what is the meaning of conflict thesis

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Conflict Thesis

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The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century which maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science and that it inevitably leads to hostility. Most examples and interpretations of events in support of the thesis have been drawn from Western history. Historians of science have long ago rejected the thesis and have instead widely accepted a complexity thesis. Nonetheless, the thesis “remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind.”

Historical conflict thesis

See also: Religion and Science: Irreconcilable ? , Relationship Between Religion And Science , and Science And Religion – M. Fethullah Gulen

In the 1800s, the relationship between religion and science became an actual formal topic of discourse, while before this no one had pitted science against religion or vice versa, though occasional interactions had occurred in the past. More specifically, it was around the mid-1800s that discussion of “science and religion” first emerged because before this time, science still included moral and metaphysical dimensions, was not inherently linked to the scientific method, and the term scientist did not emerge until 1834. The scientist John William Draper (1811-1882) and the writer Andrew Dickson White (1832-1918) were the most influential exponents of the conflict thesis between religion and science. Draper had been the speaker in the British Association meeting of 1860 which led to the famous confrontation between Bishop Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Henry Huxley over Darwinism , and in America “the religious controversy over biological evolution reached its most critical stages in the late 1870s”. In the early 1870s the American science-popularizer Edward Livingston Youmans invited Draper to write a History of the Conflict between Religion and Science (1874), a book replying to contemporary issues in Roman Catholicism, such as the doctrine of papal infallibility, and mostly criticizing what he claimed to be anti-intellectualism in the Catholic tradition, but also making criticisms of Islam and of Protestantism . Draper’s preface summarises the conflict thesis :

The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from traditionary faith and human interests on the other.

In 1874 White published his thesis in Popular Science Monthly and in book form as The Warfare of Science :

In all modern history, interference with science in the supposed interest of religion, no matter how conscientious such interference may have been, has resulted in the direst evils both to religion and to science—and invariably. And, on the other hand, all untrammeled scientific investigation, no matter how dangerous to religion some of its stages may have seemed, for the time, to be, has invariably resulted in the highest good of religion and of science.

In 1896, White published A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom , the culmination of over thirty years of research and publication on the subject, criticizing what he saw as restrictive, dogmatic forms of Christianity. In the introduction, White emphasized that he arrived at his position after the difficulties of assisting Ezra Cornell in establishing a university without any official religious affiliation.

The criticism of White isn’t entirely recent, historian of medicine James Joseph Walsh criticized White’s perspective as anti-historical in The Popes and Science; the History of the Papal Relations to Science During the Middle Ages and Down to Our Own Time (1908), which he dedicated to Pope Pius X:

the story of the supposed opposition of the Church and the Popes and the ecclesiastical authorities to science in any of its branches, is founded entirely on mistaken notions. Most of it is quite imaginary. Much of it is due to the exaggeration of the significance of the Galileo incident. Only those who know nothing about the history of medicine and of science continue to harbor it. That Dr. White’s book, contradicted as it is so directly by all serious histories of medicine and of science, should have been read by so many thousands in this country, and should have been taken seriously by educated men, physicians, teachers, and even professors of science who want to know the history of their own sciences, only shows how easily even supposedly educated men may be led to follow their prejudices rather than their mental faculties, and emphasizes the fact that the tradition that there is no good that can possibly come out of the Nazareth of the times before the reformation, still dominates the intellects of many educated people who think that they are far from prejudice and have minds perfectly open to conviction.

In God and Nature (1986), David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers report that “White’s Warfare apparently did not sell as briskly as Draper’s Conflict , but in the end it proved more influential, partly, it seems, because Draper’s work was soon dated, and because White’s impressive documentation gave the appearance of sound scholarship”. During the 20th century, historians’ acceptance of the conflict thesis declined until fully rejected in the 1970s. David B. Wilson notes:

Despite the growing number of scholarly modifications and rejections of the conflict model from the 1950s … in the 1970s leading historians of the nineteenth century still felt required to attack it. … Whatever the reason for the continued survival of the conflict thesis, two other books on the nineteenth century that were published in the 1970s hastened its final demise among historians of science … 1974 … Frank Turner … Between Science and Religion … Even more decisive was the penetrating critique “Historians and Historiography” … [by] James Moore … at the beginning of his Post-Darwinian Controversies (1979).

In his course on science and religion, historian Lawrence Principe summarizes Draper’s and White’s works by saying,

While we can look today with astonishment upon the shoddy character of Draper and White’s writings, their books have had enormous impact, and we can’t deny that. Much of this is due to their great success in their creating a myth for science as a religion. Their myth of science as a religion is replete with battles, and martyrdoms, and saints, and creeds. And as we know, or should know, myths are often much more powerful than historical realities.

In the coursebook, Principe writes,

No serious historians of science or of the science–religion issue today maintain the warfare thesis … The origins of the warfare thesis lie in the late 19th century, specifically in the work of two men – John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. These men had specific political purposes in mind when arguing their case, and the historical foundations of their work are unreliable.

Regarding the scholarship of Draper’s work, Principe says

How does he [John William Draper] support his contention of conflict? Well, unfortunately, with some of the worst historical writing you are ever likely to come across. Historical facts are confected, causes and chronologies twisted to the author’s purpose. We find interpretations made merely by declaration. We find quotations violently taken out of context. And instances, quite a few of them where Draper claims a historical writer said something in fact 180 degrees away from what he actually claimed…Much of Draper’s book is so ridiculous, so malodramatic, so rabid, it’s hard for a knowledgeable person actually to read it without a wry smirk…Let’s start with a simple and a notorious example: the idea that before Columbus people thought that the world was flat. Well, in fact, it is Draper and White, specifically, both of them, who bear most of the blame for popularizing this baseless view to the extent that nowadays, 80 percent of school teachers still foist this upon poor innocent school children. The fact is that of course the sphericity of the Earth was well established by the fifth century BC by the Greeks, and a good measure of its circumference made by the third century BC. And these facts were never forgotten in learned Western Culture.

Principe’s summary comment on Draper’s work at the end of his coursebook reads: “The book that started the conflict myth. Take a sense of humor and/or a stiff drink with this dated bit of melodrama.”

Modern views

Historians of science today have moved away from a conflict model, which is based mainly on two historical episodes (those involving Galileo and Darwin) in favor of a “complexity” model, because religious figures took positions on both sides of each dispute and there was no overall aim by any party involved in discrediting religion. Biologist Stephen Jay Gould said: “White’s and Draper’s accounts of the actual interaction between science and religion in Western history do not differ greatly. Both tell a tale of bright progress continually sparked by science. And both develop and use the same myths to support their narrative, the flat-earth legend prominently among them”. In a summary of the historiography of the conflict thesis, Colin A. Russell, the former President of Christians in Science, said that “Draper takes such liberty with history, perpetuating legends as fact that he is rightly avoided today in serious historical study. The same is nearly as true of White, though his prominent apparatus of prolific footnotes may create a misleading impression of meticulous scholarship”.

In Science & Religion , Gary Ferngren proposes a complex relationship between religion and science :

While some historians had always regarded the Draper-White thesis as oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The result is the growing recognition among historians of science that the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive than is sometimes thought. Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule.

A few modern historians of science (such as Peter Barker, Bernard R. Goldstein, and Crosbie Smith) proposed that scientific discoveries – such as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion in the 17th century, and the reformulation of physics in terms of energy, in the 19th century – were driven by religion. Religious organizations and clerics figure prominently in the broad histories of science, until the professionalization of the scientific enterprise, in the 19th century, led to tensions between scholars taking religious and secular approaches to nature. Even the prominent examples of religion’s apparent conflict with science, the Galileo affair (1614) and the Scopes trial (1925), were not pure instances of conflict between science and religion, but included personal and political facts in the development of each conflict.

Galileo affair

Main articles: Galileo Galilei and Galileo Galileo Quotes

Galileo Galilei facing the Roman Inquisition, Cristiano Banti.

The Galileo affair is an example commonly used by advocates of the conflict thesis. Maurice Finocchiaro writes that the Galileo affair epitomizes the common view of “the conflict between enlightened science and obscurantist religion,” and that this view promotes “the myth that alleges the incompatibility between science and religion.” Finocchiaro writes, “I believe that such a thesis is erroneous, misleading, and simplistic,” and refers to John Draper, Andrew White, Voltaire, Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and Karl Popper as writers or icons who have promoted it. Finocchiaro also describes as mythical the notion that Galileo “saw” the Earth’s motion, since this direct observation was only possible in the 21st century, and the idea that Galileo was “imprisoned”, since he was “actually held under house arrest.” He notes that the situation was complex and objections to the Copernican system included arguments that were philosophical and scientific, as well as theological.

The Galileo affair was a sequence of events that begin around 1610, culminating with the trial and condemnation of Galileo Galilei by the Roman Catholic Inquisition in 1633 for his support of heliocentrism. In 1610, Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger) , describing the surprising observations that he had made with the new telescope, namely the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons of Jupiter. With these observations he promoted the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus (published in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in 1543). Galileo’s initial discoveries were met with opposition within the Catholic Church, and in 1616, the Inquisition declared heliocentrism to be formally heretical. Heliocentric books were banned and Galileo was ordered to refrain from holding, teaching or defending heliocentric ideas.

Pope Urban VIII had been an admirer and supporter of Galileo, and there is evidence he did not believe the Inquisition’s declaration rendered heliocentrism a heresy. Urban may have rather viewed heliocentrism as a potentially dangerous or rash doctrine that nevertheless had utility in astronomical calculations. In 1632, Galileo published his Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems , which implicitly defended heliocentrism, and was popular. Pope Urban VIII had asked that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo’s book, and were voiced by a character named “Simplicio”, who was a simpleton. This angered the Pope and weakened Galileo’s position politically. Responding to mounting controversy over theology, astronomy and philosophy, the Roman Inquisition tried Galileo in 1633 and found him “vehemently suspect of heresy”, sentencing him to indefinite imprisonment. Galileo’s Dialogue was banned, the publication of his past or future works forbidden, he was ordered to “abjure, curse and detest” heliocentric ideas. Galileo was kept under house arrest until his death in 1642.

Observations that favored the Copernican model over the Ptolemaic or other alternative models accumulated over time:the emergence of Newtonian mechanics later in the 17th century, the observation of the stellar aberration of light by James Bradley in the 18th century, the analysis of orbital motions of binary stars by William Herschel in the 19th century, and the accurate measurement of the stellar parallax in the 19th century. According to physicist Christopher Graney, Galileo’s own observations did not actually support the Copernican view, but were more consistent with Tycho Brahe’s hybrid model where the Earth did not move, and everything else circled around it and the Sun. Copernicus’ work De revolutionibus remained on the Index of banned books until 1758.

Scientist and public perceptions

Stephen Hawking

This thesis is still held to be true in whole or in part by some scientists including the theoretical physicist and cosmologist Stephen Hawking , who said

“ There is a fundamental difference between religion, which is based on authority, [and] science, which is based on observation and reason. Science will win because it works. “

Others, such as Steven Weinberg, grant that it is possible for science and religion to be compatible since some prominent scientists are also religious, but he sees some significant tensions that potentially weaken religious beliefs overall.

A study done on scientists from 21 American universities showed that most did not perceive conflict between science and religion. In the study, the strength of religiosity in the home in which a scientist was raised, current religious attendance, peers’ attitudes toward religion, all had an impact on whether or not scientists saw religion and science as in conflict. Scientists who had grown up with a religion and retained that identity or had identified as spiritual or had religious attendance tended to perceive less or no conflict. However, those not attending religious services were more likely to adopt a conflict paradigm. Additionally, scientists were more likely to reject conflict thesis if their peers held positive views of religion.

Science historian Ronald Numbers suggests the conflict theory lingers in a popular belief, inclusive of scientists and clerics alike, and that while history reflects an intrinsic and inevitable intellectual conflict between (Judeo-Christian) religion and science, it is perpetuated by the surrounding controversies involving creation–evolution, stem cells, and birth control.Many religious groups have made statements regarding the compatibility of religion and science, urging, for example, “school board members to preserve the integrity of the science curriculum by affirming the teaching of the theory of evolution as a core component of human knowledge. We ask that science remain science and that religion remain religion, two very different, but complementary, forms of truth.” The Magis Center for Reason and Faith was founded specifically to apply science in support of belief in a deity and the Christian religion. Some scholars such as Brian Stanley and Denis Alexander propose that mass media are partly responsible for popularizing conflict theory, most notably the myth that prior to Columbus, people believed the Earth was flat. David C. Lindberg and Numbers point out that “there was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge Earth’s sphericity and even know its approximate circumference”. Numbers gives the following as mistakes arising from conflict theory that have gained widespread currency: “the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages”, “the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science”, and “the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of the natural sciences”. Some Christian writers, notably Reijer Hooykaas and Stanley Jaki, have argued that Christianity was important, if not essential, for the rise of modern science. Lindberg and Numbers, however, see this apologetical writing which lacks in careful historical study and overstates the case for such a connection.

Research on perceptions of science among the American public concludes that most religious groups see no general epistemological conflict with science, and that they have no differences with nonreligious groups in propensity to seek out scientific knowledge, although there are often epistemic or moral conflicts when scientists make counterclaims to religious tenets. The Pew Center made similar findings and also noted that the majority of Americans (80–90 per cent) strongly support scientific research, agree that science makes society and individual’s lives better, and 8 in 10 Americans would be happy if their children were to become scientists. Even strict creationists tend to express very favorable views towards science. A study of US college students concluded that the majority of undergraduates in both the natural and social sciences do not see conflict between science and religion. Another finding in the study was that it is more likely for students to move from a conflict perspective to an independence or collaboration perspective than vice versa.

