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• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

• the results of your research,
• a discussion of related research, and
• a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

Questions to ask yourself:

• Was my hypothesis correct?
• If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
• How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
• Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
• How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
• What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

• Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
• Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
• Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
• State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
• Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
• If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
• Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

Don’t

• Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
• Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
• Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
• Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
• Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

• How to Write a Great Title
• How to Write an Abstract
• How to Write Your Methods
• How to Report Statistics
• How to Edit Your Work

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Blog Case Study

How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

By Danesh Ramuthi , Sep 07, 2023

In today’s world, where data is king and persuasion is queen, a killer case study can change the game. Think high-powered meetings at fancy companies or even nailing that college presentation: a rock-solid case study could be the magic weapon you need.

Okay, let’s get real: case studies can be kinda snooze-worthy. But guess what? They don’t have to be!

In this article, you’ll learn all about crafting and presenting powerful case studies. From selecting the right metrics to using persuasive narrative techniques, I will cover every element that transforms a mere report into a compelling case study. 

And if you’re feeling a little lost, don’t worry! There are cool tools like Venngage’s Case Study Creator to help you whip up something awesome, even if you’re short on time. Plus, the pre-designed case study templates are like instant polish because let’s be honest, everyone loves a shortcut.

Click to jump ahead: 

What is a case study presentation?

Purpose of presenting a case study, how to structure a case study presentation, how long should a case study presentation be, 5 case study presentation templates, tips for delivering an effective case study presentation, common mistakes to avoid in a case study presentation, how to present a case study faqs.

A case study presentation involves a comprehensive examination of a specific subject, which could range from an individual, group, location, event, organization or phenomenon.

They’re like puzzles you get to solve with the audience, all while making you think outside the box.

Unlike a basic report or whitepaper, the purpose of a case study presentation is to stimulate critical thinking among the viewers. 

The primary objective of a case study is to provide an extensive and profound comprehension of the chosen topic. You don’t just throw numbers at your audience. You use examples and real-life cases to make you think and see things from different angles.

The primary purpose of presenting a case study is to offer a comprehensive, evidence-based argument that informs, persuades and engages your audience.

Here’s the juicy part: presenting that case study can be your secret weapon. Whether you’re pitching a groundbreaking idea to a room full of suits or trying to impress your professor with your A-game, a well-crafted case study can be the magic dust that sprinkles brilliance over your words.

Think of it like digging into a puzzle you can’t quite crack . A case study lets you explore every piece, turn it over and see how it fits together. This close-up look helps you understand the whole picture, not just a blurry snapshot.

It’s also your chance to showcase how you analyze things, step by step, until you reach a conclusion. It’s all about being open and honest about how you got there.

Besides, presenting a case study gives you an opportunity to connect data and real-world scenarios in a compelling narrative. It helps to make your argument more relatable and accessible, increasing its impact on your audience.

One of the contexts where case studies can be very helpful is during the job interview. In some job interviews, you as candidates may be asked to present a case study as part of the selection process.

Having a case study presentation prepared allows the candidate to demonstrate their ability to understand complex issues, formulate strategies and communicate their ideas effectively.

The way you present a case study can make all the difference in how it’s received. A well-structured presentation not only holds the attention of your audience but also ensures that your key points are communicated clearly and effectively.

In this section, let’s go through the key steps that’ll help you structure your case study presentation for maximum impact.

Let’s get into it. 

Open with an introductory overview 

Start by introducing the subject of your case study and its relevance. Explain why this case study is important and who would benefit from the insights gained. This is your opportunity to grab your audience’s attention.

Explain the problem in question

Dive into the problem or challenge that the case study focuses on. Provide enough background information for the audience to understand the issue. If possible, quantify the problem using data or metrics to show the magnitude or severity.

Detail the solutions to solve the problem

After outlining the problem, describe the steps taken to find a solution. This could include the methodology, any experiments or tests performed and the options that were considered. Make sure to elaborate on why the final solution was chosen over the others.

Key stakeholders Involved

Talk about the individuals, groups or organizations that were directly impacted by or involved in the problem and its solution. 

Stakeholders may experience a range of outcomes—some may benefit, while others could face setbacks.

For example, in a business transformation case study, employees could face job relocations or changes in work culture, while shareholders might be looking at potential gains or losses.

Discuss the key results & outcomes

Discuss the results of implementing the solution. Use data and metrics to back up your statements. Did the solution meet its objectives? What impact did it have on the stakeholders? Be honest about any setbacks or areas for improvement as well.

Include visuals to support your analysis

Visual aids can be incredibly effective in helping your audience grasp complex issues. Utilize charts, graphs, images or video clips to supplement your points. Make sure to explain each visual and how it contributes to your overall argument.

Pie charts illustrate the proportion of different components within a whole, useful for visualizing market share, budget allocation or user demographics.

This is particularly useful especially if you’re displaying survey results in your case study presentation.

Stacked charts on the other hand are perfect for visualizing composition and trends. This is great for analyzing things like customer demographics, product breakdowns or budget allocation in your case study.

Consider this example of a stacked bar chart template. It provides a straightforward summary of the top-selling cake flavors across various locations, offering a quick and comprehensive view of the data.

Not the chart you’re looking for? Browse Venngage’s gallery of chart templates to find the perfect one that’ll captivate your audience and level up your data storytelling.

Recommendations and next steps

Wrap up by providing recommendations based on the case study findings. Outline the next steps that stakeholders should take to either expand on the success of the project or address any remaining challenges.

Acknowledgments and references

Thank the people who contributed to the case study and helped in the problem-solving process. Cite any external resources, reports or data sets that contributed to your analysis.

Feedback & Q&A session

Open the floor for questions and feedback from your audience. This allows for further discussion and can provide additional insights that may not have been considered previously.

Closing remarks

Conclude the presentation by summarizing the key points and emphasizing the takeaways. Thank your audience for their time and participation and express your willingness to engage in further discussions or collaborations on the subject.

Well, the length of a case study presentation can vary depending on the complexity of the topic and the needs of your audience. However, a typical business or academic presentation often lasts between 15 to 30 minutes. 

This time frame usually allows for a thorough explanation of the case while maintaining audience engagement. However, always consider leaving a few minutes at the end for a Q&A session to address any questions or clarify points made during the presentation.

When it comes to presenting a compelling case study, having a well-structured template can be a game-changer. 

It helps you organize your thoughts, data and findings in a coherent and visually pleasing manner. 

Not all case studies are created equal and different scenarios require distinct approaches for maximum impact. 

To save you time and effort, I have curated a list of 5 versatile case study presentation templates, each designed for specific needs and audiences. 

Here are some best case study presentation examples that showcase effective strategies for engaging your audience and conveying complex information clearly.

1) Lab report case study template

Ever feel like your research gets lost in a world of endless numbers and jargon? Lab case studies are your way out!

Think of it as building a bridge between your cool experiment and everyone else. It’s more than just reporting results – it’s explaining the “why” and “how” in a way that grabs attention and makes sense.

This lap report template acts as a blueprint for your report, guiding you through each essential section (introduction, methods, results, etc.) in a logical order.

2) Product case study template

It’s time you ditch those boring slideshows and bullet points because I’ve got a better way to win over clients: product case study templates.

Instead of just listing features and benefits, you get to create a clear and concise story that shows potential clients exactly what your product can do for them. It’s like painting a picture they can easily visualize, helping them understand the value your product brings to the table.

Grab the template below, fill in the details, and watch as your product’s impact comes to life!

3) Content marketing case study template

In digital marketing, showcasing your accomplishments is as vital as achieving them. 

A well-crafted case study not only acts as a testament to your successes but can also serve as an instructional tool for others. 

With this coral content marketing case study template—a perfect blend of vibrant design and structured documentation, you can narrate your marketing triumphs effectively.

4) Case study psychology template

Understanding how people tick is one of psychology’s biggest quests and case studies are like magnifying glasses for the mind. They offer in-depth looks at real-life behaviors, emotions and thought processes, revealing fascinating insights into what makes us human.

Writing a top-notch case study, though, can be a challenge. It requires careful organization, clear presentation and meticulous attention to detail. That’s where a good case study psychology template comes in handy.

Think of it as a helpful guide, taking care of formatting and structure while you focus on the juicy content. No more wrestling with layouts or margins – just pour your research magic into crafting a compelling narrative.

5) Lead generation case study template

Lead generation can be a real head-scratcher. But here’s a little help: a lead generation case study.

Think of it like a friendly handshake and a confident resume all rolled into one. It’s your chance to showcase your expertise, share real-world successes and offer valuable insights. Potential clients get to see your track record, understand your approach and decide if you’re the right fit.

No need to start from scratch, though. This lead generation case study template guides you step-by-step through crafting a clear, compelling narrative that highlights your wins and offers actionable tips for others. Fill in the gaps with your specific data and strategies, and voilà! You’ve got a powerful tool to attract new customers.

Related: 15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

So, you’ve spent hours crafting the perfect case study and are now tasked with presenting it. Crafting the case study is only half the battle; delivering it effectively is equally important. 

Whether you’re facing a room of executives, academics or potential clients, how you present your findings can make a significant difference in how your work is received. 

Forget boring reports and snooze-inducing presentations! Let’s make your case study sing. Here are some key pointers to turn information into an engaging and persuasive performance:

• Know your audience : Tailor your presentation to the knowledge level and interests of your audience. Remember to use language and examples that resonate with them.
• Rehearse : Rehearsing your case study presentation is the key to a smooth delivery and for ensuring that you stay within the allotted time. Practice helps you fine-tune your pacing, hone your speaking skills with good word pronunciations and become comfortable with the material, leading to a more confident, conversational and effective presentation.
• Start strong : Open with a compelling introduction that grabs your audience’s attention. You might want to use an interesting statistic, a provocative question or a brief story that sets the stage for your case study.
• Be clear and concise : Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. Get to the point quickly and stay focused on your objectives.
• Use visual aids : Incorporate slides with graphics, charts or videos to supplement your verbal presentation. Make sure they are easy to read and understand.
• Tell a story : Use storytelling techniques to make the case study more engaging. A well-told narrative can help you make complex data more relatable and easier to digest.

Ditching the dry reports and slide decks? Venngage’s case study templates let you wow customers with your solutions and gain insights to improve your business plan. Pre-built templates, visual magic and customer captivation – all just a click away. Go tell your story and watch them say “wow!”

Crafting and presenting a case study is a skillful task that requires careful planning and execution. While a well-prepared case study can be a powerful tool for showcasing your successes, educating your audience or encouraging discussion, there are several pitfalls you should avoid to make your presentation as effective as possible. Here are some common mistakes to watch out for:

Overloading with information

A case study is not an encyclopedia. Overloading your presentation with excessive data, text or jargon can make it cumbersome and difficult for the audience to digest the key points. Stick to what’s essential and impactful.

Lack of structure

Jumping haphazardly between points or topics can confuse your audience. A well-structured presentation, with a logical flow from introduction to conclusion, is crucial for effective communication.

Ignoring the audience

Different audiences have different needs and levels of understanding. Failing to adapt your presentation to your audience can result in a disconnect and a less impactful presentation.

Poor visual elements

While content is king, poor design or lack of visual elements can make your case study dull or hard to follow. Make sure you use high-quality images, graphs and other visual aids to support your narrative.

Not focusing on results

A case study aims to showcase a problem and its solution, but what most people care about are the results. Failing to highlight or adequately explain the outcomes can make your presentation fall flat.

How to start a case study presentation?

Starting a case study presentation effectively involves a few key steps:

• Grab attention : Open with a hook—an intriguing statistic, a provocative question or a compelling visual—to engage your audience from the get-go.
• Set the stage : Briefly introduce the subject, context and relevance of the case study to give your audience an idea of what to expect.
• Outline objectives : Clearly state what the case study aims to achieve. Are you solving a problem, proving a point or showcasing a success?
• Agenda : Give a quick outline of the key sections or topics you’ll cover to help the audience follow along.
• Set expectations : Let your audience know what you want them to take away from the presentation, whether it’s knowledge, inspiration or a call to action.

How to present a case study on PowerPoint and on Google Slides?

Presenting a case study on PowerPoint and Google Slides involves a structured approach for clarity and impact using presentation slides:

• Title slide : Start with a title slide that includes the name of the case study, your name and any relevant institutional affiliations.
• Introduction : Follow with a slide that outlines the problem or situation your case study addresses. Include a hook to engage the audience.
• Objectives : Clearly state the goals of the case study in a dedicated slide.
• Findings : Use charts, graphs and bullet points to present your findings succinctly.
• Analysis : Discuss what the findings mean, drawing on supporting data or secondary research as necessary.
• Conclusion : Summarize key takeaways and results.
• Q&A : End with a slide inviting questions from the audience.

What’s the role of analysis in a case study presentation?

The role of analysis in a case study presentation is to interpret the data and findings, providing context and meaning to them. 

It helps your audience understand the implications of the case study, connects the dots between the problem and the solution and may offer recommendations for future action.

Is it important to include real data and results in the presentation?

Yes, including real data and results in a case study presentation is crucial to show experience,  credibility and impact. Authentic data lends weight to your findings and conclusions, enabling the audience to trust your analysis and take your recommendations more seriously

How do I conclude a case study presentation effectively?

To conclude a case study presentation effectively, summarize the key findings, insights and recommendations in a clear and concise manner. 

End with a strong call-to-action or a thought-provoking question to leave a lasting impression on your audience.

What’s the best way to showcase data in a case study presentation ?

The best way to showcase data in a case study presentation is through visual aids like charts, graphs and infographics which make complex information easily digestible, engaging and creative. 

Don’t just report results, visualize them! This template for example lets you transform your social media case study into a captivating infographic that sparks conversation.

Choose the type of visual that best represents the data you’re showing; for example, use bar charts for comparisons or pie charts for parts of a whole. 

Ensure that the visuals are high-quality and clearly labeled, so the audience can quickly grasp the key points. 

Keep the design consistent and simple, avoiding clutter or overly complex visuals that could distract from the message.

Choose a template that perfectly suits your case study where you can utilize different visual aids for maximum impact. 

Need more inspiration on how to turn numbers into impact with the help of infographics? Our ready-to-use infographic templates take the guesswork out of creating visual impact for your case studies with just a few clicks.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Congrats on mastering the art of compelling case study presentations! This guide has equipped you with all the essentials, from structure and nuances to avoiding common pitfalls. You’re ready to impress any audience, whether in the boardroom, the classroom or beyond.

And remember, you’re not alone in this journey. Venngage’s Case Study Creator is your trusty companion, ready to elevate your presentations from ordinary to extraordinary. So, let your confidence shine, leverage your newly acquired skills and prepare to deliver presentations that truly resonate.

Go forth and make a lasting impact!

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

A Step-by-Step Guide To Case Discussion

By ashi jain.

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Are you comfortable in Decision Making in a given situation How aptly you analyze the situation with a logical approach How much time do you take in arriving at a decision How good are you in taking the rightful course of action

Solved Example:

Hari, the only working member of the family has been working an organization for 25 years. His job required long standing hours. One day, while working, he lost his leg in an accident. The company paid for his medical reimbursement.

Since he was a hardworking employee; the company offered him another compensatory job. He refused by saying, ‘Once a Lion, always a Lion’. As an HR, what solution would you suggest?

Identification of the Problem:

Obvious: accident, refusal of job, only earning member, his attitude, and inability to do his current job Hidden: the reputation of the company at stake, the course of action might influence other employees

Action Plan:

As an HR, you are first expected to check the company records and find out how a similar case has been dealt with in the past. Second, you need to take cognizance of the track record of the employee highlighted by the keyword ‘hardworking’.

Given the situation at hand, he is deemed unfit for his current role. However, the problem arises because of his attitude towards the compensatory job. Hence, in such a case, counselling is required.

Here, three levels of Counselling is required: 1.   Ist level is with Hari 2.   IInd level of counselling is required with the Union Leader (if any) to keep the collective interest and the reputation of the company in mind 3.   IIIrd level of counselling is required with his family members as they constitute of the afflicted party

If the counselling does not work, one should also identify a contingency plan or Plan B. In this case, the Contingency Plan would be – hire someone from his family for a compensatory role.

Note that the following options are out of scope and should be avoided: 1.   Increase Hari’s salary so that he gives in and agrees to do the compensatory job 2.   Status Quo – do not bother as long as the Company is making a profit 3.   Replace Hari with someone else

1. Pinpoint the key issues to be solved and identify their cause and effects

2. Start broad and try to work through a range of issues methodically

3. Connect the facts and evidence and focus on the big picture

4. Discuss any trade-offs or implications of your proposed solution

5. Relate your conclusion back to the problem statement and make sure you have answered all the questions

1. Do not be anxious if you are not able to understand the situation well or unable to justify the problem. Read again, a little slowly, it will help you understand better.

2. Do not jump to conclusions; try to move systematically and gradually.

3. Do not panic if you are unable to analyze the situation. Listen carefully to others as the discussion starts, it will help you gauge the problem at hand.

All the best! Ace the GDPI season.

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On Being a Scientist: A Guide to Responsible Conduct in Research: Third Edition (2009)

Chapter: appendix: discussion of case studies.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s 51 Appendix: Discussion of Case Studies The hypothetical scenarios included in this guide raise many different issues that can be discussed and debated. The following observations suggest just some of the topics that can be explored but are by no means exhaustive. A CHANGE OF PLANS (Page 5) Differences of opinion about when a dissertation is finished or al- most finished are a common source of tension between Ph.D. students and their advisers. Good communication throughout the preparation of a dissertation is essential to avoid disappointment. Meetings should be held regularly to review progress and discuss future plans. If a student has difficulties discussing these issues with a thesis adviser, as Joseph did, the other members of a thesis committee should be willing to intervene to make sure that expectations are identified and made clear to all parties. THE SELECTION OF DATA (Page 10) Deborah and Kamala’s principal obligation in writing up their results for publication is to describe what they have done and give the basis for their actions. Questions that they need to answer include: If they state in the paper that data have been rejected because of prob- lems with the power supply, should the data points still be included in the published chart? How should they determine which points to keep and which to reject? What kind of error analyses should be done that both include and exclude the questionable data? How hard should they work to salvage these data given the difficulties with their measurements? Is the best course to focus on the systemic error (power fluctuations) and figure out how to eliminate the fluctuations or to repeat the experiment adjusting for the fluctuations? Consult- 

52 A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s ing with the principal investigator or a senior researcher may provide additional options. DISCOVERING AN ERROR (Page 14) When the scientific record contains errors, other researchers can repeat those errors or waste time and money discovering and correct- ing them. Marie and Yuan, the authors of the papers, have published erroneous results that could mislead other researchers. How should they tell the editors of the journals where the papers appeared about the errors and publish corrections? FABRICATION IN A GRANT PROPOSAL (Page 17) Even though Vijay did not introduce spurious results into science, he fabricated the submission of the research paper and therefore engaged in misconduct. Though his treatment by the department might seem harsh, fabrication strikes so directly at the foundations of science that it is not excusable. This scenario also demonstrates that researchers and administra- tors in an institution may differ on the appropriate course of action to take when research ethics are violated. Researchers should think carefully about what courses of action could be taken in such a case. IS IT PLAGIARISM? (Page 18) Would it help, in all situations and in all fields, to simply place quotation marks around the borrowed sentences and attach a foot- note? Writing a literature review requires judgment in the selection and interpretation of previous work. Professor Lee should consider whether copying the one-sentence summaries takes unfair advantage of the other author’s efforts, and whether those summaries relate to the proposal in the same way as the paper. In addition, because the lit- erature review in the journal paper could be erroneous or incomplete, 

A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s 53 Lee should strive to ensure that the proposal’s review of the literature is accurate. Finally, Lee should imagine what might happen if the author of the journal paper is asked to review Lee’s proposal. A CAREER IN THE BALANCE (Page 22) Peter’s most obvious option is to discuss the situation with his research adviser, but he has to ask himself if this is the best alternative. His adviser is professionally and emotionally involved in the situation and may not be able to take an impartial stance. In addition, because the adviser is involved in the situation, she may feel the need to turn the inquiry into a formal investigation or to report the inquiry to her supervisors. Peter should also consider whether he can discuss the situation directly with Jimmy. Many suspicions evaporate when others have a chance to explain actions that may have been misinterpreted. If Peter feels that he cannot talk with Jimmy, he needs some way to discuss his concerns confidentially. Maybe he could turn to a trusted friend, another member of the faculty (such as a senior or emeritus professor), someone on the university’s administrative staff, or an ombudsman designated by the university. That person can help Peter explore such questions as: What is known and what is not known about the situation? What are the options available to him? Why should he not put his concerns in writing, an action likely to lead to a formal investigation? TESTS ON STUDENTS (Page 25) Although the instructional modules do not risk harming the stu- dents’ health, because Antonio plans to publish the results, he must obtain IRB approval. Since the research study focuses on teaching techniques in an educational setting, this study would likely be ex- empt from full IRB review, but it is the IRB that decides that. Antonio should consider whether any incentives that he gives for testing the 

54 A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s modules might seem coercive to the students, and whether students who test the modules might have an unfair advantage over other students in the course. Explicit consent would be required if students might experience physical or psychological distress while using the modules, or if published information could be traced to individual students. A CHANGE OF PROTOCOL (Page 26) Guidelines for the care and use of laboratory animals are designed to both protect the welfare of animals and enhance the quality of research. Both of these goals are being undermined by Hua’s action, so who can they consult in the institution? What is the responsibility of the laboratory and its leadership for animal welfare? PUBLICATION PRACTICES (Page 32) Contributions to a scientific field are not counted in terms of the number of papers. They are counted in terms of significant differences in how science is understood. With that in mind, Andre and his stu- dents need to consider how they are most likely to make a significant contribution to their field. One determinant of impact is the coher- ence and completeness of a paper. Andre and his students may need to begin writing before they can tell whether one or more papers are needed. Parts of the research can also be broken out for separate publication with a opportunity for different first authorship. In retrospect, Andre and his students might also ask themselves about the process that led to their decision. How could they have dis- cussed publications much earlier in the process? Were the students led to believe that they would be first authors on published papers? If so, how could that influence future policies or procedures in the lab? 

