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Teaching English as a Second Language Masters Thesis Collection

Theses/dissertations from 2020 2020.

Teaching in hagwons in South Korea: a novice English teacher’s autoethnography , Brittany Courser

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

“Racism doesn’t exist anymore, so why are we talking about this?”: An action research proposal of culturally responsive teaching for critical literacy in democratic education , Natalie Marie Giles

Stylistic imitation as an English-teaching technique : pre-service teachers’ responses to training and practice , Min Yi Liang

Telling stories and contextualizing lived experiences in the Cuban heritage language and culture: an autoethnography about transculturation , Tatiana Senechal

“This is the oppressor’s language, yet I need it to talk to you”: a critical examination of translanguaging in Russian speakers at the university level , Nora Vralsted

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

Multimodal Approaches to Literacy and Teaching English as a Foreign Language at the University Level , Ghader Alahmadi

Educating Saudi Women through Communicative Language Teaching: A Bi-literacy Narrative and An Autoethnography of a Saudi English Teacher , Eiman Alamri

The value of journaling on multimodal materials: a literacy narrative and autoethnography of an experienced Saudi high school English teacher , Ibrahim Alamri

Strategic Contemplation as One Saudi Mother’s Way Of Reflecting on Her Children’s Learning Only English in the United States: An Autoethnography and Multiple Case Study of Multilingual Writers at the College Level , Razan Alansari

“If you wanted me to speak your language then you should have stayed in your country”: a critical ethnography of linguistic identity and resiliency in the life of an Afghan refugee , Logan M. Amstadter

Comparing literate and oral cultures with a view to improving understanding of students from oral traditions: an autoethnographic approach , Carol Lee Anderson

Practical recommendations for composition instructors based on a review of the literature surrounding ESL and identity , Patrick Cornwall

One size does not fit all: exploring online-language-learning challenges and benefits for advanced English Language Learners , Renee Kenney

Understanding the potential effects of trauma on refugees’ language learning processes , Charis E. Ketcham

Let's enjoy teaching life: an autoethnography of a novice ESL teacher's two years of teaching English in a private girls' secondary school in Japan , Danielle Nozaka

Developing an ESP curriculum on tourism and agribusiness for a rural school in Nicaragua: a retrospective diary , Stan Pichinevskiy

A Literacy Narrative of a Female Saudi English Teacher and A Qualitative Case Study: 12 Multilingual Writers Identify Challenges and Benefits of Daily Writing in a College Composition Class , Ghassoon Rezzig

Proposed: Technical Communicators Collaborating with Educators to Develop a Better EFL Curriculum for Ecuadorian Universities , Daniel Jack Williamson

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

BELL HOOKS’ “ENACTMENT OF NON-DOMINATION” IN THE “PRACTICE OF SPEAKING IN A LOVING AND CARING MANNER”: AN AUTOETHNOGRAPHY OF A SAUDI “WIDOW’S SON” , Braik Aldoshan

WHEN SPIRITUALITY AND PEDAGOGY COLLIDE: ACKNOWLEDGING RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND VALUES IN THE ESL CLASSROOM , Carli T. Cumpston

HERITAGE LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE: A MEXICAN AMERICAN MOTHER’S SUCCESS WITH RAISING BILINGUAL CHILDREN , Maria E. Estrada-Loehne

TEACHING THE BIOGRAPHY OF PEARL S. BUCK: DEVELOPING COLLABORATIVE READING STRATEGIES FOR MULTILINGUAL WRITERS , Nichole S. La Torre

An Autoethnography of a Novice ESL Teacher: Plato’s Cave and English Language Teaching in Japan , Kevin Lemberger

INQUIRY-BASED PHILOSOPHICAL DIALOGUE FOR ESL COLLEGE COMPOSITION AND FOR CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS , Aiko Nagabuchi

A TRIPLE CASE STUDY OF TWO SAUDI AND ONE ITALIAN LANGUAGE LEARNERS' SELF-PERCEPTIONS OF TARGET LANGUAGE (TL) SPEAKING PROFICIENCY , Jena M. Robinson

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

"I am from Epifania and Tomas": an autoethnography and bi-literacy narrative of a Mexican American orchard workers' daughter , Brenda Lorena Aguilar

Technology use in young English language learners: a survey of Saudi parents studying in the United States , Hamza Aljunaidalsayed