Adapted from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Science and Religion: The Draper-White Conflict Thesis

Date Published

February 14, 2020

History of Science

Science and Religion

Video transcript:.

(transcripción en español, aquí abajo)

Dr. Lawrence Principe: To find the origin of the conflict or warfare thesis for science and religion, we have to go to the late 19th century, particularly to two men. John William Draper, an English immigrant to the United States in the 1830’s, first president of the American Chemical Society, and an amateur historian; and Andrew Dixon White, a senator in the New York State Legislature and first president of Cornell University. Each of them wrote a book on the conflict, in the case of Draper, or the warfare of science and religion, in the case of White. They gave this historical view that science and religion have always been at odds. The impetus behind both of these is not particularly historical. It’s rooted in political and social events of the time. The real reason that White was writing, he says he was reacting against sectarian, that is, denominational Christian attacks, on the founding of Cornell University as a non-sectarian institution. The problem is that these attacks are actually rather difficult to identify what exactly they were, and if we scratch the surface, what we see is, in fact, political maneuvering and fighting over federal dollars.

Dr. Edward B. Davis: He tells Cornell at the time that he’s going to give his opponents a lesson which they will remember, so he goes on a crusade to paint the existing scholars and attitudes of the old liberal arts colleges, the denominational colleges, as backward and his own ideas as progressive. Draper has a somewhat different agenda. He does use the word “conflict” in the title of his book, but he’s not as focused on refuting traditional Christian theology. He simply wants to indict the Catholic Church for abuses of power.

Dr. Lawrence Principe: The problem with the books is that they’re terrible history. The historical facts – that’s very generous to call them facts – are cherry-picked or contorted, taken out of context in order to promote the authors’ main ideas about this perpetual warfare between science and religion. The word “scientist” is only created in the 1830’s. Draper and White are a part of this professionalization of the sciences, and so they’re carving out a niche, a social niche, a political niche, for the scientist, the person who does the sciences.

Dr. Edward B. Davis: The idea that science and religion have been always involved in this inevitable conflict is not true.

Dr. Lawrence Principe: Yet, the legacies of these two books, of these two men, are foundational. Journalists tend to take the Draper and White theses of conflict or warfare between science and religion as the fundamental starting point for everything else. So even 150 years after these books were published, and after a time when people no longer actually read them, they have given the stage directions, so to speak, for scientists and religionists to attack each other. The struggles are not really with each other, but with the difficulty of understanding. Once we realize that, I think we’ll have a much more positive alliance rather than warfare between the two. Without the detriment to either but the benefit to both.

La ciencia y la religión: La tesis del conflicto de Draper y White

Dr. Lawrence Principe: Para encontrar el origen del conflicto o de la tesis del conflicto entre la ciencia y la religión, tenemos que ir a los finales del siglo XIX, y en particular a dos hombres. John William Draper, un inmigrante inglés en los Estados Unidos en la década de 1830, primer presidente de la American Chemical Society, e historiador aficionado; y Andrew Dixon White, un senador de la legislatura del estado de Nueva York y primer presidente de la Universidad Cornell. Cada uno de ellos escribió un libro sobre el conflicto, en el caso de Draper, o la guerra entre la ciencia y la religión, en el caso de White. Nos dieron este punto de vista histórico de que la ciencia y la religión siempre han estado en desacuerdo. El ímpetu tras ambos no es tan histórico. Sus raíces son los eventos políticos y sociales de ese tiempo. La verdadera razón por la que White escribía, él dice que esa era su reacción contra el sectarismo, es decir, los ataques de cristianos denominacionales, debido a haberse fundado la Universidad Cornell como una institución no sectaria. El problema es que estos ataques son, en realidad, un poco difíciles de identificarlos, lo que fueron exactamente, y si arañamos la superficie, lo que vemos es, en realidad, maniobras políticas y peleas sobre dinero federal.

Dr. Edward B. Davis: Él dice a Cornell que le va a dar a sus opositores una lección que recordarán, así que se pone la misión de pintar a los eruditos de su tiempo y las actitudes de las universidades liberales antiguas, las universidades denominacionales, como atrasadas, y sus propias ideas como progresivas. Draper tiene un plan algo diferente. Sí utiliza la palabra “conflicto” en el título de su libro, pero no se enfoca tanto en refutar la teología cristiana tradicional. Sencillamente quiere acusar a la Iglesia Católica por sus abusos del poder.

Dr. Lawrence Principe: El problema con los libros es que son terribles en cuanto a historia. Los hechos históricos–es muy generoso llamarles “hechos” han sido escogidos cuidadosamente o torcidos, sacadas fuera de contexto con el fin de promover las principales ideas del autor sobre esta lucha perpetua entre la ciencia y la religión. La palabra “científico” solo fue creada en la década de 1830. Draper y White son parte de esta profesionalización de las ciencias, y por eso están creando un campo, un campo social, un campo político, para el científico, la persona que se dedica a la ciencia.

Dr. Edward B. Davis: La idea de que la ciencia y la religión siempre han estado envueltas en este conflicto inevitable no es cierta.

Dr. Lawrence Principe: Sin embargo, el legado de estos dos libros, de estos dos hombres, son fundamentales. Los periodistas tienden a tomar las tesis de conflicto o guerra entre la ciencia y la religión como el punto de partida fundamental para todo lo demás. Así que aun 150 años después de haberse publicado estos libros, y después de un tiempo en el cual las personas ya no los leen, han provisto las instrucciones del guion, por así decir, para que los científicos y los religiosos se ataquen los unos a los otros. Las luchas no son en realidad entre ellos mismos, sino con la dificultad de poder entenderse. Cuando nos demos cuenta de eso, creo que tendremos una alianza mucho más positiva, en vez de guerra entre los dos, sin perjuicio para ninguno de los dos, pero con beneficios para ambos.

There is a popular conception that the historical relationship between science and religion has always been one of conflict or even all-out warfare. Historians of science call this the “conflict thesis.” In this short film, historians of science Dr. Lawrence Principe and Dr. Edward Davis examine the roots and social context of the conflict thesis. They explain that the conflict thesis can be traced primarily to the popular works of two 19th century Americans: John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White.

Featured Scholars:

Dr. Lawrence M. Principe is the Drew Professor of the Humanities at Johns Hopkins University in the Department of History of Science and Technology and the Department of Chemistry. He is author of The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2011). Dr. Edward (Ted) Davis is Professor of the History of Science at Messiah College in Mechanicsburg, PA. He is co-editor (with Michael Hunter) of The Works of Robert Boyle (Taylor & Francis, 2000).

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The “Conflict Thesis” of Science and Religion: a Nexus of Philosophy of Science, Metaphysics, and Philosophy of Religion

2017, Journal of Biblical and Theological Studies

The idea of inevitable and perpetual conflict between science and religion is known among historians as the “conflict thesis.” It exploded in popularity in the late nineteenth century with the rise of the Victorian scientific naturalists to positions of leadership in prominent scientific institutions. A common misperception exists concerning the two authors most central to the widespread dissemination and lasting popularity of the conflict thesis: John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White. This misperception assumes that because Draper and White pitted science and religion at odds, they were not themselves theologically engaged. On the contrary, Draper and White held very specific theological views and championed them in their written works. Like others at the time, they shaped their theology to conform to their vision of science, a vision articulated by scientific naturalism, with its commitments to inviolable natural laws and nature as a closed system of physical causes. They viewed their theologies as the solutions that would bring peace in the conflict between science and religion. Since the commitments shared by the Victorian scientific naturalists remain central in science as it is conceived to the present day, the theological adjustments to accommodate them also continue. To understand the work of Draper, White, and other leading Victorian scientific naturalists offers valuable insight into the nexus of philosophy of science, metaphysics, and philosophy of religion both in the late nineteenth century and in the ongoing scholarly discussion of divine action today.

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Clinton Ohlers

A review essay of Peter Harrison's The Territories of Science and Religion. In addition to summarizing this important book, I provide extended critique of Harrison's argument for religion as a reification in the seventeenth century. Particular emphasis is paid to Harrison's proposal of the existence of a primarily non-propositional concept of religion. Since writing this, Peter engaged in a two-hour recorded exchange to appear in Fides et Historia.

Russell Re Manning

Review of Peter Harrison's excellent volume that not only introduces and makes important contributions to a series of key issues within science and religion but also serves to stimulate further reflection on the complex ways in which the relations between science and religion have and ought to be characterised. Both are clearly urgent, with the latter of particular relevance in an intellectual landscape that is still largely dominated by either/or narratives of militantly atheistic scientists locked in a perpetual battle with gleefully anti-scientific religious believers. Time and time again Harrison’s contributors reject such antagonistic ‘conflict’ models of either science or religion, along with the related ‘independence’ model that affirms that science and religion should never be brought into conjunction with one another, but rather stand apart in sealed-off isolation one from the other (a position most commonly associated with the palaeontologist Stephen Jay Gould’s notion of ‘non-overlapping magisteria’). Both models, conflict and independence, are critiqued as over-simplifying the rich patterns of relations between science and religion – historically and philosophically, as well as scientifically and religiously – and, crucially, as avoiding the really interesting questions raised by the unavoidable, and one should say generally unlamentable, conjunction of science and religion in contemporary intellectual life. Few would dispute the centrality of science, and the natural sciences in particular, to our intellectual landscape and to our lives more widely; notwithstanding some of the wilder claims of postmodern philosophy, ours truly is an “Age of Science.” And yet (in a theme explored by John Hedley Brooke in his chapter ‘Science and Secularization’), it is equally apparent that religion has not gone away: our Age of Science has turned out to be very different from the ‘secular millennium,’ such as that predicted by the anthropologist of religion Anthony Wallace when he wrote in 1966 that “belief in supernatural powers is doomed to die out, all over the world, as a result of the increasing adequacy and diffusion of scientific knowledge” (cited by Brooke, 106). For better or for worse, it is – and as the essays with an historical focus emphasise – always was “science and religion”, and this collection serves as an outstanding companion to the rich variety of ways in which this conjunctive relation can and has been negotiated.

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Andrew Ter Ern Loke

Despite various criticisms and alternative proposals, Barbour's fourfold taxonomy has continued to serve as an intuitive introduction to Science-Religion relations. I offer a new fourfold taxonomy-called the Four 'C's Taxonomy: Conflict, Compartmentalization, Conversation, and Convergence-which improves upon the pedagogical advantages of Barbour's taxonomy, and which avoids the weaknesses of alternative taxonomies. In addition, the new taxonomy addresses the objections against Barbour's taxonomy by distinguishing different aspects of science and religion as the relata, by clarifying the relations as perceived/expressed relations, and by demonstrating their relevance for the explanation of history and of other cultures.

Josh Reeves

Recent scholars have called into question the categories “science” and “religion” because they bring metaphysical and theological assumptions that theologians should find problematic. The critique of the categories “science” and “religion” has above all been associated with Peter Harrison and his influential argument in The Territories of Science and Religion (2015). This article evaluates the philosophical conclusions that Harrison draws from his antiessentialist philosophy in the two volumes associated with his “After Science and Religion Project.” I argue that Harrison's project is too skeptical toward the categories “science” and “religion” and places too much emphasis on naturalism being incompatible with Christian theology. One can accept the lessons of antiessentialism—above all, how meanings of terms shift over time—and still use the terms “science” and “religion” in responsible ways. This article defends the basic impulse of most scholars in science and religion who promote dialogue and argues for a more moderate reading of the lesson of Territories.

Egil Asprem

This paper engages in a revisionist reading of Max Weber's notion of disenchantment, and the lesser known concept of an "intellectual sacrifice". It argues that Weber's original formulations of disenchantment as a process has occludes and delegitimises certain important cultural trends in the borderlands between science and religion in modernity. The implications are discussed with examples from early twentieth century science, and the attempt to create a new "natural theology" in this period.

St Andrew Encyclopaedia of Theology

Peter Harrison

This entry offers a history of the different ways in which the formal study of the natural world has been related to theological considerations in the Western Christian tradition. Because what counts as science and what counts as theology has changed over time, it begins with a history of the concepts 'theology' and 'science' and the bearing of these conceptual shifts on their relationship. This is followed by a general account of the kinds of relations obtained between science and theology in different periods from antiquity to the present. A final section deals with three recurring issues that also exemplify some general principles.

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History of Science and the ‘Conflict Thesis’

by Jeroen Bouterse

The Conflict Thesis spills over into historical, cultural, and psychological ideas. This is precisely why it is ideologically relevant: the argument that religious faith engenders a habit of slavish unreason and deference to authority is a way of demonstrating that religion is incompatible with modern enlightened citizenship. Though atheists sometimes broaden the argument to say that faith in human despots counts as a ‘religion’ as well, the modern Conflict Thesis usually defines religion in terms of belief in God. God doesn’t exist, so belief in him is the paradigmatic case of belief in the absence of evidence. This distinguishes the modern Conflict Thesis from the classical 19 th -century arguments to which historians often trace it: John William Draper’s History of the Conflict between Religion and Science , and Andrew Dickson White’s History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom . These works were not anti-theistic but anti-Catholic (Draper) or intended as an attack on religious sectarianism and a defense of proper religion (White).

The Conflict Thesis is, in all its forms, widely discredited among historians. One reason for this, no doubt, is simply the complexity of the history of both science and religion. Another reason is the fact that the birth of modern science took place in a world where everyone (almost literally everyone) was a theist. How could science, taken as the opposite of religion, have developed at all if virtually everyone in Europe was infected with what is by definition the most anti-scientific form of religiosity?