A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s 55 WHO GETS CREDIT? (Page 36) Robert needs to know whether his company, the journal to which he plans to submit the paper, or his discipline has written policies per- taining to his situation. If so, he must decide whether to bring those policies to the attention of his supervisor, a research official in his company, or the editor of the journal; if not, he must decide whether to appeal to guidelines describing acceptable authorship practices in other documents. What are the possible outcomes of alternative ac- tions that could help him make a decision? A COMMERCIAL OPPORTUNITY? (Page 42) A software license is a legal contract, and all users must honor it, so Shen’s first task is to correct his unauthorized distribution of the software. Once done, the commercialization decision can be made. Many researchers have found themselves in a position similar to the one Shen is in, and they have made different decisions. Some decide that they will continue to provide a free service to their research com- munities without seeking to commercialize a new idea or technique. Others decide that commercialization will best serve their communi- ties, themselves, their institutions, or—with luck—all of the parties involved. As his adviser has suggested, Shen should work with the technology transfer officer at his university to learn more about his options. A CONFLICT OF COMMITMENT (Page 45) Sandra has enrolled in the university to receive an education, not to work for industry. But working on industrially sponsored research is not necessarily incompatible with getting a good education. In fact, it can be a valuable way to gain insight into industrially oriented problems and to prepare for future work that has direct applications to societal needs. The question that must be asked is whether the 

56 A pp e n d i x : D i s c u s s i o n o f C a s e S t u d i e s nature of the research is compromising Sandra’s education. Sandra’s faculty adviser has entered into a relationship that could result in conflicts of interest. That relationship is therefore most likely to be subject to review by third parties. How can Sandra get help in resolv- ing her own uncertainties? What would be the possible effects on her career if she did so? 

The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct.

On Being a Scientist was designed to supplement the informal lessons in ethics provided by research supervisors and mentors. The book describes the ethical foundations of scientific practices and some of the personal and professional issues that researchers encounter in their work. It applies to all forms of research—whether in academic, industrial, or governmental settings-and to all scientific disciplines.

This third edition of On Being a Scientist reflects developments since the publication of the original edition in 1989 and a second edition in 1995. A continuing feature of this edition is the inclusion of a number of hypothetical scenarios offering guidance in thinking about and discussing these scenarios.

On Being a Scientist is aimed primarily at graduate students and beginning researchers, but its lessons apply to all scientists at all stages of their scientific careers.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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The case study approach

Sarah crowe.

1 Division of Primary Care, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

Kathrin Cresswell

2 Centre for Population Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Ann Robertson

3 School of Health in Social Science, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK

Anthony Avery

Aziz sheikh.

The case study approach allows in-depth, multi-faceted explorations of complex issues in their real-life settings. The value of the case study approach is well recognised in the fields of business, law and policy, but somewhat less so in health services research. Based on our experiences of conducting several health-related case studies, we reflect on the different types of case study design, the specific research questions this approach can help answer, the data sources that tend to be used, and the particular advantages and disadvantages of employing this methodological approach. The paper concludes with key pointers to aid those designing and appraising proposals for conducting case study research, and a checklist to help readers assess the quality of case study reports.

Introduction

The case study approach is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context. Our aim in writing this piece is to provide insights into when to consider employing this approach and an overview of key methodological considerations in relation to the design, planning, analysis, interpretation and reporting of case studies.

The illustrative 'grand round', 'case report' and 'case series' have a long tradition in clinical practice and research. Presenting detailed critiques, typically of one or more patients, aims to provide insights into aspects of the clinical case and, in doing so, illustrate broader lessons that may be learnt. In research, the conceptually-related case study approach can be used, for example, to describe in detail a patient's episode of care, explore professional attitudes to and experiences of a new policy initiative or service development or more generally to 'investigate contemporary phenomena within its real-life context' [ 1 ]. Based on our experiences of conducting a range of case studies, we reflect on when to consider using this approach, discuss the key steps involved and illustrate, with examples, some of the practical challenges of attaining an in-depth understanding of a 'case' as an integrated whole. In keeping with previously published work, we acknowledge the importance of theory to underpin the design, selection, conduct and interpretation of case studies[ 2 ]. In so doing, we make passing reference to the different epistemological approaches used in case study research by key theoreticians and methodologists in this field of enquiry.

This paper is structured around the following main questions: What is a case study? What are case studies used for? How are case studies conducted? What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided? We draw in particular on four of our own recently published examples of case studies (see Tables ​ Tables1, 1 , ​ ,2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) and those of others to illustrate our discussion[ 3 - 7 ].

Example of a case study investigating the reasons for differences in recruitment rates of minority ethnic people in asthma research[ 3 ]

Example of a case study investigating the process of planning and implementing a service in Primary Care Organisations[ 4 ]

Example of a case study investigating the introduction of the electronic health records[ 5 ]

Example of a case study investigating the formal and informal ways students learn about patient safety[ 6 ]

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context. It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences. A case study can be defined in a variety of ways (Table ​ (Table5), 5 ), the central tenet being the need to explore an event or phenomenon in depth and in its natural context. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as a "naturalistic" design; this is in contrast to an "experimental" design (such as a randomised controlled trial) in which the investigator seeks to exert control over and manipulate the variable(s) of interest.

Definitions of a case study

Stake's work has been particularly influential in defining the case study approach to scientific enquiry. He has helpfully characterised three main types of case study: intrinsic , instrumental and collective [ 8 ]. An intrinsic case study is typically undertaken to learn about a unique phenomenon. The researcher should define the uniqueness of the phenomenon, which distinguishes it from all others. In contrast, the instrumental case study uses a particular case (some of which may be better than others) to gain a broader appreciation of an issue or phenomenon. The collective case study involves studying multiple cases simultaneously or sequentially in an attempt to generate a still broader appreciation of a particular issue.

These are however not necessarily mutually exclusive categories. In the first of our examples (Table ​ (Table1), 1 ), we undertook an intrinsic case study to investigate the issue of recruitment of minority ethnic people into the specific context of asthma research studies, but it developed into a instrumental case study through seeking to understand the issue of recruitment of these marginalised populations more generally, generating a number of the findings that are potentially transferable to other disease contexts[ 3 ]. In contrast, the other three examples (see Tables ​ Tables2, 2 , ​ ,3 3 and ​ and4) 4 ) employed collective case study designs to study the introduction of workforce reconfiguration in primary care, the implementation of electronic health records into hospitals, and to understand the ways in which healthcare students learn about patient safety considerations[ 4 - 6 ]. Although our study focusing on the introduction of General Practitioners with Specialist Interests (Table ​ (Table2) 2 ) was explicitly collective in design (four contrasting primary care organisations were studied), is was also instrumental in that this particular professional group was studied as an exemplar of the more general phenomenon of workforce redesign[ 4 ].

What are case studies used for?

According to Yin, case studies can be used to explain, describe or explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur[ 1 ]. These can, for example, help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting from a new policy initiative or service development (see Tables ​ Tables2 2 and ​ and3, 3 , for example)[ 1 ]. In contrast to experimental designs, which seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new drug to randomly selected individuals and then comparing outcomes with controls),[ 9 ] the case study approach lends itself well to capturing information on more explanatory ' how ', 'what' and ' why ' questions, such as ' how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another. This in turn can help develop or refine theory, as shown in our study of the teaching of patient safety in undergraduate curricula (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 , 10 ]. Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more appropriately studied using a case study design.

Case studies may be approached in different ways depending on the epistemological standpoint of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own and others' assumptions), interpretivist (trying to understand individual and shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations) (Table ​ (Table6). 6 ). Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context of conducting health services research. Doolin has, for example, noted that in the context of undertaking interpretative case studies, researchers can usefully draw on a critical, reflective perspective which seeks to take into account the wider social and political environment that has shaped the case[ 11 ].

Example of epistemological approaches that may be used in case study research

How are case studies conducted?

Here, we focus on the main stages of research activity when planning and undertaking a case study; the crucial stages are: defining the case; selecting the case(s); collecting and analysing the data; interpreting data; and reporting the findings.

Defining the case

Carefully formulated research question(s), informed by the existing literature and a prior appreciation of the theoretical issues and setting(s), are all important in appropriately and succinctly defining the case[ 8 , 12 ]. Crucially, each case should have a pre-defined boundary which clarifies the nature and time period covered by the case study (i.e. its scope, beginning and end), the relevant social group, organisation or geographical area of interest to the investigator, the types of evidence to be collected, and the priorities for data collection and analysis (see Table ​ Table7 7 )[ 1 ]. A theory driven approach to defining the case may help generate knowledge that is potentially transferable to a range of clinical contexts and behaviours; using theory is also likely to result in a more informed appreciation of, for example, how and why interventions have succeeded or failed[ 13 ].

Example of a checklist for rating a case study proposal[ 8 ]

For example, in our evaluation of the introduction of electronic health records in English hospitals (Table ​ (Table3), 3 ), we defined our cases as the NHS Trusts that were receiving the new technology[ 5 ]. Our focus was on how the technology was being implemented. However, if the primary research interest had been on the social and organisational dimensions of implementation, we might have defined our case differently as a grouping of healthcare professionals (e.g. doctors and/or nurses). The precise beginning and end of the case may however prove difficult to define. Pursuing this same example, when does the process of implementation and adoption of an electronic health record system really begin or end? Such judgements will inevitably be influenced by a range of factors, including the research question, theory of interest, the scope and richness of the gathered data and the resources available to the research team.

Selecting the case(s)

The decision on how to select the case(s) to study is a very important one that merits some reflection. In an intrinsic case study, the case is selected on its own merits[ 8 ]. The case is selected not because it is representative of other cases, but because of its uniqueness, which is of genuine interest to the researchers. This was, for example, the case in our study of the recruitment of minority ethnic participants into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1) 1 ) as our earlier work had demonstrated the marginalisation of minority ethnic people with asthma, despite evidence of disproportionate asthma morbidity[ 14 , 15 ]. In another example of an intrinsic case study, Hellstrom et al.[ 16 ] studied an elderly married couple living with dementia to explore how dementia had impacted on their understanding of home, their everyday life and their relationships.

For an instrumental case study, selecting a "typical" case can work well[ 8 ]. In contrast to the intrinsic case study, the particular case which is chosen is of less importance than selecting a case that allows the researcher to investigate an issue or phenomenon. For example, in order to gain an understanding of doctors' responses to health policy initiatives, Som undertook an instrumental case study interviewing clinicians who had a range of responsibilities for clinical governance in one NHS acute hospital trust[ 17 ]. Sampling a "deviant" or "atypical" case may however prove even more informative, potentially enabling the researcher to identify causal processes, generate hypotheses and develop theory.

In collective or multiple case studies, a number of cases are carefully selected. This offers the advantage of allowing comparisons to be made across several cases and/or replication. Choosing a "typical" case may enable the findings to be generalised to theory (i.e. analytical generalisation) or to test theory by replicating the findings in a second or even a third case (i.e. replication logic)[ 1 ]. Yin suggests two or three literal replications (i.e. predicting similar results) if the theory is straightforward and five or more if the theory is more subtle. However, critics might argue that selecting 'cases' in this way is insufficiently reflexive and ill-suited to the complexities of contemporary healthcare organisations.

The selected case study site(s) should allow the research team access to the group of individuals, the organisation, the processes or whatever else constitutes the chosen unit of analysis for the study. Access is therefore a central consideration; the researcher needs to come to know the case study site(s) well and to work cooperatively with them. Selected cases need to be not only interesting but also hospitable to the inquiry [ 8 ] if they are to be informative and answer the research question(s). Case study sites may also be pre-selected for the researcher, with decisions being influenced by key stakeholders. For example, our selection of case study sites in the evaluation of the implementation and adoption of electronic health record systems (see Table ​ Table3) 3 ) was heavily influenced by NHS Connecting for Health, the government agency that was responsible for overseeing the National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT)[ 5 ]. This prominent stakeholder had already selected the NHS sites (through a competitive bidding process) to be early adopters of the electronic health record systems and had negotiated contracts that detailed the deployment timelines.

It is also important to consider in advance the likely burden and risks associated with participation for those who (or the site(s) which) comprise the case study. Of particular importance is the obligation for the researcher to think through the ethical implications of the study (e.g. the risk of inadvertently breaching anonymity or confidentiality) and to ensure that potential participants/participating sites are provided with sufficient information to make an informed choice about joining the study. The outcome of providing this information might be that the emotive burden associated with participation, or the organisational disruption associated with supporting the fieldwork, is considered so high that the individuals or sites decide against participation.

In our example of evaluating implementations of electronic health record systems, given the restricted number of early adopter sites available to us, we sought purposively to select a diverse range of implementation cases among those that were available[ 5 ]. We chose a mixture of teaching, non-teaching and Foundation Trust hospitals, and examples of each of the three electronic health record systems procured centrally by the NPfIT. At one recruited site, it quickly became apparent that access was problematic because of competing demands on that organisation. Recognising the importance of full access and co-operative working for generating rich data, the research team decided not to pursue work at that site and instead to focus on other recruited sites.

Collecting the data

In order to develop a thorough understanding of the case, the case study approach usually involves the collection of multiple sources of evidence, using a range of quantitative (e.g. questionnaires, audits and analysis of routinely collected healthcare data) and more commonly qualitative techniques (e.g. interviews, focus groups and observations). The use of multiple sources of data (data triangulation) has been advocated as a way of increasing the internal validity of a study (i.e. the extent to which the method is appropriate to answer the research question)[ 8 , 18 - 21 ]. An underlying assumption is that data collected in different ways should lead to similar conclusions, and approaching the same issue from different angles can help develop a holistic picture of the phenomenon (Table ​ (Table2 2 )[ 4 ].

Brazier and colleagues used a mixed-methods case study approach to investigate the impact of a cancer care programme[ 22 ]. Here, quantitative measures were collected with questionnaires before, and five months after, the start of the intervention which did not yield any statistically significant results. Qualitative interviews with patients however helped provide an insight into potentially beneficial process-related aspects of the programme, such as greater, perceived patient involvement in care. The authors reported how this case study approach provided a number of contextual factors likely to influence the effectiveness of the intervention and which were not likely to have been obtained from quantitative methods alone.

In collective or multiple case studies, data collection needs to be flexible enough to allow a detailed description of each individual case to be developed (e.g. the nature of different cancer care programmes), before considering the emerging similarities and differences in cross-case comparisons (e.g. to explore why one programme is more effective than another). It is important that data sources from different cases are, where possible, broadly comparable for this purpose even though they may vary in nature and depth.

Analysing, interpreting and reporting case studies

Making sense and offering a coherent interpretation of the typically disparate sources of data (whether qualitative alone or together with quantitative) is far from straightforward. Repeated reviewing and sorting of the voluminous and detail-rich data are integral to the process of analysis. In collective case studies, it is helpful to analyse data relating to the individual component cases first, before making comparisons across cases. Attention needs to be paid to variations within each case and, where relevant, the relationship between different causes, effects and outcomes[ 23 ]. Data will need to be organised and coded to allow the key issues, both derived from the literature and emerging from the dataset, to be easily retrieved at a later stage. An initial coding frame can help capture these issues and can be applied systematically to the whole dataset with the aid of a qualitative data analysis software package.

The Framework approach is a practical approach, comprising of five stages (familiarisation; identifying a thematic framework; indexing; charting; mapping and interpretation) , to managing and analysing large datasets particularly if time is limited, as was the case in our study of recruitment of South Asians into asthma research (Table ​ (Table1 1 )[ 3 , 24 ]. Theoretical frameworks may also play an important role in integrating different sources of data and examining emerging themes. For example, we drew on a socio-technical framework to help explain the connections between different elements - technology; people; and the organisational settings within which they worked - in our study of the introduction of electronic health record systems (Table ​ (Table3 3 )[ 5 ]. Our study of patient safety in undergraduate curricula drew on an evaluation-based approach to design and analysis, which emphasised the importance of the academic, organisational and practice contexts through which students learn (Table ​ (Table4 4 )[ 6 ].

Case study findings can have implications both for theory development and theory testing. They may establish, strengthen or weaken historical explanations of a case and, in certain circumstances, allow theoretical (as opposed to statistical) generalisation beyond the particular cases studied[ 12 ]. These theoretical lenses should not, however, constitute a strait-jacket and the cases should not be "forced to fit" the particular theoretical framework that is being employed.

When reporting findings, it is important to provide the reader with enough contextual information to understand the processes that were followed and how the conclusions were reached. In a collective case study, researchers may choose to present the findings from individual cases separately before amalgamating across cases. Care must be taken to ensure the anonymity of both case sites and individual participants (if agreed in advance) by allocating appropriate codes or withholding descriptors. In the example given in Table ​ Table3, 3 , we decided against providing detailed information on the NHS sites and individual participants in order to avoid the risk of inadvertent disclosure of identities[ 5 , 25 ].

What are the potential pitfalls and how can these be avoided?

The case study approach is, as with all research, not without its limitations. When investigating the formal and informal ways undergraduate students learn about patient safety (Table ​ (Table4), 4 ), for example, we rapidly accumulated a large quantity of data. The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted on the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources. This highlights a more general point of the importance of avoiding the temptation to collect as much data as possible; adequate time also needs to be set aside for data analysis and interpretation of what are often highly complex datasets.

Case study research has sometimes been criticised for lacking scientific rigour and providing little basis for generalisation (i.e. producing findings that may be transferable to other settings)[ 1 ]. There are several ways to address these concerns, including: the use of theoretical sampling (i.e. drawing on a particular conceptual framework); respondent validation (i.e. participants checking emerging findings and the researcher's interpretation, and providing an opinion as to whether they feel these are accurate); and transparency throughout the research process (see Table ​ Table8 8 )[ 8 , 18 - 21 , 23 , 26 ]. Transparency can be achieved by describing in detail the steps involved in case selection, data collection, the reasons for the particular methods chosen, and the researcher's background and level of involvement (i.e. being explicit about how the researcher has influenced data collection and interpretation). Seeking potential, alternative explanations, and being explicit about how interpretations and conclusions were reached, help readers to judge the trustworthiness of the case study report. Stake provides a critique checklist for a case study report (Table ​ (Table9 9 )[ 8 ].