Bilingualism of Arab children in the U.S.: a survey of parents and teachers , Omnia Alofii

College-level ELLs in two English composition courses: the transition from ESL to the mainstream , Andrew J. Copley

Increasing multimedia literacy in composition for multilingual writers: a case study of art analysis , Sony Nicole De Paula

Multilingual writers' unintentional plagiarism: action research in college composition , Jacqueline D. Gullon

Games for vocabulary enrichment: teaching multilingual writers at the college level , Jennifer Hawkins

Identifying as author: exploring the pedagogical basis for assisting diverse students to discover their identities through creatively defined literacy narratives , Amber D. Pullen

Saltine box full of dreams: one Mexican immigrant woman's journey to academic success , Adriana C. Sanchez

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Teaching the biography of Laura Ingalls Wilder: fostering a media literacy approach for multilingual writers , Kelly G. Hansen

Implementing a modified intercultural competency curriculum in an integrated English 101 classroom , Kathryn C. Hedberg

"Don't wake me, my desk is far too comfortable": an autoethnography of a novice ESL teacher's first year of teaching in Japan , Delaney Holland

ESL ABE, VESL, and bell hooks' Democratic education: a case study of four experienced ESL instructors , Michael E. Johnson

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Using Media to Teach Grammar in Context and UNESCO Values: A Case Study of Two English Teachers and Students from Saudi Arabia , Sultan Albalawi

A Double Case Study of Latino College Presidents: What Younger Generations Can Learn From Them , Sara Aymerich Leiva

WRITTEN CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK IN THE L2 WRITING CLASSROOM , Daniel Ducken

Academic Reading and Writing at the College Level: Action Research in a Classroom of a homogeneous Group of Male Students from Saudi Arabia , Margaret Mount

Reflections on Teaching and Host Mothering Chinese Secondary Students: A Novice ESL Teacher’s Diary Study and Autoethnography , Diane Thames

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Peer editing in composition for multilingual writers at the college level , Benjamin J. Bertrand

Educating Ana: a retrospective diary study of pre-literate refugee students , Renee Black

Social pressure to speak English and the effect of English language learning for ESL composition students in higher education , Trevor Duston

Poetry in translation to teach ESL composition at the college level , Peter M. Lacey

Using media to teach a biography of Lincoln and Douglass: a case study of teaching ESL listening & viewing in college composition , Pui Hong Leung

Learning how to learn: teaching preliterate and nonliterate learners of English , Jennifer L. Semb

Non-cognitive factors in second language acquisition and language variety: a single case study of a Saudi male English for academic purposes student in the United States , Nicholas Stephens

Teaching English in the Philippines: a diary study of a novice ESL teacher , Jeffrey Lee Svoboda

ARABIC RHETORIC: MAIN IDEA, DEVELOPMENT, PARALLELISM, AND WORD REPETITION , Melissa Van De Wege

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Video games and interactive technology in the ESL classroom , Melody Anderson

English as a second language learners and spelling performance in university multilingual writers , Nada Yousef Asiri

The communal diary, "... " (Naljeogi), transformative education, and writing through migrations: a Korean novice ESL teacher's diary and autoethnography , S. (Sangho) Lee

The benefits of intercultural interactions: a position paper on the effects of study abroad and intercultural competence on pre-service and active teachers of ESL , Bergen Lorraine McCurdy

The development and analysis of the Global Citizen Award as a component of Asia University America Program at Eastern Washington University , Matthew Ged Miner

The benefits of art analysis in English 101: multilingual and American writers respond to artwork of their choice , Jennifer M. Ochs

A novice ESL teacher's experience of language learning in France: an autoethnographic study of anomie and the "Vulnerable Self" , Christopher Ryan

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Success factors for English as a second language university students’ attainment in academic English language proficiency: exploring the roles of secondary school medium-of-instruction, motivation and language learning strategies

Kevin W. H. Tai is Assistant Professor of English Language Education at the Faculty of Education in The University of Hong Kong and Honorary Research Fellow at IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society in University College London (UCL). Additionally, Kevin Tai is the Associate Editor of The Language Learning Journal (ECIS-listed Journal; Routledge) and Assistant Editor of the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (SSCI-listed Journal; Routledge). His research interests include: language education policy, classroom discourse, translanguaging in multilingual contexts, conversation analysis for second language acquisition and qualitative research methods (particularly Multimodal Conversation Analysis, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and Linguistic Ethnography). Kevin Tai is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts (FRSA) and an Associate Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (AFHEA).

