to ensure full employment of its people.

In July 1944, at the United Nation’s Monetary and Financial Conference was held in Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA. This conference established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank).

• IMF – dealt with deficits and surpluses of its member nations
• World Bank-financed post-war reconstruction

These two institutions started operations in 1947 with decision making powers resting with the western industrial powers and the US having an effective right of veto. In the Bretton Woods system, all national currencies were pegged to the dollar at a fixed rate of exchange. However, the dollar was at a fixed price of $35 per ounce of gold.

Early Post-War Years

The Bretton Woods system helped the global world recover from the economic crisis of the war and brought trade to the Western countries and Japan. The technology was spreading and developing countries were trying to catch up with the other advanced countries. This period saw huge imports of industrial plant and equipment based on modern technology.

Decolonization

The Post-war period also saw a lot of colonies in Asia and Africa emerge as independent countries. However, they were poverty-stricken due to long periods of colonial rule. Once Britain and Japan rebuilt their economies, the IMF and World Bank shifted their focus to these former colonies. International agencies stepped in to help these countries lift their populations out of poverty.

However, these agencies were controlled by former colonial powers and they still had a stake in the vital resources of the former colonies. Also, large corporations of powerful countries like the US managed to secure rights to exploit the natural resources of the developing countries at cheap prices.

Soon the developing countries realized that they were not benefitting from the exponential growth of the western economies. Hence, they created a group – G-77 and demanded a New International Economic Order (NIEO). They demanded for a system wherein they could control their natural resources and have better access to the markets in developed countries for their manufactured goods.

Beginning of Globalization

Post 1960s, the US dollar failed to maintain its value in relation to gold and ceased to be the world’s principal currency. The fixed exchange rate system got abolished and a new floating exchange rate system was introduced.

Earlier, countries would borrow funds from international institutions. However, post-1970s, they were forced to borrow from Western commercial banks. This led to a debt crisis in Africa and Latin America. Unemployment was also very high between the 1970s and early 1990s. This was because companies had started moving their production operations to the low-wage Asian countries.

Since the revolution in 1949, China was cut-off from the post-war world economy. However, with new economic policies, China was soon back in the fold. Due to the low wages in China, it soon became a preferred destination for MNC investments.

Solved Questions for You

Q1. The First World War was fought between which two groups?

Ans. The First World War was fought between:

• Allies – Britain, France, and Russia (the US joined later)

Q2. What were the two major reasons behind the Great Depression of 1929?

Ans. Overproduction of agricultural products and withdrawal of international loans by the US were the two major reasons behind the Great Depression of 1929.

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The Making of a Global World

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Until the nineteenth century, poverty and hunger were common in ___________ and the modern city worldwide has developed only over the last 200___________.Fill in the blank

Poverty and hunger were common in Europe until the.. nineteen century because there were no..enough. work .or any trade because.mamy countries are suferring from diseases and being isolated.

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There is unequivocal evidence that Earth is warming at an unprecedented rate. Human activity is the principal cause.

• While Earth’s climate has changed throughout its history , the current warming is happening at a rate not seen in the past 10,000 years.
• According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ), "Since systematic scientific assessments began in the 1970s, the influence of human activity on the warming of the climate system has evolved from theory to established fact." 1
• Scientific information taken from natural sources (such as ice cores, rocks, and tree rings) and from modern equipment (like satellites and instruments) all show the signs of a changing climate.
• From global temperature rise to melting ice sheets, the evidence of a warming planet abounds.

The rate of change since the mid-20th century is unprecedented over millennia.

Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 800,000 years, there have been eight cycles of ice ages and warmer periods, with the end of the last ice age about 11,700 years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era — and of human civilization. Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.

The current warming trend is different because it is clearly the result of human activities since the mid-1800s, and is proceeding at a rate not seen over many recent millennia. 1 It is undeniable that human activities have produced the atmospheric gases that have trapped more of the Sun’s energy in the Earth system. This extra energy has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land, and widespread and rapid changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere have occurred.

Earth-orbiting satellites and new technologies have helped scientists see the big picture, collecting many different types of information about our planet and its climate all over the world. These data, collected over many years, reveal the signs and patterns of a changing climate.

Scientists demonstrated the heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other gases in the mid-19th century. 2 Many of the science instruments NASA uses to study our climate focus on how these gases affect the movement of infrared radiation through the atmosphere. From the measured impacts of increases in these gases, there is no question that increased greenhouse gas levels warm Earth in response.

Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical mountain glaciers show that Earth’s climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels. Ancient evidence can also be found in tree rings, ocean sediments, coral reefs, and layers of sedimentary rocks. This ancient, or paleoclimate, evidence reveals that current warming is occurring roughly 10 times faster than the average rate of warming after an ice age. Carbon dioxide from human activities is increasing about 250 times faster than it did from natural sources after the last Ice Age. 3

The Evidence for Rapid Climate Change Is Compelling:

Global Temperature Is Rising

The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and other human activities. 4 Most of the warming occurred in the past 40 years, with the seven most recent years being the warmest. The years 2016 and 2020 are tied for the warmest year on record. 5 Image credit: Ashwin Kumar, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

The Ocean Is Getting Warmer

The ocean has absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 100 meters (about 328 feet) of ocean showing warming of 0.67 degrees Fahrenheit (0.33 degrees Celsius) since 1969. 6 Earth stores 90% of the extra energy in the ocean. Image credit: Kelsey Roberts/USGS

The Ice Sheets Are Shrinking

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an average of 279 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2019, while Antarctica lost about 148 billion tons of ice per year. 7 Image: The Antarctic Peninsula, Credit: NASA

Glaciers Are Retreating

Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa. 8 Image: Miles Glacier, Alaska Image credit: NASA

Snow Cover Is Decreasing

Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and the snow is melting earlier. 9 Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Sea Level Is Rising

Global sea level rose about 8 inches (20 centimeters) in the last century. The rate in the last two decades, however, is nearly double that of the last century and accelerating slightly every year. 10 Image credit: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Norfolk District

Arctic Sea Ice Is Declining

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades. 11 Credit: NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio

Extreme Events Are Increasing in Frequency

The number of record high temperature events in the United States has been increasing, while the number of record low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed increasing numbers of intense rainfall events. 12 Image credit: Régine Fabri,  CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Ocean Acidification Is Increasing

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30%. 13 , 14 This increase is due to humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the ocean. The ocean has absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions in recent decades (7.2 to 10.8 billion metric tons per year). 1 5 , 16 Image credit: NOAA

1. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, WGI, Technical Summary . B.D. Santer et.al., “A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere.” Nature 382 (04 July 1996): 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1038/382039a0. Gabriele C. Hegerl et al., “Detecting Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climate Change with an Optimal Fingerprint Method.” Journal of Climate 9 (October 1996): 2281-2306. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<2281:DGGICC>2.0.CO;2. V. Ramaswamy, et al., “Anthropogenic and Natural Influences in the Evolution of Lower Stratospheric Cooling.” Science 311 (24 February 2006): 1138-1141. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1122587. B.D. Santer et al., “Contributions of Anthropogenic and Natural Forcing to Recent Tropopause Height Changes.” Science 301 (25 July 2003): 479-483. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084123. T. Westerhold et al., "An astronomically dated record of Earth’s climate and its predictability over the last 66 million years." Science 369 (11 Sept. 2020): 1383-1387. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094123

2. In 1824, Joseph Fourier calculated that an Earth-sized planet, at our distance from the Sun, ought to be much colder. He suggested something in the atmosphere must be acting like an insulating blanket. In 1856, Eunice Foote discovered that blanket, showing that carbon dioxide and water vapor in Earth's atmosphere trap escaping infrared (heat) radiation. In the 1860s, physicist John Tyndall recognized Earth's natural greenhouse effect and suggested that slight changes in the atmospheric composition could bring about climatic variations. In 1896, a seminal paper by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius first predicted that changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels could substantially alter the surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. In 1938, Guy Callendar connected carbon dioxide increases in Earth’s atmosphere to global warming. In 1941, Milutin Milankovic linked ice ages to Earth’s orbital characteristics. Gilbert Plass formulated the Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climate Change in 1956.

3. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, WG1, Chapter 2 Vostok ice core data; NOAA Mauna Loa CO2 record O. Gaffney, W. Steffen, "The Anthropocene Equation." The Anthropocene Review 4, issue 1 (April 2017): 53-61. https://doi.org/abs/10.1177/2053019616688022.

4. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/monitoring https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/temperature/ http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp

5. https://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20170118/

6. S. Levitus, J. Antonov, T. Boyer, O Baranova, H. Garcia, R. Locarnini, A. Mishonov, J. Reagan, D. Seidov, E. Yarosh, M. Zweng, " NCEI ocean heat content, temperature anomalies, salinity anomalies, thermosteric sea level anomalies, halosteric sea level anomalies, and total steric sea level anomalies from 1955 to present calculated from in situ oceanographic subsurface profile data (NCEI Accession 0164586), Version 4.4. (2017) NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/3M_HEAT_CONTENT/index3.html K. von Schuckmann, L. Cheng, L,. D. Palmer, J. Hansen, C. Tassone, V. Aich, S. Adusumilli, H. Beltrami, H., T. Boyer, F. Cuesta-Valero, D. Desbruyeres, C. Domingues, A. Garcia-Garcia, P. Gentine, J. Gilson, M. Gorfer, L. Haimberger, M. Ishii, M., G. Johnson, R. Killick, B. King, G. Kirchengast, N. Kolodziejczyk, J. Lyman, B. Marzeion, M. Mayer, M. Monier, D. Monselesan, S. Purkey, D. Roemmich, A. Schweiger, S. Seneviratne, A. Shepherd, D. Slater, A. Steiner, F. Straneo, M.L. Timmermans, S. Wijffels. "Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go?" Earth System Science Data 12, Issue 3 (07 September 2020): 2013-2041. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020.

7. I. Velicogna, Yara Mohajerani, A. Geruo, F. Landerer, J. Mouginot, B. Noel, E. Rignot, T. Sutterly, M. van den Broeke, M. Wessem, D. Wiese, "Continuity of Ice Sheet Mass Loss in Greenland and Antarctica From the GRACE and GRACE Follow-On Missions." Geophysical Research Letters 47, Issue 8 (28 April 2020): e2020GL087291. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087291.

8. National Snow and Ice Data Center World Glacier Monitoring Service

9. National Snow and Ice Data Center D.A. Robinson, D. K. Hall, and T. L. Mote, "MEaSUREs Northern Hemisphere Terrestrial Snow Cover Extent Daily 25km EASE-Grid 2.0, Version 1 (2017). Boulder, Colorado USA. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center. doi: https://doi.org/10.5067/MEASURES/CRYOSPHERE/nsidc-0530.001 . http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/sotc/snow_extent.html Rutgers University Global Snow Lab. Data History

10. R.S. Nerem, B.D. Beckley, J. T. Fasullo, B.D. Hamlington, D. Masters, and G.T. Mitchum, "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era." PNAS 15, no. 9 (12 Feb. 2018): 2022-2025. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717312115.

11. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/sotc/sea_ice.html Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System (PIOMAS, Zhang and Rothrock, 2003) http://psc.apl.washington.edu/research/projects/arctic-sea-ice-volume-anomaly/ http://psc.apl.uw.edu/research/projects/projections-of-an-ice-diminished-arctic-ocean/

12. USGCRP, 2017: Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I [Wuebbles, D.J., D.W. Fahey, K.A. Hibbard, D.J. Dokken, B.C. Stewart, and T.K. Maycock (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, 470 pp, https://doi.org/10.7930/j0j964j6 .

13. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F

14. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Acidification

15. C.L. Sabine, et al., “The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2.” Science 305 (16 July 2004): 367-371. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097403.

16. Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate , Technical Summary, Chapter TS.5, Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities, Section 5.2.2.3. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/technical-summary/

Header image shows clouds imitating mountains as the sun sets after midnight as seen from Denali's backcountry Unit 13 on June 14, 2019. Credit: NPS/Emily Mesner Image credit in list of evidence: Ashwin Kumar, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

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World Bank Group Publishes New Data, Aiming to Boost Investment in Emerging Markets

Data shows untapped potential, resilience in emerging markets.

WASHINGTON, March 28, 2024 —The World Bank Group today published sought-after proprietary statistics that reveal the credit risk profile of private and public sector investments in emerging markets. Making this data publicly available is the latest in a concerted effort to drive more private sector investment to emerging and developing economies.

Two separate reports are being provided for the first time ever. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is sharing sovereign default and recovery rate statistics dating back to 1985. This information will help credit rating agencies and private investors gain a deeper understanding of IBRD’s credit risk.       

At the same time, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) is providing private sector default statistics broken down by internal credit rating. The report provides insights that could help private sector investors feel more confident about investing in emerging markets.

“We believe our proprietary information should be a global public good and sharing it will provide transparency and inspire investor confidence,” said World Bank Group President Ajay Banga . “ The publication of this data is aimed at one goal: getting more private sector capital into developing economies to drive impact and create jobs.”

The World Bank Group analyses complement statistics produced by the Global Emerging Markets Risk Database Consortium (GEMs), a group of 25 multilateral development banks and development finance institutions that pools similar data and publishes them as a combined resource for public use.

The consortium releases sovereign and private sector default statistics annually. Earlier this week, the consortium expanded the materials they publish to include private sector recovery rates disaggregated by country income, regions, and sectors.