However, a defender of the Conflict Thesis might ask: isn’t the history of science, especially during the scientific revolution of the 17 th century, littered with episodes of conflict between science and religion? That conflicts took place is without question; however, the question is what they were conflicts between. They usually represent something different than the Conflict Thesis, especially in its most recent form, predicts.

A particularly alienating feature of late medieval and early modern thought is that when someone came up with an innovation in the study of nature, its implications for the Eucharist could count as a major objection. The Catholic doctrine that during the ritual of the Eucharist, the bread and wine ‘transubstantiate’ to the body and blood of Christ (they actually change into a different kind of thing) without losing their ‘accidental’ qualities (such as taste or texture), was a key dogma that the Church guarded zealously. When atomists undermined the metaphysical distinction between ‘substance’ and ‘accident’, or when mathematicians seemed to underpin such atomism by starting to talk about ‘indivisibles’, or when Descartes argued that matter was exhaustively described by its spatial extension, Catholic theologians – the Jesuits in particular – got nervous.

When we see medieval and early modern theologians get nervous over scientific development, it’s almost never because they fear a challenge to theism ; it’s because they see in them the roots of heresy . Even accusations of ‘atheism’ were often unequivocally intended not as accusations of denial of God’s existence, but of heterodoxy. Descartes himself (who famously proved the existence of God to his own satisfaction right after demonstrating his own existence) was, naturally, more optimistic about the implications of his system of nature for the Eucharist. He extensively wrote about it to his friend Antoine Arnauld, an expert theologian whom he convinced of his view that his philosophy still allowed for the body of Christ to taste like bread – provided the bread particles retained their original surface after transubstantiation.

If we interpret theological objections to certain theories in terms of a general conflict between science and religion, then, we are actually buying into rather conservative views on theological orthodoxy. That’s fine, of course: had we lived in the 17 th century, maybe we would have judged that the more conservative theologians were right and Descartes’ theory was less favorable to the dogma of transubstantiation than were common versions of Aristotelianism. In that case, we could reasonably conclude that we have here indeed a case of scientific developments challenging religious orthodoxy. However, our judgment on the harmony or conflict between theory X and dogma Y in the context of 17 th -century background knowledge Z will hinge on a lot of technicalities of early modern thought that render it very problematic to expand our conclusions to science and religion in general .

Conclusions about science and theism fare particularly bad, for theism and atheism were not even fault lines in 17 th -century philosophical and ideological debates. In a world where everybody is a theist, belief in God is not a predictor of your psychological propensities and of your philosophical or ideological attitudes. In the 21 st century, now that atheism as a worldview and as a movement is on offer on the market of ideas together with a lot of other live options, buying into it may reflect and strengthen certain preferences. But this – and that is the whole point – is a historical and contingent fact, not a necessary one.

History shows that what it means to be a theist or an atheist is a matter of historical or social context and human individuality, not of a binary logical scheme that says that if you believe in God then all your thinking is necessarily infected by ‘faith’. This is not to say that belief in God is equally reasonable as disbelief or agnosticism. The Conflict Thesis as spelled out above is not evidence in favor of atheism; in assuming that theism requires belief in the absence of evidence, it assumes atheism rather than proving it. It is perfectly well possible to defend atheism without any reference to the Conflict Thesis or similar arguments. Dismissing the Conflict Thesis on historical grounds is not a way of closing down the debate, but only of ridding it of spurious arguments.

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Of Popes and Unicorns: Science, Christianity, and How the Conflict Thesis Fooled the World

Science Writer and Fellow

Historian in Residence, George L. Mosse Program in History

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This book is a popular-level study of the conflict thesis: the notion that science and religion have been at war with each other throughout history, and that humanity must ultimately make its choice between the two. The origins of the conflict thesis are usually given as two works by nineteenth-century Americans, John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, who wrote History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1876) and A History of the Warfare Between Science and Theology in Christendom (1896), respectively. In these volumes, Draper and White relate stories such as the Church’s suppression of the sphericity of the Earth and of heliocentrism; its banning of dissection, anesthetic, and inoculation; its persecution of scientists; its dedication to irrationality in the face of reason; and much more. Yet their thesis has been thoroughly debunked in the literature, and their tales largely found to be myths. Despite this, they still circulate today, and many still believe that we must pick a side: God or science. This book uses accessible stories and anecdotes to analyze Draper, White, their true motivations, their books, their thorough debunking, the modern persistence of their flawed views, and the possibility of moving beyond them—toward true reconciliation. It is a history of science and religion, and of how, despite the common acceptance of the contrary, the latter has actually been of great benefit to the former. Rumors of a centuries-old war between God and science, it turns out, have been greatly exaggerated.

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Discourse and Conflict

Analysing Text and Talk of Conflict, Hate and Peace-building

© 2021
Innocent Chiluwa ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4420-9709 0

Department of Languages and General Studies, Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria

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Identifies a research gap between examples of radical disagreement and most forms of discourse analysis across the social sciences

Showcases how approaches in discourse analysis may advance research into media and political language within the context of conflict and conflict resolution

Understands "conflict" as synonymous with war and defined in terms of opposing interests that graduate from disagreement to hostility or aggression between groups

Includes a Preface by Teun A. van Dijk

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Table of contents (16 chapters)

Front matter, introduction: discourse, conflict and conflict resolution.

Innocent Chiluwa

The Language of Conflict

Taking radical disagreement seriously: filling the discourse analytic gap in the study of intractable asymmetric conflicts.

Oliver Ramsbotham

Language in the Service of Lawfare: The “Working Definition of Antisemitism” of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance

Susan Blackwell

Metaphors of Intolerance: A Comparative Analysis between the Speeches and Cartoons of Jair Bolsonaro and Donald Trump on Immigration

Argus Romero Abreu de Morais, Luciane Corrêa Ferreira

Hate Speech in Online and Offline Media

How do haters hate verbal aggression in lithuanian online comments.

Jūratė Ruzaitė

Different Shades of Hate: The Grey Zone between Offensive and Discriminatory Language in the Social Media Accounts of Flemish Politicians

Martina Temmerman, Raymond Harder

Reframing Hate: From Disaffected Young Men to Domestic Terrorists

Federica Fornaciari, Laine Goldman

Communicating Hate on YouTube: The Macedonian Identity in Focus

Minos-Athanasios Karyotakis

“Who Wants to Sterilise the Sinhalese?” A Discourse-Historical Analysis of Extreme Speech Online in Post-War Sri Lanka

Carmen Aguilera-Carnerero

Facebook Comments on the “Refugee Crisis”: Discursive Strategies to Legitimise Hate Speech Online

Dario Lucchesi

Discourse and Peace-Building

Positioning the voices of conflict: language manipulation in the diálogos de paz.

Lawrence N. Berlin

Building Bridges after a Riot: Talking toward Mutual Understanding following Charlottesville

Linda Doornbosch, Mark van Vuuren

Person-to-Person Peacebuilding through Intercultural Communication: Discourse Analysis of an Online Intercultural Service-Learning Project with Afghanistan

Amy Jo Minett, Sarah E. Dietrich, Didem Ekici

Talk and Action as Discourse in UN Military Observer Course: Routines and Practices of Navigation

Iira Rautiainen

An Analysis of Public Discourse on Albania’s Transitional Justice System

Islam Jusufi, Ralf K. Wüstenberg, Alban Nako, Niuton Mulleti, Ines Stasa, Salih Özcan et al.
Discourse Analysis
service-learning
transitional justice
language manipulation
extreme speech
refugee crisis
domestic terrorism
discrimination
intolerance
online media
antisemitism

About this book

“This book needs to be in the hands of anybody who is, has been, or is going to be a practitioner and/or theoretician working in the vast terrain where the struggle for individual freedom, joined with collective collaboration, is going on. In particular, this collection singles out some of the most vulnerable sections and notable flashpoints of contended zones in that struggle, and places itself where it is most needed: the emancipation and strengthening of the most seriously underprivileged and oppressed participants.”

“This collection presents an impressive line-up of up-to-date case studies on conflict rhetoric, covering several major world regions and assembling an equally diverse range of contributors. The perceptive analyses on display here deserve a wide hearing in the international community of discourse analysts and scholars of conflict and peace studies.”

- Christian Mair , University of Freiburg, Germany

“This is a fantastic and timely contribution to the field. It has a unique multi-level approach to discourses of conflict, and its focus on resolution. The book enjoys a truly international cast of lively contributors.”

Editors and Affiliations

About the editor, bibliographic information.

Book Title : Discourse and Conflict

Book Subtitle : Analysing Text and Talk of Conflict, Hate and Peace-building

Editors : Innocent Chiluwa

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76485-2

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Social Sciences , Social Sciences (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-76484-5 Published: 23 September 2021

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-76487-6 Published: 24 September 2022

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-76485-2 Published: 22 September 2021

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXVI, 454

Number of Illustrations : 10 b/w illustrations

Topics : Applied Linguistics , International Relations , Intercultural Communication , Social Sciences, general , International Security Studies

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Writing a Paper: Thesis Statements

Basics of thesis statements.

The thesis statement is the brief articulation of your paper's central argument and purpose. You might hear it referred to as simply a "thesis." Every scholarly paper should have a thesis statement, and strong thesis statements are concise, specific, and arguable. Concise means the thesis is short: perhaps one or two sentences for a shorter paper. Specific means the thesis deals with a narrow and focused topic, appropriate to the paper's length. Arguable means that a scholar in your field could disagree (or perhaps already has!).

Strong thesis statements address specific intellectual questions, have clear positions, and use a structure that reflects the overall structure of the paper. Read on to learn more about constructing a strong thesis statement.

Being Specific

This thesis statement has no specific argument:

Needs Improvement: In this essay, I will examine two scholarly articles to find similarities and differences.

This statement is concise, but it is neither specific nor arguable—a reader might wonder, "Which scholarly articles? What is the topic of this paper? What field is the author writing in?" Additionally, the purpose of the paper—to "examine…to find similarities and differences" is not of a scholarly level. Identifying similarities and differences is a good first step, but strong academic argument goes further, analyzing what those similarities and differences might mean or imply.

Better: In this essay, I will argue that Bowler's (2003) autocratic management style, when coupled with Smith's (2007) theory of social cognition, can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover.

The new revision here is still concise, as well as specific and arguable. We can see that it is specific because the writer is mentioning (a) concrete ideas and (b) exact authors. We can also gather the field (business) and the topic (management and employee turnover). The statement is arguable because the student goes beyond merely comparing; he or she draws conclusions from that comparison ("can reduce the expenses associated with employee turnover").

Making a Unique Argument

This thesis draft repeats the language of the writing prompt without making a unique argument:

Needs Improvement: The purpose of this essay is to monitor, assess, and evaluate an educational program for its strengths and weaknesses. Then, I will provide suggestions for improvement.

You can see here that the student has simply stated the paper's assignment, without articulating specifically how he or she will address it. The student can correct this error simply by phrasing the thesis statement as a specific answer to the assignment prompt.

Better: Through a series of student interviews, I found that Kennedy High School's antibullying program was ineffective. In order to address issues of conflict between students, I argue that Kennedy High School should embrace policies outlined by the California Department of Education (2010).

Words like "ineffective" and "argue" show here that the student has clearly thought through the assignment and analyzed the material; he or she is putting forth a specific and debatable position. The concrete information ("student interviews," "antibullying") further prepares the reader for the body of the paper and demonstrates how the student has addressed the assignment prompt without just restating that language.

Creating a Debate

This thesis statement includes only obvious fact or plot summary instead of argument:

Needs Improvement: Leadership is an important quality in nurse educators.

A good strategy to determine if your thesis statement is too broad (and therefore, not arguable) is to ask yourself, "Would a scholar in my field disagree with this point?" Here, we can see easily that no scholar is likely to argue that leadership is an unimportant quality in nurse educators. The student needs to come up with a more arguable claim, and probably a narrower one; remember that a short paper needs a more focused topic than a dissertation.

Better: Roderick's (2009) theory of participatory leadership is particularly appropriate to nurse educators working within the emergency medicine field, where students benefit most from collegial and kinesthetic learning.

Here, the student has identified a particular type of leadership ("participatory leadership"), narrowing the topic, and has made an arguable claim (this type of leadership is "appropriate" to a specific type of nurse educator). Conceivably, a scholar in the nursing field might disagree with this approach. The student's paper can now proceed, providing specific pieces of evidence to support the arguable central claim.

Choosing the Right Words

This thesis statement uses large or scholarly-sounding words that have no real substance:

Needs Improvement: Scholars should work to seize metacognitive outcomes by harnessing discipline-based networks to empower collaborative infrastructures.

There are many words in this sentence that may be buzzwords in the student's field or key terms taken from other texts, but together they do not communicate a clear, specific meaning. Sometimes students think scholarly writing means constructing complex sentences using special language, but actually it's usually a stronger choice to write clear, simple sentences. When in doubt, remember that your ideas should be complex, not your sentence structure.

Better: Ecologists should work to educate the U.S. public on conservation methods by making use of local and national green organizations to create a widespread communication plan.

Notice in the revision that the field is now clear (ecology), and the language has been made much more field-specific ("conservation methods," "green organizations"), so the reader is able to see concretely the ideas the student is communicating.

Leaving Room for Discussion

This thesis statement is not capable of development or advancement in the paper:

Needs Improvement: There are always alternatives to illegal drug use.

This sample thesis statement makes a claim, but it is not a claim that will sustain extended discussion. This claim is the type of claim that might be appropriate for the conclusion of a paper, but in the beginning of the paper, the student is left with nowhere to go. What further points can be made? If there are "always alternatives" to the problem the student is identifying, then why bother developing a paper around that claim? Ideally, a thesis statement should be complex enough to explore over the length of the entire paper.