Yiran Vicky Zhao is PhD Candidate and LEGO Foundation Cambridge Trust Scholar at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge. Yiran Vicky Zhao’s research interests include educational inequalities, higher education, child development and neurodiversity.

Displaying a strong competence in English as a second language (L2) is a major advantage for university graduates in personal development and career advancement. There are limited studies that have explored how the implementation of English-Medium-Instruction (EMI) in non-Anglophone universities can affect students’ academic English proficiency. This mixed-method study explores how both the learners’ variables (motivation and L2 learning strategies) and the medium-of-instruction policy implemented at secondary and university settings can contribute to students’ success in academic English learning at a bilingual university in Hong Kong. The findings of a large-scale questionnaire reveal that the effect of medium-of-instruction in students’ secondary school education is not a significant predictor of students’ academic English language proficiency at university. The findings suggest that university students who previously attended secondary schools which adopt medium-of-instruction other than English tend not to be disadvantaged in improving their academic English proficiency. Institutional factor (i.e. provision of EMI lectures at university) and learners’ variables, including students’ L2 strategy use and motivation, are statistically significant predictors of the student’s English language proficiency. The implications for higher education policy in Hong Kong and worldwide will be discussed.

1 Introduction

As higher education has internationalised, the use of English as the medium-of-instruction has grown exponentially in the last ten years ( Macaro et al. 2018 ). English-Medium-Instruction (EMI) is defined as the ‘use of English to teach academic subjects other than English itself in countries or jurisdictions where the first language of the majority of the population is not English’ ( Macaro 2018 : 19). With the spread of English as the international language of research, science, and academia ( Ammon 2006 ; Coleman 2006 ; Tollefson and Tsui 2014 ), higher education institutions across the non-Anglophone have increasingly offered academic programmes that are taught through English. Consequently, EMI has become prevalent at universities to prepare local students for career advancement and enhance the universities’ global visibility ( Beckett and Li 2012 ; Wächter and Maiworm 2014 ; Zhou et al. 2022 ).

It is assumed that implementing EMI programmes at universities can contribute to students’ academic English language proficiencies ( Aizawa et al. 2020 ; Rose et al. 2019 ), although EMI does not have an explicit language learning goal. However, more recent studies (e.g. Hu et al. 2014 ; Macaro et al. 2018 ), have illustrated the evidence that university students’ academic English proficiency will develop as they study academic subjects through EMI education is not positive. To date, there are limited studies that have provided statistical evidence of how the implementation of EMI in non-Anglophone universities can affect students’ academic English proficiency ( Curle et al. 2020 ; Soruc et al. 2021 ).

Additionally, success in English language learning is not only reliant on the university’s EMI provision. Other individual variables may directly or indirectly affect students’ English language proficiency ( Soruc et al. 2021 ). There is a dearth of research that explores how institutional factors, including the university’s medium-of-instruction policy, and learners’ factors, such as students’ previous educational attainments, the medium-of-instruction at students’ secondary schools prior to admission, students’ motivation and second language (L2) strategy use, affect the students’ academic English language development in the context of English-medium university. Particularly, no research has ever been carried out to investigate such an issue at a bilingual university which enables academic departments to decide the medium-of-instruction (EMI or mother tongue medium-of-instruction in this case) for their courses. Studying such a unique context can potentially enable researchers to gain a better understanding of what makes some students succeed in achieving a high level of academic English proficiency at universities which adopt a bilingual policy. This can lead to better development of the measures and language support that bilingual universities can provide to their students.

This study is one of the very few studies that conducts a large-scale questionnaire ( n  = 349) on university students’ English language experience at a non-Anglophone university which adopts a bilingual policy. The aim is to investigate how the individual variables (motivation and L2 learning strategies) and the university’s medium-of-instruction policy can predict students’ success in English L2 learning at a bilingual university in Hong Kong (HK). Qualitative interviews with individual students are also conducted in order to understand the students’ perceptions of the potential predictors of success in English language learning.

2 Background to the study

2.1 the impact of medium-of-instruction in secondary education on university students’ academic english proficiency.