To ensure the quality of the information, IBRD staff spent more than a year recovering and cleaning sovereign default data covering the period 1985 to 2023. These statistics are unique to IBRD due to its global portfolio and long historical record. Similarly, IFC’s private sector default statistics have been compiled over nearly 40 years and published as a standalone report to respond to the urgent need of investors for emerging market insights. In time, these statistics might also be combined with other data from development institutions and published through the GEMS Consortium.

Key takeaways of World Bank Group statistics:

• The IFC's private sector portfolio had a low default rate of 4.1% from 1986 to 2023, suggesting the untapped potential and resilience of private sector investments in emerging markets.
• For investments rated as "weak" by IFC's internal rating system, the default rate was only 2.6% during the period between 2017 and 2023, indicating that even investments considered higher risk can perform better than could be expected.
• For sovereign borrowers, defaults are rare, averaging just 0.7% annually, and the World Bank typically recovers more than 90% of the amount owed, including both principal and interest. This underscores the World Bank's preferred creditor status and its ability to effectively manage sovereign credit risk.
• Sovereign default losses range from 0.01% to 58.5%, reflecting the effect of interest rates and length of time in default.

The World Bank Group's comprehensive data can inform more nuanced risk assessments, leading to better investment decisions and improved access to capital for emerging markets. This new reporting will support private investment in developing economies - by increasing transparency on historical performance, helping investors gauge risk-reward premiums, and bolstering confidence on the state of emerging markets.    

In Washington: Jim Rosenberg, (202) 473 0551, [email protected]                       

Website: www.ifc.org

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In Washington: David Theis, +1 202 203 0601, [email protected]

Website: www.worldbank.org

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Think Tanks From Five Countries Predict China to Overtake U.S. as World’s Largest Economy by 2035

Competing with the United States for global economic dominance, China is expected to surpass the U.S. GDP by around 2035. However, achieving this goal requires maintaining an annual growth rate of about 5%, with a minimum of 4%, making it challenging.

On the 1st, China ’s Global Times reported, according to a joint research report by think tanks from five countries, including China’s Renmin University Chongyang Institute of Financial Studies, that China’s GDP is expected to overtake the United States as the world ’s largest economy by around 2035. The research team, comprised of scholars from the United States, Russia, Canada, India, and China, predicts that China’s growth will lead the global economy in the future.

Global Times quoted domestic and international analysts saying that China will maintain steady growth momentum and cautiously address challenges while achieving its annual GDP growth target in 2024.

Read more: Biden Gets $33.7 Billion in Support From Clinton and Obama: What About Trump?

The report states that if China maintains an annual GDP growth rate of about 5% over the next few years and continues with a minimum growth rate of 4% until 2035, it will surpass the United States as the world’s leading economy around that time. The report is based on China’s faster economic growth, the continuous appreciation and internationalization of the yuan, and a long-term bullish outlook on the yuan against the U.S. dollar. It also mentioned that developing countries will become the core engine of global economic growth, and their high growth rates could double the world’s GDP within the next decade.

China has set its economic growth rate target 2024 at around 5%, exceeding some international organizations’ forecasts. Last year, it achieved a 5.2% growth over the previous year, surpassing the official target of “around 5%,” but the outlook for this year is expected to be tough.

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John Ross, a senior researcher at the Chongyang Institute of Financial Studies, told the Global Times , “There’s no reason China can’t meet its GDP growth target for 2024.” He argued that China’s investment is much more efficient than the U.S., suggesting that if China invests about 40% of its GDP, its growth rate will reach 5%. Based on last year’s data, China will significantly outperform the U.S. and the European Union (EU), remaining a major driver of global economic growth as it has for the past 40 years.

Marco Fernandez, a researcher at the Brazil-based Tricontinental Institute for Social Research, suggested in an interview with the Global Times on the 23rd of the last month that China, already larger in purchasing power per capita, could very likely surpass the U.S. in GDP terms.

However, claims that China’s likelihood of becoming the global economic superpower over the U.S. is slim are also significant.

Yanzhong Huang, a senior fellow for global health at the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), predicted in a column posted on the Council’s blog on the 22nd of last month titled The Tilted Balance of Power: Peak China and the Resilience of the United States that assuming an annual growth rate of 5%, China might not surpass the U.S. by 2035.

Yan Xuetong, the director of the Institute of International Relations at Tsinghua University, also predicted at an international relations outlook seminar held at Tsinghua University on January 13 this year that “the gap in national power between China and the U.S. could widen rather than narrow in the next decade amid intensifying competition between the two countries.”

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A Simple New Technique Could Make Your Eggs More Humane

A system that determines the sex of chicks before they hatch eliminates the need to destroy young males.

By Cara Buckley

The egg industry hides a dark secret.