Potential pitfalls and mitigating actions when undertaking case study research

Stake's checklist for assessing the quality of a case study report[ 8 ]

Conclusions

The case study approach allows, amongst other things, critical events, interventions, policy developments and programme-based service reforms to be studied in detail in a real-life context. It should therefore be considered when an experimental design is either inappropriate to answer the research questions posed or impossible to undertake. Considering the frequency with which implementations of innovations are now taking place in healthcare settings and how well the case study approach lends itself to in-depth, complex health service research, we believe this approach should be more widely considered by researchers. Though inherently challenging, the research case study can, if carefully conceptualised and thoughtfully undertaken and reported, yield powerful insights into many important aspects of health and healthcare delivery.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

AS conceived this article. SC, KC and AR wrote this paper with GH, AA and AS all commenting on various drafts. SC and AS are guarantors.

Pre-publication history

The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100/prepub

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the participants and colleagues who contributed to the individual case studies that we have drawn on. This work received no direct funding, but it has been informed by projects funded by Asthma UK, the NHS Service Delivery Organisation, NHS Connecting for Health Evaluation Programme, and Patient Safety Research Portfolio. We would also like to thank the expert reviewers for their insightful and constructive feedback. Our thanks are also due to Dr. Allison Worth who commented on an earlier draft of this manuscript.

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Writing A Case Study

Case Study Examples

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

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A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

It’s no surprise that writing a case study is one of the most challenging academic tasks for students. You’re definitely not alone here!

Most people don't realize that there are specific guidelines to follow when writing a case study. If you don't know where to start, it's easy to get overwhelmed and give up before you even begin.

Don't worry! Let us help you out!

We've collected over 25 free case study examples with solutions just for you. These samples with solutions will help you win over your panel and score high marks on your case studies.

So, what are you waiting for? Let's dive in and learn the secrets to writing a successful case study.

• 1. An Overview of Case Studies
• 2. Case Study Examples for Students
• 3. Business Case Study Examples
• 4. Medical Case Study Examples
• 5. Psychology Case Study Examples 
• 6. Sales Case Study Examples
• 7. Interview Case Study Examples
• 8. Marketing Case Study Examples
• 9. Tips to Write a Good Case Study

An Overview of Case Studies

A case study is a research method used to study a particular individual, group, or situation in depth. It involves analyzing and interpreting data from a variety of sources to gain insight into the subject being studied. 

Case studies are often used in psychology, business, and education to explore complicated problems and find solutions. They usually have detailed descriptions of the subject, background info, and an analysis of the main issues.

The goal of a case study is to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject. Typically, case studies can be divided into three parts, challenges, solutions, and results. 

Here is a case study sample PDF so you can have a clearer understanding of what a case study actually is:

Case Study Sample PDF

How to Write a Case Study Examples

Learn how to write a case study with the help of our comprehensive case study guide.

Case Study Examples for Students

Quite often, students are asked to present case studies in their academic journeys. The reason instructors assign case studies is for students to sharpen their critical analysis skills, understand how companies make profits, etc.

Below are some case study examples in research, suitable for students:

Case Study Example in Software Engineering

Qualitative Research Case Study Sample

Software Quality Assurance Case Study

Social Work Case Study Example

Ethical Case Study

Case Study Example PDF

These examples can guide you on how to structure and format your own case studies.

Struggling with formatting your case study? Check this case study format guide and perfect your document’s structure today.

Business Case Study Examples

A business case study examines a business’s specific challenge or goal and how it should be solved. Business case studies usually focus on several details related to the initial challenge and proposed solution. 

To help you out, here are some samples so you can create case studies that are related to businesses: 

Here are some more business case study examples:

Business Case Studies PDF

Business Case Studies Example

Typically, a business case study discovers one of your customer's stories and how you solved a problem for them. It allows your prospects to see how your solutions address their needs. 

Medical Case Study Examples

Medical case studies are an essential part of medical education. They help students to understand how to diagnose and treat patients. 

Here are some medical case study examples to help you.

Medical Case Study Example

Nursing Case Study Example

Want to understand the various types of case studies? Check out our types of case study blog to select the perfect type.

Psychology Case Study Examples 

Case studies are a great way of investigating individuals with psychological abnormalities. This is why it is a very common assignment in psychology courses. 

By examining all the aspects of your subject’s life, you discover the possible causes of exhibiting such behavior. 

For your help, here are some interesting psychology case study examples:

Psychology Case Study Example

Mental Health Case Study Example

Sales Case Study Examples

Case studies are important tools for sales teams’ performance improvement. By examining sales successes, teams can gain insights into effective strategies and create action plans to employ similar tactics.

By researching case studies of successful sales campaigns, sales teams can more accurately identify challenges and develop solutions.

Sales Case Study Example

Interview Case Study Examples

Interview case studies provide businesses with invaluable information. This data allows them to make informed decisions related to certain markets or subjects.

Interview Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Examples

Marketing case studies are real-life stories that showcase how a business solves a problem. They typically discuss how a business achieves a goal using a specific marketing strategy or tactic.

They typically describe a challenge faced by a business, the solution implemented, and the results achieved.

This is a short sample marketing case study for you to get an idea of what an actual marketing case study looks like.

 Here are some more popular marketing studies that show how companies use case studies as a means of marketing and promotion:

“Chevrolet Discover the Unexpected” by Carol H. Williams

This case study explores Chevrolet's “ DTU Journalism Fellows ” program. The case study uses the initials “DTU” to generate interest and encourage readers to learn more. 

Multiple types of media, such as images and videos, are used to explain the challenges faced. The case study concludes with an overview of the achievements that were met.

Key points from the case study include:

• Using a well-known brand name in the title can create interest.
• Combining different media types, such as headings, images, and videos, can help engage readers and make the content more memorable.
• Providing a summary of the key achievements at the end of the case study can help readers better understand the project's impact.

“The Met” by Fantasy

“ The Met ” by Fantasy is a fictional redesign of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, created by the design studio Fantasy. The case study clearly and simply showcases the museum's website redesign.

The Met emphasizes the website’s features and interface by showcasing each section of the interface individually, allowing the readers to concentrate on the significant elements.

For those who prefer text, each feature includes an objective description. The case study also includes a “Contact Us” call-to-action at the bottom of the page, inviting visitors to contact the company.

Key points from this “The Met” include:

• Keeping the case study simple and clean can help readers focus on the most important aspects.
• Presenting the features and solutions with a visual showcase can be more effective than writing a lot of text.
• Including a clear call-to-action at the end of the case study can encourage visitors to contact the company for more information.

“Better Experiences for All” by Herman Miller

Herman Miller's minimalist approach to furniture design translates to their case study, “ Better Experiences for All ”, for a Dubai hospital. The page features a captivating video with closed-captioning and expandable text for accessibility.

The case study presents a wealth of information in a concise format, enabling users to grasp the complexities of the strategy with ease. It concludes with a client testimonial and a list of furniture items purchased from the brand.

Key points from the “Better Experiences” include:

• Make sure your case study is user-friendly by including accessibility features like closed captioning and expandable text.
• Include a list of products that were used in the project to guide potential customers.

“NetApp” by Evisort 

Evisort's case study on “ NetApp ” stands out for its informative and compelling approach. The study begins with a client-centric overview of NetApp, strategically directing attention to the client rather than the company or team involved.

The case study incorporates client quotes and explores NetApp’s challenges during COVID-19. Evisort showcases its value as a client partner by showing how its services supported NetApp through difficult times. 

• Provide an overview of the company in the client’s words, and put focus on the customer. 
• Highlight how your services can help clients during challenging times.
• Make your case study accessible by providing it in various formats.

“Red Sox Season Campaign,” by CTP Boston

The “ Red Sox Season Campaign ” showcases a perfect blend of different media, such as video, text, and images. Upon visiting the page, the video plays automatically, there are videos of Red Sox players, their images, and print ads that can be enlarged with a click.

The page features an intuitive design and invites viewers to appreciate CTP's well-rounded campaign for Boston's beloved baseball team. There’s also a CTA that prompts viewers to learn how CTP can create a similar campaign for their brand.

Some key points to take away from the “Red Sox Season Campaign”: 

• Including a variety of media such as video, images, and text can make your case study more engaging and compelling.
• Include a call-to-action at the end of your study that encourages viewers to take the next step towards becoming a customer or prospect.

“Airbnb + Zendesk” by Zendesk

The case study by Zendesk, titled “ Airbnb + Zendesk : Building a powerful solution together,” showcases a true partnership between Airbnb and Zendesk. 

The article begins with an intriguing opening statement, “Halfway around the globe is a place to stay with your name on it. At least for a weekend,” and uses stunning images of beautiful Airbnb locations to captivate readers.

Instead of solely highlighting Zendesk's product, the case study is crafted to tell a good story and highlight Airbnb's service in detail. This strategy makes the case study more authentic and relatable.

Some key points to take away from this case study are:

• Use client's offerings' images rather than just screenshots of your own product or service.
• To begin the case study, it is recommended to include a distinct CTA. For instance, Zendesk presents two alternatives, namely to initiate a trial or seek a solution.

“Influencer Marketing” by Trend and WarbyParker

The case study "Influencer Marketing" by Trend and Warby Parker highlights the potential of influencer content marketing, even when working with a limited budget. 

The “Wearing Warby” campaign involved influencers wearing Warby Parker glasses during their daily activities, providing a glimpse of the brand's products in use. 

This strategy enhanced the brand's relatability with influencers' followers. While not detailing specific tactics, the case study effectively illustrates the impact of third-person case studies in showcasing campaign results.

Key points to take away from this case study are:

• Influencer marketing can be effective even with a limited budget.
• Showcasing products being used in everyday life can make a brand more approachable and relatable.
• Third-person case studies can be useful in highlighting the success of a campaign.

Marketing Case Study Example

Marketing Case Study Template

Now that you have read multiple case study examples, hop on to our tips.

Tips to Write a Good Case Study

Here are some note-worthy tips to craft a winning case study 

• Define the purpose of the case study This will help you to focus on the most important aspects of the case. The case study objective helps to ensure that your finished product is concise and to the point.
• Choose a real-life example. One of the best ways to write a successful case study is to choose a real-life example. This will give your readers a chance to see how the concepts apply in a real-world setting.
• Keep it brief. This means that you should only include information that is directly relevant to your topic and avoid adding unnecessary details.
• Use strong evidence. To make your case study convincing, you will need to use strong evidence. This can include statistics, data from research studies, or quotes from experts in the field.
• Edit and proofread your work. Before you submit your case study, be sure to edit and proofread your work carefully. This will help to ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.

There you go!

We’re sure that now you have secrets to writing a great case study at your fingertips! This blog teaches the key guidelines of various case studies with samples. So grab your pen and start crafting a winning case study right away!

Having said that, we do understand that some of you might be having a hard time writing compelling case studies.

But worry not! Our expert case study writing service is here to take all your case-writing blues away! 

With 100% thorough research guaranteed, our professional essay writing service can craft an amazing case study within 6 hours! 

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Dr. Barbara is a highly experienced writer and author who holds a Ph.D. degree in public health from an Ivy League school. She has worked in the medical field for many years, conducting extensive research on various health topics. Her writing has been featured in several top-tier publications.

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Case Study At-A-Glance

A case study is a way to let students interact with material in an open-ended manner. the goal is not to find solutions, but to explore possibilities and options of a real-life scenario..

Want examples of a Case-Study?  Check out the ABLConnect Activity Database Want to read research supporting the Case-Study method? Click here

Why should you facilitate a Case Study?

Want to facilitate a case-study in your class .

How-To Run a Case-Study

• Before class pick the case study topic/scenario. You can either generate a fictional situation or can use a real-world example.
• Clearly let students know how they should prepare. Will the information be given to them in class or do they need to do readings/research before coming to class?
• Have a list of questions prepared to help guide discussion (see below)
• Sessions work best when the group size is between 5-20 people so that everyone has an opportunity to participate. You may choose to have one large whole-class discussion or break into sub-groups and have smaller discussions. If you break into groups, make sure to leave extra time at the end to bring the whole class back together to discuss the key points from each group and to highlight any differences.
• What is the problem?
• What is the cause of the problem?
• Who are the key players in the situation? What is their position?
• What are the relevant data?
• What are possible solutions – both short-term and long-term?
• What are alternate solutions? – Play (or have the students play) Devil’s Advocate and consider alternate view points
• What are potential outcomes of each solution?
• What other information do you want to see?
• What can we learn from the scenario?
• Be flexible. While you may have a set of questions prepared, don’t be afraid to go where the discussion naturally takes you. However, be conscious of time and re-focus the group if key points are being missed
• Role-playing can be an effective strategy to showcase alternate viewpoints and resolve any conflicts
• Involve as many students as possible. Teamwork and communication are key aspects of this exercise. If needed, call on students who haven’t spoken yet or instigate another rule to encourage participation.
• Write out key facts on the board for reference. It is also helpful to write out possible solutions and list the pros/cons discussed.
• Having the information written out makes it easier for students to reference during the discussion and helps maintain everyone on the same page.
• Keep an eye on the clock and make sure students are moving through the scenario at a reasonable pace. If needed, prompt students with guided questions to help them move faster.  
• Either give or have the students give a concluding statement that highlights the goals and key points from the discussion. Make sure to compare and contrast alternate viewpoints that came up during the discussion and emphasize the take-home messages that can be applied to future situations.
• Inform students (either individually or the group) how they did during the case study. What worked? What didn’t work? Did everyone participate equally?
• Taking time to reflect on the process is just as important to emphasize and help students learn the importance of teamwork and communication.

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Discussion Case Studies Samples For Students

138 samples of this type

While studying in college, you will definitely need to pen a lot of Case Studies on Discussion. Lucky you if putting words together and turning them into meaningful text comes naturally to you; if it's not the case, you can save the day by finding an already written Discussion Case Study example and using it as a model to follow.

This is when you will certainly find WowEssays' free samples database extremely useful as it embodies numerous skillfully written works on most various Discussion Case Studies topics. Ideally, you should be able to find a piece that meets your criteria and use it as a template to develop your own Case Study. Alternatively, our expert essay writers can deliver you an original Discussion Case Study model crafted from scratch according to your personal instructions.

Ankit Aggarwal Case Study Sample

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Interview 1 Case Study Examples

This paper aims at providing a comprehensive and an analytical interview between the author and the ESOL student. It will discuss the steps and the strategies that are associated with the learning of language. This report paper shall contain a summary of the interview, discussion of the relevant theories and how they apply. The paper will also contain an interview journal. The paper shall be organized as follows: introduction, subject/ context of the interview, hypothesis, method, findings, discussion and finally conclusion.

Introduction

The influence of the stalemate in the wto on the eu: case study examples.

The Influence of the Stalemate in the W.T.O on the E.U.: Global Europe as New Trade Policy The Influence of the Stalemate in the W.T.O on the E.U.: Global Europe as New Trade Policy

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- Request and meeting with the marketing director for discussion on product trials - Tour of the factory with plant engineers - Meeting with technical representative of F-robot

Planning and control

Mental health case study sample, preparations.

This delicate issue needs a very mature approach. If I commit any mistake regarding John’s situation, I might end up making matters worse for both John and the company. What I will do is performing substantive preparations including the questions I will ask him. What I will be keen about is preventing depressing him more. He is in a delicate situation, which I understand. I will make sure I let him know everything I think will be of great help towards his mental health. I will keep the discussion informal to create a free environment where interaction will not be limited

At Stake/Risk

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40 questions answered from two different books.

Health Care Ethics Principles and Problems (Medical Ethics)

Example of ethical and legal issue case study, introduction 3.

Gillick Competency Principle 4 Roles and responsibilities of nurses 5 Conclusion 8

References: 10

Example of gillick competency principle case study, case study on interpersonal communication, interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication majorly deals with the interaction or communication linking individual and a large group of people such as a community. Through the study, of the interpersonal communications, one gains knowledge of how people communicate and negotiate. Numerous people have different communication skills. This is for the main reason that people born with different skills and talents. However, through daily practice, the people specialize and perfect in the communicating skill that best suites their characteristics. Through communication, people are able to exchange ideas and pass on information from one person to another (Linder, 1991).

Exploring The Effects Of Social And Relationship Marketing On Behavior Change Case Study

Several researchers from all over the word, going by the clarity of their findings, have come up with conclusions about the change in behavior of an individual. Some of these conclusions have been specific while others contain the kind of precision which leaves us with many unanswered questions. It is therefore logical to explore this matter in order to come up with some dependable information with regard to the dynamics that surround the behavior of consumers.

Free Case Study About Post-Stroke Dysphagia

Medical ethics paper case study: free sample case study to follow.

In this ethical case study, I review the case of Miss S., an elderly patient recovering from severe physical injury and paralysis who advocates for physician-assisted suicide. In reviewing the case, the potential ethical issues and potential ways to address the issue at hand are provided, discussed through the lens of the ANA Code of Ethics. Assisted suicide is a complex issue, especially from a nursing perspective, and this case study provides one potential way to address it.

Financial Analysis And Investment Appraisal Techniques: Free Sample Case Study To Follow

About the report, technology case study samples.

Discussion Board: Modern Information Society

Why Is The Beauchamp Acquisition Challenging And Can This Acquisition Be Salvaged, And If So How? Case Studies Examples

Good case study on discrimination.

Discrimination and prejudice are some of the major social challenges many people experience in the current generation. The employment industry is one of the social facets that is characterized by incidences of discrimination, inequality and incidences of bias judgment; despite the fact that many activists, employers and labor Unions have implemented initiatives geared towards the reduction of discrimination, little has been achieved. The article provides a detailed discussion of the incidences of unequal treatment directed towards many employees in Wal-Marts Stores one of the biggest employers in the world.

General Electrics Joint Venture: Case Analysis Case Study Sample

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Discussion of Northwest College case study This discussion will include an identification and discussion of the implications which the external labor market as well as the recruitment strategies will have on the recruitment outcomes. The paper will also attempt to design a strategy that will improve the recruiting outcomes for the

Implications of external labor markets and recruitment strategy

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Issues in Business: Case Analysis – Risk Analysis

Proper Case Study Example About Assignments

Issue 1 - ethics and legal environment 2.

Issue 2 - Organizational Environment 4 Issue 3 - Critical Thinking 7 Issue 4 – Business Associations and Torts 8

Issue 1 - Ethics and Legal Environment

Proper case study example about court system, introduction:, example of case study on changing mindset case study analysis, living things vs. nonliving {type) to use as a writing model.

Discussion Board 1

Living things have specific superior characterizes that distinguish them from nonliving items. Living things are characterized by their internal organization, which is composed of cells (Alcamo, 1998).

A rock to a snail

Purpose: explanation case study, the purpose is to explain the definitions of the different environment resources, including renewable, non-renewable, and continuous resources..

Text Type: Description Expected Text Structure: General statement- provides a general and simplified statement introducing or identifying the phenomenon and gives an introduction to core concepts that will be addressed Sequenced statements- provide evidence that supports the writer's position based on explaining the phenomenon in relation to the subject of the text.

Concluding statement- highlights the major points used to support author’s ideas about the topic.

Good example of case study on ethics arguments.

