essay on depression

Essay On Depression: Causes, Symptoms And Effects

Our life is full of emotional ups and downs, but when the time of down lasts too long or influences our ability to function, in this case, probably, you suffer from common serious illness, which is called depression. Clinical depression affects your mood, thinking process, your body and behaviour. According to the researches, in the United States about 19 million people, i.e. one in ten adults, annually suffer from depression, and about 2/3 of them do not get necessary help. An appropriate treatment can alleviate symptoms of depression in more than 80% of such cases. However, since depression is usually not recognized, it continues to cause unnecessary suffering.

Depression is a disease that dominates you and weakens your body, it influences men as well as women, but women experience depression about two times more often than men.

Since this issue is very urgent nowadays, we decided to write this cause and effect essay on depression to attract the public attention one more time to this problem. I hope it will be informative and instructive for you. If you are interested in reading essays on similar or any other topic, you should visit our website . There you will find not only various essays, but also you can get help in essay writing . All you need is to contact our team, and everything else we will do for you.

Depression is a strong psychological disorder, from which usually suffers not only a patients, but also his / hers family, relatives, friends etc.

General information

More often depression develops on the basis of stress or prolonged traumatic situation. Frequently depressive disorders hide under the guise of a bad mood or temper features. In order to prevent severe consequences it is important to figure out how and why depression begins.

Symptoms and causes of depression

As a rule, depression develops slowly and insensibly for a person and for his close ones. At the initial stage most of people are not aware about their illness, because they think that many symptoms are just the features of their personality. Experiencing inner discomfort, which can be difficult to express in words, people do not ask for professional help, as a rule. They usually go to doctor at the moment, when the disease is already firmly holds the patient causing unbearable suffering.

Risk factors for depression:

• being female;
• the presence of depression in family anamnesis;
• early depression in anamnesis;
• early loss of parents;
• the experience of violence in anamnesis;
• personal features;
• stressors (parting, guilt);
• alcohol / drug addiction;
• neurological diseases (Parkinson's disease, apoplexy).

Signs of depression

Depression influences negatively all the aspects of human life. Inadequate psychological defense mechanisms, in their turn, affect destructively not only psychological, but also biological processes.

The first signs of depression are apathy, not depending on the circumstances, indifference to everything what is going on, weakening of motor activity; these are the main clinical symptoms of depression . If their combination is observed for more than two weeks, urgent professional help is required.

Psychological symptoms:

• depressed mood, unhappiness;
• loss of interest, reduced motivation, loss of energy;
• self-doubt, guilt, inner emptiness;
• decrease in speed of thinking, inability to make decisions;
• anxiety, fear and pessimism about the future;
• daily fluctuations;
• possible delirium;
• suicidal thoughts.

Somatic symptoms:

• vital disorders;
• disturbed sleep (early waking, oversleeping);
• eating disorders;
• constipation;
• feeling of tightness of the skull, dizziness, feeling of compression;
• vegetative symptoms.

Causes of depression

It is accepted to think in modern psychiatry that the development of depression, as well as most of other mental disorders, requires the combined effect of three factors: psychological, biological and social.

Psychological factor (“Personality structure”)

There are three types of personality especially prone to depression:

1) “Statothymic personality” that is characterized by exaggerated conscientiousness, diligence, accuracy;

2) Melancholic personality type with its desire for order, constancy, pedantry, exessive demands on itself;

3) Hyperthymic type of personality that is characterized by self-doubt, frequent worries, with obviously low self-esteem.

People, whose organism biologically tends to depression development, due to education and other social environmental factors form such personality features, which in adverse social situations, especially while chronic stress, cause failure of psychological adaptation mechanisms, skills to deal with stress or lack of coping strategies.

Such people are characterized by:

• lack of confidence in their own abilities;
• excessive secrecy and isolation;
• excessive self-critical attitude towards yourself;
• waiting for the support of the close ones;
• developed pessimism;
• inability to resist stress situations;
• emotional expressiveness.

Biological factor:

• the presence of unfavorable heredity;
• somatic and neurological head injury that violated brain activity;
• changes in the hormonal system;
• chronobiological factors: seasonal depressive disorders, daily fluctuations, shortening of REM sleep;
• side effects of some medications.
• Heredity and family tendency to depression play significant role in predisposition to this disease. It is noticed that relatives of those who suffer from depression usually have different psychosomatic disorders.

Social factor:

• the presence of frequent stress situations, chronic stress;
• adverse family relationships;
• adverse childhood experience, the absence of tenderness from parents, ill-treatment and sexual harassment, interpersonal loss, severe methods of education, negative childhood memories;
• urbanization;
• significant changes in the life;
• population migration;
• increased lifetime.

People in a state of chronic stress suffer from depression more often. If some acute stress situation happens during the period of chronic stress, the probability of depression symptoms development increases.

If you decide to fight the depression, remember that you are not alone! Every fifth person in the world at least once in the life experienced depression. If you notice the signs of depression that disturb you for more than two weeks, you should go to the specialist.

Do not delay visit, in this case time does not heal. The professionalism of the doctors and a complex program of treatment will help to get rid of any kind of depression.

Where to go for help

If you do not where to go for help, ask your family physician, obstetrician, gynecologist or the clinic. In an emergency situation, the emergency doctor can provide temporary help for patients with emotional problems and give them an advice where and how they can ask for the further help.

Here is the list of people and organizations that can diagnose and suggest a course of treatment, or can give a direction to the examination and treatment.

• Family doctors.
• Such specialists as psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers and consultants on mental health.
• Health maintenance organizations.
• Local centers for the treatment of mental illness.
• The Department of Psychiatry in hospitals and outpatient clinics.
• Programs at universities and medical schools.
• Family assistance services and social services departments.
• Private clinics and institutions.
• Care centers in the workplace.
• Local health and (or) mental health communities.

It is very important in depressive episode treatment to understand that this is depression of a certain person, do not make attempts to excessive generalization of symptoms and factors of disease development. It requires personal approach to each patient.

So, as you can see, depression is a serious disease that requires professional treatment. If you manage to recognize the signs of depression at its early stage and ask for professional help, you can successfully overcome this problem. I hope this essay about depression was useful for you, and you got what you were looking for.

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Essays About Depression: Top 8 Examples Plus Prompts

Many people deal with mental health issues throughout their lives; if you are writing essays about depression, you can read essay examples to get started.

An occasional feeling of sadness is something that everyone experiences from time to time. Still, a persistent loss of interest, depressed mood, changes in energy levels, and sleeping problems can indicate mental illness. Thankfully, antidepressant medications, therapy, and other types of treatment can be largely helpful for people living with depression.

People suffering from depression or other mood disorders must work closely with a mental health professional to get the support they need to recover. While family members and other loved ones can help move forward after a depressive episode, it’s also important that people who have suffered from major depressive disorder work with a medical professional to get treatment for both the mental and physical problems that can accompany depression.

If you are writing an essay about depression, here are 8 essay examples to help you write an insightful essay. For help with your essays, check out our round-up of the best essay checkers .

• 1. My Best Friend Saved Me When I Attempted Suicide, But I Didn’t Save Her by Drusilla Moorhouse
• 2. How can I complain? by James Blake
• 3. What it’s like living with depression: A personal essay by Nadine Dirks
• 4. I Have Depression, and I’m Proof that You Never Know the Battle Someone is Waging Inside by Jac Gochoco
• 5. Essay: How I Survived Depression by Cameron Stout
• 6. I Can’t Get Out of My Sweat Pants: An Essay on Depression by Marisa McPeck-Stringham
• 7. This is what depression feels like by Courtenay Harris Bond

8. Opening Up About My Struggle with Recurring Depression by Nora Super

1. what is depression, 2. how is depression diagnosed, 3. causes of depression, 4. different types of depression, 5. who is at risk of depression, 6. can social media cause depression, 7. can anyone experience depression, the final word on essays about depression, is depression common, what are the most effective treatments for depression, top 8 examples, 1.  my best friend saved me when i attempted suicide, but i didn’t save her  by drusilla moorhouse.

“Just three months earlier, I had been a patient in another medical facility: a mental hospital. My best friend, Denise, had killed herself on Christmas, and days after the funeral, I told my mom that I wanted to die. I couldn’t forgive myself for the role I’d played in Denise’s death: Not only did I fail to save her, but I’m fairly certain I gave her the idea.”

Moorhouse makes painstaking personal confessions throughout this essay on depression, taking the reader along on the roller coaster of ups and downs that come with suicide attempts, dealing with the death of a loved one, and the difficulty of making it through major depressive disorder.

2.  How can I complain?  by James Blake

“I wanted people to know how I felt, but I didn’t have the vocabulary to tell them. I have gone into a bit of detail here not to make anyone feel sorry for me but to show how a privileged, relatively rich-and-famous-enough-for-zero-pity white man could become depressed against all societal expectations and allowances. If I can be writing this, clearly it isn’t only oppression that causes depression; for me it was largely repression.”

Musician James Blake shares his experience with depression and talks about his struggles with trying to grow up while dealing with existential crises just as he began to hit the peak of his fame. Blake talks about how he experienced guilt and shame around the idea that he had it all on the outside—and so many people deal with issues that he felt were larger than his.

3.  What it’s like living with depression: A personal essay   by Nadine Dirks

“In my early adulthood, I started to feel withdrawn, down, unmotivated, and constantly sad. What initially seemed like an off-day turned into weeks of painful feelings that seemed they would never let up. It was difficult to enjoy life with other people my age. Depression made typical, everyday tasks—like brushing my teeth—seem monumental. It felt like an invisible chain, keeping me in bed.”

Dirks shares her experience with depression and the struggle she faced to find treatment for mental health issues as a Black woman. Dirks discusses how even though she knew something about her mental health wasn’t quite right, she still struggled to get the diagnosis she needed to move forward and receive proper medical and psychological care.

4.  I Have Depression, and I’m Proof that You Never Know the Battle Someone is Waging Inside  by Jac Gochoco

“A few years later, at the age of 20, my smile had fallen, and I had given up. The thought of waking up the next morning was too much for me to handle. I was no longer anxious or sad; instead, I felt numb, and that’s when things took a turn for the worse. I called my dad, who lived across the country, and for the first time in my life, I told him everything. It was too late, though. I was not calling for help. I was calling to say goodbye.”

Gochoco describes the war that so many people with depression go through—trying to put on a brave face and a positive public persona while battling demons on the inside. The Olympic weightlifting coach and yoga instructor now work to share the importance of mental health with others.

5.  Essay: How I Survived Depression   by Cameron Stout

“In 1993, I saw a psychiatrist who prescribed an antidepressant. Within two months, the medication slowly gained traction. As the gray sludge of sadness and apathy washed away, I emerged from a spiral of impending tragedy. I helped raise two wonderful children, built a successful securities-litigation practice, and became an accomplished cyclist. I began to take my mental wellness for granted. “

Princeton alum Cameron Stout shared his experience with depression with his fellow Tigers in Princeton’s alumni magazine, proving that even the most brilliant and successful among us can be rendered powerless by a chemical imbalance. Stout shares his experience with treatment and how working with mental health professionals helped him to come out on the other side of depression.