Recent research has expressed the concerns that students from secondary schools which adopt mother tongue medium-of-instruction have lower academic English language proficiency than those from EMI schools (e.g. Evans and Morrison 2018 ; Lin and Morrison 2010 ). This has important implications for university EMI education since research studies have found that students’ secondary school background is one of the substantial sources of difficulty for students in learning content subjects and developing academic English proficiency in EMI university settings ( Aizawa and Rose 2020 ). Lin and Morrison (2010) examine the impact of medium-of-instruction in secondary school education on university students’ size of academic vocabulary. Seven hundred and sixty two undergraduates at the HK Polytechnic University take a vocabulary levels test for measuring their receptive vocabulary size. Four hundred and thirteen of them write an argumentative essay after the tests for evaluating their productive vocabulary knowledge. The findings indicate that first-year undergraduates from EMI secondary schools in HK have significantly larger receptive and productive vocabularies than those from Chinese-Medium-Instruction (CMI) schools. It is suggested that EMI secondary schools offer students more exposure to English academic vocabulary which allows them to employ more academic words in the written work and produce quality academic texts for their tertiary assessments.

Evans and Morrison (2018) conduct a follow-up study and they compare the university experiences of first-year undergraduates who graduated from HK’s CMI and EMI secondary schools when adjusting to the academic and linguistic demands of EMI education at the university level. The authors carry out a large-scale questionnaire ( n  = 828) and the findings reveal that undergraduates from CMI schools enrol into university with lower academic English proficiency in comparison to the undergraduates who graduated from EMI schools. During the semi-structured interviews, some of the EMI graduates mention that they adjust to the language demand of university study fairly easy as they have been studying academic subjects in English since year 7. The authors argue that the secondary school medium-of-instruction plays an important role in determining the students’ speed and ease of adjustment to EMI university study. Nevertheless, the findings of the study rely on students’ self-assessment of academic skills, which include academic reading, writing, speaking and listening. To date, there are limited research studies ( Aizawa and Rose 2020 ; Evans and Morrison 2018 ; Lin and Morrison 2010 ) which investigate the influence of school background on students’ English language ability at university. Hence, one of the aims of the current study is to explore whether the impact of secondary school medium-of-instruction is a crucial factor in predicting the undergraduates’ academic English language performance at the university level.

2.2 The impact of university’s EMI policy on English language learning

Most of the studies in the field of EMI conceptualise success in EMI through investigating students’ mastery of academic knowledge. Researchers (e.g. Airey 2012 ; Li 2018 ; Rose et al. 2019 ; Thompson et al. 2022 ) typically use students’ academic results in the EMI courses in order to evaluate the learner’s success in EMI. A small number of studies have investigated the effects of EMI instruction in university settings on students’ English L2 proficiency (e.g. Hu et al. 2014 ; Rogier 2012 ; Yang 2015 ). Yang (2015) examines 29 Taiwanese learners’ English proficiency in an EMI tourism classroom at a Taiwanese university longitudinally over two years. These learners’ English proficiency levels are measured by conducting pre-tests immediately after entering the programme and post-tests after two years. The tests were developed based on the national General English Proficiency Test, a locally-developed English proficiency test in Taiwan. The results show that after two years of studying the EMI programme, the learners make significant improvements in their reading and listening skills in the post-tests. Nevertheless, since Yang only evaluates learners’ productive skills during the post-tests but not the pre-tests, Yang is not able to evaluate the effectiveness of the EMI programme in improving learners’ productive skills. Moreover, as Yang’s study does not have a control group that received non-EMI education, this study is not able to establish a relationship between EMI education and the development of learners’ English proficiency.

On the other hand, Lei and Hu (2014) investigate whether the EMI programme at a Chinese university has an effect on Chinese undergraduate students’ English proficiency. The authors conduct a direct comparison group in China and the authors use two national tests: the National Matriculation English Test and the College English Test. The authors have found similar English proficiency gains on two proficiency tests amongst EMI students and those studying in a CMI programme while taking general English language classes. Additionally, the student’s perceptions of EMI programmes and prior English proficiency have significant effects on the outcome measures. The authors argue that there is a lack of evidence which suggests that EMI can lead to better English language learning. Nevertheless, the authors also point out that it is possible the university’s EMI programme has suffered from several issues, including a mismatch between the programme goals and actual pedagogical practice and inadequate command of English as the language of instruction for teaching and learning. Moreover, the outcome measure is evaluated by general English proficiency tests which do not evaluate subject-specific English skills that students have acquired in the EMI programme.