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• Published: 26 March 2024

Estimating the size of populations at risk for malaria: a case study in cattle herders and agricultural workers in Northern Namibia

• Francois Rerolle 1 ,
• Jerry O. Jacobson 1 ,
• Cara Smith Gueye 1 ,
• Adam Bennett 1 ,
• Sidney Carrillo 1 ,
• Henry Ntuku 1 &
• Jennifer L. Smith 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  7160 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Epidemiology

Cattle herders and agricultural workers have been identified has key high-risk populations for malaria in northern Namibia. Population size estimates for these groups are lacking but are important for planning, monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of targeted strategies towards malaria elimination in the region. In this analysis, we extend population size estimation methods routinely used in HIV research, specifically social mapping and multiple source capture-recapture, to the context of malaria to estimate how many cattle herders and agricultural workers lived in two regions of northern Namibia over the course of the 2019–2020 malaria season. Both methods estimated two to three times more agricultural workers than cattle herders but size estimates based on the multiple source capture-recapture method were two to three times greater than the mapping-based, highlighting important methodological considerations to apply such methods to these highly mobile populations. In particular, we compared open versus closed populations assumptions for the capture-recapture method and assessed the impact of sensitivity analyses on the procedure to link records across multiple data sources on population size estimates. Our results are important for national control programs to target their resources and consider integrating routine population size estimation of high risk populations in their surveillance activities.

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Introduction

After years of steady decline, progress towards eliminating malaria has stalled across southern Africa and worldwide. Seasonal outbreaks of malaria in Namibia’s northern regions 1 since 2016 have highlighted a need to identify coverage gaps and improve delivery of effective interventions 2 . Previous case–control studies and formative research conducted in two northern provinces, Ohangwena and Zambezi, identified specific occupations and behaviors that define malaria high-risk populations (HRP), as well as key intervention gaps 3 , 4 . Groups with high mobility and outdoor exposure to mosquitos, including seasonal agricultural workers (AW) and cattle herders (CH), are particularly challenging to access through routine surveillance and intervention strategies, which primarily target resident communities at their households. In low endemicity settings such as present-day northern Namibia, HRPs are thought to have a role in sustaining transmission and tailoring prevention and treatment efforts to address gaps in coverage is crucial in order to reach malaria elimination 5 . Yet, the population size of these groups is unknown and due to their high mobility, challenging to estimate through conventional methods.

An estimate of the population size of these groups is an essential input for planning, scaling, monitoring interventions and assess their coverage but also to understand and model patterns of transmission 6 . Population size estimates (PSE) can also mobilize resources and political will to support equitable malaria control programs 6 . When malaria risk is widespread in a community, size estimation can be as straightforward as conducting a household census, but when risk becomes more focused among individuals with specific occupations and behaviors or those who are harder-to-reach, more nuanced and targeted strategies are needed. This is particularly true in contexts where the activity leading to increased exposure may be informal, illicit or stigmatized.

Multiple studies 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 and guidelines 6 focusing on PSE for HRP in the context of HIV exist, but to our knowledge, there are no such equivalents for malaria. Yet, the most accepted PSE methods in use today in the HIV context originally hail from other disciplines and could be readily extended to other infectious diseases, such as malaria. For example, the capture-recapture method was developed in wildlife ecology to study population sizes of animals 14 , while the multiplier method and social mapping and enumeration have long been employed throughout the social sciences. When transmission is clustered among high-risk subpopulations and particularly hard-to-reach populations, researchers have recommended including PSE studies as a part of malaria surveillance systems 15 , following similar guidance for HIV surveillance 16 , 17 .

In this study, we illustrate adapting social mapping and multiple source capture-recapture to the context of malaria HRPs to estimate the population size of cattle herders and agricultural workers in Zambezi and Ohangwena Regions, in northern Namibia. Along the way, we highlight important methodological considerations to link ascertainments of individuals across multiple data sources and account for HRP’s mobility, and discuss challenges and opportunities for the routine use of these approaches.

Study context and overall estimation approach

The PSE was planned as part of a quasi-experimental randomized controlled trial (NCT04094727; September 19, 2019) to evaluate the impact of a tailored package of interventions on malaria and coverage outcomes in agricultural workers and cattle herders in northern Namibia. The study was conducted over the 2019–2020 malaria season (November–June) in 8 health facility catchment areas (HFCA) across Zambezi and Ohangwena Regions, in northern Namibia (Fig.  1 ) where the total population was respectively 23,022 and 9995. The main trial comprised six components: (1) baseline mapping of worksites; (2) baseline worker survey; (3) delivery of malaria interventions in randomized HFCAs; (4) reactive case detection (RACD) at worksites; (5) endline mapping of worksites; (6) endline worker survey. These components differed for the two target populations and regions, as described below. Data collection to support size estimation was incorporated into each component from initial study conception. The mapping-based PSE drew on the baseline and endline mapping data; the multiple source capture-recapture PSE drew on the survey and intervention data. Table 1 lists the criteria to define high-risk agricultural workers and cattle herders in each survey.

Study area and study timeline. Top: study timeline with intervention and RACD conducted between baseline and endline mapping and workers surveys. Bottom: study area in where 8 HFCAs randomly allocated to an intervention or control arm. ESRI imagery from the leaflet R packages was used for the basemap.

Data sources

Baseline and endline mapping of worksites.

Mapping of worksites was conducted to generate a sampling frame for surveys and sites to target the intervention. Specifically, meetings were held with community health workers and community leaders in each region to develop a list of all farms and/or cattle posts that were thought to meet risk criteria. In Ohangwena, a veterinary services database was consulted to identify potential work sites; local leaders drew on this list and their knowledge of permits they had issued to cattle owners to authorize taking their cattle to and from Angola in order to limit the list to cattle posts where workers may engage in cross-border travel. Then, field teams conducted an interviewer-administered questionnaire with the owner or a manager at all worksites thus identified, with data collection by tablet. Data obtained included the number of workers expected to meet the high-risk population criteria defined in Table 1 , over the course of the malaria season (i.e., November–May).

Baseline and endline workers surveys

The baseline and endline worker surveys were conducted among workers at a random sample of the worksites identified by the mapping. The surveys were interviewer-administered with data collection by tablet. The baseline and endline surveys were conducted at the beginning (November–January) and end (May–June) of the malaria season, respectively. Eligibility criteria were similar to those used in the mapping, however with a narrower time period of reference for the risk activity (see Table 1 ).

Intervention

The interventions were rolled out in four randomly sampled HFCAs between baseline and endline, during February and March. They included provision of presumptive treatment with artemether-lumefantrine to workers at worksites, indoor residual spraying (IRS) of worksite structures, and provision of a vector control pack to workers in Zambezi who did not sleep in a sprayed structure. Interventions were delivered in coordination with employers, at visits conducted independently of baseline, endline, and RACD surveys. Intervention participants were screened for eligibility (See Table 1 ). A second planned intervention round was interrupted by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in April 2020 and discontinued when Namibia entered lockdown.

The study team visited worksites to screen and interview co-workers of malaria cases reported by health facilities. See Table 1 for eligibility criteria. RACD was conducted in both intervention and control areas from February 2020 to March 2020, when it was discontinued due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.

PSE method 1: social mapping

The mapping-based size estimates were calculated in three steps based on worker counts obtained from worksites owners. First, the retrospective count reported by owners at endline were summed across worksites, based on the question item, “How many total workers [meeting the respective risk criteria] did you have from November 2019 to May 2020?”.

Second, to account for workers at worksites no longer operational by the endline mapping, we calculated a total prospective count reported during baseline interviews at these sites, based on a question item on the number of workers expected to meet the risk criteria between November 2019 and June 2020, which was otherwise identical to the endline item. Then, this sum was corrected for potential projection error by accounting for how the prospective and retrospective worker counts differed at sites that were included in both the baseline and endline. Specifically, the sum was multiplied by the ratio of the endline total divided by the baseline total. Next, this corrected count was added to the sum across endline sites calculated in the first step.

Finally, the result of the above was corrected for potential double-counting of workers who had worked at multiple sites in the respective region during the period by dividing by a mobility factor, which was calculated as the mean number of worksites per worker, based on responses to the endline survey question item, “How many employers/worksites in the [study region] have you worked for between November 2019 and today?”. The mobility adjustment factors and their associated 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated for each region and, in Zambezi, separately for agricultural workers and cattle herders. Dividing each summed count by the respective mobility point estimate and its 95% CI limits produced the corresponding PSE point estimate and its 95% CI.

PSE method 2: multiple-source capture-recapture

The multiple source capture-recapture method draws on three or more statistically independent samples of the target population—all of which may be non-probability samples—and applies log-linear regression to estimate the population size based on patterns of overlap of individuals across these data sources or “captures” 18 , 19 . Here, four surveys—conducted at baseline, endline, during the intervention, and during RACD, respectively—served as the captures in each region.

Data management and record linkage

Birth place, birth order and three names variables (traditional, Christian and surname) were used to identify individuals across data sources. See appendix for details.

Records were linked using a flexible algorithm with a hierarchy of three different possible matching types:

Perfect match: same 3 names in any order, same birth place and same birth order

Excellent match: same 3 names in any order and same birth place or same birth order

Good match: two of the same names in any order, same birth place and same birth order

Record linkage was first carried out within surveys for de-duplication and then across datasets to create capture histories for all records. When necessary, better matches were favored (e.g., perfect over excellent matches).

Sensitivity analysis to optimize record linkage parameters

We conducted sensitivity analysis to identify the optimal parameter settings for the clustering algorithms that were used to standardize the names and birth places reported by survey participants, as a preliminary step before record linkage. The two clustering algorithms in OpenRefine 20 software were the n-gram fingerprint method (requiring a parameter n ) and the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method (requiring a radius of 1, 2, 3, or 4 and a block character setting of 3 or 4). These parameters determine the flexibility of the clustering; stricter settings may fail to identify similar spellings of names that in fact represent the same individual whereas overly flexible ones may erroneously cluster together the names of different respondents.

We selected the optimal values of the three parameters by repeating the clustering and record linkage procedure under all 24 possible combinations of the settings. Then, we manually reviewed a random sample of 100 records for which linkage results differed across the 24 parameter scenarios and classified the performance under each setting as correct or incorrect. Based on these samples, we calculated sensitivity and specificity and plotted a ROC curve to identify the parameter settings that produced the most accurate record linkage.

Statistical analysis

We developed capture histories (i.e., counts of individuals exhibiting each possible pattern of presence or absence across the four surveys) from the linked data. The capture histories were then analyzed by log-linear regression models 18 using the RCapture 19 package in R statistical software 21 to produce the population size estimates. Models were developed under both closed- (i.e., no in- or out-migration) and open-population assumptions. The former allowed for heterogeneity in capture probabilities across surveys and across individuals.

Since the surveys and resulting model results reflect the intervention areas in each region, we applied an upweighting factor to extend the size estimates to control areas (where intervention surveys were not conducted) in the study area. Upweighting factors were calculated as the inverse of the proportion of baseline workers surveyed in intervention areas. Importantly, the baseline survey is assumed to be a representative sample of workers in the study areas and the relative proportion of workers in intervention versus control areas is assumed to be constant over the entire season.

This study was approved by Namibia’s Ministry of Health and Social Services (Approval #17/3/3HN), by the University of Namibia Research Ethics Committee (Approval #MRC/510/2019) and by the UCSF ethical review board (Approval #19-28530). The informed consent process was consistent with local norms, and all study areas had consultation meeting with, and approvals from, village elders. All participants provided informed written consent; caregivers provided consent for all children under 18. The study was conducted according to the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki of October 2002.

Social mapping PSE

In the Zambezi and Ohangwena regions respectively, 426 and 296 worksites were surveyed during both the baseline and endline mapping, with 1912 and 874 HRP workers projected to be employed over the season at baseline and 2353 and 731 HRPs reported to be employed over the season at endline. Therefore, projection factors applied to the prospective counts were 1.23 in Zambezi, where the sum total across sites at endline was greater than the total at baseline, and 0.84 in Ohangwena, where the situation was reversed.

Self reported levels of mobility of workers among worksites were modest. The mean number of worksites per worker from the endline survey was 1.07 [1.05; 1.08] for agricultural workers in Zambezi, 1.08 [1.05; 1.11] for cattle herders in Zambezi and 1.04 [1.02; 1.07] for cattle herders in Ohangwena. In Zambezi, 92.9% (N = 1121) of the 1207 endline survey participants reported working at one site and 7.1% (N = 86) had worked at two sites. In Ohangwena, 71.6% (N = 346) of 483 endline survey participants worked at one site, nine at two sites, and three at three sites, while 25.9% (N = 125) did not respond to the question item.

Table 2 shows the results from the mapping PSE. The calculation began with the number of workers reported in the endline mapping. Then, the number of workers projected in the baseline mapping worksites absent from the endline mapping, corrected by the projection factor, is added. Finally, the total is adjusted for mobility factors, yielding 724 [705; 745] cattle herders and 1914 [1896; 1950] agricultural workers in Zambezi and 725 [705; 739] cattle herders in Ohangwena.

Multiple source capture-recapture PSE

Record linkage.

Overall, response rates for the variables collected for purposes of record linkage (Table S1 ) were 90% or greater in the combined data across surveys and regions. Response rates were lower for Christian name in the Zambezi surveys (78–91%) and birth place and birth order in the RACD survey in Ohangwena (58%).

Varying standardization parameters in OpenRefine 20 led to 24 scenarios that linked differently 651 (13%) of the total 5067 respondents across records. Among the review sample of 100 (15%), sensitivity and specificity varied quite a bit across scenarios (Fig.  2 ), ranging from 29 to 91% and 21 to 96% respectively. Two scenarios closest to the top left corner of the figure stand out. The first one (n-gram = 2, chars = 3, radius = 2, top left orange point) reached very good sensitivity (81%) while maintaining excellent specificity (96%) and was adopted in our subsequent PSE analyses. The second one (n-gram = 2, chars = 3, radius = 3, top centered pink point) had better sensitivity (91%) but at the expense of specificity (63%).

ROC curve. Assessment of how sensitivity and specificity change across the different standardization scenarios, with varying clustering parameters in OpenRefine: n in the n-gram fingerprint method; radius and block chars in the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method. Scenarios with n-gram = 3 produced almost indistinguishable results as n-gram = 2 and were therefore discarded from the plot.

We also confirmed the extent to which combinations of the identifying variables for the adopted standardization parameters scenario uniquely identified records in the baseline and endline surveys, since to be eligible an individual should not have participated previously. Indeed, in our adopted record linkage algorithm, there were only 2 (0.2%) duplicated records in Zambezi’s baseline survey, none in Ohangwena’s baseline survey and 1 duplicated record in both Ohangwena and Zambezi’s endline surveys, representing 0.2% and 0.08% of records in the respective data source.

In the baseline survey in Ohangwena, 240 cattle herders were interviewed in the intervention areas and 194 in the control areas, yielding an upweighting factor of 1.8 (= [240 + 194]/240). In Zambezi, the upweighting factor was 2.2 (= [769 + 923]/769) for agricultural workers and 1.8 (= [505 + 404]/505) for cattle herders.

In the baseline, intervention, RACD and endline surveys in the intervention areas across both regions, a total of 800, 1300, 83, and 823 HRPs were ascertained, respectively, with 1921 unique HRPs based on record linkage. The Venn diagram in Fig.  3 illustrates the capture histories identified. See Figures S1 , S2 and S3 in the appendix for similar Venn diagram stratified by region and high-risk groups.

Venn diagram. Illustration of overlap of individuals across the four captures: for instance, 318 HRPs were captured both in the baseline and intervention surveys but not in RACD or endline surveys.

Table 3 shows the results of the capture-recapture log-linear regression models, under closed- and open-population assumptions. Under the closed-population assumption, the best fitting model incorporated temporal and individual heterogeneity, allowing capture probabilities to vary both across surveys and workers (Mth models). Based on the AIC, the closed population model performed considerably better than open population models. In addition, the PSEs resulting from the open population models appear unsatisfactory as they are characterized either by an uninformative 95% CI (Ohangwena) or a point estimate only slightly above the total number of workers ascertained in surveys (upweighted to the study area). On the other hand, the open population model has the advantage of providing estimates of the baseline-intervention turnover rate, defined here as the probability a given worker leaves the area between baseline survey (November–January) and intervention (February–March). These turnover estimates were similar across population groups (13–20%) although non-significantly larger for cattle herders than agricultural workers in Zambezi.

Sensitivity analysis of record linkage parameters

We ran the same closed population models on capture histories data resulting from the record linkage under four scenarios that vary parameterization of the clustering algorithm used to standardize names in the unique identifier: the strictest (n-gram = 1, radius = 1, block chars = 4), the most flexible (n-gram = 2, radius = 4, block chars = 3), the best (n-gram = 2, radius = 2, block chars = 3), and the second-best scenario (n-gram = 2, radius = 3, block chars = 3). These correspond respectively to the bottom left blue triangle, the top right pink circle, the top left orange circle, and the top center pink circle on Fig.  2 . Figure  4 shows the ratio of the PSE obtained under each scenario relative to the strictest one (as the reference). The Delta method 22 was used to compute 95% CI.

Impacts of standardization scenarios on PSEs. Assessment of how PSEs are impacted by standardization scenarios, with varying clustering parameters in OpenRefine: n in the n-gram fingerprint method; radius and block chars in the Levenshtein nearest-neighbor method. The dashed vertical black line represents the null where the PSE equals the PSE from the strictest scenario.

Greater flexibility in the record linkage algorithm yielded more matches across surveys, hence resulting in a smaller PSE (ie PSE ratio less than one). In Zambezi, none of the ratios are statistically different from one, meaning the standardization parameters scenarios would have resulted in non-significantly different PSEs. In Zambezi, the biggest difference occurred for agricultural workers with a PSE 0.88 [0.63; 1.12] times smaller in the most flexible scenario compared to the strictest one, representing an absolute difference of (2106–1848 =) 258 workers. In Ohangwena on the other hand, the most flexible and second-best scenarios yielded PSEs statistically significantly lower than the strictest ones with PSE ratios of 0.70 [0.46; 0.94] and 0.72 [0.47; 0.97] respectively. In Ohangwena, the best scenario resulted in a PSE 0.80 [0.51; 1.08] times smaller than the strictest scenario, but this was not statistically significant.

In this study, we leveraged two PSE methods to estimate the total population size, in our study area and over the 2019–2020 malaria season (November–June), of two occupational groups that met risk criteria derived from previous research in northern Namibia: cattle herders and agricultural workers. Size estimates based on the multiple source capture-recapture method (Table 3 ) were two to three times greater than the mapping-based estimates (Table 2 ). Similar differences are common in HIV size estimation studies, where mapping-based estimates are generally viewed as a lower bound 6 , highlighting the need to triangulate PSE results over several methods. Here, work site owners may have intentionally or unintentionally omitted employees whereas the capture-recapture method may have produced a more complete count by drawing on intervention and RACD data in addition to worksite surveys. Both methods estimated two to three times more agricultural workers than cattle herders in Zambezi suggesting that the former group may be more critical to malaria elimination; however, this also depends on the relative infection prevalence, which we did not assess here.

Our results point towards several methodological considerations of assumptions used in closed and open population models used in capture-recapture methods. While model fit and face validity of size estimates resulting from our closed population models appeared superior to those from our open population models, there is no gold standard ‘truth’ to empirically determine which is best. The epidemiological literature tends to focus on closed-population models 23 because of short study time periods over which populations can assumed to be constant. Most prior literature on size estimates in high-risk populations derives from studies in the HIV context 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 where surveys and other data captures are planned to span a brief time frame of about 3–5 months, precisely to limit the risk of change in the population over the course of the study. When aiming to ascertain the total risk population over the course of a several-month malaria season, such a strategy becomes infeasible for highly mobile populations and determining whether the population is truly open or closed over the period is a challenge 24 . The open-population models naturally accommodate the phenomenon of individuals entering and exiting the risk group over time, but even the so-called “closed” model can do so by introducing interaction terms that model temporal variation in the ascertainment probabilities of survey instruments, as was done here. When one has the data available (i.e., at least three data sources) to apply the log-linear 18 , 25 , 26 regression model approach, comparing model fit under each scenario provides a way to assess the open versus closed assumptions.