6.  I Can’t Get Out of My Sweat Pants: An Essay on Depression  by Marisa McPeck-Stringham

“Sometimes, when the depression got really bad in junior high, I would come straight home from school and change into my pajamas. My dad caught on, and he said something to me at dinner time about being in my pajamas several days in a row way before bedtime. I learned it was better not to change into my pajamas until bedtime. People who are depressed like to hide their problematic behaviors because they are so ashamed of the way they feel. I was very ashamed and yet I didn’t have the words or life experience to voice what I was going through.”

McPeck-Stringham discusses her experience with depression and an eating disorder at a young age; both brought on by struggles to adjust to major life changes. The author experienced depression again in her adult life, and thankfully, she was able to fight through the illness using tried-and-true methods until she regained her mental health.

7.  This is what depression feels like  by Courtenay Harris Bond

“The smallest tasks seem insurmountable: paying a cell phone bill, lining up a household repair. Sometimes just taking a shower or arranging a play date feels like more than I can manage. My children’s squabbles make me want to scratch the walls. I want to claw out of my own skin. I feel like the light at the end of the tunnel is a solitary candle about to blow out at any moment. At the same time, I feel like the pain will never end.”

Bond does an excellent job of helping readers understand just how difficult depression can be, even for people who have never been through the difficulty of mental illness. Bond states that no matter what people believe the cause to be—chemical imbalance, childhood issues, a combination of the two—depression can make it nearly impossible to function.

“Once again, I spiraled downward. I couldn’t get out of bed. I couldn’t work. I had thoughts of harming myself. This time, my husband urged me to start ECT much sooner in the cycle, and once again, it worked. Within a matter of weeks I was back at work, pretending nothing had happened. I kept pushing myself harder to show everyone that I was “normal.” I thought I had a pattern: I would function at a high level for many years, and then my depression would be triggered by a significant event. I thought I’d be healthy for another ten years.”

Super shares her experience with electroconvulsive therapy and how her depression recurred with a major life event despite several years of solid mental health. Thankfully, Super was able to recognize her symptoms and get help sooner rather than later.

7 Writing Prompts on Essays About Depression

When writing essays on depression, it can be challenging to think of essay ideas and questions. Here are six essay topics about depression that you can use in your essay.

Depression can be difficult to define and understand. Discuss the definition of depression, and delve into the signs, symptoms, and possible causes of this mental illness. Depression can result from trauma or personal circumstances, but it can also be a health condition due to genetics. In your essay, look at how depression can be spotted and how it can affect your day-to-day life. 

Depression diagnosis can be complicated; this essay topic will be interesting as you can look at the different aspects considered in a diagnosis. While a certain lab test can be conducted, depression can also be diagnosed by a psychiatrist. Research the different ways depression can be diagnosed and discuss the benefits of receiving a diagnosis in this essay.

There are many possible causes of depression; this essay discusses how depression can occur. Possible causes of depression can include trauma, grief, anxiety disorders, and some physical health conditions. Look at each cause and discuss how they can manifest as depression.

There are many different types of depression. This essay topic will investigate each type of depression and its symptoms and causes. Depression symptoms can vary in severity, depending on what is causing it. For example, depression can be linked to medical conditions such as bipolar disorder. This is a different type of depression than depression caused by grief. Discuss the details of the different types of depression and draw comparisons and similarities between them.

Certain genetic traits, socio-economic circumstances, or age can make people more prone to experiencing symptoms of depression. Depression is becoming more and more common amongst young adults and teenagers. Discuss the different groups at risk of experiencing depression and how their circumstances contribute to this risk.

Social media poses many challenges to today’s youth, such as unrealistic beauty standards, cyber-bullying, and only seeing the “highlights” of someone’s life. Can social media cause depression in teens? Delve into the negative impacts of social media when writing this essay. You could compare the positive and negative sides of social media and discuss whether social media causes mental health issues amongst young adults and teenagers.

This essay question poses the question, “can anyone experience depression?” Although those in lower-income households may be prone to experiencing depression, can the rich and famous also experience depression? This essay discusses whether the privileged and wealthy can experience their possible causes. This is a great argumentative essay topic, discuss both sides of this question and draw a conclusion with your final thoughts.

When writing about depression, it is important to study examples of essays to make a compelling essay. You can also use your own research by conducting interviews or pulling information from other sources. As this is a sensitive topic, it is important to approach it with care; you can also write about your own experiences with mental health issues.

Tip: If writing an essay sounds like a lot of work, simplify it. Write a simple 5 paragraph essay instead.

FAQs On Essays About Depression

According to the World Health Organization, about 5% of people under 60 live with depression. The rate is slightly higher—around 6%—for people over 60. Depression can strike at any age, and it’s important that people who are experiencing symptoms of depression receive treatment, no matter their age. 

Suppose you’re living with depression or are experiencing some of the symptoms of depression. In that case, it’s important to work closely with your doctor or another healthcare professional to develop a treatment plan that works for you. A combination of antidepressant medication and cognitive behavioral therapy is a good fit for many people, but this isn’t necessarily the case for everyone who suffers from depression. Be sure to check in with your doctor regularly to ensure that you’re making progress toward improving your mental health.

If you’re still stuck, check out our general resource of essay writing topics .

Amanda has an M.S.Ed degree from the University of Pennsylvania in School and Mental Health Counseling and is a National Academy of Sports Medicine Certified Personal Trainer. She has experience writing magazine articles, newspaper articles, SEO-friendly web copy, and blog posts.

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Biological, Psychological, and Social Determinants of Depression: A Review of Recent Literature

Olivia remes.

1 Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK

João Francisco Mendes

2 NOVA Medical School, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 1099-085 Lisbon, Portugal; ku.ca.mac@94cfj

Peter Templeton

3 IfM Engage Limited, Institute for Manufacturing, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0FS, UK; ku.ca.mac@32twp

4 The William Templeton Foundation for Young People’s Mental Health (YPMH), Cambridge CB2 0AH, UK

Associated Data

Depression is one of the leading causes of disability, and, if left unmanaged, it can increase the risk for suicide. The evidence base on the determinants of depression is fragmented, which makes the interpretation of the results across studies difficult. The objective of this study is to conduct a thorough synthesis of the literature assessing the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression in order to piece together the puzzle of the key factors that are related to this condition. Titles and abstracts published between 2017 and 2020 were identified in PubMed, as well as Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo. Key words relating to biological, social, and psychological determinants as well as depression were applied to the databases, and the screening and data charting of the documents took place. We included 470 documents in this literature review. The findings showed that there are a plethora of risk and protective factors (relating to biological, psychological, and social determinants) that are related to depression; these determinants are interlinked and influence depression outcomes through a web of causation. In this paper, we describe and present the vast, fragmented, and complex literature related to this topic. This review may be used to guide practice, public health efforts, policy, and research related to mental health and, specifically, depression.

1. Introduction

Depression is one of the most common mental health issues, with an estimated prevalence of 5% among adults [ 1 , 2 ]. Symptoms may include anhedonia, feelings of worthlessness, concentration and sleep difficulties, and suicidal ideation. According to the World Health Organization, depression is a leading cause of disability; research shows that it is a burdensome condition with a negative impact on educational trajectories, work performance, and other areas of life [ 1 , 3 ]. Depression can start early in the lifecourse and, if it remains unmanaged, may increase the risk for substance abuse, chronic conditions, such as cardiovascular disease, and premature mortality [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Treatment for depression exists, such as pharmacotherapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, and other modalities. A meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials of patients shows that 56–60% of people respond well to active treatment with antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants) [ 9 ]. However, pharmacotherapy may be associated with problems, such as side-effects, relapse issues, a potential duration of weeks until the medication starts working, and possible limited efficacy in mild cases [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Psychotherapy is also available, but access barriers can make it difficult for a number of people to get the necessary help.

Studies on depression have increased significantly over the past few decades. However, the literature remains fragmented and the interpretation of heterogeneous findings across studies and between fields is difficult. The cross-pollination of ideas between disciplines, such as genetics, neurology, immunology, and psychology, is limited. Reviews on the determinants of depression have been conducted, but they either focus exclusively on a particular set of determinants (ex. genetic risk factors [ 15 ]) or population sub-group (ex. children and adolescents [ 16 ]) or focus on characteristics measured predominantly at the individual level (ex. focus on social support, history of depression [ 17 ]) without taking the wider context (ex. area-level variables) into account. An integrated approach paying attention to key determinants from the biological, psychological, and social spheres, as well as key themes, such as the lifecourse perspective, enables clinicians and public health authorities to develop tailored, person-centred approaches.

The primary aim of this literature review: to address the aforementioned challenges, we have synthesized recent research on the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression and we have reviewed research from fields including genetics, immunology, neurology, psychology, public health, and epidemiology, among others.

The subsidiary aim: we have paid special attention to important themes, including the lifecourse perspective and interactions between determinants, to guide further efforts by public health and medical professionals.

This literature review can be used as an evidence base by those in public health and the clinical setting and can be used to inform targeted interventions.

2. Materials and Methods

We conducted a review of the literature on the biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression in the last 4 years. We decided to focus on these determinants after discussions with academics (from the Manchester Metropolitan University, University of Cardiff, University of Colorado, Boulder, University of Cork, University of Leuven, University of Texas), charity representatives, and people with lived experience at workshops held by the University of Cambridge in 2020. In several aspects, we attempted to conduct this review according to PRISMA guidelines [ 18 ].