Every year in the United States, more than 300 million male chicks are hatched. But because they don’t lay eggs or produce valued meat, they are typically killed within a day, usually shredded alive in industrial grinders. The practice, known as chick culling, is replicated on a huge scale around the globe, with an estimated 6.5 billion male chicks killed each year, or around 200 each second.

But now an American egg producer said he plans to begin selling eggs from chickens bought from a hatchery equipped with new technology that avoids that grisly outcome, a first in the United States.

“The average consumer simply has no awareness that this is even an issue,” said the producer, John Brunnquell, founder and president of Indiana-based Egg Innovations, which sells 300 million free-range and pasture-raised eggs a year.

Mr. Brunnquell said the main hatchery he uses was on track to adopt the technology in early 2025 and that he expected to begin selling eggs produced with the new technique late next summer. “The assumption is, once we start, some other people will follow,” he said. “Someone has to move the needle.”

He declined to identify the hatchery, citing a nondisclosure agreement.

Several European countries use the technology, known as in-ovo sexing, which can determine the sex of a chick before it hatches. Then unwanted eggs can be destroyed before the point at which, according to studies, the embryo feels pain. The technology would add a few cents per egg, industry experts say.

Germany and France both ban chick culling, and Italy plans to end the practice in 2027. Eggs from hens that were raised in hatcheries that use the technology are sold in Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain and a number carry a “free of chick culling” label.

The United States has lagged despite a nonbinding pledge made by the United Egg Producers, a trade group, to end chick culling by 2020. The group, which represents the producers of more than 90 percent of eggs sold in the country, has said that in-ovo technology isn’t yet available on the scale necessary for the American egg industry.

In a statement, the group said that smaller European hatcheries were better positioned to adopt in-ovo sexing and that American producers want to use it. “This is a priority and is the right thing to do,” the group said. But Robert Yaman, founder and chief executive of Innovate Animal Ag, a nonprofit focused on technology that improves animal welfare, said the scale of the egg industry in Europe was similar to that of the U.S.

By and large, Americans are unaware of the practice of chick culling, which has meant little consumer demand in the United States to end its use.

“I think you don’t have to be a philosopher to believe that it’s morally problematic to let some animals be born just to be immediately killed,” Mr. Yaman said.

About 87 percent of eggs laid in the United States are unfertilized table eggs, according to the Department of Agriculture; the United Egg Producers said 92.6 billion table eggs were produced in 2022. The remaining 13 percent are fertilized eggs, also known as hatching eggs. The female chicks are raised to produce chickens.

Male chicks serve little purpose in this production cycle, because they can’t lay eggs and their flesh is deemed tough and stringy. In commercial hatcheries, workers determine the sex of day-old chicks and male chicks are killed and often turned into animal feed.

Animal rights groups, not surprisingly, rail against the practice. Vicky Bond, president of the nonprofit Humane League, called it “a symptom of a broken system that sees sentient beings as trash that can be created and destroyed without any consideration for their suffering.”

Two types of in-ovo sexing technology are currently being used in Europe, with more in development. One method involves noninvasive imaging of incubating eggs to determine the embryos’ sex, and another involves making a tiny hole in the eggshell to sample and analyze the fluid inside, and resealing the hole, often with beeswax.

According to Innovate Animal Ag, almost 15 percent of laying hens in the European Union were hatched using in-ovo sexing as of September 2023. (Culling bans don’t apply to female ducklings killed as part of the foie gras industry).

The Foundation for Food & Agriculture Research, a nonprofit group established and partially funded by Congress, said widespread adoption of in-ovo sexing could significantly reduce costs and inefficiencies because roughly half of fertilized eggs would no longer need to be incubated until they hatch. Late last year, the group announced three finalists in a multimillion dollar prize to develop in-ovo sexing technology that is highly accurate and can be used at a commercial scale.

Mr. Brunnquell of Egg Innovations said he did not yet know how many eggs hatched from no-cull flocks he would sell, or what their price might be.

“Is there enough innate concern about male chicks being euthanized that people will pay a bit extra?” he asked. “That’s the unknown.”

Cara Buckley is a reporter on the climate team at The Times who focuses on people working toward climate solutions. More about Cara Buckley

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Have questions about climate change? Our F.A.Q. will tackle your climate questions, big and small .

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To decarbonize the electrical grid, companies are finding creative ways to store energy during periods of low demand in carbon dioxide storage balloons .

New satellite-based research reveals how land along the East Coast is slumping into the ocean, compounding the danger from global sea level rise . A major culprit: overpumping of groundwater.

Did you know the ♻ symbol doesn’t mean something is actually recyclable ? Read on about how we got here, and what can be done.