A second methodological strength of this study that is new to PSE analyses was to vary record linkage scenarios, evaluate them and assess their impact on population size estimates. Capture-recapture methodology relies on the assumption that individuals can be tracked over different capture occasions. When it is not possible to collect a unique identifier, an object such as a study card 27 can be given or, more commonly, a combination of identifying variables (names, gender, places of birth, places of residence, etc.…) are used to uniquely identify individuals across capture occasions. Yet, the selection of these variables, their standardization and the matching algorithms used can vary a lot and subjective decisions are often made on based on face validity. Here, identifying variables (names, birth place and birth order) as well as the matching algorithm (perfect, excellent and good matches) were selected subjectively but we varied standardization parameters to cover 24 different record-linkage scenarios. Comparing them highlighted quite some variability in terms of sensibility and specificity although, and importantly, any of these scenarios would have met face validity. This sensitivity analysis enabled us to choose an appropriate standardization scenario and assess how picking a scenario affects the population size estimates. Figure  4 showed that these scenarios would have not resulted in statistically significantly different estimates in Zambezi but would have led to different results in Ohangwena. These findings highlight the need for thorough assessment and transparent reporting of the quality of any record linkage algorithm used for population size estimates.

A first limitation of our analysis is that eligibility criteria across survey sources (Table 1 ) are not identical and may have ascertained different segments of the high-risk populations. In particular, eligibility criteria in the baseline and endline surveys pertain to narrow windows of time around the date of interview. Yet, these surveys were conducted over multiple weeks which means that, even within one survey, the criteria captured individuals from slightly different populations. Second, unique identifiers were based on self-reported variables which could lead to mismatches, further exacerbated by possible variations in how questions were elicited by different interviewers or answered by participants. To mitigate these limitations, we looked for and picked the best record linkage scenarios for our context, but sensitivity (81%) and specificity (96%) were not perfect. Because some matches were potentially missed, our estimates, if anything, could be viewed as upper boundaries of population sizes. Finally, the mapping exercise revealed some fluctuation in the number of worksites open between baseline and endline. In particular, the coronavirus crisis erupted in March 2020 and may have affected the overall population size for that particular year, limiting the transportability of our results to other more “normal” malaria seasons.

In conclusion, this study estimated the population size of high-risk populations for malaria in two regions of Northern Namibia. The significance of our work is threefold. First, the numerical population size estimates of key high-risk populations for malaria transmission in northern Namibia are important for national programs to target their resources and plan the delivery of their control interventions accordingly. Second, our study showcases how population size estimation methods can be leveraged in malaria research and discusses major methodological considerations for applying capture-recapture PSE to malaria’s high-risk populations. Last, our analysis used data routinely collected by national malaria control programs and proofreads the feasibility of integrating regular population size estimations into their surveillance activities.

Data availability

The datasets used in the multiplier method are available and published along the submission as supplementary materials. The datasets for the capture recapture method are not publicly available and cannot be de-identified since the record linkage algorithm relies on identifying variables (names, age, birth place). We still publish along the submission the datasets post-record-linkage (24 different scenarios form sensitivity analyses) and our for maximum transparency.

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Francois Rerolle, Jerry O. Jacobson, Cara Smith Gueye, Adam Bennett, Sidney Carrillo, Henry Ntuku & Jennifer L. Smith

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F.R. and J.O.J. conducted the analyses. F.R., J.O.J. and J.L.S. designed the analysis and wrote the manuscript. C.S.G., A.B., S.C., H.N. and J.L.S. designed and conducted the parent trial. F.R. and J.O.J. conducted the analyses. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Rerolle, F., Jacobson, J.O., Smith Gueye, C. et al. Estimating the size of populations at risk for malaria: a case study in cattle herders and agricultural workers in Northern Namibia. Sci Rep 14 , 7160 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56810-y

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Mayo researchers invented a new class of AI to improve cancer research and treatments

Colette Gallagher

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Mayo Clinic researchers recently invented a new class of artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms called hypothesis-driven AI that are a significant departure from traditional AI models which learn solely from data.

In a review published in Cancers, the researchers note that this emerging class of AI offers an innovative way to use massive datasets to help discover the complex causes of diseases such as cancer and improve treatment strategies.

"This fosters a new era in designing targeted and informed AI algorithms to solve scientific questions, better understand diseases, and guide individualized medicine," says senior author and co-inventor Hu Li, Ph.D. , a Mayo Clinic Systems biology and AI researcher in the Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. "It has the potential to uncover insights missed by conventional AI."

Conventional AI is primarily used in classification and recognition tasks, such as face recognition and imaging classification in clinical diagnosis, and it has been increasingly applied to generative tasks, such as creating human-like text. Researchers note that conventional learning algorithms often do not incorporate existing scientific knowledge or hypotheses. Instead, these rely heavily on large, unbiased datasets, which can be challenging to obtain.

According to Dr. Li, this limitation considerably restricts the flexibility of AI methods and their uses in areas that demand knowledge discovery, like medicine.

AI is a valuable tool for identifying patterns in large and complex datasets like those employed in cancer research. The central challenge in using conventional AI has been maximizing the embedded information within those datasets.

"Lack of integration between existing knowledge and hypothesis can be a problem. AI models may produce results without careful design from researchers and clinicians what we refer to as the 'rubbish in rubbish out’ problem," says Dr. Li. "Without being guided by scientific questions, AI may provide less efficient analyses and struggle to yield significant insights that can help form testable hypotheses and move medicine forward."

With hypothesis-driven AI, researchers look to find ways to incorporate an understanding of a disease, for example, integrating known pathogenic genetic variants and interactions between certain genes in cancer into the design of the learning algorithm. This will enable researchers and clinicians to determine which components contribute to model performance and, hence, enhance interpretability. Further, this strategy can address dataset issues and promote our focus on open scientific questions.

"This new class of AI opens a new avenue for better understanding the interactions between cancer and the immune system and holds great promise not only to test medical hypotheses but also predict and explain how patients will respond to immunotherapies," says Daniel Billadeau, Ph.D. , a professor in Mayo Clinic's Department of Immunology. Billadeau is a co-author and co-inventor of the study and has a long-standing research interest in cancer immunology.

The research team says hypothesis-driven AI can be used in all sorts of cancer research applications, including tumor classification, patient stratification, cancer gene discovery, drug response prediction and tumor spatial organization.

Benefits of hypothesis-driven AI:

• Targeted:  Focuses on specific hypotheses or research questions.
• Leverages existing knowledge:  Guides exploration to find previously missed connections.
• More interpretable:  Results are easier to understand than with conventional AI.
• Reduced resource needs:  Requires less data and computing power.
• "Machine-based reasoning":  Helps scientists test and validate hypotheses by incorporating hypotheses and biological and medical knowledge into the design of the learning algorithm.

Dr. Li notes that the disadvantage of this tool is that creating these types of algorithms requires expertise and specialized knowledge, potentially limiting wide accessibility. There is also potential for building in bias, and they say researchers must watch for that when applying different pieces of information. In addition, researchers generally have a limited scope and won't be formulating all possible scenarios, potentially missing some unforeseen and critical relationships.

"Nonetheless, hypothesis-driven AI facilitates active interactions between human experts and AI, that relieve the worries that AI will eventually eliminate some professional jobs," says Dr. Li.

Since hypothesis-driven AI is still in its infancy, questions remain, such as how to best integrate knowledge and biological information to minimize bias and improve interpretation. Dr. Li says despite the challenges, hypothesis-driven AI is a step forward.

"It can significantly advance medical research by leading to deeper understanding and improved treatment strategies, potentially charting a new roadmap to improve treatment regimens for patients," says Dr. Li.

Review the study for a complete list of authors, disclosures and funding.

• Aromatherapy use and safety: What to know about essential oils during pregnancy Mayo Clinic Minute: What is hepatitis C?

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The effect of “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” on the critical thinking of midwifery students: Evidence from China

• Yuji Wang 1   na1 ,
• Yijuan Peng 1   na1 &
• Yan Huang 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  340 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Assessment ability lies at the core of midwives’ capacity to judge and treat clinical problems effectively. Influenced by the traditional teaching method of “teacher-led and content-based”, that teachers involve imparting a large amount of knowledge to students and students lack active thinking and active practice, the clinical assessment ability of midwifery students in China is mostly at a medium or low level. Improving clinical assessment ability of midwifery students, especially critical thinking, is highly important in practical midwifery education. Therefore, we implemented a new teaching program, “typical case discussion and scenario simulation”, in the Midwifery Health Assessment course. Guided by typical cases, students were organized to actively participate in typical case discussions and to promote active thinking and were encouraged to practice actively through scenario simulation. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of this strategy on the critical thinking ability of midwifery students.

A total of 104 midwifery students in grades 16–19 at the West China School of Nursing, Sichuan University, were included as participants through convenience sampling. All the students completed the Midwifery Health Assessment course in the third year of university. Students in grades 16 and 17 were assigned to the control group, which received routine teaching in the Midwifery Health Assessment, while students in grades 18 and 19 were assigned to the experimental group, for which the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” teaching mode was employed. The Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory-Chinese Version (CTDI-CV) and Midwifery Health Assessment Course Satisfaction Questionnaire were administered after the intervention.

After the intervention, the critical thinking ability of the experimental group was greater than that of the control group (284.81 ± 27.98 and 300.94 ± 31.67, p  = 0.008). Furthermore, the experimental group exhibited higher scores on the four dimensions of Open-Mindedness (40.56 ± 5.60 and 43.59 ± 4.90, p  = 0.005), Analyticity (42.83 ± 5.17 and 45.42 ± 5.72, p  = 0.020), Systematicity (38.79 ± 4.70 and 41.88 ± 6.11, p  = 0.006), and Critical Thinking Self-Confidence (41.35 ± 5.92 and 43.83 ± 5.89, p  = 0.039) than did the control group. The course satisfaction exhibited by the experimental group was greater than that exhibited by the control group (84.81 ± 8.49 and 90.19 ± 8.41, p  = 0.002).

The “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode can improve the critical thinking ability of midwifery students and enhance their curriculum satisfaction. This approach carries a certain degree of promotional significance in medical education.

Typical case discussion and scenario simulation can improve midwifery students’ critical thinking ability.

Typical case discussion and scenario simulation can enhance students’ learning interest and guide students to learn independently.

Midwifery students were satisfied with the new teaching mode.

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Maternal and neonatal health are important indicators to measure of the level of development of a country’s economy, culture and health care. The positive impact of quality midwifery education on maternal and newborn health is acknowledged in the publication framework for action strengthening quality midwifery education issued by the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 1 ]. Extensive evidence has shown that skilled midwifery care is crucial for reducing preventable maternal and neonatal mortality [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Clinical practice features high requirements for the clinical thinking ability of midwives, which refers to the process by which medical personnel analyze and integrate data with professional medical knowledge in the context of diagnosis and treatment as well as discover and solve problems through logical reasoning [ 5 ]. Critical thinking is a thoughtful process that is purposeful, disciplined, and self-directed and that aims to improve decisions and subsequent actions [ 6 ]. In 1986, the American Association of Colleges of Nursing formulated the “Higher Education Standards for Nursing Specialty”, which emphasize the fact that critical thinking is the primary core competence that nursing graduates should possess [ 7 ]. Many studies have shown that critical thinking can help nurses detect, analyze and solve problems creatively in clinical work and is a key factor in their ability to make correct clinical decisions [ 8 , 9 , 10 ].

However, the traditional teaching method used for midwifery students in China is “teacher-led and content-based”, and it involves efficiently and conveniently imparting a large amount of knowledge to students over a short period. Students have long failed to engage in active thinking and active practice, and the cultivation of critical thinking has long been ignored [ 5 ]. As a result, the critical thinking ability of midwifery students in China is mostly at a medium or low level [ 5 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new teaching mode to improve the critical thinking ability of midwifery students.

In 2014, Professor Xuexin Zhang of Fudan University, Shanghai, China, proposed a novel teaching method: the divided class mode. The basic idea of this approach is to divide the class time into two parts. The teachers explain the theoretical knowledge in the first lesson, and the students discuss that knowledge in the second lesson. This approach emphasizes the guiding role of teachers and encourages and empowers students to take responsibility for their studies [ 11 ]. Research has shown that the divided class mode can improve students’ enthusiasm and initiative as well as teaching effectiveness [ 12 ].

The problem-originated clinical medical curriculum mode of teaching was first established at McMaster University in Canada in 1965. This model is based on typical clinical cases and a problem-oriented heuristic teaching model [ 13 ]. The process of teaching used in this approach is guided by typical cases with the goal of helping students combine theoretical knowledge and practical skills. This approach can enhance the enthusiasm and initiative of students by establishing an active learning atmosphere. Students are encouraged to discuss and analyze typical cases to promote their ability to digest and absorb theoretical knowledge. Research has shown that the problem-originated clinical medical curriculum teaching mode can enhance students’ confidence and improve their autonomous learning and exploration ability. Scenario simulation teaching can provide students with real scenarios, allowing them to practice and apply their knowledge in a safe environment [ 14 ], which can effectively improve their knowledge and clinical skills and enhance their self-confidence [ 15 , 16 ].

Based on the teaching concept of divided classes, our research team established a new teaching model of “typical case discussion and scenario simulation”. Half of the class time is allocated for students to discuss typical cases and carry out scenario simulations to promote their active thinking and active practice. The Midwifery Health Assessment is the final professional core course that midwifery students must take in our school before clinical practice. All students must complete the course in Grade 3. Teaching this course is important for cultivating the critical thinking and clinical assessment ability of midwifery students. Therefore, our team adopted the new teaching mode of "typical case discussion and scenario simulation" in the teaching of this course. This study explored the teaching mode’s ability to improve the critical thinking ability of midwifery students.

Study design

The study employed a semiexperimental design.

Participants

A convenience sample of 104 third-year midwifery students who were enrolled in the Midwifery Health Assessment course volunteered to participate in this research at a large public university in Sichuan Province from February 2019 to June 2022 (grades 16 to 19). All the students completed the course in the third year of university. Students in grades 16 and 17 were assigned to the control group, which received the traditional teaching mode. Students in grades 18 and 19 were assigned to the experimental group, in which context the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode was used. The exclusion criteria for midwifery students were as follows: (1) dropped out of school during the study, (2) took continuous leave from school for more than two weeks, or (3) were unable to complete the questionnaire. The elimination criterion for midwifery students was that all the items were answered in the same way. No significant differences in students’ scores in their previous professional courses (Midwifery) were observed between the two groups. Textbooks, teachers, and teaching hours were the same for both groups.

Development of the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode

This study is based on the implementation of the new century higher education teaching reform project at Sichuan University. With the support of Sichuan University, we first established a “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode team. The author of this paper was the head of the teaching reform project and served as a consultant, and the first author is responsible for supervising the implementation of the project. Second, the teaching team discussed and developed a standard process for the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode. Third, the entire team received intensive training in the standard process for the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode.

Implementation of the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode

Phase i (before class).

Before class, in accordance with the requirements for evaluating different periods of pregnancy, the teacher conceptualized typical cases and then discussed those cases with the teaching team and made any necessary modifications. After the completion of the discussion, the modified cases were released to the students through the class group. To ensure students’ interest, they were guided through the task of discovering and solving relevant problems using an autonomous learning approach.

Phase II (the first week)

Typical case discussion period. The Midwifery Health Assessment course was taught by 5 teachers and covered 5 health assessment periods, namely, the pregnancy preparation, pregnancy, delivery, puerperium and neonatal periods. The health assessment course focused on each period over 2 consecutive teaching weeks, and 2 lessons were taught per week. The first week focused on the discussion of typical cases. In the first lesson, teachers introduced typical cases, taught key knowledge or difficult evaluation content pertaining to the different periods, and explored the relevant knowledge framework. In the second lesson, teachers organized group discussions, case analyses and intergroup communications for the typical cases. They were also responsible for coordinating and encouraging students to participate actively in the discussion. After the discussion, teachers and students reviewed the definitions, treatments and evaluation points associated with the typical cases. The teachers also encouraged students to internalize knowledge by engaging in a process of summary and reflection to achieve the purpose of combining theory with practice.

Phase III (the second week)

Scenario simulation practice period. The second week focused on the scenario simulation practice period. In the first lesson, teachers reviewed the focus of assessment during the different periods and answered students’ questions. In the second lesson, students performed typical case assessment simulations in subgroups. After the simulation, the teachers commented on and summarized the students’ simulation evaluation and reviewed the evaluation points of typical cases to improve the students’ evaluation ability.

The organizational structure and implementation of the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode showed in Fig.  1 .

“Typical case discussion and scenario simulation” teaching mode diagram

A demographic questionnaire designed for this purpose was used to collect relevant information from participants, including age, gender, single-child status, family location, experience with typical case discussion or scenario simulation and scores in previous professional courses (Midwifery).

The Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory-Chinese Version (CTDI-CV) was developed by Peng et al. to evaluate the critical thinking ability of midwifery students [ 17 ]. The scale contains 70 items across a total of seven dimensions, namely, open-mindedness, truth-seeking, analytical ability, systematic ability, self-confidence in critical thinking, thirst for knowledge, and cognitive maturity. Each dimension is associated with 10 items, and each item is scored on a 6-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating “extremely agree” and 6 representing “extremely disagree”. The scale includes 30 positive items, which receive scores ranging from “extremely agree” to “extremely disagree” on a scale of 6 to 1, and 40 negative items, which receive scores ranging from “extremely agree” to “extremely disagree” on a scale of 1 to 6. A total score less than 210 indicates negative critical thinking ability, scores between 211 and 279 indicate an unclear meaning, scores of 280 or higher indicate positive critical thinking ability, and scores of 350 or higher indicate strong performance. The score range of each trait is 10–60 points; a score of 30 points or fewer indicates negative trait performance, scores between 31 and 39 points indicate that the trait meaning is incorrect, scores of 40 points or higher indicate positive trait performance, and scores of 50 points or higher indicate extremely positive trait performance. The Cronbach’s α coefficient of the scale was 0.90, thus indicating good content validity and structure. The higher an individual’s score on this measure is, the better that individual’s critical thinking ability.

The evaluation of teaching results was based on a questionnaire used to assess undergraduate course satisfaction, and the researchers deleted and modified items in the questionnaire to suit the context of the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” teaching mode. Two rounds of discussion were held within the study group to form the final version of the Midwifery Health Assessment satisfaction questionnaire. The questionnaire evaluates the effect of teaching in terms of three dimensions, namely, curriculum content, curriculum teaching and curriculum evaluation. The questionnaire contains 21 items, each of which is scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating “extremely disagree” and 5 representing “extremely agree”. The higher the score is, the better the teaching effect.

Data collection and statistical analysis

We input the survey data into the “Wenjuanxing” platform ( https://www.wjx.cn/ ), which specializes in questionnaire services. At the beginning of the study, an electronic questionnaire was distributed to the students in the control group via student WeChat and QQ groups for data collection. After the intervention, an electronic questionnaire was distributed to the students in the experimental group for data collection in the final class of the Midwifery Health Assessment course. All the data were collected by the first author (Yuji Wang). When students had questions about the survey items, the first author (Yuji Wang) immediately explained the items in detail. To ensure the integrity of the questionnaire, the platform required all the items to be answered before submission.

Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 26.0 (SPSS 26.0) software was used for data analysis. The Shapiro‒Wilk test was used to test the normality of the data. The measurement data are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (X ± S), and an independent sample t test was used for comparisons among groups with a normal distribution. The data presented as the number of cases (%), and the chi-square test was performed. A P value < 0.05 indicated that a difference was statistically significant.

Ethical considerations

The study was funded by the New Century Teaching Reform Project of Sichuan University and passed the relevant ethical review. Oral informed consent was obtained from all individual participants in the study.