The inclusion and exclusion criteria are the following:

• - We included documents, such as primary studies, literature reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries on the determinants of depression. The determinants refer to variables that appear to be linked to the development of depression, such as physiological factors (e.g., the nervous system, genetics), but also factors that are further away or more distal to the condition. Determinants may be risk or protective factors, and individual- or wider-area-level variables.
• - We focused on major depressive disorder, treatment-resistant depression, dysthymia, depressive symptoms, poststroke depression, perinatal depression, as well as depressive-like behaviour (common in animal studies), among others.
• - We included papers regardless of the measurement methods of depression.
• - We included papers that focused on human and/or rodent research.
• - This review focused on articles written in the English language.
• - Documents published between 2017–2020 were captured to provide an understanding of the latest research on this topic.
• - Studies that assessed depression as a comorbidity or secondary to another disorder.
• - Studies that did not focus on rodent and/or human research.
• - Studies that focused on the treatment of depression. We made this decision, because this is an in-depth topic that would warrant a separate stand-alone review.
• Next, we searched PubMed (2017–2020) using keywords related to depression and determinants. Appendix A contains the search strategy used. We also conducted focused searches in Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo (2017–2020).
• Once the documents were identified through the databases, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to the titles and abstracts. Screening of documents was conducted by O.R., and a subsample was screened by J.M.; any discrepancies were resolved through a communication process.
• The full texts of documents were retrieved, and the inclusion and exclusion criteria were again applied. A subsample of documents underwent double screening by two authors (O.R., J.M.); again, any discrepancies were resolved through communication.
• a. A data charting form was created to capture the data elements of interest, including the authors, titles, determinants (biological, psychological, social), and the type of depression assessed by the research (e.g., major depression, depressive symptoms, depressive behaviour).
• b. The data charting form was piloted on a subset of documents, and refinements to it were made. The data charting form was created with the data elements described above and tested in 20 studies to determine whether refinements in the wording or language were needed.
• c. Data charting was conducted on the documents.
• d. Narrative analysis was conducted on the data charting table to identify key themes. When a particular finding was noted more than once, it was logged as a potential theme, with a review of these notes yielding key themes that appeared on multiple occasions. When key themes were identified, one researcher (O.R.) reviewed each document pertaining to that theme and derived concepts (key determinants and related outcomes). This process (a subsample) was verified by a second author (J.M.), and the two authors resolved any discrepancies through communication. Key themes were also checked as to whether they were of major significance to public mental health and at the forefront of public health discourse according to consultations we held with stakeholders from the Manchester Metropolitan University, University of Cardiff, University of Colorado, Boulder, University of Cork, University of Leuven, University of Texas, charity representatives, and people with lived experience at workshops held by the University of Cambridge in 2020.

We condensed the extensive information gleaned through our review into short summaries (with key points boxes for ease of understanding and interpretation of the data).

Through the searches, 6335 documents, such as primary studies, literature reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, reports, and commentaries, were identified. After applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 470 papers were included in this review ( Supplementary Table S1 ). We focused on aspects related to biological, psychological, and social determinants of depression (examples of determinants and related outcomes are provided under each of the following sections.

3.1. Biological Factors

The following aspects will be discussed in this section: physical health conditions; then specific biological factors, including genetics; the microbiome; inflammatory factors; stress and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway. Finally, aspects related to cognition will also be discussed in the context of depression.

3.1.1. Physical Health Conditions

Studies on physical health conditions—key points:

• The presence of a physical health condition can increase the risk for depression
• Psychological evaluation in physically sick populations is needed
• There is large heterogeneity in study design and measurement; this makes the comparison of findings between and across studies difficult

A number of studies examined the links between the outcome of depression and physical health-related factors, such as bladder outlet obstruction, cerebral atrophy, cataract, stroke, epilepsy, body mass index and obesity, diabetes, urinary tract infection, forms of cancer, inflammatory bowel disorder, glaucoma, acne, urea accumulation, cerebral small vessel disease, traumatic brain injury, and disability in multiple sclerosis [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. For example, bladder outlet obstruction has been linked to inflammation and depressive behaviour in rodent research [ 24 ]. The presence of head and neck cancer also seemed to be related to an increased risk for depressive disorder [ 45 ]. Gestational diabetes mellitus has been linked to depressive symptoms in the postpartum period (but no association has been found with depression in the third pregnancy trimester) [ 50 ], and a plethora of other such examples of relationships between depression and physical conditions exist. As such, the assessment of psychopathology and the provision of support are necessary in individuals of ill health [ 45 ]. Despite the large evidence base on physical health-related factors, differences in study methodology and design, the lack of standardization when it comes to the measurement of various physical health conditions and depression, and heterogeneity in the study populations makes it difficult to compare studies [ 50 ].

The next subsections discuss specific biological factors, including genetics; the microbiome; inflammatory factors; stress and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, and the kynurenine pathway; and aspects related to cognition.

3.1.2. Genetics

Studies on genetics—key points:

There were associations between genetic factors and depression; for example:

• The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in depression
• Links exist between major histocompatibility complex region genes, as well as various gene polymorphisms and depression
• Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of genes involved in the tryptophan catabolites pathway are of interest in relation to depression

A number of genetic-related factors, genomic regions, polymorphisms, and other related aspects have been examined with respect to depression [ 61 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 ]. The influence of BDNF in relation to depression has been amply studied [ 117 , 118 , 141 , 142 , 143 ]. Research has shown associations between depression and BDNF (as well as candidate SNPs of the BDNF gene, polymorphisms of the BDNF gene, and the interaction of these polymorphisms with other determinants, such as stress) [ 129 , 144 , 145 ]. Specific findings have been reported: for example, a study reported a link between the BDNF rs6265 allele (A) and major depressive disorder [ 117 ].

Other research focused on major histocompatibility complex region genes, endocannabinoid receptor gene polymorphisms, as well as tissue-specific genes and gene co-expression networks and their links to depression [ 99 , 110 , 112 ]. The SNPs of genes involved in the tryptophan catabolites pathway have also been of interest when studying the pathogenesis of depression.

The results from genetics studies are compelling; however, the findings remain mixed. One study indicated no support for depression candidate gene findings [ 122 ]. Another study found no association between specific polymorphisms and major depressive disorder [ 132 ]. As such, further research using larger samples is needed to corroborate the statistically significant associations reported in the literature.

3.1.3. Microbiome

Studies on the microbiome—key points:

• The gut bacteria and the brain communicate via both direct and indirect pathways called the gut-microbiota-brain axis (the bidirectional communication networks between the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract; this axis plays an important role in maintaining homeostasis).
• A disordered microbiome can lead to inflammation, which can then lead to depression
• There are possible links between the gut microbiome, host liver metabolism, brain inflammation, and depression

The common themes of this review have focused on the microbiome/microbiota or gut metabolome [ 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 ], the microbiota-gut-brain axis, and related factors [ 152 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 165 , 166 , 167 ]. When there is an imbalance in the intestinal bacteria, this can interfere with emotional regulation and contribute to harmful inflammatory processes and mood disorders [ 148 , 151 , 153 , 155 , 157 ]. Rodent research has shown that there may be a bidirectional association between the gut microbiota and depression: a disordered gut microbiota can play a role in the onset of this mental health problem, but, at the same time, the existence of stress and depression may also lead to a lower level of richness and diversity in the microbiome [ 158 ].

Research has also attempted to disentangle the links between the gut microbiome, host liver metabolism, brain inflammation, and depression, as well as the role of the ratio of lactobacillus to clostridium [ 152 ]. The literature has also examined the links between medication, such as antibiotics, and mood and behaviour, with the findings showing that antibiotics may be related to depression [ 159 , 168 ]. The links between the microbiome and depression are complex, and further studies are needed to determine the underpinning causal mechanisms.

3.1.4. Inflammation

Studies on inflammation—key points:

• Pro-inflammatory cytokines are linked to depression
• Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as the tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, may play an important role
• Different methods of measurement are used, making the comparison of findings across studies difficult

Inflammation has been a theme in this literature review [ 60 , 161 , 164 , 169 , 170 , 171 , 172 , 173 , 174 , 175 , 176 , 177 , 178 , 179 , 180 , 181 , 182 , 183 , 184 ]. The findings show that raised levels of inflammation (because of factors such as pro-inflammatory cytokines) have been associated with depression [ 60 , 161 , 174 , 175 , 178 ]. For example, pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, have been linked to depression [ 185 ]. Various determinants, such as early life stress, have also been linked to systemic inflammation, and this can increase the risk for depression [ 186 ].

Nevertheless, not everyone with elevated inflammation develops depression; therefore, this is just one route out of many linked to pathogenesis. Despite the compelling evidence reported with respect to inflammation, it is difficult to compare the findings across studies because of different methods used to assess depression and its risk factors.

3.1.5. Stress and HPA Axis Dysfunction

Studies on stress and HPA axis dysfunction—key points:

• Stress is linked to the release of proinflammatory factors
• The dysregulation of the HPA axis is linked to depression
• Determinants are interlinked in a complex web of causation

Stress was studied in various forms in rodent populations and humans [ 144 , 145 , 155 , 174 , 176 , 180 , 185 , 186 , 187 , 188 , 189 , 190 , 191 , 192 , 193 , 194 , 195 , 196 , 197 , 198 , 199 , 200 , 201 , 202 , 203 , 204 , 205 , 206 , 207 , 208 , 209 , 210 , 211 ].

Although this section has some overlap with others (as is to be expected because all of these determinants and body systems are interlinked), a number of studies have focused on the impact of stress on mental health. Stress has been mentioned in the literature as a risk factor of poor mental health and has emerged as an important determinant of depression. The effects of this variable are wide-ranging, and a short discussion is warranted.

Stress has been linked to the release of inflammatory factors, as well as the development of depression [ 204 ]. When the stress is high or lasts for a long period of time, this may negatively impact the brain. Chronic stress can impact the dendrites and synapses of various neurons, and may be implicated in the pathway leading to major depressive disorder [ 114 ]. As a review by Uchida et al. indicates, stress may be associated with the “dysregulation of neuronal and synaptic plasticity” [ 114 ]. Even in rodent studies, stress has a negative impact: chronic and unpredictable stress (and other forms of tension or stress) have been linked to unusual behaviour and depression symptoms [ 114 ].

The depression process and related brain changes, however, have also been linked to the hyperactivity or dysregulation of the HPA axis [ 127 , 130 , 131 , 182 , 212 ]. One review indicates that a potential underpinning mechanism of depression relates to “HPA axis abnormalities involved in chronic stress” [ 213 ]. There is a complex relationship between the HPA axis, glucocorticoid receptors, epigenetic mechanisms, and psychiatric sequelae [ 130 , 212 ].

In terms of the relationship between the HPA axis and stress and their influence on depression, the diathesis–stress model offers an explanation: it could be that early stress plays a role in the hyperactivation of the HPA axis, thus creating a predisposition “towards a maladaptive reaction to stress”. When this predisposition then meets an acute stressor, depression may ensue; thus, in line with the diathesis–stress model, a pre-existing vulnerability and stressor can create fertile ground for a mood disorder [ 213 ]. An integrated review by Dean and Keshavan [ 213 ] suggests that HPA axis hyperactivity is, in turn, related to other determinants, such as early deprivation and insecure early attachment; this again shows the complex web of causation between the different determinants.

3.1.6. Kynurenine Pathway

Studies on the kynurenine pathway—key points:

• The kynurenine pathway is linked to depression
• Indolamine 2,3-dioxegenase (IDO) polymorphisms are linked to postpartum depression

The kynurenine pathway was another theme that emerged in this review [ 120 , 178 , 181 , 184 , 214 , 215 , 216 , 217 , 218 , 219 , 220 , 221 ]. The kynurenine pathway has been implicated not only in general depressed mood (inflammation-induced depression) [ 184 , 214 , 219 ] but also postpartum depression [ 120 ]. When the kynurenine metabolism pathway is activated, this results in metabolites, which are neurotoxic.