Better: The most effective treatment plan for methamphetamine addiction may be a combination of pharmacological and cognitive therapy, as argued by Baker (2008), Smith (2009), and Xavier (2011).

In the revised thesis, you can see the student make a specific, debatable claim that has the potential to generate several pages' worth of discussion. When drafting a thesis statement, think about the questions your thesis statement will generate: What follow-up inquiries might a reader have? In the first example, there are almost no additional questions implied, but the revised example allows for a good deal more exploration.

Thesis Mad Libs

If you are having trouble getting started, try using the models below to generate a rough model of a thesis statement! These models are intended for drafting purposes only and should not appear in your final work.

In this essay, I argue ____, using ______ to assert _____.
While scholars have often argued ______, I argue______, because_______.
Through an analysis of ______, I argue ______, which is important because_______.

Words to Avoid and to Embrace

When drafting your thesis statement, avoid words like explore, investigate, learn, compile, summarize , and explain to describe the main purpose of your paper. These words imply a paper that summarizes or "reports," rather than synthesizing and analyzing.

Instead of the terms above, try words like argue, critique, question , and interrogate . These more analytical words may help you begin strongly, by articulating a specific, critical, scholarly position.

Read Kayla's blog post for tips on taking a stand in a well-crafted thesis statement.

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In philosophy, the triad of thesis, antithesis, synthesis (German: These, Antithese, Synthese; originally: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis) is a progression of three ideas or propositions. The first idea, the thesis, is a formal statement illustrating a point; it is followed by the second idea, the antithesis, that contradicts or negates the first; and lastly, the third idea, the synthesis, resolves the conflict between the thesis and antithesis. It is often used to explain the dialectical method of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, but Hegel never used the terms himself; instead his triad was concrete, abstract, absolute. The thesis, antithesis, synthesis triad actually originated with Johann Fichte.

1. History of the Idea

Thomas McFarland (2002), in his Prolegomena to Coleridge's Opus Maximum , [ 1 ] identifies Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (1781) as the genesis of the thesis/antithesis dyad. Kant concretises his ideas into:

Thesis: "The world has a beginning in time, and is limited with regard to space."
Antithesis: "The world has no beginning and no limits in space, but is infinite, in respect to both time and space."

Inasmuch as conjectures like these can be said to be resolvable, Fichte's Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre ( Foundations of the Science of Knowledge , 1794) resolved Kant's dyad by synthesis, posing the question thus: [ 1 ]

No synthesis is possible without a preceding antithesis. As little as antithesis without synthesis, or synthesis without antithesis, is possible; just as little possible are both without thesis.

Fichte employed the triadic idea "thesis–antithesis–synthesis" as a formula for the explanation of change. [ 2 ] Fichte was the first to use the trilogy of words together, [ 3 ] in his Grundriss des Eigentümlichen der Wissenschaftslehre, in Rücksicht auf das theoretische Vermögen (1795, Outline of the Distinctive Character of the Wissenschaftslehre with respect to the Theoretical Faculty ): "Die jetzt aufgezeigte Handlung ist thetisch, antithetisch und synthetisch zugleich." ["The action here described is simultaneously thetic, antithetic, and synthetic." [ 4 ] ]

Still according to McFarland, Schelling then, in his Vom Ich als Prinzip der Philosophie (1795), arranged the terms schematically in pyramidal form.

According to Walter Kaufmann (1966), although the triad is often thought to form part of an analysis of historical and philosophical progress called the Hegelian dialectic, the assumption is erroneous: [ 5 ]

Whoever looks for the stereotype of the allegedly Hegelian dialectic in Hegel's Phenomenology will not find it. What one does find on looking at the table of contents is a very decided preference for triadic arrangements. ... But these many triads are not presented or deduced by Hegel as so many theses, antitheses, and syntheses. It is not by means of any dialectic of that sort that his thought moves up the ladder to absolute knowledge.

Gustav E. Mueller (1958) concurs that Hegel was not a proponent of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis, and clarifies what the concept of dialectic might have meant in Hegel's thought. [ 6 ]

"Dialectic" does not for Hegel mean "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis." Dialectic means that any "ism" – which has a polar opposite, or is a special viewpoint leaving "the rest" to itself – must be criticized by the logic of philosophical thought, whose problem is reality as such, the "World-itself".

According to Mueller, the attribution of this tripartite dialectic to Hegel is the result of "inept reading" and simplistic translations which do not take into account the genesis of Hegel's terms:

Hegel's greatness is as indisputable as his obscurity. The matter is due to his peculiar terminology and style; they are undoubtedly involved and complicated, and seem excessively abstract. These linguistic troubles, in turn, have given rise to legends which are like perverse and magic spectacles – once you wear them, the text simply vanishes. Theodor Haering's monumental and standard work has for the first time cleared up the linguistic problem. By carefully analyzing every sentence from his early writings, which were published only in this century, he has shown how Hegel's terminology evolved – though it was complete when he began to publish. Hegel's contemporaries were immediately baffled, because what was clear to him was not clear to his readers, who were not initiated into the genesis of his terms. An example of how a legend can grow on inept reading is this: Translate "Begriff" by "concept," "Vernunft" by "reason" and "Wissenschaft" by "science" – and they are all good dictionary translations – and you have transformed the great critic of rationalism and irrationalism into a ridiculous champion of an absurd pan-logistic rationalism and scientism. The most vexing and devastating Hegel legend is that everything is thought in "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis." [ 7 ]

Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) adopted and extended the triad, especially in Marx's The Poverty of Philosophy (1847). Here, in Chapter 2, Marx is obsessed by the word "thesis"; [ 8 ] it forms an important part of the basis for the Marxist theory of history. [ 9 ]

2. Writing Pedagogy

In modern times, the dialectic of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis has been implemented across the world as a strategy for organizing expositional writing. For example, this technique is taught as a basic organizing principle in French schools: [ 10 ]

The French learn to value and practice eloquence from a young age. Almost from day one, students are taught to produce plans for their compositions, and are graded on them. The structures change with fashions. Youngsters were once taught to express a progression of ideas. Now they follow a dialectic model of thesis-antithesis-synthesis. If you listen carefully to the French arguing about any topic they all follow this model closely: they present an idea, explain possible objections to it, and then sum up their conclusions. ... This analytical mode of reasoning is integrated into the entire school corpus.

Thesis, Antithesis, and Synthesis has also been used as a basic scheme to organize writing in the English language. For example, the website WikiPreMed.com advocates the use of this scheme in writing timed essays for the MCAT standardized test: [ 11 ]

For the purposes of writing MCAT essays, the dialectic describes the progression of ideas in a critical thought process that is the force driving your argument. A good dialectical progression propels your arguments in a way that is satisfying to the reader. The thesis is an intellectual proposition. The antithesis is a critical perspective on the thesis. The synthesis solves the conflict between the thesis and antithesis by reconciling their common truths, and forming a new proposition.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Opus Maximum. Princeton University Press, 2002, p. 89.
Harry Ritter, Dictionary of Concepts in History. Greenwood Publishing Group (1986), p.114
Williams, Robert R. (1992). Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other. SUNY Press. p. 46, note 37.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb; Breazeale, Daniel (1993). Fichte: Early Philosophical Writings. Cornell University Press. p. 249.
Walter Kaufmann (1966). "§ 37". Hegel: A Reinterpretation. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-268-01068-3. OCLC 3168016. https://archive.org/details/hegelreinterpret00kauf.
Mueller, Gustav (1958). "The Hegel Legend of "Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis"". Journal of the History of Ideas 19 (4): 411–414. doi:10.2307/2708045. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2708045
Mueller 1958, p. 411.
marxists.org: Chapter 2 of "The Poverty of Philosophy", by Karl Marx https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/poverty-philosophy/ch02.htm
Shrimp, Kaleb (2009). "The Validity of Karl Marx's Theory of Historical Materialism". Major Themes in Economics 11 (1): 35–56. https://scholarworks.uni.edu/mtie/vol11/iss1/5/. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
Nadeau, Jean-Benoit; Barlow, Julie (2003). Sixty Million Frenchmen Can't Be Wrong: Why We Love France But Not The French. Sourcebooks, Inc.. p. 62. https://archive.org/details/sixtymillionfren00nade_041.
"The MCAT writing assignment.". Wisebridge Learning Systems, LLC. http://www.wikipremed.com/mcat_essay.php. Retrieved 1 November 2015.

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Home > School, College, or Department > CLAS > Conflict Resolution > Theses

Conflict Resolution Masters Theses

Theses/dissertations from 2022 2022.

The Rise of Neo-Fascist Populism and Islamophobia in the West , Mohamed Tawfiq Said Tabib

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Competing Narratives: the Struggle for the Soul of Egypt , Ahmed El Mansouri

Trailblazing Transformation: Pioneering Transformative Peacebuilding in Academic Labor Conflicts , Sam Frazier Hediger

The Rise of Mono-Ethnic Religious Nationalism in Myanmar and Its Impacts on the Security Situation of the South Asian Region , S M Anisuz Zaman

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Explaining the Sectarian Violence in the Middle East: a Conflict Analysis of the Case Study of Saudi Arabia and Iran , Ahmed Elsayed Eltally

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Impact of the Refugee Crisis on the European Union , Andreea Elena Galan

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

What is the Nature of the Conflict Experienced by Japanese Workers in International Companies Based in Japan and What Type of Conflict Management Do They Access? , Tomoko Shinohara Le

The Function of Religion in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict , Stephanie Claire Mitchell

Holocaust, Memory, Second-Generation, and Conflict Resolution , Leslie O'Donoghue

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

National Security, Mass Surveillance, and Citizen Rights under Conditions of Protracted Warfare , Krystal Lynn Conniry

Intrastate Armed Conflict and Peacebuilding in Nepal: An Assessment of the Political and Economic Agency of Women , Gyanu Gautam Luintel

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Nationalism in United States Foreign Policy in the Post 9/11 Era , Chris W. Baum

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Impact of Economic Integration within the European Union as a Factor in Conflict Transformation and Peace-Building , John Umo Ette

Dialogue in Identity-Based Conflict (Study of Intergroup-Dialogue with University Students) , Lisha Shrestha

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Music and Conflict Resolution: Can a Music and Story Centered Workshop Enhance Empathy? , Parfait Adegboyé Bassalé

Postwar Reconstruction in Liberia: The Participation and Recognition of Women in Politics in Liberia , Roland Tuwea Clarke

Why Occupy?: Principal Reasons for Participant Involvement in Occupy Portland , Danielle Filecia

Here, We Are Walking on a Clothesline: Statelessness and Human (In)Security Among Burmese Women Political Exiles Living in Thailand , Elizabeth Hooker

Cultural Behavior in Post-Urbanized Brazil: The Cordial Man and Intrafamilial Conflict , Thais La Rosa

Track I Diplomacy and Civil Society in Cyprus: Reconciliation and Peacebuilding During Negotiations , Elicia Keren Reed

Conflict Resolution in Islam: Document Review of the Early Sources , Flamur Vehapi

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Perceptions and Voices of South Sudanese About the North-South Sudan Conflict , Machar Wek Aleu-Baak

The Challenges and Opportunities of Immigrant Integration: A Study of Turkish Immigrants in Germany , Matthew Franklin Clark

Perceptions of Peacebuilding and Multi-Track Collaboration in Divided Societies for a Sustainable Peace Agreement at the Political Level: A Case Study of Cyprus , Brooke Patricia Galloway

Conflict-Conditioned Communication: A Case Study of Communicative Relations between the United States and Iran from 2005-2008 , Erin Leigh McKee

The Cultural Barriers to Integration of Second Generation Muslims in Northern Italy , Joseph Anthony Migliore

Through the Eyes of Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots: The Perception of Cyprus , Mary N. Olin

Countering Structural Violence: Cultivating an Experience of Positive Peace , Carrie E. Stiles

Poverty and Conflict: A Self-Perpetuating Cycle in the Somali Regional State (Region 5), Ethiopia: 1960-2010 , Bisrat Teshome

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Creative Use of Dance/Movement Therapy Processes to Transform Intrapersonal Conflicts Associated with Sexual Trauma in Women , Emily Fern Dayton

Music and Conflict Resolution: Exploring the Utilization of Music in Community Engagement , Mindy Kay Johnston

Between Non-intervention and Protection: A study on the case of Darfur and the Responsibility to Protect , David Ryan Lucas

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

'Conflict Analysis:' Exploring the Role of Kuwait in Mediation in the Middle East , Abdullah R. Al Saleh

Red de Salud -- Network of health : structural violence, exclusion and inclusion in Venezuela , Steven John Bates

Sex Work and Moral Conflict: Enhancing the Quality of Public Discourse Using Photovoice Method , Crystal Renee Tenty

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Islamophobia and the U.S. Media , Michelle Maria Nichole Diamond

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

An Examination of Conflict Conversation in an Online Community: the Pie Fight at DailyKos.com , Samantha Isabella Soma

Theses/Dissertations from 2000 2000

Mediator Personality Type and Perceived Conflict Goals in Workplace Mediation: A Study of Shared Neutrals , Karin Alayne Waller

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Is the War in Israel a Sign of the End Times?

Cally Logan Author
Updated Apr 19, 2024

The End Times has become a topic of interest for many recently as the events happening in the Middle East appear to be the fulfillment of biblical prophecy. The intensifying violence, political turmoil, and war in Israel has led many to scrutinize biblical prophecies with renewed interest, searching for correlations between current events and scriptural predictions. News, social media platforms, and religious congregations are abuzz with discussions and speculations, as individuals grapple with the possibility that these events such as war in Israel, could be the preliminary signs of a larger, divinely orchestrated plan unfolding before their eyes.