Characteristics of the participants

A total of 104 third-year midwifery students were enrolled from February 2019 to June 2022, and 98.1% (102/144) of these students completed the survey. Two invalid questionnaires that featured the same answers for each item were eliminated. A total of 100 participants were ultimately included in the analysis. Among the participants, 48 students were assigned to the control group, and 52 students were assigned to the experimental group. The age of the students ranged from 19 to 22 years, and the mean age of the control group was 20.50 years (SD = 0.61). The mean age of the experimental group was 20.63 years (SD = 0.65). Of the 100 students who participated in the study, the majority (96.0%) were women. No significant differences were observed between the intervention and control groups in terms of students’ demographic information (i.e., age, gender, status as an only child, or family location), experience with scenario simulation or typical case discussion and scores in previous Midwifery courses (Table  1 ).

Examining the differences in critical thinking ability between the two groups

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the new teaching mode of “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” on improving the critical thinking ability of midwifery students. Independent sample t tests were used to examine the differences in critical thinking ability between the two groups (Table  2 ). The results showed that the total critical thinking scores obtained by the experimental group were greater than those obtained by the control group (284.81 ± 27.98 and 300.94 ± 31.67, p  = 0.008). The differences in four dimensions (Open-Mindedness (40.56 ± 5.60 and 43.59 ± 4.90, p  = 0.005), Analyticity (42.83 ± 5.17 and 45.42 ± 5.72, p  = 0.020), Systematicity (38.79 ± 4.70 and 41.88 ± 6.11, p  = 0.006), and Critical Thinking Self-Confidence (41.35 ± 5.92 and 43.83 ± 5.89, p  = 0.039)) were statistically significant.

Examining the differences in curriculum satisfaction between the two groups

To evaluate the effect of the new teaching mode of “the typical case discussion and scenario simulation” on the course satisfaction of midwifery students. Independent sample t tests were used to examine the differences in course satisfaction between the two groups (Table  3 ). The results showed that the curriculum satisfaction of the experimental group was greater than that of the control group (84.81 ± 8.49 and 90.19 ± 8.41, p  = 0.002). Independent sample t tests were used to examine the differences in the three dimensions of curriculum satisfaction between the two groups (Table  3 ). The results showed that the average scores of the intervention group on the three dimensions were significantly greater than those of the control group (curricular content: 20.83 ± 1.96 and 22.17 ± 2.23, p  = 0.002; curriculum teaching: 34.16 ± 3.89 and 36.59 ± 3.66, p  = 0.002; curriculum evaluation: 29.81 ± 3.27 and 31.42 ± 3.19, p  = 0.015).

Midwifery is practical and intensive work. To ensure maternal and child safety, midwives must make decisions and take action quickly. Therefore, midwives should have both critical thinking ability and clinical decision-making ability [ 18 ]. In addition, the Australian Nursing and Midwifery Accreditation Council (ANMAC) regulates the educational requirements for the programs required for registration as a midwife. According to these standards, education providers must incorporate learning activities into curricula to encourage the development and application of critical thinking and reflective practice [ 19 ]. Therefore, the challenge of cultivating the critical thinking ability of midwifery students is an urgent problem that must be solved. However, influenced by the traditional teaching method of “teacher-led and content-based”, the critical thinking ability of midwifery students in China is mostly at a medium or low level. In order to improve the critical thinking ability of midwifery students. Our research team has established a new teaching model, the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class model. And applied to the midwifery core curriculum Midwifery Health Assessment. This study aimed to investigate the implementation of a novel systematic and structured teaching model for midwifery students and to provide evidence regarding how to improve the critical thinking ability of midwives.

The results showed that the total CTDI-CV score obtained for the experimental group was greater than that obtained for the control group. These findings indicate that the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode had a positive effect on the cultivation of students’ critical thinking ability, a conclusion which is similar to the findings of Holdsworth et al. [ 20 ], Lapkin et al. [ 21 ] and Demirören M et al. [ 22 ]. We indicate the following reasons that may explain these results.The core aim of the typical case discussion teaching mode is to raise questions based on typical clinical cases and to provide heuristic teaching to students [ 23 ]. This approach emphasizes asking questions based on specific clinical cases, which enables students to engage in targeted learning. Moreover, scenario simulation allows students to attain certain inner experiences and emotions and actively participate in curriculum practice, which can enhance their ability to remember and understand knowledge [ 24 ]. Through the divided class mode, half of the class time was divided into the students. This method emphasizes the guiding role of teachers and encourages and empowers students to assume learning responsibilities. In addition, students can think, communicate and discuss actively [ 22 , 23 ]. Furthermore, this approach created opportunities for students to analyze and consider problems independently and give students sufficient time to internalize and absorb knowledge and deepen their understanding of relevant knowledge, which can increase their confidence in their ability to address such problems and improve their critical thinking ability [ 12 , 25 , 26 ].

In addition, the results showed that except for Truth-Seeking and Systematicity, the other five dimensions were all positive. These findings are similar to the results reported by Atakro et al.. and Sun et al. [ 27 , 28 ]. Through the intervention, the Systematicity scores became positive, suggesting that the new teaching mode can help students deal with problems in an organized and purposeful way. However, Truth-Seeking still did not become positive; this notion focuses on intellectual honesty, i.e., the disposition to be courageous when asking questions and to be honest and objective in the pursuit of knowledge even when the topics under investigation do not support one’s self-interest [ 29 ]. Studies have shown that this factor is related to the traditional teaching mode used [ 30 ]. The traditional teaching mode focuses on knowledge infusion, helps students remember the greatest possible amount of knowledge in a short time, and does not focus on guiding students to seek knowledge with sincerity and objectivity. Therefore, in future educational practice, we should focus on cultivating students’ ability to seek truth and engage in systematization.

Student evaluative feedback is an important way to test the effectiveness teaching mode. Therefore, understanding students’ evaluations of the effects of classroom teaching is key to promoting teaching reform and improving teaching quality. Therefore, we distributed a satisfaction questionnaire pertaining to the midwifery health assessment curriculum, which was based on the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode, with the goal of investigating curriculum satisfaction in terms of three dimensions (curriculum content, curriculum teaching and curriculum evaluation). The results showed that the satisfaction scores for each dimension increased significantly. This finding suggests that the new teaching method can enrich the teaching content, diversify the teaching mode and improve students’ curriculum evaluations.

In summary, the “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode focuses on typical cases as its main content. Students’ understanding of this content is deepened through group discussion and scenario simulation. The subjectivity of students in curriculum learning should be accounted for. Students can be encouraged to detect, analyze and solve problems with the goal of improving their critical thinking ability. Moreover, this approach can also enhance curriculum satisfaction. It is recommended that these tools should be used continuously in future curriculum teaching.

This study has several limitations. First, the representativeness of the sample may be limited since the participants were recruited from specific universities in China. Second, we used historical controls, which are less effective than simultaneous controlled trials. Third, online self-report surveys are susceptible to response biases, although we included quality control measurements in the process of data collection. Fourth, we did not use the same critical thinking instrument, CTDI-CV, to investigate the critical thinking of the students in the experimental group or the control group before intervention but used professional course grades from the Midwifery for substitution comparison. This may not be a sufficient substitute. However, these comparisons could be helpful since those grades included some sort of evaluation of critical thinking. In light of these limitations, future multicenter simultaneous controlled studies should be conducted. Nonetheless, this study also has several strengths. First, no adjustment of teachers or change in learning materials occurred since the start of the midwifery health assessment, thus ensuring that the experimental and control groups featured the same teaching materials, teachers and teaching hours. In addition, to ensure the quality of the research, the first author of this paper participated in the entirety of the course teaching.

The “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” class mode can improve the critical thinking of midwifery students, which is helpful for ensuring maternal and child safety. Students are highly satisfied with the new teaching mode, and this approach has a certain degree of promotional significance. However, this approach also entails higher requirements for both teachers and students.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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The study was supported by Sichuan University’s New Century Education and Teaching Reform Project (SCU9316).

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Yuji Wang, Yijuan Peng and Yan Huang. The first draft of the manuscript were written by Yuji Wang and Yijuan Peng, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript.

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Wang, Y., Peng, Y. & Huang, Y. The effect of “typical case discussion and scenario simulation” on the critical thinking of midwifery students: Evidence from China. BMC Med Educ 24 , 340 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05127-5

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Association of pharmacogenomic, clinical and behavioural factors with oral levothyroxine (LT-4) dose of hypothyroid patients in Sri Lanka: a matched case control study

• S. S. Dalugodage 1 ,
• Gayan Bowatte 2 ,
• Charles Antonypillai 3 ,
• S. Rajapakse 4 &
• T. M. I. U. K. Tennakoon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9163-329X 1  

BMC Medical Genomics volume  17 , Article number:  79 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder that exerts a substantial influence on people all over the world. Levothyroxine (LT-4) is the drug of choice for the treatment of hypothyroidism and the starting oral dose is typically ranging from 1.5 to 1.7 µg/kg/day. The target is to achieve an optimum serum TSH level of 0.4-4.0 mIU/L; hence, the dose is titrated accordingly. Once the LT-4 dose is adjusted to obtain the target TSH level, it usually remains stable for a long period of time in most cases. However, some of the patients require frequent dose adjustments and some of them require unusually high doses. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine the association of pharmacogenomic, clinical and behavioural factors with the oral levothyroxine (LT-4) dose requirement of hypothyroid patients in Sri Lanka.

This study will be conducted as a matched case-control study and will involve primary hypothyroid patients who visit the diabetes and endocrinology clinic at the National Hospital, Kandy, Sri Lanka. We will recruit a total of 292 cases and select 292 controls from the clinic who are matched in terms of age, sex and Body Mass Index (BMI). An interviewer-administered questionnaire will be used to collect data from the participants ( n  = 584). Of the 584 patients, blood samples will be collected from a sub-sample ( n  = 150) for DNA extraction. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) will be performed for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) analysis.

Frequent dose adjustments of levothyroxine cause a serious economic burden to the healthcare system. By identifying the root causes of the variations in LT-4 dosage, a more comprehensive comprehension of hypothyroidism and its management can be attained in Sri Lanka. Furthermore, upon identification of a positive association/correlation between genetic polymorphisms and the LT-4 dose, SNP profiles can be used as a possible genetic marker for dose adjustment determination in future patients.

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Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) are the major hormones secreted by the human thyroid gland and they are collectively called thyroid hormones [ 1 ]. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), which is secreted by the hypothalamus, regulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary and TSH regulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland [ 2 ]. The thyroid gland produces a high amount of T4; the inactive form, while producing a small amount of T3; the active form. In peripheral tissues, inactive T4 converts to active T3 by the enzymatic activity of deiodinases. There are several isoforms of deiodinase enzymes, such as D1, D2 and D3. D2 is the main enzyme in activating the pro-hormone T4 into T3. Low levels of free serum T3 and T4 will increase TSH secretion via the negative feedback system [ 3 ]. Deficiency of thyroid hormones in the body causes hypothyroidism [ 3 ].

Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder worldwide [ 4 ]. However, data on the prevalence of primary hypothyroidism in Sri Lanka is scarce. The prevalence of autoimmune thyroiditis in Sri Lanka has been found to be 16–20% [ 5 ]. It is characterized by high levels of serum TSH (reference range of serum TSH is 0·4–4·0 mIU/L) and there are several categories of the disease. Primary hypothyroidism is caused by a pathology in the thyroid gland itself, which results in reduced secretion of thyroid hormone. This results in higher TSH and normal or low thyroid hormone levels. Secondary hypothyroidism is caused by pathologies in the hypothalamao-pituitary unit. This results in low TSH and low thyroxine levels. Out of these two types of hypothyroidism, primary hypothyroidism is the most common type [ 6 , 7 ]. Clinical (overt) hypothyroidism is manifested by an increased serum TSH level (> 10 mIU/L) and a reduced serum fT4 level (< 60 nmol/L), whereas sub-clinical hypothyroidism is manifested by a mildly increased serum TSH level (> 4 mIU/L) with a normal fT4 level [ 7 ]. However, the reference ranges may differ with the assay used, patient’s age, sex and ethnic group. Moreover, the upper limit of the adult serum TSH reference range typically increases with age [ 8 ].

Levothyroxine (LT-4) is the drug of choice for the treatment of hypothyroidism and it’s a synthetic T4 hormone [ 4 ]. The majority of the patients diagnosed with hypothyroidism require life-long treatment with levothyroxine [ 6 ]. Generally, patients with TSH levels > 10 mIU/L should start levothyroxine treatments [ 6 , 9 ]. The starting oral dose of LT-4 is typically ranging from 1.5 to 1.7 µg/kg/day (equivalent to approximately 100–125 mcg/day). However, older patients or patients with coronary artery disease may receive a lower starting dose of levothyroxine (25–50 µg/day) [ 6 , 10 ]. The LT-4 dose required by a patient can be determined by the total body weight, body mass index (BMI), lean body mass and ideal body weight using standard equations and the use of total body weight in this case may give the least accurate dose [ 11 , 12 ]. The target is to achieve an optimum serum TSH level of 0.4-4.0 mIU/L and hence, the dose is titrated accordingly [ 3 , 12 ]. LT-4 has a half-life of one week (about 7 days) and therefore serum TSH levels should be measured 4–6 weeks after starting the therapy or after a change in the dose. Once the target TSH level has been achieved, it can be reconfirmed after 3–6 months and then TSH monitoring should be done annually when stable [ 3 , 6 , 9 , 13 ].

Factors contributing to levothyroxine dose adjustments

Once the LT-4 dose is adjusted to obtain the target TSH level, it usually remains stable for a long period of time in most cases. However, around 10% of the patients, require dose adjustments during levothyroxine therapy and some of them will need unusually high doses of thyroid hormone replacement [ 14 ]. Factors including age, changes in body weight, coexisting medical conditions, concurrent medications, patient compliance, dietary habits, medication storage conditions and genetic factors may influence frequent dose changes of LT-4 [ 11 , 13 ].

Coexisting medical conditions

Levothyroxine absorption is known to be affected by the gastric pH and hence, concomitant gastrointestinal (GI) diseases that impair gastric acid secretion or cause malabsorption may contribute to higher dose requirements [ 15 , 16 ]. GI conditions such as Helicobacter pylori infection (reduce gastric acid secretion and produce ammonia), atrophic gastritis, coeliac disease, lactose intolerance, gastric bypass, inflammatory bowel disease and intestinal giardiasis are found to be associated with higher dose requirements [ 17 , 18 ]. Patients with nephrotic syndrome may also require higher doses due to the urinary loss of thyroxine-binding globulin with thyroxine [ 19 ].

Concurrent medications

Some other medications, when taken along with LT-4 can lead to several drug-drug interactions and alter the LT-4 replacement dose requirements in patients. Proton-pump inhibitors (PPIs) including omeprazole, esomeprazole, lansoprazole etc., antacids and Histamine (H2)-receptor blockers reduce the gastric acid secretion and hence interfere with LT-4 absorption [ 14 , 20 ]. In addition to that, ion exchange resins, bile acid sequestrants (cholestyramine, colestipol), sevelamer, laxatives, orlistat and sucralfate are known to reduce the absorption of LT-4 [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Moreover, supplements such as calcium and iron may form insoluble complexes with LT-4 inside the intestine and reduce the absorption [ 23 ]. Thus, concurrent use of these medicines may increase the dose requirements of LT-4 [ 14 , 23 ]. Carbamazepine, hydantoins, phenobarbital and rifampicin may increase the hepatic metabolism of LT-4 and increase the dose requirement. Medicines such as amiodarone, iodide-including and iodine-containing radiographic contrast agents, methimazole, propylthiouracil and lithium may reduce thyroxine secretion and hence increase the dose requirement. Furthermore, oestrogen therapy, clofibrate, heroin/methadone, mitotane and tamoxifen may increase serum thyroxine binding globulin concentration and thus, they all increase the dose requirement of LT-4 [ 12 , 14 ].

• Patient compliance

Typically, in Sri Lankan health settings hypothyroid patients are advised to take their levothyroxine tablets with a full glass of water every morning, quickly after waking up. They are advised not to take any foods or beverages for about 30–60 min after taking LT-4. If the patient is taking medicines for another disease condition, he/she is informed to separate LT-4 and those medications by 2–4 h. Furthermore, patients are encouraged to take the same brand name product of LT-4 [ 24 , 25 ]. Poor compliance with the therapy is a major factor to consider when finding causes for frequent dose adjustments or higher dose requirements.

A recent study has concluded that taking LT-4 half an hour before breakfast, an hour before the main meal of the day and at bedtime (minimally 2 h after dinner) are equally effective and can be used to enhance patient compliance [ 26 ].

Dietary habits

Frequent consumption (more than twice a week) of soy-based products (soybeans, soy milk, tofu), foods high in fiber (bran flakes, fiber drinks, broccoli, nuts, whole grains), foods high in iodine (cod, plain yogurt), grapefruit/grapefruit juice and coffee/tea with LT-4 may increase the serum TSH levels and may increase LT-4 dose requirements [ 20 , 23 ].

Medication storage conditions

According to the guidelines, levothyroxine should be stored at 20–25 °C (68–77 °F) and protected from light and moisture [ 25 ]. A recent study has proven that improper storage conditions can increase serum TSH levels and thereby increase the dose requirements [ 27 ].

Genetic variations

Genetic polymorphisms are known to be responsible for most of the common genetic variations among humans [ 28 ]. Researchers suggest that the wide variability of LT-4 doses required by the patients may have an association with SNPs of TSHRs, THRs, thyroid hormone transporters and deiodinase enzymes [ 14 , 28 , 29 ]. A study conducted in 2013 has concluded that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs225011, rs7140952, rs225012 and rs2839858 in DIO2 gene are not correlated with the replacement doses of the LT-4 whereas, rs7140952 polymorphism was found to be associated with components of metabolic syndrome including blood pressure and central obesity. Moreover, the researchers have stated that this association might be population dependant [ 11 ]. In another study, an association between TSHR gene SNP (rs2268458), which is in intron 1, and a higher incidence of Graves’ disease has been found [ 30 ]. Furthermore, the CC genotype of TSHR SNP (rs2239610) has been found to be associated with higher serum concentrations of fT4 [ 31 ]. Torlontano et al. have found a positive association between DIO2 polymorphism (D2 Thr92Ala) and the required dose of L-T4 in thyroidectomised patients [ 32 ].

According to the best of our knowledge, no studies have been conducted to explore the association between above mentioned factors and LT-4 dose adjustments in Sri Lankan population. Therefore, we intend to investigate the possible association of LT-4 dose requirement in hypothyroid patients and pharmacogenomic, clinical and behavioural factors.

Research objectives

The goal of this study is to determine the association of pharmacogenomic, clinical and behavioural factors with oral levothyroxine (LT-4) replacement dose of hypothyroid patients in Sri Lanka. Specifically, we are going to determine;

The association of factors including coexisting medical conditions, concurrent medications, patient compliance, dietary habits and medication storage conditions with the LT-4 replacement dose.

The association between genetic polymorphisms in the THR gene, TSHR gene and DIO2 gene and the LT-4 replacement dose.

Methods/design

Study design.

A matched case-control study will be conducted, with the selection of hypothyroid patients who are currently receiving LT-4 treatment as study participants.

Definition of the cases

Patients visiting the Kandy National Hospital’s diabetes and endocrinology clinic with a LT-4 replacement dose > 1.7 µg/kg/day.

Definition of controls

Patients visiting the Kandy National Hospital’s diabetes and endocrinology clinic with a LT-4 replacement dose 1.7 µg/kg/day or less (normal doses).

These patients will be identified as hypothyroid patients by the investigation of a physician and laboratory tests (TSH and fT4). Of the pool of hypothyroid patients with normal doses (1.7 µg/kg/day or less), the controls will be selected using convenience sampling. Age, gender, and BMI will be matched in cases and controls. One control per case will be selected.

Study setting and population

Primary hypothyroid patients who visit the diabetes and endocrinology clinic at the National Hospital, Kandy, Sri Lanka will be recruited ( n  = 584). Sample size was calculated using following formula [ 33 ].

p 0  = Proportion of controls with exposure (Nair S, et al.) [ 34 ].

p 1  = Proportion of cases with exposure (Nair S, et al.) [ 34 ].

z 1−α/2 = Standard normal variate for level of significance.

z 1−β = Standard normal variate for power.

q 0  = 1-p 0 .

q 1  = 1-p 1 .