A review by Jeon et al. notes a link between the impairment of the kynurenine pathway and inflammation-induced depression (triggered by treatment for various physical diseases, such as malignancy). The authors note that this could represent an important opportunity for immunopharmacology [ 214 ]. Another review by Danzer et al. suggests links between the inflammation-induced activation of indolamine 2,3-dioxegenase (the enzyme that converts tryptophan to kynurenine), the kynurenine metabolism pathway, and depression, and also remarks about the “opportunities for treatment of inflammation-induced depression” [ 184 ].

3.1.7. Cognition

Studies on cognition and the brain—key points:

• Cognitive decline and cognitive deficits are linked to increased depression risk
• Cognitive reserve is important in the disability/depression relationship
• Family history of cognitive impairment is linked to depression

A number of studies have focused on the theme of cognition and the brain. The results show that factors, such as low cognitive ability/function, cognitive vulnerability, cognitive impairment or deficits, subjective cognitive decline, regression of dendritic branching and hippocampal atrophy/death of hippocampal cells, impaired neuroplasticity, and neurogenesis-related aspects, have been linked to depression [ 131 , 212 , 222 , 223 , 224 , 225 , 226 , 227 , 228 , 229 , 230 , 231 , 232 , 233 , 234 , 235 , 236 , 237 , 238 , 239 ]. The cognitive reserve appears to act as a moderator and can magnify the impact of certain determinants on poor mental health. For example, in a study in which participants with multiple sclerosis also had low cognitive reserve, disability was shown to increase the risk for depression [ 63 ]. Cognitive deficits can be both causal and resultant in depression. A study on individuals attending outpatient stroke clinics showed that lower scores in cognition were related to depression; thus, cognitive impairment appears to be associated with depressive symptomatology [ 226 ]. Further, Halahakoon et al. [ 222 ] note a meta-analysis [ 240 ] that shows that a family history of cognitive impairment (in first degree relatives) is also linked to depression.

In addition to cognitive deficits, low-level cognitive ability [ 231 ] and cognitive vulnerability [ 232 ] have also been linked to depression. While cognitive impairment may be implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive symptoms [ 222 ], negative information processing biases are also important; according to the ‘cognitive neuropsychological’ model of depression, negative affective biases play a central part in the development of depression [ 222 , 241 ]. Nevertheless, the evidence on this topic is mixed and further work is needed to determine the underpinning mechanisms between these states.

3.2. Psychological Factors

Studies on psychological factors—key points:

• There are many affective risk factors linked to depression
• Determinants of depression include negative self-concept, sensitivity to rejection, neuroticism, rumination, negative emotionality, and others

A number of studies have been undertaken on the psychological factors linked to depression (including mastery, self-esteem, optimism, negative self-image, current or past mental health conditions, and various other aspects, including neuroticism, brooding, conflict, negative thinking, insight, cognitive fusion, emotional clarity, rumination, dysfunctional attitudes, interpretation bias, and attachment style) [ 66 , 128 , 140 , 205 , 210 , 228 , 235 , 242 , 243 , 244 , 245 , 246 , 247 , 248 , 249 , 250 , 251 , 252 , 253 , 254 , 255 , 256 , 257 , 258 , 259 , 260 , 261 , 262 , 263 , 264 , 265 , 266 , 267 , 268 , 269 , 270 , 271 , 272 , 273 , 274 , 275 , 276 , 277 , 278 , 279 , 280 , 281 , 282 , 283 , 284 , 285 , 286 , 287 , 288 , 289 , 290 ]. Determinants related to this condition include low self-esteem and shame, among other factors [ 269 , 270 , 275 , 278 ]. Several emotional states and traits, such as neuroticism [ 235 , 260 , 271 , 278 ], negative self-concept (with self-perceptions of worthlessness and uselessness), and negative interpretation or attention biases have been linked to depression [ 261 , 271 , 282 , 283 , 286 ]. Moreover, low emotional clarity has been associated with depression [ 267 ]. When it comes to the severity of the disorder, it appears that meta-emotions (“emotions that occur in response to other emotions (e.g., guilt about anger)” [ 268 ]) have a role to play in depression [ 268 ].

A determinant that has received much attention in mental health research concerns rumination. Rumination has been presented as a mediator but also as a risk factor for depression [ 57 , 210 , 259 ]. When studied as a risk factor, it appears that the relationship of rumination with depression is mediated by variables that include limited problem-solving ability and insufficient social support [ 259 ]. However, rumination also appears to act as a mediator: for example, this variable (particularly brooding rumination) lies on the causal pathway between poor attention control and depression [ 265 ]. This shows that determinants may present in several forms: as moderators or mediators, risk factors or outcomes, and this is why disentangling the relationships between the various factors linked to depression is a complex task.

The psychological determinants are commonly researched variables in the mental health literature. A wide range of factors have been linked to depression, such as the aforementioned determinants, but also: (low) optimism levels, maladaptive coping (such as avoidance), body image issues, and maladaptive perfectionism, among others [ 269 , 270 , 272 , 273 , 275 , 276 , 279 , 285 , 286 ]. Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the way these determinants increase the risk for depression. One of the underpinning mechanisms linking the determinants and depression concerns coping. For example, positive fantasy engagement, cognitive biases, or personality dispositions may lead to emotion-focused coping, such as brooding, and subsequently increase the risk for depression [ 272 , 284 , 287 ]. Knowing the causal mechanisms linking the determinants to outcomes provides insight for the development of targeted interventions.

3.3. Social Determinants

Studies on social determinants—key points:

• Social determinants are the conditions in the environments where people are born, live, learn, work, play, etc.; these influence (mental) health [ 291 ]
• There are many social determinants linked to depression, such as sociodemographics, social support, adverse childhood experiences
• Determinants can be at the individual, social network, community, and societal levels

Studies also focused on the social determinants of (mental) health; these are the conditions in which people are born, live, learn, work, play, and age, and have a significant influence on wellbeing [ 291 ]. Factors such as age, social or socioeconomic status, social support, financial strain and deprivation, food insecurity, education, employment status, living arrangements, marital status, race, childhood conflict and bullying, violent crime exposure, abuse, discrimination, (self)-stigma, ethnicity and migrant status, working conditions, adverse or significant life events, illiteracy or health literacy, environmental events, job strain, and the built environment have been linked to depression, among others [ 52 , 133 , 235 , 236 , 239 , 252 , 269 , 280 , 292 , 293 , 294 , 295 , 296 , 297 , 298 , 299 , 300 , 301 , 302 , 303 , 304 , 305 , 306 , 307 , 308 , 309 , 310 , 311 , 312 , 313 , 314 , 315 , 316 , 317 , 318 , 319 , 320 , 321 , 322 , 323 , 324 , 325 , 326 , 327 , 328 , 329 , 330 , 331 , 332 , 333 , 334 , 335 , 336 , 337 , 338 , 339 , 340 , 341 , 342 , 343 , 344 , 345 , 346 , 347 , 348 , 349 , 350 , 351 , 352 , 353 , 354 , 355 , 356 , 357 , 358 , 359 , 360 , 361 , 362 , 363 , 364 , 365 , 366 , 367 , 368 , 369 , 370 , 371 ]. Social support and cohesion, as well as structural social capital, have also been identified as determinants [ 140 , 228 , 239 , 269 , 293 , 372 , 373 , 374 , 375 , 376 , 377 , 378 , 379 ]. In a study, part of the findings showed that low levels of education have been shown to be linked to post-stroke depression (but not severe or clinical depression outcomes) [ 299 ]. A study within a systematic review indicated that having only primary education was associated with a higher risk of depression compared to having secondary or higher education (although another study contrasted this finding) [ 296 ]. Various studies on socioeconomic status-related factors have been undertaken [ 239 , 297 ]; the research has shown that a low level of education is linked to depression [ 297 ]. Low income is also related to depressive disorders [ 312 ]. By contrast, high levels of education and income are protective [ 335 ].

A group of determinants touched upon by several studies included adverse childhood or early life experiences: ex. conflict with parents, early exposure to traumatic life events, bullying and childhood trauma were found to increase the risk of depression (ex. through pathways, such as inflammation, interaction effects, or cognitive biases) [ 161 , 182 , 258 , 358 , 362 , 380 ].

Gender-related factors were also found to play an important role with respect to mental health [ 235 , 381 , 382 , 383 , 384 , 385 ]. Gender inequalities can start early on in the lifecourse, and women were found to be twice as likely to have depression as men. Gender-related factors were linked to cognitive biases, resilience and vulnerabilities [ 362 , 384 ].

Determinants can impact mental health outcomes through underpinning mechanisms. For example, harmful determinants can influence the uptake of risk behaviours. Risk behaviours, such as sedentary behaviour, substance abuse and smoking/nicotine exposure, have been linked to depression [ 226 , 335 , 355 , 385 , 386 , 387 , 388 , 389 , 390 , 391 , 392 , 393 , 394 , 395 , 396 , 397 , 398 , 399 , 400 , 401 ]. Harmful determinants can also have an impact on diet. Indeed, dietary aspects and diet components (ex. vitamin D, folate, selenium intake, iron, vitamin B12, vitamin K, fiber intake, zinc) as well as diet-related inflammatory potential have been linked to depression outcomes [ 161 , 208 , 236 , 312 , 396 , 402 , 403 , 404 , 405 , 406 , 407 , 408 , 409 , 410 , 411 , 412 , 413 , 414 , 415 , 416 , 417 , 418 , 419 , 420 , 421 , 422 , 423 , 424 , 425 , 426 , 427 , 428 ]. A poor diet has been linked to depression through mechanisms such as inflammation [ 428 ].

Again, it is difficult to constrict diet to the ‘social determinants of health’ category as it also relates to inflammation (biological determinants) and could even stand alone as its own category. Nevertheless, all of these factors are interlinked and influence one another in a complex web of causation, as mentioned elsewhere in the paper.

Supplementary Figure S1 contains a representation of key determinants acting at various levels: the individual, social network, community, and societal levels. The determinants have an influence on risk behaviours, and this, in turn, can affect the mood (i.e., depression), body processes (ex. can increase inflammation), and may negatively influence brain structure and function.

3.4. Others

Studies on ‘other’ determinants—key points:

• A number of factors are related to depression
• These may not be as easily categorized as the other determinants in this paper

A number of factors arose in this review that were related to depression; it was difficult to place these under a specific heading above, so this ‘other’ category was created. A number of these could be sorted under the ‘social determinants of depression’ category. For example, being exposed to deprivation, hardship, or adversity may increase the risk for air pollution exposure and nighttime shift work, among others, and the latter determinants have been found to increase the risk for depression. Air pollution could also be regarded as an ecologic-level (environmental) determinant of mental health.