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Making Moves: Hira Naveed Rockets Up in Rankings

Five things to know about the augusta national women’s amateur.

• Hira Naveed
• lexi-thompson
• Gabriela Ruffels

Hira Naveed introduced herself to the golf world at large last weekend at the Ford Championship presented by KCC and had the Move of the Week after contending in her second start of the 2024 season and her fourth-ever LPGA Tour tournament.

After making the cut on the number for the first time in her Tour career, Naveed played lights out in her final 36 holes, shooting 65-66 to finish solo second at the Ford Championship in Arizona. The 2024 LPGA Tour rookie vaulted from No. 648 in the Rolex Women's World Gold Rankings to No. 106, the highest ranking of her career.

She spent the past four seasons competing on the Epson Tour before becoming an LPGA Tour member this year, earning $102,362 in career money and recording eight top-10 finishes since joining the organization. Her solid play in 2023 on the Epson Tour earned the 26-year-old an opportunity to compete in LPGA Q-Series and, after a T15 finish, a spot on the LPGA Tour in 2024.

While Naveed's move in the Rolex Rankings was nothing short of amazing, her move in the Race to the CME Globe standings was just as significant, as she jumped from unranked to No. 18 and currently holds a spot in the field at the season-ending CME Group Tour Championship.

The Australian not only moved to fourth in the Louise Suggs Rolex Rookie of the Year standings, but she now also ranks 13th on the Official Money List with $206,791 earned so far this season. Naveed’s success last week could be a breakthrough moment that ultimately propels her up even further in various rankings and races and could be one that sees her eventually enter the winner's circle on the LPGA Tour.

Lexi Thompson Continues to Climb in Rolex Rankings

Lexi Thompson came up just short in Gilbert, Ariz., missing out on her first LPGA Tour win since the 2019 ShopRite LPGA Classic presented by Acer after finishing three shots behind 11-time Tour winner Nelly Korda in a tie for third with Mi Hyang Lee, Frida Kinhult, Maja Stark and Carlota Ciganda. But she did jump up 10 spots in the Rolex Rankings from No. 42 to No. 32.

Thompson has competed on the LPGA Tour since 2012 and has 11 wins, one major title, 88 career top-10 finishes and over $14 million in career earnings, so don't count the LPGA Tour veteran out when you pick winners this season. Her game is trending in the right direction, and it feels like it will only be a matter of time before we see her in the winner's circle for that 12th Tour title.

"It feels great. I've been working on my game super hard, and results haven't really shown, so I'm going to continue to work hard because there is a lot more improvement still to be improved on," said Thompson. "But a lot of positives to take from this week, especially going into a major. But I have two weeks, and I know what I need to work on."

Gabriela Ruffels is Trending

Gabriela Ruffels holds the lead in the Louise Suggs Rolex Rookie of the Year award point standings, sitting 51 points ahead of Mao Saigo after her T13 showing at the Ford Championship presented by KCC. While the Australia native has yet to find victory lane so far this season, in addition to her T13 result in Gilbert, Ariz., Ruffels has also earned two other top-15 finishes in 2024, a T3 at the FIR HILLS SERI PAK Championship and T15 at the Blue Bay LPGA.

Ruffels has moved up 73 spots in the Rolex Rankings to No. 81 in the world, the highest she has ever been in her young career. The Epson Tour graduate is no stranger to the winner's circle, having recorded victories on the Epson Tour in 2023 at the Carlisle Arizona Women's Golf Classic, Garden City Charity Classic and Four Winds Invitational. The LPGA Tour rookie finished first in the Epson Tour's Race for the Card last year to earn LPGA Tour membership for the 2024 season earned Epson Tour Player of the Year honors, so it is no surprise she has continued to shine on the LPGA Tour.

U.S. Solheim Cup Standings Update

Players have shuffled in and out of the top seven positions in the Solheim Cup standings, and the final few guaranteed spots on this year's team are still up for grabs. With Nelly Korda's victory at the Ford Championship presented by KCC, she moved to No. 1 in the U.S. Solheim Cup Team points standings, while Alison Lee jumped from ninth to sixth in the points standings after finishing tied for eighth in Arizona.

Sarah Schmelzel moved into eighth in the standings after notching her fourth consecutive top-eight finish at Seville Golf and Country Club and is only 22 points behind Ally Ewing, who currently sits in the seventh spot.

Meanwhile, a stellar performance by six-time Solheim Cupper Lexi Thompson has her in the spotlight as she vies for one of the two guaranteed spots that go to the top two players in the Rolex Rankings who are not already eligible. Thompson's T3 result in Arizona moved her up ten positions in the world rankings to No. 32, while a rare missed cut from Rose Zhang dropped her one spot to No. 23 in the rankings, but both are in a good position to compete for the Americans this September.