The Bible lays out events, occurrences, and perimeters that must take place before Jesus returns again. That leads us to ask, is the war in Israel a sign of the End Times?

What and When Are the "End Times"?

This is vital for us to recognize not only the importance of how Jesus returned to Heaven, as He will return to Earth again one day, but also what is exceedingly important for us in the meantime. We are called to share the Good News of Christ and hold fast that He will indeed return. Since He left, the "end time clock" began. Therefore, we have been living in the End Times since Jesus returned to Heaven.

The Fulfillment of Israel Becoming a Nation Again

With the restoration of Israel as a nation many believers began to consider just what else was necessary before His return. This re-establishment is seen by many as a direct fulfillment of biblical prophecy, setting the stage for further prophetic events that must occur, leading to widespread speculation about the signs and the times that may herald the imminent return of Christ. Now let's tackle the idea of war in Israel as a sign of the End Times and return of Christ.

Gog and Magog Battles

The ongoing conflict in the Middle East and these alliances are seen by many believers as the precursors to the prophesied events leading to the return of Christ. Recent escalations in military confrontations in Israel, as seen in these frequent attacks, are particularly alarming to those who follow biblical prophecy closely. They argue that these developments are aligning with prophetic narratives that predict severe trials in Israel before the ultimate reconciliation and peace. The fact that war conflicts are escalating at a time when alliances between historical adversaries are solidifying adds further weight to their significance in prophetic discourse, stirring up intense discussions among the faithful about the proximity of the prophesied End Times.

Red Heifer and Other End Times Mysteries

Other signs aligned with the recent attacks and imminent war in Israel invite great suspicion that these are the events prophesied about. One is that of the red heifers , "A huge buzz reverberated worldwide the week of September 12, 2022, when five red heifers arrived in Israel." The Jerusalem Post described how a Christian farmer in Texas raised and shipped five unblemished red heifers to the Temple Institute in Jerusalem. The heifers were inspected and approved by Jewish rabbis. Upon the arrival of these five red heifers, a group of roughly 300 people welcomed them. One person blew the shofar, a horn used in Judaistic ceremonies. The red heifers are now secured on a farm in Haifa. "

This is something that has not been seen in 2,000 years. This matters to End Times prophecy as many believe Christ's return is imminent as the Red Heifer is important for the Third Temple. The Third Temple must be rebuilt before Christ's return. Another is that of the prophecy laid out in Zechariah 14:1-21 where attacks against Jerusalem would occur during the feast of Tabernacles, which occurred during the attacks on Israel back in October 2023. The verses also describe a curious plague that could potentially be telling of nuclear war to come. This is not to invoke fear but rather to be diligent in awareness of what is to come coinciding with what has already taken place.

RELATED PODCAST EPISODE:

What to Watch For As Conflict and War in Israel Unfolds

This vigilance involves not only recognizing these significant prophetic signs but also understanding their implications in the broader narrative of biblical prophecy. For Christians, being informed about the current events in Israel and how they correlate with prophecies involves continuous learning and engaging with both the scripture and reliable, scholarly interpretations that respect the historical and theological context of these predictions.

Awareness also means being prepared—spiritually, mentally, and practically—for the changes these prophetic fulfillments might bring. Christians are encouraged to maintain a posture of prayer and readiness, aligning their lives with God's will and purposes, and supporting each other in faith communities to stay watchful and hopeful as events continue to unfold. This preparation not only strengthens personal faith but also equips believers to offer reasoned, calm, and insightful perspectives in discussions about these often-misunderstood topics.

The Israel flag, American Jews Report Increasing Incidents of Anti-Semitism

Antisemitism in the End Times

The Bible shares there will be antisemitism happening in the final days as well. Zechariah 12:3 conveys, "Moreover, in that day I will make Jerusalem a massive stone for all the people. All who try to lift it will be cut to pieces. Nevertheless, all the nations of the earth will be gathered together against her."

In a time of immense division and conflict, there is a great rise in antisemitism and hatred of the Jewish people. As Christians, we must take the stand to stand with Israel, for the Jewish people are God's chosen nation. Deuteronomy 7:6 reminds us that Israel belongs to God, "For you are a people holy to the Lord your God. The Lord your God has chosen you out of all the peoples on the face of the earth to be his people, his treasured possession." As Christians, we must stand with God's chosen people and nation, even in the face of opposition.

In addition to supporting Israel, Christians are called to be peacemakers and bearers of hope during turbulent times. This includes praying fervently for peace in the region, advocating for justice and reconciliation, and providing support to those suffering the consequences of conflict. Engaging in informed, compassionate dialogue about the situation can help foster understanding and reduce the spread of misinformation and hate. Ultimately, by embodying the principles of love, mercy, and justice taught by Christ, believers can make a meaningful contribution to easing the tensions and paving the way for a more peaceful future.

What Should We Do?

As Christians, we should take this time to be intentional with sharing the gospel with those around us; we should continue to cultivate our own relationships with God and be diligent in prayer. This is not a time to fear; it is a time to live the life God has called us to live. Not even the Son knows the exact time He will return to Earth, but we can still be aware of these incredible prophecies coming to pass. Let it strengthen us that our faith is true and our God keeps His Word. Let us continue to pray for Israel in the days to come.

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What is a thesis | A Complete Guide with Examples

A thesis is a comprehensive academic paper based on your original research that presents new findings, arguments, and ideas of your study. It’s typically submitted at the end of your master’s degree or as a capstone of your bachelor’s degree.

However, writing a thesis can be laborious, especially for beginners. From the initial challenge of pinpointing a compelling research topic to organizing and presenting findings, the process is filled with potential pitfalls.

Therefore, to help you, this guide talks about what is a thesis. Additionally, it offers revelations and methodologies to transform it from an overwhelming task to a manageable and rewarding academic milestone.

What is a thesis?

A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic.

Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research, which not only fortifies your propositions but also confers credibility to your entire study.

Furthermore, there's another phenomenon you might often confuse with the thesis: the ' working thesis .' However, they aren't similar and shouldn't be used interchangeably.

A working thesis, often referred to as a preliminary or tentative thesis, is an initial version of your thesis statement. It serves as a draft or a starting point that guides your research in its early stages.

As you research more and gather more evidence, your initial thesis (aka working thesis) might change. It's like a starting point that can be adjusted as you learn more. It's normal for your main topic to change a few times before you finalize it.

While a thesis identifies and provides an overarching argument, the key to clearly communicating the central point of that argument lies in writing a strong thesis statement.

What is a thesis statement?

A strong thesis statement (aka thesis sentence) is a concise summary of the main argument or claim of the paper. It serves as a critical anchor in any academic work, succinctly encapsulating the primary argument or main idea of the entire paper.

Typically found within the introductory section, a strong thesis statement acts as a roadmap of your thesis, directing readers through your arguments and findings. By delineating the core focus of your investigation, it offers readers an immediate understanding of the context and the gravity of your study.

Furthermore, an effectively crafted thesis statement can set forth the boundaries of your research, helping readers anticipate the specific areas of inquiry you are addressing.

Different types of thesis statements

A good thesis statement is clear, specific, and arguable. Therefore, it is necessary for you to choose the right type of thesis statement for your academic papers.

Thesis statements can be classified based on their purpose and structure. Here are the primary types of thesis statements:

Argumentative (or Persuasive) thesis statement

Purpose : To convince the reader of a particular stance or point of view by presenting evidence and formulating a compelling argument.

Example : Reducing plastic use in daily life is essential for environmental health.

Analytical thesis statement

Purpose : To break down an idea or issue into its components and evaluate it.

Example : By examining the long-term effects, social implications, and economic impact of climate change, it becomes evident that immediate global action is necessary.

Expository (or Descriptive) thesis statement

Purpose : To explain a topic or subject to the reader.

Example : The Great Depression, spanning the 1930s, was a severe worldwide economic downturn triggered by a stock market crash, bank failures, and reduced consumer spending.

Cause and effect thesis statement

Purpose : To demonstrate a cause and its resulting effect.

Example : Overuse of smartphones can lead to impaired sleep patterns, reduced face-to-face social interactions, and increased levels of anxiety.

Compare and contrast thesis statement

Purpose : To highlight similarities and differences between two subjects.

Example : "While both novels '1984' and 'Brave New World' delve into dystopian futures, they differ in their portrayal of individual freedom, societal control, and the role of technology."

When you write a thesis statement , it's important to ensure clarity and precision, so the reader immediately understands the central focus of your work.

What is the difference between a thesis and a thesis statement?

While both terms are frequently used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

A thesis refers to the entire research document, encompassing all its chapters and sections. In contrast, a thesis statement is a brief assertion that encapsulates the central argument of the research.

Here’s an in-depth differentiation table of a thesis and a thesis statement.

Now, to craft a compelling thesis, it's crucial to adhere to a specific structure. Let’s break down these essential components that make up a thesis structure

15 components of a thesis structure

Navigating a thesis can be daunting. However, understanding its structure can make the process more manageable.

Here are the key components or different sections of a thesis structure:

Your thesis begins with the title page. It's not just a formality but the gateway to your research.

Here, you'll prominently display the necessary information about you (the author) and your institutional details.

Title of your thesis
Your full name
Your department
Your institution and degree program
Your submission date
Your Supervisor's name (in some cases)
Your Department or faculty (in some cases)
Your University's logo (in some cases)
Your Student ID (in some cases)

In a concise manner, you'll have to summarize the critical aspects of your research in typically no more than 200-300 words.

This includes the problem statement, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. For many, the abstract will determine if they delve deeper into your work, so ensure it's clear and compelling.

Acknowledgments

Research is rarely a solitary endeavor. In the acknowledgments section, you have the chance to express gratitude to those who've supported your journey.

This might include advisors, peers, institutions, or even personal sources of inspiration and support. It's a personal touch, reflecting the humanity behind the academic rigor.

A roadmap for your readers, the table of contents lists the chapters, sections, and subsections of your thesis.

By providing page numbers, you allow readers to navigate your work easily, jumping to sections that pique their interest.

List of figures and tables

Research often involves data, and presenting this data visually can enhance understanding. This section provides an organized listing of all figures and tables in your thesis.

It's a visual index, ensuring that readers can quickly locate and reference your graphical data.

Introduction

Here's where you introduce your research topic, articulate the research question or objective, and outline the significance of your study.

Present the research topic : Clearly articulate the central theme or subject of your research.
Background information : Ground your research topic, providing any necessary context or background information your readers might need to understand the significance of your study.
Define the scope : Clearly delineate the boundaries of your research, indicating what will and won't be covered.
Literature review : Introduce any relevant existing research on your topic, situating your work within the broader academic conversation and highlighting where your research fits in.
State the research Question(s) or objective(s) : Clearly articulate the primary questions or objectives your research aims to address.
Outline the study's structure : Give a brief overview of how the subsequent sections of your work will unfold, guiding your readers through the journey ahead.

The introduction should captivate your readers, making them eager to delve deeper into your research journey.

Literature review section

Your study correlates with existing research. Therefore, in the literature review section, you'll engage in a dialogue with existing knowledge, highlighting relevant studies, theories, and findings.

It's here that you identify gaps in the current knowledge, positioning your research as a bridge to new insights.

To streamline this process, consider leveraging AI tools. For example, the SciSpace literature review tool enables you to efficiently explore and delve into research papers, simplifying your literature review journey.

Methodology

In the research methodology section, you’ll detail the tools, techniques, and processes you employed to gather and analyze data. This section will inform the readers about how you approached your research questions and ensures the reproducibility of your study.

Here's a breakdown of what it should encompass:

Research Design : Describe the overall structure and approach of your research. Are you conducting a qualitative study with in-depth interviews? Or is it a quantitative study using statistical analysis? Perhaps it's a mixed-methods approach?
Data Collection : Detail the methods you used to gather data. This could include surveys, experiments, observations, interviews, archival research, etc. Mention where you sourced your data, the duration of data collection, and any tools or instruments used.
Sampling : If applicable, explain how you selected participants or data sources for your study. Discuss the size of your sample and the rationale behind choosing it.
Data Analysis : Describe the techniques and tools you used to process and analyze the data. This could range from statistical tests in quantitative research to thematic analysis in qualitative research.
Validity and Reliability : Address the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your findings to ensure that your results are both accurate and consistent.
Ethical Considerations : Highlight any ethical issues related to your research and the measures you took to address them, including — informed consent, confidentiality, and data storage and protection measures.

Moreover, different research questions necessitate different types of methodologies. For instance:

Experimental methodology : Often used in sciences, this involves a controlled experiment to discern causality.
Qualitative methodology : Employed when exploring patterns or phenomena without numerical data. Methods can include interviews, focus groups, or content analysis.
Quantitative methodology : Concerned with measurable data and often involves statistical analysis. Surveys and structured observations are common tools here.
Mixed methods : As the name implies, this combines both qualitative and quantitative methodologies.

The Methodology section isn’t just about detailing the methods but also justifying why they were chosen. The appropriateness of the methods in addressing your research question can significantly impact the credibility of your findings.

Results (or Findings)

This section presents the outcomes of your research. It's crucial to note that the nature of your results may vary; they could be quantitative, qualitative, or a mix of both.

Quantitative results often present statistical data, showcasing measurable outcomes, and they benefit from tables, graphs, and figures to depict these data points.

Qualitative results , on the other hand, might delve into patterns, themes, or narratives derived from non-numerical data, such as interviews or observations.

Regardless of the nature of your results, clarity is essential. This section is purely about presenting the data without offering interpretations — that comes later in the discussion.

In the discussion section, the raw data transforms into valuable insights.

Start by revisiting your research question and contrast it with the findings. How do your results expand, constrict, or challenge current academic conversations?