Nevertheless, we have decided to leave these factors in a separate category (because their categorization may not be as immediately clear-cut as others), and these factors include: low-level light [ 429 ], weight cycling [ 430 ], water contaminants [ 431 ], trade [ 432 ], air pollution [ 433 , 434 ], program-level variables (ex. feedback and learning experience) [ 435 ], TV viewing [ 436 ], falls [ 437 ], various other biological factors [ 116 , 136 , 141 , 151 , 164 , 182 , 363 , 364 , 438 , 439 , 440 , 441 , 442 , 443 , 444 , 445 , 446 , 447 , 448 , 449 , 450 , 451 , 452 , 453 , 454 , 455 , 456 , 457 , 458 , 459 , 460 , 461 , 462 , 463 , 464 , 465 , 466 , 467 , 468 , 469 ], mobile phone use [ 470 ], ultrasound chronic exposure [ 471 ], nighttime shift work [ 472 ], work accidents [ 473 ], therapy enrollment [ 226 ], and exposure to light at night [ 474 ].

4. Cross-Cutting Themes

4.1. lifecourse perspective.

Studies on the lifecourse perspective—key points:

• Early life has an importance on mental health
• Stress has been linked to depression
• In old age, the decline in social capital is important

Trajectories and life events are important when it comes to the lifecourse perspective. Research has touched on the influence of prenatal or early life stress on an individual’s mental health trajectory [ 164 , 199 , 475 ]. Severe stress that occurs in the form of early-life trauma has also been associated with depressive symptoms [ 362 , 380 ]. It may be that some individuals exposed to trauma develop thoughts of personal failure, which then serve as a catalyst of depression [ 380 ].

At the other end of the life trajectory—old age—specific determinants have been linked to an increased risk for depression. Older people are at a heightened risk of losing their social networks, and structural social capital has been identified as important in relation to depression in old age [ 293 ].

4.2. Gene–Environment Interactions

Studies on gene–environment interactions—key points:

• The environment and genetics interact to increase the risk of depression
• The etiology of depression is multifactorial
• Adolescence is a time of vulnerability

A number of studies have touched on gene–environment interactions [ 72 , 77 , 82 , 119 , 381 , 476 , 477 , 478 , 479 , 480 , 481 ]. The interactions between genetic factors and determinants, such as negative life events (ex. relationship and social difficulties, serious illness, unemployment and financial crises) and stressors (ex. death of spouse, minor violations of law, neighbourhood socioeconomic status) have been studied in relation to depression [ 82 , 135 , 298 , 449 , 481 ]. A study reported an interaction of significant life events with functional variation in the serotonin-transporter-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) allele type (in the context of multiple sclerosis) and linked this to depression [ 361 ], while another reported an interaction between stress and 5-HTTLPR in relation to depression [ 480 ]. Other research reported that the genetic variation of HPA-axis genes has moderating effects on the relationship between stressors and depression [ 198 ]. Another study showed that early-life stress interacts with gene variants to increase the risk for depression [ 77 ].

Adolescence is a time of vulnerability [ 111 , 480 ]. Perceived parental support has been found to interact with genes (GABRR1, GABRR2), and this appears to be associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence [ 480 ]. It is important to pay special attention to critical periods in the lifecourse so that adequate support is provided to those who are most vulnerable.

The etiology of depression is multifactorial, and it is worthwhile to examine the interaction between multiple factors, such as epigenetic, genetic, and environmental factors, in order to truly understand this mental health condition. Finally, taking into account critical periods of life when assessing gene–environment interactions is important for developing targeted interventions.

5. Discussion

Depression is one of the most common mental health conditions, and, if left untreated, it can increase the risk for substance abuse, anxiety disorders, and suicide. In the past 20 years, a large number of studies on the risk and protective factors of depression have been undertaken in various fields, such as genetics, neurology, immunology, and epidemiology. However, there are limitations associated with the extant evidence base. The previous syntheses on depression are limited in scope and focus exclusively on social or biological factors, population sub-groups, or examine depression as a comorbidity (rather than an independent disorder). The research on the determinants and causal pathways of depression is fragmentated and heterogeneous, and this has not helped to stimulate progress when it comes to the prevention and intervention of this condition—specifically unravelling the complexity of the determinants related to this condition and thus refining the prevention and intervention methods.

The scope of this paper was to bring together the heterogeneous, vast, and fragmented literature on depression and paint a picture of the key factors that contribute to this condition. The findings from this review show that there are important themes when it comes to the determinants of depression, such as: the microbiome, dysregulation of the HPA axis, inflammatory reactions, the kynurenine pathway, as well as psychological and social factors. It may be that physical factors are proximal determinants of depression, which, in turn, are acted on by more distal social factors, such as deprivation, environmental events, and social capital.

The Marmot Report [ 291 ], the World Health Organization [ 482 ], and Compton et al. [ 483 ] highlight that the most disadvantaged segments of society are suffering (the socioeconomic context is important), and this inequality in resources has translated to inequality in mental health outcomes [ 483 ]. To tackle the issue of egalitarianism and restore equality in the health between the groups, the social determinants need to be addressed [ 483 ]. A wide range of determinants of mental health have been identified in the literature: age, gender, ethnicity, family upbringing and early attachment patterns, social support, access to food, water and proper nutrition, and community factors. People spiral downwards because of individual- and societal-level circumstances; therefore, these circumstances along with the interactions between the determinants need to be considered.

Another important theme in the mental health literature is the lifecourse perspective. This shows that the timing of events has significance when it comes to mental health. Early life is a critical period during the lifespan at which cognitive processes develop. Exposure to harmful determinants, such as stress, during this period can place an individual on a trajectory of depression in adulthood or later life. When an individual is exposed to harmful determinants during critical periods and is also genetically predisposed to depression, the risk for the disorder can be compounded. This is why aspects such as the lifecourse perspective and gene–environment interactions need to be taken into account. Insight into this can also help to refine targeted interventions.

A number of interventions for depression have been developed or recommended, addressing, for example, the physical factors described here and lifestyle modifications. Interventions targeting various factors, such as education and socioeconomic status, are needed to help prevent and reduce the burden of depression. Further research on the efficacy of various interventions is needed. Additional studies are also needed on each of the themes described in this paper, for example: the biological factors related to postpartum depression [ 134 ], and further work is needed on depression outcomes, such as chronic, recurrent depression [ 452 ]. Previous literature has shown that chronic stress (associated with depression) is also linked to glucocorticoid receptor resistance, as well as problems with the regulation of the inflammatory response [ 484 ]. Further work is needed on this and the underpinning mechanisms between the determinants and outcomes. This review highlighted the myriad ways of measuring depression and its determinants [ 66 , 85 , 281 , 298 , 451 , 485 ]. Thus, the standardization of the measurements of the outcomes (ex. a gold standard for measuring depression) and determinants is essential; this can facilitate comparisons of findings across studies.

5.1. Strengths

This paper has important strengths. It brings together the wide literature on depression and helps to bridge disciplines in relation to one of the most common mental health problems. We identified, selected, and extracted data from studies, and provided concise summaries.

5.2. Limitations

The limitations of the review include missing potentially important studies; however, this is a weakness that cannot be avoided by literature reviews. Nevertheless, the aim of the review was not to identify each study that has been conducted on the risk and protective factors of depression (which a single review is unable to capture) but rather to gain insight into the breadth of literature on this topic, highlight key biological, psychological, and social determinants, and shed light on important themes, such as the lifecourse perspective and gene–environment interactions.

6. Conclusions

We have reviewed the determinants of depression and recognize that there are a multitude of risk and protective factors at the individual and wider ecologic levels. These determinants are interlinked and influence one another. We have attempted to describe the wide literature on this topic, and we have brought to light major factors that are of public mental health significance. This review may be used as an evidence base by those in public health, clinical practice, and research.

This paper discusses key areas in depression research; however, an exhaustive discussion of all the risk factors and determinants linked to depression and their mechanisms is not possible in one journal article—which, by its very nature, a single paper cannot do. We have brought to light overarching factors linked to depression and a workable conceptual framework that may guide clinical and public health practice; however, we encourage other researchers to continue to expand on this timely and relevant work—particularly as depression is a top priority on the policy agenda now.

Acknowledgments

Thank you to Isla Kuhn for the help with the Medline, Scopus, and PsycInfo database searches.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/brainsci11121633/s1 , Figure S1: Conceptual framework: Determinants of depression, Table S1: Data charting—A selection of determinants from the literature.

Appendix A.1. Search Strategy

Search: ((((((((((((((((“Gene-Environment Interaction”[Majr]) OR (“Genetics”[Mesh])) OR (“Genome-Wide Association Study”[Majr])) OR (“Microbiota”[Mesh] OR “Gastrointestinal Microbiome”[Mesh])) OR (“Neurogenic Inflammation”[Mesh])) OR (“genetic determinant”)) OR (“gut-brain-axis”)) OR (“Kynurenine”[Majr])) OR (“Cognition”[Mesh])) OR (“Neuronal Plasticity”[Majr])) OR (“Neurogenesis”[Mesh])) OR (“Genes”[Mesh])) OR (“Neurology”[Majr])) OR (“Social Determinants of Health”[Majr])) OR (“Glucocorticoids”[Mesh])) OR (“Tryptophan”[Mesh])) AND (“Depression”[Mesh] OR “Depressive Disorder”[Mesh]) Filters: from 2017—2020.

Ovid MEDLINE(R) and Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process, In-Data-Review & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Daily and Versions(R)

• exp *Depression/
• exp *Depressive Disorder/
• exp *”Social Determinants of Health”/
• exp *Tryptophan/
• exp *Glucocorticoids/
• exp *Neurology/
• exp *Genes/
• exp *Neurogenesis/
• exp *Neuronal Plasticity/
• exp *Kynurenine/
• exp *Genetics/
• exp *Neurogenic Inflammation/
• exp *Gastrointestinal Microbiome/
• exp *Genome-Wide Association Study/
• exp *Gene-Environment Interaction/
• exp *Depression/et [Etiology]
• exp *Depressive Disorder/et
• or/4-16   637368
• limit 22 to yr = “2017–Current”
• “cause* of depression”.mp.
• “cause* of depression”.ti.
• (cause adj3 (depression or depressive)).ti.
• (caus* adj3 (depression or depressive)).ti.

Appendix A.2. PsycInfo

(TITLE ( depression OR “ Depressive Disorder ”) AND TITLE (“ Social Determinants of Health ” OR tryptophan OR glucocorticoids OR neurology OR genes OR neurogenesis OR “ Neuronal Plasticity ” OR kynurenine OR genetics OR “ Neurogenic Inflammation ” OR “ Gastrointestinal Microbiome ” OR “ Genome-Wide Association Study ” OR “ Gene-Environment Interaction ” OR aetiology OR etiology )) OR TITLE ( cause* W/3 ( depression OR depressive )).

Author Contributions

O.R. was responsible for the design of the study and methodology undertaken. Despite P.T.’s involvement in YPMH, he had no role in the design of the study; P.T. was responsible for the conceptualization of the study. Validation was conducted by O.R. and J.F.M. Formal analysis (data charting) was undertaken by O.R. O.R. and P.T. were involved in the investigation, resource acquisition, and data presentation. The original draft preparation was undertaken by O.R. The writing was conducted by O.R., with review and editing by P.T. and J.F.M. Funding acquisition was undertaken by O.R. and P.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research was funded by The William Templeton Foundation for Young People’s Mental Health, Cambridge Philosophical Society, and the Aviva Foundation.