We will recruit a total of 292 cases and select 292 controls from the clinic who are matched in terms of age, sex and BMI.

Inclusion criteria: cases

Patients with primary hypothyroidism who require higher doses of thyroxine (more than 1.7 µg/kg/day) for the preceding 3 months.

Age 18 years to 65 years.

Patients who have given consent.

Inclusion criteria: controls

Patients with primary hypothyroidism requiring thyroxine normal doses (1.7 µg/kg/d or less) for the preceding 3 months with normal TSH.

Exclusion criteria: Cases and controls .

Patients who are pregnant or planning for pregnancy within 6 months.

Patients with secondary hypothyroidism.

Patients who are newly diagnosed with hypothyroidism (< 1 year).

Patients with a history of differentiated thyroid malignancies.

Patients who are being treated for psychiatric illness.

Patients with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease or arrhythmias.

Sample and data collection

Cases and controls will be selected using convenience sampling. Informed written consent will be obtained from all the participants. A researcher-administered questionnaire will be administered to obtain data on age, gender, ethnicity, year of diagnosis, aetiology of hypothyroidism, the current dose of thyroxine and brand, last TSH within 3 months, time of thyroxine ingestion and time to next meal or drink, dietary habits, number of days missing the tablets per month, whether the patient is storing the tablets correctly, interfering drugs and the other drugs that the patient is on and the other medical conditions that the patient is having. The body weight and height of the patient will be measured using the same scale for every patient, and BMI will be calculated.

Blood sample collection

A sub-sample of cases ( n  = 75) and their respective controls ( n  = 75) will be recruited randomly from the initial sample of 584 patients for SNP analysis due to the limited availability of resources. Blood samples will be collected from those patients ( n  = 150) and will be used for SNP analysis by PCR/RFLP method.

The current study will investigate the possible association between LT-4 doses in hypothyroid patients and THRα rs939348 SNP, TSHR rs2268458 SNP, TSHR rs2239610 SNP and rs225011, rs7140952, rs225012 and rs2839858 SNP’s in DIO2 gene. The PCR primers, restriction enzymes and the expected sizes of the amplified and digested fragments of the examined SNPs are shown in Tables  1 and 2 .

The PCR will be carried out using a blood PCR Kit. The genomic DNA will be amplified using a PCR programme that is suitable for the above mentioned SNPs. Tables  1 and 2 summarizes restriction enzymes and restricted fragments for all SNPs. The PCR products and digested fragments will be detected using electrophoresis on 2% agarose.

Gene sequencing to identify new SNP variants

Direct Sanger sequencing will be done to identify new variants of DIO2 genes in patients who have been on thyroxine more than 2.5 micrograms/kg/day dose for the last 3 months period. The obtained gene sequences will be compared with the reference sequence from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).

Statistical analysis

Before data entry, all data forms and questionnaires will undergo a thorough check for errors, and necessary corrections will be made. The data will be entered using a data entry program equipped with built-in range and consistency checks. An analysis of frequency distributions will be conducted to identify any outliers.

Data will be analysed using Stata software (Stata Corp. 2021. Stata Statistical Software: Release 17. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC.). The mean and standard error will be presented for data that follows a normal distribution. Conversely, non-normal distributed data will be expressed as medians with interquartile ranges. Descriptive analysis of all variables and comparisons between case and control groups will be presented. T-tests will be used for continuous variables, and Chi-square tests for discrete variables. Logistic regression and multinomial logistic regressions will be used to investigate the associations between predictor variables, such as coexisting medical conditions, concurrent medications, patient compliance, dietary habits and medication storage conditions with the LT-4 replacement dose. Potential confounders will be identified using Direct Acyclic Graphs (DAG) and existing literature. The identified confounders will be adjusted in the multivariate models. All the results will be presented before and after adjustment for confounding variables. The genotype distributions of SNPs will be analysed in agreement with the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The association between genetic polymorphisms and the LT-4 replacement dose will be analysed using logistic and multinomial logistic regression models adjusting for potential confounders.

In gene sequencing, the obtained gene sequences will be compared with the reference sequence from the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The sequences will be analysed using BioEdit software.

Hypothyroidism is a common endocrine disorder worldwide [ 4 ]. Females are more prone to the disease than males and the prevalence increases with age [ 3 , 8 ]. If hypothyroidism is left untreated, it may cause severe adverse effects and ultimately death [ 8 ]. Hypothyroidism can be diagnosed and monitored by evaluating clinical symptoms and thyroid function testing; mainly serum TSH level and serum fT4 level [ 9 ]. Hypothyroidism shows symptoms such as mild to moderate weight gain, hyperlipidaemia, skin manifestations/dry skin, fatigue, constipation, coarseness or loss of hair, bradycardia, hypothermia, myalgia, depression, menstrual irregularities and lack of concentration [ 3 , 11 ]. However, clinical manifestations of hypothyroidism may range from life threatening to no signs or symptoms [ 8 ].

The common causes for primary hypothyroidism are autoimmune disease of the thyroid gland/Hashimoto thyroiditis (major cause), thyroid surgery/surgical removal of the thyroid gland, thyroid gland ablation with radioiodine or external radiation when there is an iodine sufficiency [ 6 , 7 ]. There are several other causes for primary hypothyroidism and they can be listed as antithyroid medications (propylthiuracil), thyroid gland tumors, biosynthetic defects in iodine organification, iodine deficiency or excess (Wolff-Chaikoff effect) and some medications such as amiodarone (contains iodine), lithium, tyrosine kinase inhibitors and cytokines (interferon-γ and interleukin-2) [ 3 , 6 ].

Generally, hypothyroidism can be adequately treated with a consistent daily dose of oral levothyroxine. However, around 10% of the patients, require frequent dose adjustments during levothyroxine therapy and some of them will need unusually high doses of thyroid hormone replacement [ 14 ]. Patients who undergo multiple levothyroxine dose adjustments consume more healthcare resources and hence, these frequent dose adjustments cause a serious economic burden to the healthcare system [ 36 ]. Although many studies have been conducted to explore the association of levothyroxine dose adjustment with demographic factors and genetic factors, there are no studies available on the Sri Lankan population. Especially, genetic factors may differ from one population to another. Authors of previous studies that have been conducted to explore the possible associations between SNPs and LT-4 replacement dose, have declared that their results might be population dependant [ 11 , 32 ]. Therefore, it is important to see the applicability of these already-described factors to our population.

Understanding underlying causes for variations in LT-4 dose will lead to a better understanding of hypothyroidism and its management in Sri Lanka and similar low-resource settings. Furthermore, if a positive association/correlation is found between genetic polymorphisms and the LT-4 dose, SNP profiles can be used as a possible genetic marker for dose adjustment determination in future patients. Moreover, the results of this study will guide to launch of further research studies in this field.

A potential limitation of this study is that our sample for the SNP analysis is small due to the limited availability of resources. We expect this study will help to understand the causes of frequent dose adjustments in LT-4 treatment.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Body mass index

Deiodinases 1, 2 and 3

Deiodinases 2 gene

Free thyroxine

Gastrointestinal

• Levothyroxine

National Centre for Biotechnology Information

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Proton-pump inhibitor

Single nucleotide polymorphism

Statistical analysis for the social sciences

Thyroid hormone receptor

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Thyroid stimulating hormone receptors

Thyrotropin releasing hormone

Triiodothyronine

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Dalugodage, S.S., Bowatte, G., Antonypillai, C. et al. Association of pharmacogenomic, clinical and behavioural factors with oral levothyroxine (LT-4) dose of hypothyroid patients in Sri Lanka: a matched case control study. BMC Med Genomics 17 , 79 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12920-024-01849-z

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Original research article, carbon conduction effect and multi-scenario carbon emission responses of land use patterns transfer: a case study of the baiyangdian basin in china.

• 1 School of Public Administration, Hebei University of Economics and Business, Shijiazhuang, China
• 2 Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Urban-Rural Integrated Development, Hebei University of Economics and Business, Shijiazhuang, China
• 3 Center for Urban Sustainability and Innovation Development (CUSID), Hebei University of Economics and Business, Shijiazhuang, China

Carbon pooling and release occur all the time in all corners of the earth, where the land use factor is key to influencing the realization of carbon peaking and neutrality. Land use patterns and carbon emissions change under different scenarios and analyzing the correlation will help formulate scientific land use policies for the future. In this study, through remote sensing data, we investigated the changes in land use patterns and carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian basin in China from 2000 to 2020 and analyzed the carbon conduction effect with the help of a land transfer matrix. The geographical simulation and optimization system-future land use simulation (GeoSOS-FLUS) and Markov models were used to predict the land use changes and carbon emissions under the four different scenarios for the region in 2035. The results indicated that 1) the net land use carbon emissions increased from 52,163.03 × 10 3 to 260,754.91.28 × 10 3  t from 2000 to 2020, and the carbon source-sink ratio exhibited a general uptrend; 2) the net carbon emissions due to terrestrial transfers increased over time. The carbon conduction effects due to the transfer of forests, grasslands, water areas, and unused lands to built-up lands also showed a rising trend, albeit the latter two exhibited only small changes; 3) in 2035, the net carbon uptake under the four development scenarios was predicted to be 404,238.04 × 10 3 , 402,009.45 × 10 3 , 404,231.64 × 10 3 , and 404,202.87×10 3  t, respectively, with all values much higher than that of the study area in 2020. The maximum carbon sink capacity was 817.88 × 10 3  t under the double-carbon target scenario, and the maximum carbon source emission was 405,033.61 × 10 3  t under the natural development scenario. The above results provide an essential reference for low carbon-based urban land use regulations for the Baiyangdian basin and other similar projects in the future.

1 Introduction

Global climate change poses a significant threat to sustainable development and the survival of humans ( Rong et al., 2022 ). The terrestrial carbon system is an important component of the global carbon cycle, which plays a critical role in mitigating global warming by effectively regulating the regional climate through the absorption and release of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere ( Yu et al., 2022 ). Land use activities primarily affect the carbon cycle of the ecosystem ( Mendelsohn and Sohngen, 2019 ), with their carbon emissions being second only to the burning of fossil fuels ( Wang Z. et al., 2022 ). Thus, regulating land use activities to reduce carbon emissions is an important means of promoting carbon neutrality from a practical perspective ( Carpio et al., 2021 ). Therefore, several studies have aimed to demonstrate how carbon emissions from land use can help achieve a range of low carbon development goals, particularly carbon peak and neutrality ( Yang and Liu, 2022 ).

Most studies on land use carbon emissions focus on accounting, mechanisms and consequences, projections, and impact factors ( Le Quéré et al., 2012 ; Houghton and Nassikas, 2017 ; Yu et al., 2022 ). The accounting of land use carbon emissions mainly involves assessing the emissions by using bookkeeping, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) inventory, the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford approach (CASA) model, the global production efficiency model (GLO-PEM), and the integrated valuation of ecosystem services and tradeoffs (InVEST) model ( Piao et al., 2022 ; Raihan et al., 2022 ; Walker et al., 2022 ). Houghton and Nassikas (2017) used a bookkeeping model and estimated the average global net carbon fluxes induced by land use and coverage change (LUCC) from 2006 to 2015 to be 1.11 ± 0.35 Pg C yr –1 ; Ghosh et al. (2022) proposed a method to establish a low-carbon city by extensively analyzing land use carbon emissions and sequestration potential using the InVEST model. Regarding the land use carbon emission effects, it primarily investigates the impact of vegetation and soil carbon storage, as well as the dynamic evolution characteristics ( Wang et al., 2020 ; Wolswijk et al., 2022 ). Affuso and Hite (2013) showed that participatory decision-making on land use can triple the net energy value of biofuels and reduce carbon emissions by 20%; Ghorbani et al. (2023) showed that soil carbon storage and atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions were directly affected by the changes in the soil characteristics and land use; rising pastures and forests increased the soil organic carbon and microbial biomass carbon in both topsoil and subsoil. For the prediction of land use carbon emissions, Cellular Automata-Markov (CA-Markov), Conversion of Land Use and its Effects at Small regional extent (CLUE-S), Future Land Use Simulation (FLUS), and Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) models were used to predict the land use spatial layout for carbon emission analysis ( Wang H. et al., 2022 ; Wu et al., 2022 ). Liu et al. (2018) used a system dynamics approach to establish a multi-perspective integrated measurement model to quantitatively predict new towns on a sector-by-sector basis. They showed that cities need to rely on regional green spaces to mitigate carbon emissions; Yao et al. (2023) proposed a bottom-up cadastral land scale carbon emission prediction framework based on vector cellular automata. Although the aforementioned works serve as excellent examples for the study of land use carbon emissions, only a few studies have focused on carbon emission conduction due to the change in land type ( Li et al., 2023 ). Investigating the effects of land type changes on carbon emissions under various scenarios can provide new perspectives to formulate appropriate land regulation and carbon emission reduction policies ( Ke Y. et al., 2022 ). However, most of the existing research is based on past land use data, and there remains a lack of studies predicting changes in future land use patterns under multiple scenarios and the resultant carbon emissions ( Chuai et al., 2019 ).

Therefore, the objectives of this study were 1) Based on the land use data, combined with the carbon emission estimation model, obtain the carbon emission characteristics of the Baiyangdian basin from 2000 to 2020. 2) Use the land transfer matrix to analyze the carbon transfer effect caused by land use transfer in each period 3) Predict the land use pattern under four different development scenarios in 2035, as well as the resulting carbon emissions, to provide a reference for the city to assess the pressure of carbon emission reduction ( Harper et al., 2018 ).

The rest of the paper is as follows: Section 2 presents an overview of the study area and data sources, Section 3 describes the empirical methodology, Section 4 is the results and analyses section, and Section 5 provides the discussion and conclusions.

2 Study area overview and data sources

2.1 study area overview.

The Xiong’an New Area, China, as a hub to relieve Beijing of non-capital functions, is critical to accelerating the synergistic development of the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, with its land use changes being typical of the current era ( Zhou et al., 2021 ). The Baiyangdian basin, as the ecological hinterland of the Xiong’an New Area, is a prime example of healthy synergies between the carbon system and the development of the city ( Li et al., 2008 ; Zhao et al., 2021 ; Xia et al., 2023 ). The study area is situated in the northern part of the North China Plain, between 113°45′–116°26′ eastern longitudes and 37°51′–40°39′ northern latitudes ( Figure 1 ), which belongs to a warm-temperate monsoon climate. The Baiyangdian basin in this study refers to the administrative area of Hebei Province flowing through nine branches such as the Zuma Long River, the Cao River, and the Zhao Wang Xin River, involving 35 counties (cities and districts) under the jurisdiction of Baoding City, Zhangjiakou City, Shijiazhuang City and Cangzhou City, with a total land area of 34,353.07 km 2 . The basin exhibits an intricate geography, with highlands in the west (mountains) and lowlands in the east (plains). The mountainous area mainly comprises forests and grasslands (17.79% and 19.69% of the total basin area, respectively), and the plains are primarily cultivable land (46.25% of the total basin area).

FIGURE 1 . Spatial location of the study area. (A) China scope; (B) Hebei Province; (C) Baiyangdian Basin.

2.2 Data sources

In this study, we employed remote sensing image data, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data, slope data, meteorological data, and fossil energy data as follows:

(1) The Landsat4-5/Thematic Mapper (TM) and Landsat8/Operational Land Imager (OLI) remote sensing images used in this study were obtained from the Chinese Academy of Sciences Geospatial Data Cloud ( https://www.gscloud.cn/ ). The data identifiers and dates of the selected images are LT51230332000145BJC00 2000-05-24, LT51230322010156IKR00 2010-06-05, and LC81230332020120LGN00 2020-4-29, respectively. Concerning previous classification standards and combined with research needs, the land was divided into cultivable land, forest, grassland, built-up land, unused land, and water area, with a 30-m spatial resolution.

(2) The DEM data were obtained from the Chinese Academy of Sciences Geospatial Data Cloud ( https://www.gscloud.cn/ ), and further, the slope data was extracted from the DEM data, with an initial resolution of 30 m.

(3) Annual average precipitation and average temperature for the basin study area were collected from the China Meteorological Data Network ( https://data.cma.cn/ ), the spatial resolution is 0.5° × 0.5°.

(4) Data on the consumption of the eight main fossil energy sources used to indirectly estimate carbon emissions from built-up land were obtained from the statistical yearbooks of counties and cities and the National Bureau of Statistics ( http://www.stats.gov.cn/ ) for the years 2000–2020. The corresponding energy carbon emission coefficients were the missing values recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

3 Research methods

3.1 land use carbon emission calculations.

Carbon sinks include grasslands, forests, unused lands, and water areas ( Guo and Fang, 2021 ). Cultivable land can act as both a carbon source and sink due to its different functions ( Ma and Wang, 2015 ). Therefore, this paper accurately measured the carbon emission values for these five land use types by the direct estimation method. Equation 1 is calculated as follows:

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 represent cultivatable land, forest, grassland, water area, and unused land, respectively ( Yue et al., 2020 ); C i   is  i  land type carbon emissions ;   S i is i land type area; and V i is i land type carbon emission coefficient ( Table 1 ).

TABLE 1 . Land use carbon emission coefficients.

Carbon emissions from built-up land occur mainly from human activities and the energy production and industrial processes they host ( Zhang et al., 2021 ). This paper indirectly estimated the carbon emissions of the eight main fossil fuel sources through their consumption. Equation 2 is calculated as follows:

where E c  is built − up land carbon emission , j is the energy source type; E j is the energy consumption; θ j is the energy to standard coal factor; and f j is the carbon emission ( Lu et al., 2022 ) ( Table 2 ).

TABLE 2 . Standard coal conversion and carbon emission coefficients for the energy sources.

According to the principle of indicator system construction, this paper selects five indicators, including population, carbon emission intensity, gross domestic product (GDP), historical carbon emissions, and the proportion of the tertiary industry, to construct the Baiyangdian Basin Carbon Emission Indicator System from the perspective of fairness, efficiency, and feasibility ( Table 3 ). The entropy value technique was initially applied to calculate the weights of individual indicators. Subsequently, this method was supplemented by a total carbon emission measurement model to ultimately quantify the indirect carbon emissions originating from the different land types in the study region ( Tang et al., 2022 ).

TABLE 3 . Indicator system for the allocation of carbon emissions.

3.2 Estimation of land transfer-based carbon emission conduction

Land use changes can cause carbon transfer, which is defined as the carbon conduction effect of land use carbon emissions. Two factors, the difference between the level of carbon sequestration and carbon emissions following a change in land class and the area of change, mainly determine the amount of carbon emissions they transmit ( Qiao et al., 2016 ). The area of land class conversion can be calculated from a land use transfer matrix indicating the amount of change and the direction of transfer, and its Eq. 3 is:

where N is the number of land use types; and S i j is the area transferred from land type i to land type j. The carbon transmission due to the interconversion between land categories other than built-up land ( C t ) can be estimated from the transfer matrix and the difference between the carbon emission coefficients ( δ i 1 − δ i 2 ) of each category using Eq. 4 :

This paper considers the built-up land within the Baiyangdian basin to be spatially homogeneous, neglecting the carbon emission differences that may arise in distinct spatial scenarios per unit area. Therefore, during the study period T1∼T2, the carbon emissions transferred from built-up land to the other types of land can be calculated by Eq. 5 :

In contrast, Eq. 6 is used to calculate the transfer of carbon emissions from other land types to built-up land:

Where C t is the Carbon emission transmission; δ i is the carbon emission coefficient ( δ i 1 ) or carbon absorption coefficient ( δ i 2 ) for land use types other than built-up land; δ T 1 and δ T 2 are the carbon emission generated on the unit area of built-up land in T1 and T2 years, respectively ( Zhang et al., 2014b ), and the unit is t·(km 2 ·a) −1 . E b 1 and E b 2 are the carbon emissions generated by built-up land in T1 and T2 years, respectively; S bi and S ib are the areas of built-up land in years T1 and T2; S bi and S ib are the areas of interconversion of built-up land and other land types, respectively ( Zhang et al., 2014a ).