Dive into the intricacies of the data, guiding the reader through its implications. Detail potential limitations transparently, signaling your awareness of the research's boundaries. This is where your academic voice should be resonant and confident.

Practical implications (Recommendation) section

Based on the insights derived from your research, this section provides actionable suggestions or proposed solutions.

Whether aimed at industry professionals or the general public, recommendations translate your academic findings into potential real-world actions. They help readers understand the practical implications of your work and how it can be applied to effect change or improvement in a given field.

When crafting recommendations, it's essential to ensure they're feasible and rooted in the evidence provided by your research. They shouldn't merely be aspirational but should offer a clear path forward, grounded in your findings.

The conclusion provides closure to your research narrative.

It's not merely a recap but a synthesis of your main findings and their broader implications. Reconnect with the research questions or hypotheses posited at the beginning, offering clear answers based on your findings.

Reflect on the broader contributions of your study, considering its impact on the academic community and potential real-world applications.

Lastly, the conclusion should leave your readers with a clear understanding of the value and impact of your study.

References (or Bibliography)

Every theory you've expounded upon, every data point you've cited, and every methodological precedent you've followed finds its acknowledgment here.

In references, it's crucial to ensure meticulous consistency in formatting, mirroring the specific guidelines of the chosen citation style .

Proper referencing helps to avoid plagiarism , gives credit to original ideas, and allows readers to explore topics of interest. Moreover, it situates your work within the continuum of academic knowledge.

To properly cite the sources used in the study, you can rely on online citation generator tools to generate accurate citations!

Here’s more on how you can cite your sources.

Often, the depth of research produces a wealth of material that, while crucial, can make the core content of the thesis cumbersome. The appendix is where you mention extra information that supports your research but isn't central to the main text.

Whether it's raw datasets, detailed procedural methodologies, extended case studies, or any other ancillary material, the appendices ensure that these elements are archived for reference without breaking the main narrative's flow.

For thorough researchers and readers keen on meticulous details, the appendices provide a treasure trove of insights.

Glossary (optional)

In academics, specialized terminologies, and jargon are inevitable. However, not every reader is versed in every term.

The glossary, while optional, is a critical tool for accessibility. It's a bridge ensuring that even readers from outside the discipline can access, understand, and appreciate your work.

By defining complex terms and providing context, you're inviting a wider audience to engage with your research, enhancing its reach and impact.

Remember, while these components provide a structured framework, the essence of your thesis lies in the originality of your ideas, the rigor of your research, and the clarity of your presentation.

As you craft each section, keep your readers in mind, ensuring that your passion and dedication shine through every page.

Thesis examples

To further elucidate the concept of a thesis, here are illustrative examples from various fields:

Example 1 (History): Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the ‘Noble Savage’ on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807 by Suchait Kahlon.

Example 2 (Climate Dynamics): Influence of external forcings on abrupt millennial-scale climate changes: a statistical modelling study by Takahito Mitsui · Michel Crucifix

Checklist for your thesis evaluation

Evaluating your thesis ensures that your research meets the standards of academia. Here's an elaborate checklist to guide you through this critical process.

Content and structure

Is the thesis statement clear, concise, and debatable?
Does the introduction provide sufficient background and context?
Is the literature review comprehensive, relevant, and well-organized?
Does the methodology section clearly describe and justify the research methods?
Are the results/findings presented clearly and logically?
Does the discussion interpret the results in light of the research question and existing literature?
Is the conclusion summarizing the research and suggesting future directions or implications?

Clarity and coherence

Is the writing clear and free of jargon?
Are ideas and sections logically connected and flowing?
Is there a clear narrative or argument throughout the thesis?

Research quality

Is the research question significant and relevant?
Are the research methods appropriate for the question?
Is the sample size (if applicable) adequate?
Are the data analysis techniques appropriate and correctly applied?
Are potential biases or limitations addressed?

Originality and significance

Does the thesis contribute new knowledge or insights to the field?
Is the research grounded in existing literature while offering fresh perspectives?

Formatting and presentation

Is the thesis formatted according to institutional guidelines?
Are figures, tables, and charts clear, labeled, and referenced in the text?
Is the bibliography or reference list complete and consistently formatted?
Are appendices relevant and appropriately referenced in the main text?

Grammar and language

Is the thesis free of grammatical and spelling errors?
Is the language professional, consistent, and appropriate for an academic audience?
Are quotations and paraphrased material correctly cited?

Feedback and revision

Have you sought feedback from peers, advisors, or experts in the field?
Have you addressed the feedback and made the necessary revisions?

Overall assessment

Does the thesis as a whole feel cohesive and comprehensive?
Would the thesis be understandable and valuable to someone in your field?

Ensure to use this checklist to leave no ground for doubt or missed information in your thesis.

After writing your thesis, the next step is to discuss and defend your findings verbally in front of a knowledgeable panel. You’ve to be well prepared as your professors may grade your presentation abilities.

Preparing your thesis defense

A thesis defense, also known as "defending the thesis," is the culmination of a scholar's research journey. It's the final frontier, where you’ll present their findings and face scrutiny from a panel of experts.

Typically, the defense involves a public presentation where you’ll have to outline your study, followed by a question-and-answer session with a committee of experts. This committee assesses the validity, originality, and significance of the research.

The defense serves as a rite of passage for scholars. It's an opportunity to showcase expertise, address criticisms, and refine arguments. A successful defense not only validates the research but also establishes your authority as a researcher in your field.

Here’s how you can effectively prepare for your thesis defense .

Now, having touched upon the process of defending a thesis, it's worth noting that scholarly work can take various forms, depending on academic and regional practices.

One such form, often paralleled with the thesis, is the 'dissertation.' But what differentiates the two?

Dissertation vs. Thesis

Often used interchangeably in casual discourse, they refer to distinct research projects undertaken at different levels of higher education.

To the uninitiated, understanding their meaning might be elusive. So, let's demystify these terms and delve into their core differences.

Here's a table differentiating between the two.

Wrapping up

From understanding the foundational concept of a thesis to navigating its various components, differentiating it from a dissertation, and recognizing the importance of proper citation — this guide covers it all.

As scholars and readers, understanding these nuances not only aids in academic pursuits but also fosters a deeper appreciation for the relentless quest for knowledge that drives academia.

It’s important to remember that every thesis is a testament to curiosity, dedication, and the indomitable spirit of discovery.

Good luck with your thesis writing!

Frequently Asked Questions

A thesis typically ranges between 40-80 pages, but its length can vary based on the research topic, institution guidelines, and level of study.

A PhD thesis usually spans 200-300 pages, though this can vary based on the discipline, complexity of the research, and institutional requirements.

To identify a thesis topic, consider current trends in your field, gaps in existing literature, personal interests, and discussions with advisors or mentors. Additionally, reviewing related journals and conference proceedings can provide insights into potential areas of exploration.

The conceptual framework is often situated in the literature review or theoretical framework section of a thesis. It helps set the stage by providing the context, defining key concepts, and explaining the relationships between variables.

A thesis statement should be concise, clear, and specific. It should state the main argument or point of your research. Start by pinpointing the central question or issue your research addresses, then condense that into a single statement, ensuring it reflects the essence of your paper.

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Civil War's Real Meaning Explained: What Point The Movie Is Trying To Make

WARNING: MAJOR SPOILERS ahead for Civil War.

Civil War's central message remains ambiguous, focusing on guerrilla journalists and a sense of victory against a fascist government.
The film lacks a clear thesis on how the US reached its extreme internal conflict, instead prioritizing survival tactics over political ideology.
Journalists in Civil War must navigate moral complexities, becoming emotionally detached to capture the harsh realities of war.

A24's new action blockbuster Civil War has a somewhat ambiguous central message. The Alex Garland ( Ex Machina , 28 Days Later ) film explores a fictional near-future scenario in which the United States has been divided into several factions that fight against a totalitarian government led by a fascist president. While the specific cause of Civil War's conflict is left intentionally unclear by Garland, who also wrote the screenplay for the film, the ending of Civil War arrives with a sense of victory for its guerrilla journalist protagonists. Civil War's impressive box office performance has already made it one of the highest-grossing movies of 2024.

Civil War's cast is led by Kirsten Dunst ( The Power of the Dog ), Wagner Moura ( Narcos ), and Cailee Spaeny ( Priscilla ). The film also features brief performances by Nick Offerman as a rogue and unchecked American president and Jesse Plemons as an opportunistic and corrupt American soldier. What is arguably missing from Garland's Civil War is a clear thesis of how the United States realistically got to this extreme point of internal conflict. The film is not concerned with the plausible details and political considerations that exist in the modern United States . Instead, Civil War skims over these foundational details to focus on the front-and-center realities of war in general, regardless of any particular motivations.

Civil War's Sniper Shootout Explains The Movie's Central Point

Civil war doesn't get into much political philosophy.

The point of the scene, and the movie at large, is that the conflict throughout Civil War is about who is shooting at you, not necessarily what side you are fighting for.

There are several powerful and intense scenes in Civil War that allude to the film's main concept, but none of them are more spot on than the scene between two snipers. Moura, Dunst, Spaeny, and Stephen McKinley Henderson's characters are trying to pass through a rural road on their way to Washington D.C. when they realize that somebody with a sniper rifle is shooting at them. They are able to get out of their vehicle and rush for cover, where they encounter two other militant men, one with a sniper rifle and the other one spotting him. Naturally, Spaeny's naively curious Jessie character asks them who they are shooting at and discovers that they have no idea who the other sniper is.

The point of the scene, and the movie at large, is that the conflict throughout Civil War is about who is shooting at you, not necessarily what side you are fighting for. Typically, wars are fought under separate flags and are fueled by nationalist ideals, but Civil War doesn't get into much political philosophy to explain its conflict, which creates more of a survivalist free-for-all mentality in some of the war-torn areas . While the bigger picture revolves around the Western Forces and the Florida Alliance rebelling against the federal government and the unchecked U.S. President, much of the conflict is just about survival and not about any political ideals.

What Caused The Civil War In A24's New 2024 Movie?

The president's death scene explains civil war's political meaning, the western forces and florida alliance aim to end fascist rule in the u.s..

Joel, like the rest of the journalists, is only invested in documenting the moments that can be sold and sensationalized through the press.

Most of Civil War is told through the eyes of the journalists, who are conditioned not to be biased about the war and to only capture tragic the realities of it. As documentarians, their job is to stay out of the conflict as much as possible so that they can capture and record real moments of the war that would otherwise go unseen. While this is the main idea of their profession, it becomes more clear throughout the film that the journalists lean more on the side of the Western Forces and the Florida Alliance , particularly because they are offered access and protection in the warzone areas from those parties.

On the other side, American soldiers under the command of Offerman's President have been instructed to kill journalists on sight, which essentially says without saying that the journalists are quietly rooting against the rise of fascism in the United States. When Offerman's President is killed at the end of Civil War , Moura's character asks for a quote moments before the fascist ruler is shot to death. The President begs, " Don't let them kill me, " and Moura's Joel says, " That'll do. " Joel, like the rest of the journalists, is only invested in documenting the moments that can be sold and sensationalized through the press, although if he were asked to choose, he would likely be part of the resistance.

All 4 Alex Garland Movies Ranked From Worst To Best (Including Civil War)

Jessie photographing war explains civil war's view of journalism, jesse's innocence is completely ruined by her profession.

Jessie learns throughout Civil War that in order to do her job well, she must be emotionless and essentially have no opinion on the events that are happening around her. She exercises this by photographing one of the soldiers dying as well as shooting Dunst's Lee character after she was shot and killed at the end of Civil War . Jesse's innocence is completely ruined at that moment. Her tragic maturation process is solidified when she takes the final shot of Joel and a few of the Western Forces soldiers standing over the dead president in what would theoretically be the most important photo in American history. Jesse would then become a celebrity photographer like Lee for playing a major role in shaping history through her work.

Civil War is a 2024 action thriller from writer and director Alex Garland. Starring Kirsten Dunst, Wagner Moura, and Stephen McKinley Henderson, Civil War takes place in the near future and shows the United States entering a new Civil War after California and Texas attempt to separate from the country.

Director Alex Garland

Release Date April 26, 2024

Studio(s) DNA Films

Distributor(s) A24

Writers Alex Garland

Cast Cailee Spaeny, Wagner Moura, Stephen McKinley Henderson, Nick Offerman, Kirsten Dunst, Jesse Plemons

Runtime 109 Minutes

Genres Drama, Action

Civil War's Real Meaning Explained: What Point The Movie Is Trying To Make

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NATO Puts on a Show of Force in the Shadow of Russia’s War

The alliance’s largest exercises offer a preview of what the opening of a Great Power conflict could look like. How it ends is a different story.

A convoy of military vehicles making its way toward the Polish border from Germany this month. Credit... Laetitia Vancon for The New York Times

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By Helene Cooper

Helene Cooper covers national security and military affairs. She traveled with the 2nd Cavalry Regiment from Germany to Poland to report this article.

April 24, 2024 Updated 3:02 p.m. ET

About 90,000 NATO troops have been training in Europe this spring for the Great Power war that most hope will never come: a clash between Russia and the West with potentially catastrophic consequences.

In Estonia, paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division out of Fort Liberty, N.C., jumped out of planes alongside soldiers from Colchester Garrison in Essex, Britain, for “forcible entry” operations. In Lithuania, German soldiers arrived as a brigade stationed outside Germany on a permanent basis for the first time since World War II.

And on the A4 autobahn in eastern Germany, a U.S. Army captain and his Macedonian counterpart rushed toward the Suwalki Gap — the place many war planners predict will be the flashpoint for a NATO war with Russia — hoping the overheated radiator on their Stryker armored combat vehicle wouldn’t kill the engine.