Conflicts of Interest

The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

What Is Depression?

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

"The grey drizzle of horror," author William Styron memorably called depression. The mood disorder may descend seemingly out of the blue, or it may come on the heels of a defeat or personal loss, producing persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness, hopelessness, helplessness, pessimism , or guilt . Depression also interferes with concentration , motivation , and other aspects of everyday functioning.

According to the World Health Organization, depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Globally, more than 300 million people of all ages suffer from the disorder. And the incidence of the disorder is increasing everywhere. Americans are highly concerned with happiness , yet they are increasingly depressed: Some 15 million Americans battle the disorder, and increasing numbers of them are young people.

Depression comes in forms ranging from major depression to dysthymia and seasonal affective disorder. Depressive episodes are also a feature of bipolar disorder .

Depression is a complex condition, involving many systems of the body, including the immune system, either as cause or effect. It disrupts sleep and it interferes with appetite ; in some cases, it causes weight loss; in others, it contributes to weight gain. Depression is also often accompanied by anxiety . Research indicates that not only do the two conditions co-occur but that they overlap in vulnerability patterns.

Because of its complexity, a full understanding of depression has been elusive. There is mounting evidence that depression may actually be a necessary defense strategy of the body, a kind of shutdown or immobilization in response to danger or defeat , that is actually meant to preserve your energy and help you survive.

Researchers have some evidence that depression susceptibility is related to diet , both directly—through inadequate consumption of nutrients such as omega-3 fats—and indirectly, through the variety of bacteria that populate the gut. But depression involves mood and thoughts as well as the body, and it causes pain for both those living with the disorder and those who care about them. Depression is also increasingly common in children.

Even in the most severe cases, depression is highly treatable. The condition is often cyclical, and early treatment may prevent or forestall recurrent episodes. Many studies show that the most effective treatment is cognitive behavioral therapy , which addresses problematic thought patterns, with or without the use of antidepressant drugs. In addition, evidence is quickly accumulating that regular mindfulness meditation , on its own or combined with cognitive therapy , can stop depression before it starts by diminishing reactivity to distressing experiences, effectively enabling disengagement of attention from the repetitive negative thoughts that often set the downward spiral of mood in motion.

For more on causes, symptoms, and treatments of depressive disorders, see our Diagnosis Dictionary .

Not everyone who is depressed experiences every symptom. Some people experience a few symptoms, some many. The severity of symptoms varies among individuals and over time.

Depression often involves persistent sad, anxious, or empty mood; feelings of hopelessness or pessimism ; and feelings of guilt , worthlessness, or helplessness. It can also involve loss of interest or pleasure in hobbies and activities that were once enjoyed, including sex . Decreased energy, fatigue, or a sense of being "slowed down" are also common, as are restlessness, irritability, and difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions. Many with depression have thoughts of death or suicide.

People with depression may experience disruptions in sleep ( insomnia , early morning awakening or oversleeping) and in eating behavior ( appetite changes, weight loss or gain). Persistent physical symptoms may include headaches, digestive disorders, and chronic pain .

For more see Signs and Symptoms of Depression.

There is no single known cause of depression. Rather, it likely results from a combination of genetic, biologic, environmental, and psychological factors. Major negative experiences— trauma , loss of a loved one, a difficult relationship, or any stressful situation that overwhelms the ability to cope—may trigger a depressive episode. Subsequent depressive episodes may occur with or without an obvious trigger.

Depression is not an inevitable consequence of negative life events, however. Research increasingly suggests that it is only when such events set in motion excessive rumination and negative thought patterns, especially about oneself, that mood enters a downward spiral.

Research utilizing brain-imaging technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows that the brains of people who have depression look different than those of people who do not. Specifically, the parts of the brain responsible for regulating mood, thinking, sleep, appetite, and behavior appear to function abnormally. It is not clear which changes seen in the brain may be the cause of depression and which may be the effect.

Some types of depression tend to run in families, suggesting there may be some genetic vulnerability to the disorder.

For more see Causes of Depression .

Depression, even the most severe cases, is a highly treatable disorder. As with many illnesses, the earlier treatment begins, the more effective it can be and the greater the likelihood that recurrence can be prevented.

Appropriate treatment for depression starts with an examination by a physician. Certain medications, as well as some medical conditions such as viral infections or a thyroid disorder, can cause the same symptoms as depression and should be ruled out. The doctor should ask about alcohol and drug use, and whether the patient has thoughts about death or suicide.

Once diagnosed, a person with depression can be treated a number of ways. The most common treatments are medication and psychotherapy . Many studies show that cognitive behavioral psychotherapy is highly effective, alone or in combination with drug therapy.

Psychotherapy addresses the thinking patterns that precipitate depression, and studies show that it prevents recurrence. Drug therapy is often helpful in relieving symptoms, such as severe anxiety , so that people can engage in meaningful psychotherapy.

For more see Treatment of Depression and Therapy for Depression .

Depression requires active treatment, because the disorder can have enduring effects on brain function that make future episodes more likely. The longer a depression episode lasts, the more likely a future episode.

However, there are many ways to treat depression, and some of the most effective, especially in cases of mild to moderate disorder, do not require a prescription or medical-type intervention of any kind.

Depression can be seen as a kind of cave , and it takes some time and effort to get out of the cave. But it is possible, usually by learning some new patterns of thinking and doing. Nutrition plays a role as well.

For more see Natural Approaches to Depression.

Mental anguish is hard on your health: People suffering from depression have three times the risk of experiencing a cardiac event. In fact, depression affects the entire body. It weakens the immune system, increasing susceptibility to viral infections and, over time, possibly even some kinds of cancer—a strong argument for early treatment. It also interferes with sleep, adding to feelings of lethargy, compounding problems of focus and concentration , and generally undermining health.

Those suffering from depression also experience higher rates of diabetes and osteoporosis. Sometimes depression manifests as a persistent low mood, a condition known as dysthymia which is usually marked by years-long periods of low energy, low self-esteem , and little ability to experience pleasure.

For more see Depression and Physical Health .

Everyone experiences an occasional blue mood. Yet clinical depression is a more pervasive experience of repetitive negative rumination, bleak outlook, and lack of energy. It is not a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be willed or wished away. People with depression cannot merely "pull themselves together" to get better.

It doesn't help that modern-day living carries growing pressures. There is an emphasis on early childhood achievement at the expense of free play, a cultural shift away from direct social contact in favor of electronic connection, and a focus on material wealth at the expense of rich experiences and social contact. All play a part.

However, there is some evidence that, painful as depression is, it may serve a positive purpose, bringing with it ways of thinking that force those who suffer to focus on problems as a prelude to solving them. In effect, some researchers hypothesize that depression can help prod a person into much needed self-awareness.

For more see How to Prevent and Manage Depression .

What most people mean when they talk about depression is unipolar depression—an unremitting state of sadness, apathy, hopelessness, and loss of energy. It is also called major depression.

Depressive episodes also occur in bipolar disorder , a condition marked by periods of depression interspersed with periods of high-energy mania . People swing between the two poles of mood states, sometimes over the course of days, and sometimes over years, often with stable periods in between.

The birth of a baby can trigger mood swings or crying spells in the days or weeks that follow, the so-called baby blues. When the reaction is more severe and prolonged, it is considered postpartum depression , a condition requiring treatment because it can interfere with a parent's ability to care for their newborn.

Depression can also occur seasonally, primarily in the winter months when sunlight is in short supply. Known as seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, it is often ameliorated by daily exposure to specific types of artificial light.

For more see Types of Depression .

Depression makes deep inroads on biology to bring about the many symptoms of depression, from sleep disruption and inability to experience pleasure to lack of motivation and feelings of guilt. Because of its complexity—and because the disorder contributes so much to human suffering—the biology of depression is a major subject of ongoing research.

Overexcitability of the stress response system, shifts in activity of various neurochemicals in the brain, diminished efficiency of nerve circuitry and nerve generation, disturbances in energy use in nerve cells, the intrusion of inflammatory substances in the brain, upsets in the brain’s 24-hour (circadian) clock—all play a role in depression onset or progression and influence the kind and severity of symptoms.

For more see The Biology of Depression

Most suicides are linked to some form of psychiatric illness, particularly depression, and the more severe the depression, the greater the risk. Still, most people with major depression do not die by their own hand.

Studies show that about 5 percent of depressed persons may have thoughts about suicide— suicidal ideation. Only a small percentage of them actively make plans to end their lives.

The clearest warning sign of suicide is talk about wanting to die . And the best way to determine whether suicide is a risk is to ask.

For more see Depression and Suicide .

Mental health conditions such as depression are increasingly afflicting the young, including preschoolers. Especially in the young, depression requires active treatment—it can interfere with normal development.

Depression can show up in children much as it does in adults, signified by sadness, lethargy, and disinterest. But especially among children it manifests as irritability. Other times it manifests as anger and acting out.

Depression in children can have many causes. It can be a response to bullying . There is ample evidence that social media plays a role in depression among young people. Another source may be the decline of free play, an arena in which children traditionally work out their concerns and a great source of pleasure.

For more see Children and Depression .

Discover how genetic testing can revolutionize antidepressant prescriptions, ensuring treatments are tailored to individual needs for improved outcomes.

Why does social media trigger or increase anxiety and depression for only some?

Ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KAP) appears effective in treating myriad psychological conditions. A case study is presented demonstrating how it may optimally work.

Once viewed only as a general anesthetic or a drug of abuse, ketamine is now being explored as a treatment for a wide range of psychiatric disorders.

Person-first language has been the word choice in mental health for a long time. Yet, the neurodiversity movement embraces identity-first language. When do we use which?

Personal Perspective: Is it clear when a person is best treated by an individual therapist or by a family therapist? Individual and relationship issues often are intertwined.

Matthias Jakob Schleiden contributed to cell theory in the course of a troubled life, which included two suicide attempts.

Our systems of care for suicide prevention have often had a mechanical feel, leaving many people feeling unseen and not cared about. How can we change this?

Breath tests, which measure chemicals released by gut microbes, can reliably distinguish between people with multiple mental health issues.

More millennial moms are experiencing anxiety than previous generations. For author Julie Chavez, debilitating panic attacks signaled what she described as a "mid-mom crisis."