The U.S. Team  will comprise the top seven players in the U.S. Solheim Cup standings, the top two in the  Rolex Women's World Golf Rankings  not already eligible, and three captain's picks. The team will be finalized on Aug. 25, 2024, following the AIG Women's Open.

Europe Solheim Cup Standings Update

Charley Hull and Alexandra Forsterling continue to lead the Solheim Cup standings for Team Europe, but Carlota Ciganda has closed the gap and now only trails by just over six points for one of the automatic spots on the team. The Spaniard moved up a spot in the Rolex Rankings to world No. 29 after her T3 performance at the Ford Championship last week and is currently one of six players eligible to qualify via the Rolex Rankings.

As of today, the six Rolex Rankings qualifiers for the European Team are Celine Boutier (No. 3), Linn Grant (No. 25), Georgia Hall (No. 28), Carlota Ciganda (No. 29), Leona Maguire (No. 30) and Maja Stark (No. 46).

The European Team  will comprise the top two players in the Europe Solheim Cup standings, the top six players in the  Rolex Women's World Golf Rankings  not already eligible, and four captain's picks. Like the U.S. Team, the European team will be finalized on Aug. 25, 2024, after the conclusion of the AIG Women’s Open.

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In setback to Turkey’s Erdogan, opposition makes huge gains in local election

Turkey’s main opposition party retained its control over key cities and made huge gains elsewhere in Sunday’s local elections, in a major upset to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, who had set his sights on retaking control of those urban areas. With more than 90% of ballot boxes counted, incumbent Istanbul Mayor Ekrem Imamoglu, of the Republican People’s Party, or CHP, was leading by a wide margin in Turkey’s largest city and economic hub, according to the state-run Anadolu Agency.

Turkey’s main opposition party retained its control over key cities and made huge gains elsewhere in Sunday’s local elections, in a major upset to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, who had set his sights on retaking control of those urban areas. Erdogan acknowledged the electoral setback in a speech delivered from the balcony of the presidential palace, saying his party had suffered “a loss of altitude” across Turkey.

Republican People’s Party, or CHP, supporters gather to celebrate outside City Hall in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey’s main opposition party retained its control over key cities and made huge gains elsewhere in Sunday’s local elections, preliminary results showed, in a major upset to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, who had set his sights on retaking control of those urban areas. (AP Photo/Khalil Hamra)

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Republican People’s Party, or CHP, supporters gather outside the City Hall in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey’s main opposition party appeared set to retain its control over key cities in Sunday’s local elections, preliminary results showed, in a major upset to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, who had set his sights on retaking control of those urban areas. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

Ankara’s Mayor and Republican People’s Party, or CHP, candidate Mansur Yavas gestures as he addresses to supporters next to his wife Nursen Yavas, in Ankara, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

Ankara’s Mayor and Republican People’s Party, or CHP, candidate Mansur Yavas gestures to supporters, in Ankara, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

A woman votes at a polling station in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Emrah Gurel)

A voter walks at a polling station in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

People wait to vote at a polling station in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Emrah Gurel)

A man votes at a polling station in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Emrah Gurel)

People vote at a polling station in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

An election representative holds a ballot at a polling station in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

A man votes at a polling station in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

Justice and Development Party, or AKP, candidate for Istanbul Murat Kurum holds a ballot before voting at a polling station in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (Sercan Ozkurnazli/Dia Images via AP)

ANKARA, Turkey (AP) — Turkey’s main opposition party retained its control over key cities and made huge gains elsewhere in Sunday’s local elections, in a major upset to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, who had set his sights on retaking control of those urban areas.

With more than 90% of ballot boxes counted, incumbent Istanbul Mayor Ekrem Imamoglu, of the Republican People’s Party, or CHP, was leading by a wide margin in Turkey’s largest city and economic hub, according to the state-run Anadolu Agency. Mansur Yavas, the mayor of the capital, Ankara, retained his seat with a stunning 25-point difference over his challenger, the results indicated.

In all, the CHP won the municipalities of 36 of Turkey’s 81 provinces, according to Anadolu, making inroads into many strongholds of Erdogan’s party. It gained 37% of the votes nationwide, compared to 36% for the president’s party, marking the CHP’s greatest electoral victory since Erdogan came to power two decades ago.

Erdogan acknowledged the electoral setback in a speech delivered from the balcony of the presidential palace, saying his party had suffered “a loss of altitude” across Turkey. The people delivered a “message” that his party will “analyze” by engaging in “courageous” self-criticism, he said.