Kaliningrad

All are part of what is supposed to be a tremendous show of force by NATO, its largest since the start of the Cold War, that is meant to send a sharp message to President Vladimir V. Putin of Russia that his ambitions must not venture beyond Ukraine.

But it is also a preview of what the opening beats of a modern Great Power conflict could look like. If NATO and Russia went to war, American and allied troops would initially rush to the Baltic countries Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania — NATO’s “Eastern Flank”— to try to block penetration by a Russian force.

How that war would end, and how many people might die, is a different story. Tens of millions of people were killed in World War II. This time, the stakes have never been higher. Mr. Putin has brought up the potential for nuclear war several times since Russia invaded Ukraine more than two years ago.

Three soldiers in camouflage uniforms taking a break while refueling an armored vehicle.

National security officials are making plans for cyberwarfare, too, including how to defend U.S. and NATO interests against a possible cyberattack on public infrastructure.

But a European continental ground war has seemed far more possible since Russia launched its full-scale invasion of Ukraine more than two years ago.

“This exercise changes the calculus for our adversaries — that’s the real power of this,” said Gen. Darryl A. Williams, the American general who leads NATO’s Allied Land Command. Mr. Putin, he said, “is watching this and saying, ‘Hmm, maybe I need to think twice here.’”

Russia’s war in Ukraine infuses almost every movement of the exercises, which began in January and will continue through May. It is why some of the American troops experimented with commercial drones that they could weaponize by fixing with explosives, to see how to counter such tactics, much as Russian troops have had to learn how to defend against Ukraine’s use of store-bought drones that have been MacGyvered with explosives.

It is also why the overheated Stryker carrying the two American and Macedonian captains looks almost exactly like all of the other Strykers, with the exception of its lighter machine gun.

In Ukraine, several senior Russian military leaders have been killed. The Kremlin has confirmed seven; Ukraine says 13.

Military officials said that on the battlefield, the Russian top brass made themselves conspicuous. They often appeared rooted in the same place, American military officials said, instead of moving around. Sometimes several command vehicles were hooked together with antennas next to them, almost advertising, one military official said, the presence of Russian generals and officers.

NATO and American military officers don’t want to make the same mistake.

“I think that what we found is that our command and control needs to be more survivable,” said Col. Robert S. McChrystal, commander of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment, which is based in Vilseck, Germany, near the Czech border. “We need to be more mobile, and we also need to gain dispersion.”

Standing in a field at an army barracks in Poznan, Poland, and wearing the black Stetson that is customary for the 2nd Cavalry, Colonel McChrystal cut a figure both commanding and incongruous. Like many U.S. military officers, his speech was peppered with military jargon. Unlike many, he frequently interrupted himself, sometimes midsentence, to explain what he meant.

“Now what does that mean?” he said. “Grouping up, as we saw — as everyone saw in the war — does not work. So, can we do things like be in smaller elements that make it harder to locate our command-and-control nodes, so they can last longer?”

Officers with Colonel McChrystal’s regiment now seek to blend in, when they can, with the environment and with their troops.

In some cases, that has even meant using local cellphones instead of big cumbersome military communications devices like hand-held radios operating on frequencies that identify them as military.

This wasn’t an issue during the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, because the Taliban and insurgents didn’t have the satellites and spy drones they needed to find battlefield command-and-control nodes.

But Russia has them. That is why during a recent training exercise at the military base at Hohenfels, in southern Germany, more than 70 percent of the command and control were far away — some of them as far back as in the continental United States.

Fox 66, the Stryker carrying the captains, was the command-and-control vehicle for the four-day road-march part of the exercise that made its way to Suwalki, Poland, from Vilseck.

To the untrained eye, all of the military-green armored vehicles looked as though they had the same array of guns and tactical equipment.

But Fox 66 was mounted with a lighter machine gun. In a firefight, it would not be on the front line; it would be directing operations from the back, so it does not need the armor-piercing penetration power of the .50-caliber machine guns mounted on the other vehicles. The two guns are close to indistinguishable from the air.

Inside Fox 66, Capt. Milos Trendevski, fresh from Skopje, the capital of North Macedonia, contorted his six-foot frame around the flak jackets, backpacks, rations, guns and equipment crammed inside the vehicle as it made its way toward Poland. The Americans in the vehicle carried language translation devices, but Captain Trendevski didn’t need one.

“We need to see how the U.S. Army does marches like this so our doctrine can be the same,” Captain Trendevski said in English in an interview inside the Stryker.

Just a few inches from him, Capt. Matt Johnson, commander of the Stryker unit, kept up a constant stream of worried questions.

“She burning hot?” he asked the driver, Specialist Sean McGarity.

“225, Sir,” came the answer.

“Slow down a little, see if it goes down.”

Specialist McGarity slowed down and the engine cooled off, and a collective sigh seemed to exhale inside the Stryker.

The Suwalki Gap is a 65-mile, sparsely populated stretch of land straddling Lithuania, Poland, Belarus and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad. After Russia invaded Crimea in 2014, the Estonian president at the time, Toomas Hendrik Ilves, came up with the name “Suwalki Gap” to highlight for NATO officials the area’s vulnerability. His move worked: Western military officials quickly adopted the phrase.

Western military officials believe the Suwalki Gap is likely to be the first territory that Moscow would try to take. Russian forces in Kaliningrad, assisted by Russia’s ally Belarus, could move in, isolating the Baltic countries if successful.

The road march is supposed to test how quickly NATO can get troops to the Suwalki Gap.

Captain Johnson said his Stryker, when not overheating, could traverse the 750 miles to Suwalki from Vilseck, where the Army’s 2nd Cavalry Regiment is based, in under two days, but the regiment would lose some vehicles along the way if they tried to travel at the top Stryker speed of 70 m.p.h. A more reasonable speed, he said, is 50 m.p.h.

But such marches often take longer than predicted. It took Fox 66 and the other Strykers in Captain Johnson’s unit more than five hours to get to the Polish border from the German city Frankenberg, in the eastern state Saxony, a trip that was supposed to take three hours.

The road march culminated with a live-fire exercise in a training area near Suwalki, with 1,800 2nd Cavalry troops joining 2,600 troops from nine other countries to establish what the military called an “enhanced forward presence” to protect NATO’s Eastern Flank. The troops blew up pop-up targets and seized territory. American Apache helicopters made passes and gave covering fire, while, from an even higher altitude, Polish F-16 and Italian F-35 fighter jets conducted airstrikes.

NATO’S ability to “bring together these seemingly disparate units from different nations to conduct something so complex is what sets us apart,” said Col. Martin O’Donnell, a spokesman for the U.S. Army Europe and Africa. It was, he said, a demonstration of “combined arms” maneuvering.

Neither Russia nor Ukraine has been able to do combined arms, where all parts of a maneuver force — air, land and, sometimes, sea — coordinate and work in concert. Tanks and artillery, and even airstrikes, hit a target before infantry soldiers go in.

General Williams, the NATO land forces commander, said that in the past, such exercises did not name the enemy — there was just a fictitious opponent.

Not so this year. For the first time, “we now, in this year, are actually fighting an exercise against the Russians,” he said. “We fight against our potential adversary.”

Helene Cooper is a Pentagon correspondent. She was previously an editor, diplomatic correspondent and White House correspondent. More about Helene Cooper

Our Coverage of the War in Ukraine

News and Analysis

For residents of Ukraine’s second-largest city, daily Russian attacks have escalated fears but have not brought life to a standstill. Here’s how a battered city carries on.

The authorities in Poland and Germany have arrested at least five of their citizens and accused them of spying for Russia or of offering to help Moscow commit violence on European soil, including a “possible attack” on the president of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelensky.

The drone combat in Ukraine that is transforming modern warfare has begun taking a deadly toll on one of the most powerful symbols of American military might — the tank — and threatening to rewrite how it will be used in future conflicts.

Resuming U.S. Military Aid: Weapons from the support package, considered “a lifeline” for Ukraine’s military , could be arriving on the battlefield within days . But experts say it could take weeks before there is a direct impact on the war . What would $60 billion buy ?

World Military Spending: The world spent more on military costs and weapons in 2023 than it had in 35 years, driven in part by the war in Ukraine and the threat of an expanded Russian invasion, according to an independent analysis.

New American Technology: Project Maven was meant to revolutionize modern warfare. But the conflict in Ukraine has underscored how difficult it is to get 21st-century data into 19th-century trenches.

How We Verify Our Reporting

Our team of visual journalists analyzes satellite images, photographs , videos and radio transmissions to independently confirm troop movements and other details.

We monitor and authenticate reports on social media, corroborating these with eyewitness accounts and interviews. Read more about our reporting efforts .

.chakra .wef-1t4fkg7{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:normal;color:#ffffff;display:block;background:#000000;margin:0px;font-size:2.5rem;padding-left:16px;padding-right:16px;padding-bottom:12px;border-radius:0.25rem;border-top-left-radius:0;border-bottom-left-radius:0;-webkit-box-decoration-break:clone;-webkit-box-decoration-break:clone;box-decoration-break:clone;}@media screen and (min-width:37.5rem){.chakra .wef-1t4fkg7{display:inline;}}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-1t4fkg7{font-size:4rem;}} Global collaboration: Everything you need to know and live coverage from #SpecialMeeting24

#SpecialMeeting24: One of the three key pillars for the meeting is 'Revitalizing Global Collaboration'.

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Spencer Feingold

Kate whiting.

Heads of state and leaders from politics, business and international organizations are gathering from 28-29 April at the Special Meeting on Global Collaboration, Growth and Energy for Development in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
One of the three key pillars for the meeting is 'Revitalizing Global Collaboration'.

The world is at a critical junction for global collaboration.

Ongoing conflict and geopolitical tensions in the Middle East, most notably the war in Israel and Gaza, have implications not only for the region, but the world. Meanwhile, growing fractures within and between countries have hindered trade and economic cooperation.

It's against this backdrop that the World Economic Forum is bringing together leaders from across the public and private sectors for a Special Meeting on Global Collaboration, Growth and Energy for Development .

The meeting, taking place in Riyadh from 28-29 April, has three core themes. One of the themes, Revitalizing Global Collaboration , is focused on the fostering of international cooperation, particularly with regards to facilitating improved dialogue between the Global North and South.

The programme of the Special Meeting includes several high-level panel discussions that will feature leaders from across sectors. Participants will seek to to identify partnerships and actions that can help to contain the widening ripple effects of geopolitical instability and build a more resilient global economy.

Here's what you need to know.

Key sessions on Revitalizing Global Collaboration

28 April - All times in UTC+3

Droughts, Floods and Wildfires: Preparing for the Resilience Era - 11:30

Climate change is increasing the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, yet progress on preparing for such devastation and soaring costs remains limited. Join Nena Stoiljkovic, Undersecretary-General for Global Relations, Humanitarian Diplomacy and Digitalization, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC); Joyeeta Gupta, Professor of Environment and Development in the Global South, University of Amsterdam and Aleksandra Agatowska, Chief Executive Officer, PZU Życie, PZU Group, as they discuss the adaptation strategies that can best address climate impacts at the public and private levels and in emerging and developed countries.

Competitiveness in the Age of Intelligent Economies - 13:15

What was once science fiction is quickly becoming reality, as AI has the power to radically transform economies. Panellists in this session are set to discuss how developed and emerging economies can harness the revolutionary potential of AI to meet their toughest challenges and what is the roadmap needed to get there.

Reviving Earth: Mobilizing for a Restored World - 14:30

Ibrahim Thiaw, Undersecretary-General of the United Nations; Executive Secretary, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), joins panellists to discuss the strategies that can improve the sustainable use of land, safeguarding ecosystems and human well-being globally.

North to South, East to West: Rebuilding Trust - 15:45

Join H.H. Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; Børge Brende, President, World Economic Forum and Alicia Bárcena Ibarra, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Secretariat of Foreign Affairs of Mexico, as they discuss how the Global North and Global South can revitalize cooperation to open up solutions to today's most critical challenges.

What Homeland Economics Means for Trade - 17:00

While trade and cross-border investment remain critical drivers of economic growth and recovery, how are these considerations shaping the future of international trade and impacting the stability of supply systems worldwide? Hala H. ElSaid Younes, Minister of Planning and Economic Development, Ministry of Planning and Economic Development of Egypt; Dang Yanbao, Chairman of the Board, Ningxia Baofeng Group Co. Ltd and Ali Ahmed Al Kuwari, Minister of Finance, Ministry of Finance of Qatar, discuss.

6 steps to build a more cooperative world

29 April - All times in UTC+3

Rising Powers for a Multipolar World - 9:00

Join Samir Saran, President, Observer Research Foundation (ORF); Ivica Dacic, First Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Serbia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Serbia and Alicia Bárcena Ibarra, Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Secretariat of Foreign Affairs of Mexico, as they discuss how innovation, resources and capacities can be shared for a more sustainable, inclusive and equitable global future through South-South and triangular cooperation.

The Economic Promise of Space - 9:45

As outer space activity is intensifying, how can economic activities within the domain be optimised to deliver greater benefits to societies, while also supporting greater cooperation and sustainable development? Soichi Noguchi, Professor, The University of Tokyo; Simonetta Di Pippo, Professor of Practice of Space Economy; Director, SEELab, SDA Bocconi School of Management; Mohammed Altamimi, Chief Executive Officer, Saudi Space Agency, Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of Saudi Arabia and Hélène Huby, Co-Founder and Chief Executive Officer, The Exploration Company GmbH, discuss.