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about Depression - Free Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

Depression, a common mental health disorder, can severely impact an individual’s quality of life. Essays on depression could delve into its symptoms, causes, and various treatment approaches including psychotherapy, medication, and lifestyle modifications. Furthermore, discussions might extend to the societal stigma surrounding depression, the importance of mental health awareness, and the socio-economic impact of depression on individuals and communities. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Depression you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Depression and Anxiety in Teenagers

More than 1 in 20 US children and teens have anxiety or depression (Wolters Kluwer Health). Teenage depression and anxiety are one of America’s most prevalent issues that parents can’t seem to get a hold of. Students all over the nation are struggling day to day with this mental illness. Given how common this issue is, many students do not seek the help that they need out of fear of judgment or ridicule from fellow peers. However, many parents can […]

Jane’s Depression in the Yellow Wallpaper

The Yellow Wallpaper is written by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. This story is about a young woman by the name of Jane who is a wife, trapped in a room. Jane suffers from depression following the birth of her child. Her husband, John, diagnoses her behavior as melancholia. He prescribes her rest and leases a house in the country for her rehabilitation. John is a respected physician, so Jane initially needs his advice. He does not let her write, which is […]

Stress at Workplace

Stress is something which occurs or disturbs someone's mind whether we are rich or poor it doesn't matter the person is having wealth so it's free from stress. Stress is a thing which takes place when others demands exceed our limitations when someone expects something favourable or of some high expectations within a short period of time and putting pressure to complete or touch their limitations than its harmful for our physical as well for our mental health too. It's […]

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About Postpartum Depression in the Yellow Wallpaper

Charlotte Perkins Gilman's The Yellow Wallpaper does not, in my opinion, reflect contemporary concerns of women. Gilman's short story focuses on the idea that men control the lives of women in essentially every aspect. The narrator's husband tells her not to do anything to stimulate her brain. He asks her not to write, think about her condition, or to talk to anyone in a stimulating fashion. Her whole life at this point is decided by her husband and brother, who […]

Postpartum Depression

Postpartum depression is a severe mood disorder one in ten women experiences following childbirth. It is caused by chemicals produced in the brain going haywire after the hormones are thrown off balanced by pregnancy. Postpartum depression's effects vary for each woman, symptoms often include mood swings, anger, anxiety, panic attacks, weight loss/gain, insomnia, etc. Postpartum depression is very common but often goes undiagnosed and treated. Women feel ashamed and embarrassed by these feelings, thus they keep their feelings to themselves, […]

Effects of Helicopter Parenting on College Students

The term “helicopter parenting” has recently become a reoccurring term used, especially in media and schools (Van Ingen et al., 2015, p. 8). Universities have brought helicopter parenting to the attention of many as the reason for college students having a difficult time transitioning into college. Practitioners, college administrators, and professors have become very concerned about this generation of college students (Reed, Duncan, Lucier-Greer, Fixelle, & Ferraro, 2016, p. 3136). This generation is considered to be the “Millennial” generation. This […]

What was the Great Depression and why did it Start in the USA

There are many significant events that have shaped America’s history. Some were infamous, some scandalous and some we choose to overlook..According to the PBS film “The Great Depression”, The Great Depression was one of the most traumatic and gut wrenching event throughout history. This film outline the events leading up to the great depression and highlights some of the significant events during this time period. The Great Depression was an economic downturn that began in 1929 while president Herbert Hoover […]

Rise in Depression and Anxiety

Social media is a whole bunch of websites where many people seem to have an addiction for; whether it's Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter etc. Many people can't seem to go a minute or not even a day without posting a picture for likes. They post their personal thoughts or even use it to vent. Why not call up a friend and have a real conversation with them about your problem? Kids these days don't know what fun is. They rather […]

In the Modern World

In the modern world many people suffer from mental disorders that are not physically apparent which in many cases are overlooked. Depression is a mental disorder that creates feelings of hopelessness and despair, and in severe cases, can even lead to suicide. More recent updated ethics have lead people to be more accepting, however, society has a long way to go to fully understand mental disorders. Many factors are contributed to this mental disorder that are uncontrollable. From a psychological […]

Depression Behind Sylvia Plath

Depression behind sylvia plath Syvia Plaths life story may be considered to be tragic due to the consumption of her mind by depression. A girl calls and asks, "Does it hurt very much to die?" "Well, sweetheart," I tell her, "yes, but it hurts a lot more to keep living, says a character in a Chuck Palahnuik novel. Having experienced a troubled life and inferring a dark future one may assume that ending it all is perceived to be better […]

Depression and Substance Abuse

Depression is a very serious mood disorder that can affect and influence your mood, how you might feel and engage in certain activities that you may have once enjoyed before having some negative feelings and emotions that are significant factors when we think about depression. Depression and the co-morbidity of substance abuse is a rising epidemic that is becoming a more prevalent diagnosis in our society through the means of self-medication or abusing substances to cope with the anxiety or […]

Captain Teresa Della Monica

Captain Teresa Della Monica recently unveiled her battle with depression. As a child, Monica was determined and optimistic, but later in life things drastically changed. She divulged, it became more difficult, if not impossible, to surpass sadness. when suffering from depression, life seemed bleak and dark (Monica, 2018, p. 17) . She recalls being emotionally and mentally absent in activities, even though she was physically present. Monica's daily life was negatively influenced by the prolonged sadness that accompanies depression (Monica, […]

Exploring the Effects of Social Media on Depression and Suicide

I have grown up in a generation of social media users. Facebook, one of the most popular social media sites, was founded in 2004, when I was three. Four years later it had 100 million active users. Today, Facebook has 2.27 billion active users worldwide. Not only has Facebook’s popularity significantly increased but so has social media use in general. In 2010, 97 million people were social media users, today it’s 2.62 billion worldwide. And, it is estimated that 81% […]

Social Issue of Depression

The social issue of depression and suicide in older adulthood has an impact on lifespan development. The purpose of this essay is to define and show the extent to which this problem of depression and suicide in older adulthood is in America. It will also show the differences in cultural background, gender, and socioeconomic status that impact the chances of the elderly being diagnosed with depression. Next, it will use the biopsychosocial approach, to look at the issue of depression […]

Great Depression: Causes and Definition

The Great Depression was the worst economic problem in the history of the world, from 1929 to 1939. It caused many problem and difficulty like, Overproduction, Big crash, weak banking systems, and buying on margins. The Great Depression made everyone forget about the wealth, growth and prosperity of last period of ten years and face new economically unfair conditions of business and living in a bad situation. The government should’ve involve more in the Great Depression to help people and […]

About Undertreatment of Medical Student Depression

Introduction It is normal for students to feel overwhelmed due to the many demands of everyday life. With the number of deadlines that students are expected to meet throughout the school year,it is common to often neglect other areas of life. From skipping breakfast once in a while to pulling all-nighters for several consecutive nights, prioritizing other responsibilities becomes more difficult. One important aspect of one's life is his or her mental health. When one neglects this vital area, he […]

A Left Ventricular Assist Device

A Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD) is a major cardiac surgery with many postoperative complications. Not only is an LVAD a significant surgery, but it also requires a lifestyle change outside of the hospital. Patients with LVADs will either be put on a heart transplant list, or the implantation of an LVAD may be the last resort for end-stage congestive heart failure. Accepting such changes and understanding the prognosis can be difficult for patients, both mentally and physically. A few […]

Substance Abuse Related to Depression

Depression is a mental health disorder that affects the mental state wellbeing of a person. It is a mental illness very commonly found in an adult age groups. Whereas, excessive use or depending on addictive substances such as alcohol and drugs refers to Substance abuse (web). The statistics of people diagnosed with depression and substance abuse can be seen as a growing problem in the society. According to the government estimate, 20% of the American adult is diagnosed with a […]

Felt that Depression

I have always felt that depression should be and can be classified as what is known as an invisible illness. Meaning that even though an individual can be clinically diagnosed with the condition, it is not something that can be distinguished just by looking at him or her. A cast can be seen on a broken arm and a blood can be seen when someone has a cut, but depression is a mental illness, and it does not physically manifest […]

Effects the Great Depression on African Americans

From the economic crisis in the 1930s to now, our country has developed greatly in medicine, technology, art, military weapons, and laws. However, since then prejudices are still apparent and people’s mindsets have stayed relatively the same from those of 100 years ago and are not open-minded like the development of medicine and weapons. The Great Depression impacted African Americans immensely in comparison to the white working class and farmers. Middle and lower class women being paid less compared to […]

Suicide and Depression

Every year thousands of people take their own life. People (especially teenagers) have depression and causes them to feel lonely and makes them feel like they don't have a purpose in the world. There is a lot of problems that teens go through that most people don’t see which can lead to teen suicide. Such as stress, cyberbullying, and in some cases it includes family issues. These problems may seem too hard or embarrassing to overcome. For some, suicide may […]

The Antichrist is Quite

The Antichrist is quite a peculiar and mysterious character of the Bible, appearing at the end times of man as an asset of the Devil, tasked with leading many away from the light of God. Though referenced only a handful of times in the Bible, the speculation of this ominous creature is broad and extensive, including many writings of what he may be like, when he will arrive on Earth, and what he will do. Heart of Darkness yields itself […]

Early Childhood Depression

The Sources The first article is from the ADAA website, which is the Anxiety and Depression Association of America. This association was founded in 1979. It focuses on helping people with these disorders of all ages. They also educate others on how these disorders can affect them or their loved ones. “ADAA strives to improve patient care by promoting implementation of evidence-based treatments and best practices across disciplines through continuing education and trainings and accelerating dissemination of research into practice” […]

The Effect of Substance Abuse on Depression

The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2016) state, "the consequences of undiagnosed, untreated, or undertreated co-occurring disorders can lead to a higher likelihood of experiencing homelessness, incarceration, medical illnesses, suicide, or even early death (para. 2). One strategy to support the treatment of Rhonda is to provide help with regulating her emotions rather than how to cope with alcohol and nicotine cravings. In the study from Holzhauer & Gamble (2017), it was found that women with depression and […]

Depression is the most Common Mental

Depression is the most common mental disorder and a common cause of disability (Sjoberg et al., 2017). Niles, Smirnova, Lin, and O'Donovan (2018) stated that depression disorders can affect nearly 30% of the population at some point in their life. Despite how common depression is, there is still a well known stigma related to depression and other mental illnesses. For example, people with a mental illness are commonly viewed as less capable and intelligent, compared to the average mentally stable […]

Connection between Depression and Diabetes

Depression- Diagnosis, Etiology, and Epidemiology Depression is a commonly occurring, recurring disorder which can directly affect the quality of life, medical morbidity, and mortality. Major depression is ranked as the fourth leading cause of disability. Depression is a chronic mental disorder that can negatively impact the quality of life of the affected individual, taking away the ability to live a fulfilling life and decreasing the capacity to complete basic tasks (Fekadu et al., 2017). As a disease, it is growing […]

Men Succumb to Societal Pressures

Going off to college can be a pivotal moment in a young man’s life– he is away from home, has more independence, has to make new friends, etc. Once a young man is placed in a new environment surrounded by other men, they may feel obligated to “prove” themselves masculine through conventional masculine norms that may have adverse effects to their mental health. The fact that many men succumb to societal pressures to act anti-feminine, self-reliant, aggressive, etc., is important […]