“Unfortunately, nine months after our victory in the May 28 elections, we could not get the result we wanted in the local election test,” Erdogan added. “We will correct our mistakes and redress our shortcomings.”

He vowed to press ahead with an economic program introduced last year that aims to combat inflation.

The vote was seen as a barometer of Erdogan’s popularity as he sought to win back control of key urban areas he lost to the opposition in elections five years ago. The CHP’s victory in Ankara and Istanbul in 2019 had shattered Erdogan’s aura of invincibility.

The main battleground for the 70-year-old Turkish president was Istanbul , a city of 16 million people where he was born and raised and where he began his political career as mayor in 1994.

CHP supporters gather to celebrate outside City Hall in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. (AP Photo/Khalil Hamra)

The result came as a boost for the opposition, which was left divided and demoralized after a defeat to Erdogan and his ruling Islamic-oriented Justice and Development Party, or AKP, in last year’s presidential and parliamentary elections.

“The voters decided to establish a new political order in Turkey,” CHP leader Ozgur Ozel told a crowd of jubilant supporters. “Today, the voters decided to change the 22-year-old picture in Turkey and open the door to a new political climate in our country.”

A large crowd, meanwhile, gathered outside Ankara City Hall to celebrate Yavas’ victory. “Ankara is proud of you!” supporters chanted.

Sinan Ulgen, director of the Istanbul-based Edam think tank, said “the surprising outcome” was due to voters wanting to punish the ruling party over the “depth of an economic malaise.” Skyrocketing inflation has left many Turkish households struggling to afford basic goods.

AKP supporters opted to stay away from the ballot stations or voted for other parties, Ulgen said.

“Turnout was relatively low compared to past elections,” he said. “There were cross-party shifts in the vote, which did not happen in the nationals elections because of stronger ideological attachments. This time around the economy prevailed over identity.”

Some 61 million people, including more than a million first-time voters, were eligible to cast ballots for all metropolitan municipalities, town and district mayorships as well as neighborhood administrations.

Turnout was around 76%, according to the state-run Anadolu Agency, compared to 87% last year.

Election representatives count the ballots at a polling station in Istanbul, Turkey, Sunday, March 31, 2024. Turkey is holding local elections on Sunday that will decide who gets to control Istanbul and other key cities. (AP Photo/Emrah Gurel)

Some 594,000 security personnel were on duty across the country to ensure the vote goes smoothly. Nevertheless, one person was killed and 11 others hurt in the city of Diyarbakir where a dispute over the election of a neighborhood administrator turned violent, the state-run Anadolu Agency reported. At least six people were also injured in fighting that erupted in the nearby province of Sanliurfa.

“According to the data we have obtained, it seems our citizens’ trust in us, their faith in us has paid off,” Imamoglu said.

Imamoglu won 50.6% of the votes in Istanbul, while AKP candidate Murat Kurum, a former urbanization and environment minister, received 40.5%, according to Anadolu. Opinion polls had pointed to a close race between the two.

Imamoglu, a popular figure touted as a possible future challenger to Erdogan, ran without the support of some of the parties that helped him to victory in 2019. Both the pro-Kurdish Peoples’ Equality and Democracy Party and the nationalist IYI Party fielded their own candidates in the race.

A six-party opposition alliance that was led by CHP disintegrated after it failed to oust Erdogan in last year’s election, unable to capitalize on the economic crisis and the government’s initially poor response to last year’s devastating earthquake that killed more than 53,000 people.

Ulgen said the result has thrust Imamoglu into the role of possible leader of the opposition to challenge Erdogan for the presidency in 2028.

“This outcome has certainly been a watershed for Imamoglu,” he said. “He will emerge as the natural candidate of the opposition for the next round of presidential elections.

A voter walks at a polling station in Ankara, Sunday, March 31, 2024. (AP Photo/Ali Unal)

A new religious-conservative party, the New Welfare Party, or YRP, appeared to have attracted votes from AKP supporters who have been disillusioned with the government’s handling of the economy.

In Turkey’s mainly Kurdish-populated southeast, the DEM Party was on course to win many of the municipalities but it’s unclear whether it would be allowed to retain them. In previous years, Erdogan’s government removed elected pro-Kurdish mayors from office for alleged links to Kurdish militants and replaced them with state-appointed trustees.

Analysts said a strong showing for Erdogan’s party would have hardened his resolve to usher in a new constitution — one that would reflect his conservative values and allow him to rule beyond 2028 when his current term ends.

Erdogan, who has presided over Turkey for more than two decades — as prime minister since 2003 and president since 2014 — has been advocating for a new constitution that would put family values at the forefront.

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Kiper reported from Bodrum, Turkey.