Briefing on the Gaza Crisis - 10:15

Gaza is facing a severe humanitarian crisis, including widespread acute food insecurity and reconstruction costs for critical infrastructure estimated at $18.5 billion. As the crisis threatens the stability of the region as a whole, what urgent actions are needed to address humanitarian needs and how can we begin laying the groundwork for Gaza’s recovery? Sigrid Kaag, the United Nations' Senior Humanitarian and Reconstruction Coordinator for Gaza, joins a panel to discuss the crisis.

Food and Water for All - 10:15

Join Rania Al-Mashat, Minister of International Cooperation, Ministry of International Cooperation of Egypt; Lina Noureddin, President and Founder, Lamar Holding WLL and Jai Shroff, Chairman and Group Chief Executive Officer, UPL Ltd, as they discuss how targeted investment and advanced technologies can help ensure these essential commodities are provided to all.

Investing amid Global Fracture - 10:15

William Ford, Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, General Atlantic Service Company, LP, joins panellists to discuss how policy-makers and investors can mould the investment environment to foster global economic stability and equitable growth.

Middle East Under Stress - 13:15

How can the region build a viable path out of conflict and towards cooperation and peace? This is the question being broached by panellists Thomas L. Friedman, Columnist, Foreign Affairs, The New York Times; Sameh Shoukry, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Egypt; H.H. Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Ayman Al Safadi, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates of Jordan.

Pre-reads, publications and Forum insights

The global cooperation barometer 2024.

McKinsey and the World Economic Forum collaborated to measure the state of global cooperation for the first time. Using 42 indicators, the barometer looks at cooperation between 2012 and 2022 across five pillars: trade and capital; innovation and technology; climate and natural capital; health and wellness; and peace and security.

It is no secret that the current global context is concerning, as heightened competition and conflict appear to be replacing cooperation.

Global Risks Report 2024

In collaboration with Marsh McLennan and Zurich Insurance Group, this report explores some of the most severe risks we may face over the next decade, against a backdrop of rapid technological change, economic uncertainty, a warming planet and conflict.

As cooperation comes under pressure, weakened economies and societies may only require the smallest shock to edge past the tipping point of resilience.

Shaping Cooperation in a Fragmenting World

Developed by the World Economic Forum’s Global Future Council on the Future of Geopolitics – an interdisciplinary group of experts from the public and private sectors – the white paper delves into four areas where greater cooperation is both necessary and possible: enhancing global security, driving equitable climate action, regulating emerging technologies, and shaping a more sustainable trade system.

Have you read?

Cooperation amid conflict: 5 questions for rusi director-general karin von hippel, 4 pathways to cooperation amid geopolitical fragmentation.

What’s the solution to the rising tensions between Israel and Iran?

The United States says it was warned in advance of the Israeli drone strike on Iran.

Iran has shot down Israeli drones in the latest confrontation on Friday.

There have been global calls for restraint – with both East and West fearful of what further conflict could mean for the region and the world.

So, what is the thinking in Iran and Israel? And what is next?

Presenter: Elizabeth Puranam

Mohammad Marandi – Dean of the Faculty of World Studies at the University of Tehran

Gideon Levy – Columnist for the Haaretz Newspaper

Roxane Farmanfarmaian – Professor of Modern Middle East Politics at the University of Cambridge

International edition
Australia edition
Europe edition

File photo of a uranium processing site in Isfahan, Iran. US officials have confirmed that Israel carried out a military operation against Iran, with blasts heard in Isfahan.

What we know so far about Israel’s strike on Iran

US confirms Israel carried out operation against Iran, while Iranian state media reports air defences are active near Isfahan

Follow live for latest updates

US officials have confirmed that Israel has carried out military operations against Iran . The officials said Israel warned the Biden administration earlier on Thursday that a strike was coming in the next 24 to 48 hours. According to CNN, the Israelis assured their US counterparts that Iran’s nuclear facilities would not be targeted.

Iranian state media reported that air defence batteries had been activated after reports of explosions near a major airbase close to the city of Isfahan. The Iranian government appeared to play down the scale of the attack, with a senior commander in Iran’s army saying there was no damage in Isfahan, according to state TV.

Isfahan is home to sites associated with Iran’s nuclear programme, including its underground Natanz enrichment site. State television described all sites in the area as “fully safe” and the UN nuclear watchdog, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), confirmed there was no damage to any nuclear sites.

The airbase close to Isfahan has long been home to Iran’s fleet of American-made F-14 Tomcats – purchased before the 1979 Islamic Revolution.

Airports in Tehran, Shiraz and Isfahan were closed and flights were cleared from the western half of Iran , the flight tracking website FlightRadar24 reported. Local warnings to aviators suggested the airspace may have been closed. At 8am local time some airports lifted restrictions, local media in Iran reported. The UAE-based FlyDubai cancelled all flights to Iran’s capital on Friday.

Tensions across the region remain high after Iran launched hundreds of drones as well as cruise missiles towards Israel on Saturday, in the Islamic Republic’s first ever direct attack on the country. It came in response to the 1 April strike on an Iranian diplomatic building in the Syrian capital, Damascus, which killed a senior figure in Iran’s Revolutionary Guards and eight other officers.

On Thursday, Iran’s foreign minister told CNN that if Israel chose to retaliate, Tehran’s response would be immediate. “If the Israeli regime commits the great error once again our response will be decisive, definitive and regretful for them,” Hossein Amir-Abdollahian said.

However, a senior Iranian official told Reuters on Friday that Iran had no plan for immediate retaliation against Israel. “The foreign source of the incident has not been confirmed. We have not received any external attack, and the discussion leans more towards infiltration than attack,” the Iranian official said on condition of anonymity.

At the G7 foreign ministers meeting Antony Blinken, the US secretary of state, declined to comment on whether the US had any warning of Israel’s plans to strike Iran this morning but said: “The United States has not been involved in any offensive operations”. He also said Washington was committed to de-escalating tensions in the region.

Middle East and north Africa

More on this story

Middle East crisis: Germany to resume working with Unrwa after UN report finds Israel yet to supply evidence to back terror claims – as it happened

Gulf states’ response to Iran-Israel conflict may decide outcome of crisis

Muted Iranian reaction to attack provides short-term wins for Netanyahu

Israel has mounted airstrikes on iran, us confirms, as tehran plays down attack.

Iran and Israel playing with fire as old rules of confrontation are torn up

What’s in Isfahan? The city home to Iranian nuclear facilities

US to impose new sanctions against Iran after its air attack on Israel

Netanyahu aims to trap west into war across Middle East, says Iranian diplomat

Middle East conflict risks sharp rise in oil prices, says IMF

IDF chief of staff says Israel will respond to Iran missile attack

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COMMENTS

Conflict thesis
The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century with John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White.It maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science, and that it inevitably leads to hostility. The consensus among historians of science is that the thesis has long been discredited, which ...
Conflict Thesis
The conflict thesis is a historiographical approach in the history of science that originated in the 19th century which maintains that there is an intrinsic intellectual conflict between religion and science and that it inevitably leads to hostility. Most examples and interpretations of events in support of the thesis have been drawn from Western history.
The conflict thesis between science and Christianity: it makes for a
The "conflict thesis" between science and religion advanced in these tomes is captured by Draper's words as follows: "The history of Science is not a mere record of isolated discoveries; it is a narrative of the conflict of two contending powers, the expansive force of the human intellect on one side, and the compression arising from ...
Science and Religion: The Draper-White Conflict Thesis
Historians of science call this the "conflict thesis.". In this short film, historians of science Dr. Lawrence Principe and Dr. Edward Davis examine the roots and social context of the conflict thesis. They explain that the conflict thesis can be traced primarily to the popular works of two 19th century Americans: John William Draper and ...
(PDF) The "Conflict Thesis" of Science and Religion: a Nexus of
The idea of inevitable and perpetual conflict between science and religion is known among historians as the "conflict thesis." It exploded in popularity in the late nineteenth century with the rise of the Victorian scientific naturalists to positions of leadership in prominent scientific institutions.
History of Science and the 'Conflict Thesis'
The Conflict Thesis spills over into historical, cultural, and psychological ideas. This is precisely why it is ideologically relevant: the argument that religious faith engenders a habit of slavish unreason and deference to authority is a way of demonstrating that religion is incompatible with modern enlightened citizenship.
Of Popes and Unicorns: Science, Christianity, and How the Conflict
The origins of the conflict thesis are usually given as two works by nineteenth-century Americans, John William Draper and Andrew Dickson White, who wrote History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science (1876) and A History of the Warfare Between Science and Theology in Christendom (1896), respectively. In these volumes, Draper and White ...
(PDF) Conflict
conflict definition has already been introduced divides armed conf licts into the follow- ... The central thesis of this transformation model is based on the fact that certain trans-
PDF Unpacking the Meaning of Conflict in Organizational Conflict Research
conflict and the field's longevity as a research topic, a research gap remains: we rarely encounter discussions about the meaning of conflict and its epistemology, even though the literature on organizational conflict differs markedly in its grounding of the many conceptions of conflict.
Declaring War on the Conflict Thesis: A Review Essay
One of my undergraduate thesis supervisors, David Wootton, has recently argued that Galileo was somewhat less religious that traditionally assumed. Scholars more familiar with the Galileo literature have questioned, and will continue to debate, the merits of Wootton's case. However, it does not directly affect the main contours of the Galileo ...
(PDF) Peace and Conflict Studies: An Introduction
Conflict according to a number of scholars has been described as an intrinsic aspect of human life that is inevitable, ubiquitous, and pervasive; thus can't be removed but kept in bounds (Barash ...
Discourse and Conflict: Analysing Text and Talk of Conflict ...
Bringing together contributions from both established scholars and emerging voices in the fields of Discourse Analysis and Conflict Studies, it argues for a discourse approach to making sense of conflict and disagreement in the modern world. 'Conflict' is understood here as having a national or global focus and consequences, and includes ...
Thesis Statements
A thesis statement: tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion. is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper. directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself.
PDF Thesis Statements
Thesis Statements What this handout is about This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, ... important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now
Full article: The 'Clash of Civilisations' Thesis as a Tool for
The Clash of Civilisations thesis contends that the fundamental source of conflict in the post‐Cold War world will be cultural rather than ideological or economic. 1 ... The basis of Huntington's thinking lies in the characterisation and definition of his civilisations and an acceptance that the underlying causes of conflict arise from the ...
Academic Guides: Writing a Paper: Thesis Statements
The thesis statement is the brief articulation of your paper's central argument and purpose. You might hear it referred to as simply a "thesis." Every scholarly paper should have a thesis statement, and strong thesis statements are concise, specific, and arguable. Concise means the thesis is short: perhaps one or two sentences for a shorter paper.
Full article: Persistent conflict
Cases often studied under the rubric of major civil war include persistent conflicts such as those in Afghanistan, Iraq and Somalia, which may be few in number but have a disproportionate effect on global security. Moreover, the insights gained from such studies often have wider significance, for example the impact of internationalisation and ...
Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis
In philosophy, the triad of thesis, antithesis, synthesis (German: These, Antithese, Synthese; originally: Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis) is a progression of three ideas or propositions. The first idea, the thesis, is a formal statement illustrating a point; it is followed by the second idea, the antithesis, that contradicts or negates the first; and lastly, the third idea, the synthesis ...
What Is a Thesis?
A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay, and should clearly and concisely summarize the central points of your academic essay. A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to ...
(PDF) Understanding Conflict Resolution
105. Meaning and D ef inition of Conflict Resolution. "Conflict" is term used to mean a variety of things, in an assortment of contexts under the mantle of conflict. are words such as, serious ...
Conflict Resolution Masters Theses
Theses/Dissertations from 2014. PDF. The Impact of Economic Integration within the European Union as a Factor in Conflict Transformation and Peace-Building, John Umo Ette. PDF. Dialogue in Identity-Based Conflict (Study of Intergroup-Dialogue with University Students), Lisha Shrestha.
PDF The Missing Link: How Languages Can Influence Conflict
conflict data sets to create the six conflict measures, including monadic armed conflict, dyadic armed conflict, one-sided violence, non-state conflict, battle-related deaths, and deadly electoral conflict to illuminate what aspects of conflict may be related to the number of languages spoken.
Is the War in Israel a Sign of the End Times?
In a time of immense division and conflict, there is a great rise in antisemitism and hatred of the Jewish people. As Christians, we must take the stand to stand with Israel, for the Jewish people ...
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A thesis is an in-depth research study that identifies a particular topic of inquiry and presents a clear argument or perspective about that topic using evidence and logic. Writing a thesis showcases your ability of critical thinking, gathering evidence, and making a compelling argument. Integral to these competencies is thorough research ...
Civil War's Real Meaning Explained: What Point The Movie Is ...
Civil War's central message remains ambiguous, focusing on guerrilla journalists and a sense of victory against a fascist government. The film lacks a clear thesis on how the US reached its ...
Fact Sheet on FTC's Proposed Final Noncompete Rule
The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.
NATO Puts on a Show of Force in the Shadow of Russia's War
The alliance's largest exercises offer a preview of what the opening of a Great Power conflict could look like. How it ends is a different story. The alliance's largest exercises offer a ...
Global collaboration: Everything you need to know and live coverage
Ongoing conflict and geopolitical tensions in the Middle East, most notably the war in Israel and Gaza, have implications not only for the region, but the world. Meanwhile, growing fractures within and between countries have hindered trade and economic cooperation.
What's the solution to the rising tensions between Israel and Iran
Iran has shot down Israeli drones in the latest confrontation on Friday.. There have been global calls for restraint - with both East and West fearful of what further conflict could mean for the ...
What we know so far about Israel's strike on Iran
Gulf states' response to Iran-Israel conflict may decide outcome of crisis. 5d ago. Muted Iranian reaction to attack provides short-term wins for Netanyahu. 5d ago.