How Cyberbullying Leads to Depression and Sucidie

As the uses of technology are rapidly rising, a new form of bullying has appeared. The newest form, known as cyberbullying, is, “the repeated use of technology to harass, humiliate or threaten” (Holladay, 2012). In South Hadley, Massachusetts, a new term “bullicide” was developed when Phoebe Prince committed suicide as a result of being cyberbullied. Phoebe was an Irish immigrant who was always going against societal norms. She chose to date boys who were (said by her peers) “too good […]

Social Media: Depression 

There has been a point in someone’s life where they did not feel good enough. Everyone experiences not having the perfect body image, the perfect grades, or the popularity. Based off of a newsletter named “Healthline” they discovered that over 350 million people in the United States suffer from depression.  One thing that does not help is social media. Social media provides a “perfect” standard that people believe they must stand by. For example, the apps Instagram and Snapchat, allow anyone […]

Catcher in the Rye Depression

The Catcher in the Rye, was written in 1951. Salinger, the author of this novel, was born January first 1919, and was widely known because of this book itself. There was no movie made based off the Catcher in the Rye because Salinger refused to sell movie rights. Even though Salinger passed away, his family still lives up to what he wants, which is to only have a book. Salinger worked on this book while fighting in World War II, […]

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Why are teenagers suffering from anxiety and depression leading to suicide? In this paper in will be researching teenage depression and what causes it. I will be researching what to look for and what is normal and what is not. When to see a doctor and when to get immediate emergency help. Although depression among teenagers is high, we now have to look at the different causes. There is no exact known cause but here are the ones I came across: Early childhood trauma which something tragic happened in their life directly to them whether it is a family member sexually assaulted and abused them, or a misunderstanding with their parents as in a Rose for Emily essay . It also could be by inherited or learned from other relatives. One may ask what depression is. Well, teen depression is a very serious mental health problem that is continuously spread among teenagers. It is the after effect from something happening to them that was very traumatic, whether it was present or in the past. It affects the thoughts, feelings and behavior and can cause emotional and even physical problems. Depression can occur at any time in life and the symptoms will vary from person to person. Some of the causes are certain expectation from their parents, peer pressure in school, being bullied and the list goes on. Identifying the signs of a depressed teenager is the a changing attitude and behavior. Many teenagers who think they are so depressed and considering suicide will talk about it before doing anything. Sometimes they don’t say anything and just do it.. Teenage suicide can be detected at an early point if one is educated to recognize and understand the signs of suicide. It almost always start with depression. But if the person noticing this does not know any of the signs, they could end up losing someone close when they could have helped prevent the suicide. By knowing the signs and symptoms associated with suicide is a start to preventing teen suicide; however, taking action is equally as important. One action that could be helpful is to take the potentially suicidal teenager to a doctor if it appears that the teenager is pondering suicide. Another action is to communicate with the suicidal teenager. This is probably the easiest initial action to attempt. If the teenager is contemplating suicide and a person communicates with them, two things can happen. First, the person may find out more information about what is bothering the teenager. Second, the teenager may be talked out of committing suicide in the near term. Talking may be easy and helpful to solve this horrific tragedy; but the teenager may commit suicide if a person does not act immediately. The main key to helping a suicidal teenager is to act immediately. According to Sylvia Cochran, “If you have reason to believe your child may, on whatever level, be contemplating suicide, you must take action immediately. Do not leave her/him alone until help is available. Do not adopt a wait and see attitude.” (Cochran). If a parent, friend, teacher, etc., is able to act quickly, then they may be able to prevent a possibly suicidal teenager from committing suicide. Teenagers committing suicide during depression is clearly one of the more rapidly growing causes of death for young people today. It is not an infrequent occurrence and can definitely be prevented with the help of proper treatment and action. Depression, pressures in life in general, and the greater access to lethal weapons and drugs are some of the major causes and reasons of suicide. They are all preventable however, in more ways than one. Greta was a firm believer in the age-old saying that sometimes the best way to overcome something is to understand it.

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, college essay on depression.

I've been dealing with depression for a while and I feel like it's played a big part in shaping who I am today. Is it a good idea to write my college essay about it? Will admissions officers view it negatively? Any insights would be appreciated.

Writing about depression in your college essay can be a powerful and meaningful way to share your personal experiences and reflect on your growth. However, it's essential to approach the topic thoughtfully and carefully, as mental health is a sensitive subject.

1. Focus on growth and resilience: Instead of primarily describing your struggles with depression, emphasize how you've navigated those challenges and grown as a result. Discuss coping strategies, support systems, and other positive changes you've made that have helped you move forward.

2. Show self-awareness: Demonstrate an understanding of your situation and acknowledge your progress, while still recognizing that recovering from depression is an ongoing journey. This can give college admissions officers a sense of maturity and emotional intelligence on your part.

3. Keep it relevant to your college goals: Connect your experiences with depression to your educational and career aspirations. Perhaps overcoming depression has influenced your choice of major, or it has motivated you to engage in volunteer work or other extracurricular activities.

4. Seek feedback from trusted individuals: Ask someone you trust, like a teacher or counselor, to review your essay and provide input. Their perspectives can ensure that you're discussing depression sensitively and that your essay is appropriate for college admissions officers.

5. Be cautious of oversharing: While it's important to be genuine and authentic, avoid revealing deeply personal or disturbing details about your mental health struggles. Some admissions officers may not be comfortable with this level of disclosure, and it could overshadow your accomplishments and other positive aspects of your application.

In summary, writing about depression in your college essay is a personal choice. If you can present your experiences in a thoughtful, growth-focused manner, and connect your journey to your future goals, then it may be a powerful and effective essay topic. However, always consider seeking feedback from trusted individuals to ensure you are addressing the topic appropriately.

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CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

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Depression Essay Examples

Essays on depression serve as a platform for raising awareness, fostering understanding, and promoting open dialogue about this complex mental health issue. Through thoughtful analysis, personal stories, and research-based insights, these essays play a crucial role in destigmatizing depression, providing support, and encouraging individuals to seek help and treatment.

The Purpose and Significance of Essays on Depression One of the primary goals of essays on depression is to raise awareness about the prevalence, symptoms, and impact of this mental health condition. By shedding light on the realities of depression, these essays contribute to breaking down misconceptions and educating the public. Depression often carries a significant social stigma that can prevent individuals from seeking help. Depression essay topics aim to reduce this stigma by fostering empathy and understanding. By sharing personal stories and scientific insights, these essays challenge harmful stereotypes and encourage compassion. For individuals struggling with depression, reading essays on the topic can provide a sense of validation and support. These essays let individuals know that they are not alone in their experiences and that help is available. They offer a safe space for readers to relate to others’ journeys. Educating and Empowering Essays on depression provide valuable educational information about the causes, risk factors, and available treatments. By arming readers with knowledge, these essays empower individuals to recognize the signs of depression, seek help, and support loved ones who may be struggling. Depression essay examples serve a significant purpose in raising awareness, reducing stigma, and fostering understanding about a topic that affects countless individuals. By sharing personal experiences, scientific insights, and messages of hope, these essays contribute to a more compassionate and informed society, while also offering support and resources to those in need.

Short Essay About Depression: Types and Causes

Unfortunately, there is small amout of essays about depression, but I want to mention that if you have a depression, then you may have trouble doing normal day-to-day activities, and sometimes you may feel as if life is not worth living. More than just a...

Overcoming Depression: a Persuasive Case for Action

“Kendrea's cry The story of 6-year-old Kendrea Johnson from Minnesota, who hung herself with a jump rope 2 days after Christmas, was heart stopping”. People around the clock are suffering from depression all over, and we need to come together and solve this issue affecting...

Overcoming Depression and Anxiety: Coping Strategies

Depression… The extreme feeling of sadness, unexcitment or even thinking about death. What about anxiety? Anxiety is another form of disorder where you will feel restlessness, having panic attacks and overthinking about a very small thing. Because of the lockdown, depression and anxiety has been...

Exploring the Depths of Depression: an Argumentative View

You’ve lost connections with friends and family, you can’t bring yourself to go outside, it feels like the world is against you. This is the life of having depression, a horrible cycle of low moods, sadness and an overall feeling of dejectedness. I chose to...

Depression as a Complex Disorder: Symptoms, Causes and Treatment

This essay about depression with introduction body and conclusion discusses depression, a complex mental health disorder that affects millions of people worldwide. It covers the symptoms, causes, and treatment of depression. Depression is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and emptiness, and it can...

Relationship Between Social Media and Depression

In today's interconnected world, social media platforms have become integral parts of our lives. These platforms offer a plethora of opportunities for communication, sharing, and self-expression. However, beneath the glossy façade of curated feeds and engaging content lies a darker reality – the potential link...

Symptoms, Causes, and Ways to Cope with Postpartum Depression

It’s not easy being a parent; and for most mothers, it’s also not easy to give birth and immediately be okay after carrying a child in the womb for nine months and giving birth. Instead of feeling the joy and excitement of being a new...

Essay on Sun and Its Healing Powers

Researchers claim that the sun is the closest star to earth the only planet believed to be lived by the living-beings. Science explains that the earth is a planet and it revolves around the sun directing to a sequence of seasonal changes. Furthermore science makes...

Depression in Lady Lazarus and Daddy

Depression can be really be a tough battle, especially having to go to war with everyday of your life. In both poems “Daddy”, and “ Lady Lazarus”, by Sylvia Plath, she illustrates her battle with depression. In “Daddy”, Plath feels like she is living in...

Overview of Three Types of Group Interventions for Depression

Major depressive disorder affects many different types of people. Depression disorder is a severe mental disorder that can affect any age, gender, ethnicity, and region. In this essay three different types of group interventions will be discussed and the intervention effectiveness will be evaluated by...

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About Depression

Depression is classified as a mood disorder. It may be described as feelings of sadness, loss, or anger that interfere with a person's everyday activities.

The term depression was derived from the Latin verb deprimere, "to press down". From the 14th century, "to depress" meant to subjugate or to bring down in spirits. It was used in 1665 in English author Richard Baker's Chronicle to refer to someone having "a great depression of spirit", and by English author Samuel Johnson in a similar sense in 1753.

Life events, Personality, Alcoholism, Bullying, Medical treatments, Substance-induced, Non-psychiatric illnesses, Psychiatric syndromes, Historical legacy

Low mood, aversion to activity, loss of interest, feeling worthless or guilty, difficulty thinking and concentrating, changes in appetite, trouble sleeping or sleeping too much, thoughts of death or suicide.

Most common ways of depression treatment are: medication, psychotherapy, Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT), self-help and coping.

Depression is a mental state of low mood and aversion to activity, which affects more than 280 million people of all ages (about 3.5% of the global population) Classified medically as a mental and behavioral disorder, the experience of depression affects a person's thoughts, behavior, motivation, feelings, and sense of well-being. Depression is a leading cause of disability worldwide and is a major contributor to the overall global burden of disease. More women are affected by depression than men. Depression can lead to suicide.

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