3.3 GeoSOS-FLUS model

In this study, the GeoSOS-FLUS model was used to simulate future land use change in the Baiyangdian basin. The model has two main components, scenario setting and model building ( Sun et al., 2021 ). As a resource on which human activity depends, changes in land use and spatial distribution characteristics essentially depend on a tradeoff between economic development and ecological protection. Therefore, based on previous studies and specific planning policies of each city in the Baiyangdian basin, we established four development scenarios, namely, natural development, balanced development, cultivable land protection, and double-carbon target, and analyzed their effects ( Tao et al., 2015 ; Hong et al., 2021 ; Wang Z. et al., 2022 ). The different scenario settings and corresponding scenario descriptions are shown in Table 4 .

TABLE 4 . Land use change rules for different scenarios.

The GeoSOS-FLUS model includes the following two framework contents:

(1) The study identified six key factors, namely, elevation, slope, temperature, precipitation, distance to the road, and distance to the railway, responsible for driving land use changes in the Baiyangdian basin. To evaluate the probability of each land use type suitability, we employed an artificial neural network (ANN) algorithm ( Wang et al., 2019 ). To verify the accuracy of the calculations, we simulated a land use distribution map for 2020 using the land use types of the study region in 2010 and matched the findings with the land use distribution map for the same year. The Kappa coefficient is 0.7464 and has an overall accuracy of 84.20%, demonstrating good simulation results.

(2) The model sampled the first-stage land use distribution data and proposed an adaptive inertia competitive roulette mechanism to simulate the land use scenario distribution. A degree of uncertainty and complexity in land use conversion remained, influenced by a variety of factors. Due to the application of the sampling method and competitive mechanism, the proposed model could effectively avoid error transmission, along with the adverse effects of uncertainty and complexity. In other words, the GeoSOS-FLUS model exhibited good accuracy and enabled the simulation predictions to be consistent with the actual data.

3.4 Markov prediction

The Markov process can predict the possible state of an event at any particular instance in the future according to the current state of the event by following the “no aftereffect” principle ( Yang et al., 2020 ). In this study, the transfer probability matrix was solved by a Markov process according to the change relation of time series to make an energy knot prediction. The Markov model was employed to predict future land use patterns in the Baiyangdian basin energy structure based on historical energy data from 2000 to 2020. Let us assume that at time m , the state vector of the energy consumption structure in the basin can be expressed as Eq. 7 :

where S r ( m ), S c ( m ), S o ( m ), S g ( m ), S k ( m ), S d ( m ), S f ( m ), and S n ( m ) are the proportions of raw coal, coke, crude oil, gasoline, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, and natural gas in energy consumption, respectively. The transition matrix at time m∼m+1 can be expressed as Eq. 8 :

where i and j are energy types; and P i − j m is the probability of energy i conversion to energy j . The model effect coefficient, w , was used as the criterion to judge the quality of prediction results, which can be computed as Eq. 9 :

where S r is the real value, S p is the predicted value, and S r ¯ is the average of the actual values. If the value is closer to 1, the prediction results are close to the actual values and the prediction accuracy is high.

4 Results and analysis

4.1 changes in land use carbon emissions.

Based on the calculations, Table 5 shows land use carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian basin for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020. The net land use carbon emissions in the basin were found to steadily increase over the past two decades, with a total amount of 208,591.88 × 10 3  t and an average annual increase of 10,429.59 × 10 3  t. Grasslands, forests, water areas, and unused lands acted as carbon sinks, increasing the total carbon absorption by 9.59 × 10 3  t. The combined carbon emissions from cultivable and built-up lands as carbon sources increased by 208,601.48 × 10 3  t. The carbon source emission to sink absorption ratio in the basin increased, especially reaching the highest value of 330.21 in 2020, 4.9 times higher than in 2000. This indicated that the carbon sources in the basin were continuously rising, and the carbon sink was continuously declining.

TABLE 5 . Changes in carbon source emissions, sink absorption, and its ratio in the Baiyangdian basin.

Specifically, carbon emissions from built-up lands were on an upward trend, along with carbon sequestration in forests and water areas were on an upward trend, other land types steadily declined as carbon sources or sinks ( Figure 2 ). In the case of building sites, from 2000 to 2010, rapid urbanization, enhanced land intensification, and a mass of cultivable lands, forests, and grasslands were transformed into built-up lands, resulting in an expansion trend of built-up land, which is manifested in the fact that the rate of transferring in is 18.5 times higher than the rate of transferring out. The land use dynamic attitude (k) reached 0.0087, with the land area expanding by 268.36 km 2 . This increase accounted for 94.52% of carbon emissions in 2000, rising to 98.72% in 2020, representing the largest contribution to carbon emissions ( Figure 2 ). Due to the minimal net conversion of land from other categories to built-up land within their respective land usage dynamics between 2000 and 2010, the proportion of carbon emissions attributed to built-up land was the lowest during the entire research period, in 2020 ( Table 6 ). The area of cultivated land has been decreasing from 2000 to 2010, with 637.45 km 2 of cultivated land being transferred out at a rate 12.67 times faster than the rate of transfer in, making it the land category with the largest reduction in area share of any land category.

FIGURE 2 . Change and proportion of carbon emissions from land use. (A,B) Land use carbon emissions; (C) Proportion of carbon emissions.

TABLE 6 . Land use changes in the Baiyangdian basin from 2000 to 2020.

Among the carbon sinks, grassland and unused land demonstrated a marginal reduction in carbon sequestration, with the corresponding proportion decreasing from 0.54% in 2000 to 0.49% in 2020 ( Figure 2B ). The fluctuating trends in the carbon uptake ratios of grasslands and unused lands could be attributed to their continued transfer to built-up and cultivable lands. In 2000–2010, 86.64 km 2 of grassland and 5.14 km 2 of unused land were transferred, and in 2010–2020, 1,390.75 km 2 of grassland and 17.98 km 2 of unused land were transferred.

4.2 Carbon conduction effects due to land type changes

To determine the carbon emissions after each stage of land type transfer, we combined the land use transfer matrix with the carbon source/sink capacity of the land type. The values with an asterisk in Table 7 indicate the net carbon emissions from land use transfer at each period of the study period and increased over time. Throughout the entire study period, carbon emissions were determined by the carbon source category. The key role of built-up land was highlighted by the study’s finding that built-up land accounted for most carbon emissions from total carbon sources. The transfer of cultivable lands and grasslands to built-up lands had the most significant effect on carbon transfer through the conversion of carbon sinks into sources. This impact is due to the release of carbon stored in the soil, ecosystem, and biomass. This transformation of cultivated land and grassland into built-up land accounted for 84.05% of the total carbon emissions ( Table 7 ). The carbon conduction from cultivable to built-up land was 1.02 × 10 3  t from 2000 to 2010, which increased to 42.44 × 10 3  t from 2010 to 2020. The carbon conduction from forests, and grasslands, to built-up land also showed an increasing trend. The carbon conduction effect caused by water area and unused land transfer is the same as that caused by grassland cultivation, which also shows an increasing trend.

TABLE 7 . Carbon conduction effect of land type transfer in the Baiyangdian basin from 2000 to 2020 (10 3  t).

4.3 Multi-scenario simulation and prediction of land use structure

In this paper, four scenarios were simulated using the GeoSOS-FLUS model for the prediction of the Baiyangdian basin land use in 2035 ( Figure 3 ). The 2035 balanced development, cultivable land protection, and double-carbon target scenarios were largely consistent, but with differences in certain regions.

FIGURE 3 . Land use change simulation for the Baiyangdian basin in 2035 under different scenarios (The total land area is 34,353.07 km 2 ). (A) Natural development; (B) Balanced development; (C) Cultivable land protection; (D) double-carbon target.

In the natural development scenario, the area of forests, water area, grasslands, cultivable lands, and unused lands in 2035 was 12,118.94, 462.03, 1626.05, 15,009.93, and 10.98 km 2 , respectively. Compared to 2020, the water area increased by 54.17 km 2 at most; the forest area increased by 39.68 km 2 ; and the cultivable land reduced by 5.03%, with a reduction of 795 km 2 . In the balanced development scenario, compared to 2020, the area of built-up lands, forests, and water bodies increased by 918.30, 260.43, and 119.7 km 2 , respectively. Accordingly, the area of the cultivable lands and grasslands was reduced by 1096.82 km 2 and 218.22 km 2 , respectively. As urbanization converts large parts of farmlands, food security will be further threatened if the focus remains only on economic development. In the cultivable land protection scenario, the built-up land area was relatively small, close to 5104.76 km 2 . Compared with the natural development scenario, the area of forests and grasslands increased by 41.48 and 38.61 km 2 , respectively, while the area of cultivable lands and grassland decreased by 65.88 and 10.43 km 2 , respectively, indicating a severe deterioration of the Baiyangdian basin ecology. This also suggested that even in the cultivable land protection scenario, only a small portion of cultivable land, grassland, and water area were expanded. It also demonstrated the need to place a higher priority on environmental preservation, rather than economic development in the Baiyangdian basin. In the double-carbon target scenario, the area of cultivable lands, forests, grasslands, water area, unused lands, and built-up lands changed to 14705.15 km 2 , 12438.86 km 2 , 1615.62 km 2 , 527.85 km 2 , 6.17 km 2 , and 5007.5 km 2 , respectively. In comparison to 2020, the grassland area decreased by 190.96 km 2 and the carbon-emitting cultivable land decreased by 1099.78 km 2 . Moreover, the area of water area rose by 119.99 km 2 , while that of the forests expanded by 359.6 km 2 ( Table 8 ).

TABLE 8 . Area of each land use type under multi-scenario modeling (km 2 ).

4.4 Prediction of land use carbon emissions

4.4.1 direct land use carbon emissions.

The cultivable land carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian Basin in 2020 were calculated to be 666.97 × 10 3  t, compared to which the emissions in the four scenarios set in 2035 were predicted to decrease slightly ( Table 9 ). In particular, the cultivable land carbon emissions for the balanced development and double-carbon target scenarios were likely to decrease more about 7%. Regarding the carbon sinks, the maximum carbon uptake of the forests under the double-carbon target scenario was 801.26 × 10 3  t, an increase of 3.1% compared with that in 2020, followed by 794.68 × 10 3  t under the balanced development scenario. The carbon uptake of grasslands remained largely unchanged, with an average value was about 3.5 × 10 3  t. Water areas exhibited the largest carbon uptake in the double-carbon target scenario. Compared with 2020, the water area carbon emissions increased for all four scenarios, with a growth ratio of 23.71%. The unused land area was relatively small, which also remained largely unchanged. The predicted results for the different scenarios are shown in Table 9 .

TABLE 9 . Prediction results of direct carbon emissions from land use under multi-scenario simulation (10 3 t).

4.4.2 Indirect land use carbon emissions

We chose the energy consumption data of the Baiyangdian basin in 2019 as the initial value and combined it with the average transfer probability matrix P obtained by Eq. 9 . We subsequently utilized the Markov model for forecasting the energy composition in 2020 and verified the accuracy by comparing the predictions with the actual data ( Figure 4 ).

FIGURE 4 . Share of energy consumption in the Baiyangdian Basin by energy source and projections.

According to Eq. 9 , the model effect coefficient w is 0.999 close to 1, indicating a good prediction result, and hence, a reasonable and reliable prediction model. Therefore, the energy consumption in 2020 was selected as the initial vector and combined with the average transfer probability matrix, P , obtained from historical energy data from 2000 to 2020, and the energy consumption structure of the Baiyangdian basin in 2035 was predicted ( Figure 4 ).

Using the carbon emissions data from 2000 to 2020 for the Baiyangdian basin, we employed the grey prediction GM (1,1) model to forecast the 2035 emissions and assess the model precision. The carbon emissions due to built-up lands in the basin in 2035 were expected to reach 404,400.19 × 10 3  t.

4.4.3 Summary of land use carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian basin

In this study, we built a Markov model to forecast total terrestrial carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian basin ( Table 10 ). The land use carbon sinks were primarily related to the land type area, and the carbon sources were primarily related to the continuous growth of energy consumption. Compared with 2020, the net land use carbon emissions in the basin were predicted to increase in 2035 for the four scenarios by 143,483.14 × 10 3 , 143,454.55 × 10 3 , 143,476.74 × 10 3 , and 143,447.97 × 10 3  t, respectively. All values were much higher than the net carbon emissions of the study area in 2020. In the natural development scenario, the carbon source emission peaked at 405,033.61 × 10 3  t, increasing by 143,486.62 × 10 3  t, about 55.03%. The lowest carbon sink absorption out of the four scenarios was 795.57 × 10 3  t, with a slight increase of 3.48 × 10 3  t compared with 2020. In the balanced development and cultivable land protection scenarios, carbon emissions increased significantly, carbon sink absorptions increased by 19.34 × 10 3  t and 7.11 × 10 3  t, and carbon source emissions increased by 143,473.89 × 10 3  t and 143,483.84 × 10 3  t, respectively. In the double-carbon target scenario, the lowest carbon source emission was 405,020.75 × 10 3  t and the highest carbon sink absorption was 817.88 × 10 3  t in the fourth scenario, which has a significant increase compared to the other three scenarios. Generally, land use carbon emissions in the natural development scenarios were the highest, followed by the balanced development, cultivable land protection, and double-carbon target scenarios. Therefore, it is worth thinking about how to balance carbon emission and absorption in the Baiyangdian Basin to achieve healthy development ( Chuai et al., 2016 ).

TABLE 10 . Total land use carbon emissions prediction results under multi-scenario simulations (10 3  t).

5 Conclusion and discussion

5.1 discussion.

The macro-scale carbon sinks in the study area could be rapidly accounted for using the direct carbon emission coefficients of the different land types. The relevant national-scale or regional studies by Fang Jingyun and other scholars (2023) served as the basis for the direct carbon emission coefficients of land use employed in this study. The next step should be to improve the monitoring of ecosystem carbon fluxes across countries and the investigation of carbon density across the various land types to correct the coefficients in a localized manner. Additionally, the GeoSOS-PLUS model combines the transformation, as well as pattern analysis strategies, which can effectively uncover the causes of land type changes and compare the simulation results for various scenarios. This can offer guidance for decision-making and future policy planning. In contrast to Zhou et al. (2020) who used the conventional CA-Markov model to simulate the land use in the built-up land of the urban Shanghai area, our experimental results demonstrated that the GeoSOS-PLUS model significantly improved the simulation and predictions of land use patterns in the Baiyangdian basin, with an overall accuracy of 99%. This addressed the issue of the conventional CA model not adequately accounting for the connection between the influencing variables and spatial changes.

Based on the goal of carbon neutrality, this study makes the following suggestions:

a) The government should strictly regulate the unchecked growth of built-up in developing areas; moderately resume plowing in forests, lakes, and grasslands; and boost the capacity of forests as carbon sinks. They must realize the concept of increasing sinks and reducing sources through the creation of rational and scientific land use policies.

b) Improving the industrial and energy consumption structures; investing more in clean energy resources; and creating a green, diversified energy supply system should be prioritized.

c) When creating the national “dual carbon” roadmap, the unbalanced distribution of regional carbon sources and sinks must be considered and objectively examined for their growth potential.

It should be noted that this paper uses fixed coefficients to calculate carbon emissions, and the coefficients can be optimized by combining the localized measured data or by using multi-source remote sensing image data to improve the accuracy of the calculation. When analyzing the transmission effect of carbon emissions, this paper does not consider the difference in carbon emission coefficients of the same land use type in different counties and cities, and the same land type in different regions may have differences in carbon emission capacity due to factors such as the degree of land intensification. In the future, we will carry out in-depth research on the refinement of the carbon transmission effect due to the internal transformation of land use types. In addition, there is a long way to go to achieve the goal of “double carbon,” and the carbon emission accounting and prediction model established for the characteristics of China’s land use has clarified the important paths affecting China’s carbon emissions from land use and has been widely applied in cities in the central and eastern parts of China as well as in northern China. For regions outside of China, it is necessary to combine regional characteristics, add more factors describing land characteristics, and continuously improve the accuracy of the model, which can also be committed to the study of carbon emissions in other regions.

5.2 Conclusion

In this study, we first analyzed the land use carbon emissions and subsequent transmissions caused by land use changes in the Baiyangdian basin. We then simulated four scenarios based on the GeoSOS-FLUS model, namely, natural development, balanced development, cultivable land protection, and double-carbon target ( Yang et al., 2022 ), and finally predicted the land use carbon emissions in the Baiyangdian basin in 2035 using a Markov model. The double-carbon target scenario further illustrated the critical position of ecological conservation ( Ke N. et al., 2022 ). In general, from the new direction of carbon emission control, combined with regional land use, our study makes outstanding contributions to regional land rational planning and ecological protection ( Chen et al., 2022 ). The primary conclusions of the study are as follows:

1. The ratio of the Baiyangdian basin carbon source emission to sink absorption has been steadily increasing, especially rapidly in 2020, reaching a maximum of 330.21, 4.9 times higher than in 2000. This shows that the carbon sources (sinks) are consistently rising (declining). Over the past 20 years, the net land use carbon emissions in the basin increased by 208,591.88 × 10 3  t, with an average yearly rise of 10,429.59 × 10 3  t.

2. The net carbon emissions from land transfer in the basin exhibit a clear rising trend between 2000 and 2020. The carbon conduction effect due to forests and grasslands being converted to built-up land also shows an increasing trend, whereas the reverse transfer from built-up land to carbon sinks increases only slightly.

3. After simulating four scenarios in the Baiyangdian basin in 2035, it was found that the net land use carbon emissions under the natural development, balanced development, cultivable land protection, and double-carbon target scenarios are predicted to be 404,238.04 × 10 3 , 402,009.45 × 10 3 , 404,231.64 × 10 3 , and 404,202.87 × 10 3  t, respectively, much higher than the values in 2020. However, carbon emissions from cultivable lands show a decreasing trend; the rate of increase of carbon emissions from built-up lands slowed down, and the carbon absorption by forests and grasslands gradually increased. These trends establish the carbon source-sink ratio as a highly suitable parameter for the future planning of ecological vs economic development.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

XG: Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. MiZ: Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. MnZ: Writing–original draft, Writing–original draft. ZG: Writing–review and editing. XL: Writing–review and editing. ZY: Writing–review and editing.

The authors declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This project is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC): Research on Safety Resilience Evaluation of Critical Infrastructure Systems in Urban Cities and Optimization of Operation (72374063); the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC): Realization Mechanisms, Influencing Factors and Optimization of Urban Ecosystem Service Delivery: A Case Study of Beijing and its Surrounding Areas (42371279); the Social Science Foundation of Hebei Province: Research on Optimization of Ecological Spatial Pattern and Quality Improvement of Baiyangdian Basin Based on Multi-source Data (HB22GL030) Funding Support.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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Keywords: land use, carbon source-sink ratio, carbon conduction effects, Markov prediction, Baiyangdian basin

Citation: Gao X, Zhao M, Zhang M, Guo Z, Liu X and Yuan Z (2024) Carbon conduction effect and multi-scenario carbon emission responses of land use patterns transfer: a case study of the Baiyangdian basin in China. Front. Environ. Sci. 12:1374383. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2024.1374383

Received: 22 January 2024; Accepted: 05 March 2024; Published: 13 March 2024.

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Copyright © 2024 Gao, Zhao, Zhang, Guo, Liu and Yuan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Meiran Zhao, [email protected]

† These authors have contributed equally to this work and share first authorship

This article is part of the Research Topic

Dynamics of Land Use and Carbon Emissions in the Context of Carbon Neutrality and Carbon Peaking