A study which measures EMI students’ academic English proficiency by using a standardised English test (International English Language Testing Service, IELTS) is conducted by Rogier (2012) . Rogier aims to investigate the extent to which undergraduates’ academic English proficiency will improve after studying for a four-year undergraduate degree through EMI. The findings demonstrate that there is a statistically significant score gain in all English language skills areas (i.e. reading, writing, listening and speaking). Particularly, students’ largest gains are in the area of speaking, followed by reading. Rogier’s study does not have a direct comparison group, but she compares the results with studies of general English programmes (e.g. Elder and O’Loughlin 2003 ). Rogier justifies that EMI students can move up to one-half of an IELTS band in four years. However, such a finding shows that EMI instruction may not enable students to achieve a huge improvement in their academic English proficiency.

Based on the small body of studies that have assessed measured academic English language gains in EMI university settings, it is shown that the evidence is not positive ( Macaro et al. 2018 ). This means that there are potentially other variables that may influence students’ English language proficiency. This study aims to address the research gap by investigating whether a university’s medium-of-instruction policy (Chinese Medium Instruction and English Medium Instruction policies) can predict students’ success in English L2 learning at a Hong Kong bilingual university. In the following sections, we will explore how students’ motivation and their use of language learning strategies can predict successful English learning.

2.3 Language learning motivation

Success in English language learning can be influenced by student motivation. Motivation research has a strong history in the field of applied linguistics, and it has been conceptualised within different frameworks over the past decades (e.g.  Deci and Ryan 2002 ; Dörnyei and Ryan 2015 ) with Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory being one of the prevailing frameworks. Self-determination theory hypothesises that individuals have an ability to self-regulate their behaviour and engage in intellectual growth with others. The theory conceptualises motivation as intrinsic and extrinsic ( Deci and Ryan 2002 ; Ryan and Deci 2000 , 2002 ). Extrinsic motivation represents the practical benefits of L2 proficiency. The perceived usefulness of L2 proficiency provides the driving force ( Csizér and Dörnyei 2005 ), such as job prospects, good salaries, immigration and travelling. On the other hand, intrinsic motivation triggers ‘internally rewarding consequences’, including the ‘feeling of competence and self-determination’ ( Deci 1975 : 23). When individuals are intrinsically motivated, they may engage in activities because of the challenge, enjoyment, interest, personal enrichment and self-determination needs, rather than money, recognition and competition ( Amabile et al. 1994 ). As Deci and Ryan (2002) argue, the three psychological needs (i.e. the need for autonomy, competence and relatedness) are necessary for a person’s motivation and well-being. Research studies in L2 acquisition and EMI have employed self-determining theory to understand the development of and decline in student’s motivation in L2 English learning as well as learning content subjects through English as an L2 (e.g. Hiromori 2003 ; Kojima 2021 ; Kojima and Yashima 2017 ). This implies that Deci and Ryan’s theory can be a useful framework for exploring students’ language learning motivation.

In order to maintain learners’ language learning motivation, ‘motivation must emanate from the learners rather than be externally regulated by teachers’, and ‘learners must see themselves as agents of the processes that shape their motivation’ ( Ushioda 2008 : 30). In a questionnaire survey of 524 first-year students at the HK Polytechnic University, Lin and Detaramani (1998) find that intrinsic motivation is positively related to higher English attainment. However, the result shows that extrinsic motivation is not positively related to high English attainment. In Gan’s (2003) case study, all successful EFL university students report having a fondness for English since secondary school. Unlike less successful students, none of them feels that they are forced to learn English. In the light of this finding, it is suggested that intrinsic motivation is a powerful factor contributing to a higher level of English proficiency. It is suggested that students with higher extrinsic motivation tend to attach higher priority to working experience rather than English attainment.

Recent studies have demonstrated that students enrol in EMI courses at the university level for various reasons. One of the most common goals is to enhance their English proficiency levels (e.g. Jiang et al. 2019 ; Kojima and Yashima 2017 ) and simultaneously learn the relevant academic subject knowledge ( Rose et al. 2019 ). Other motivators include enhancing future job opportunities (e.g. Iwaniec and Wang 2021 ; Macaro and Akincioglu 2018 ), opportunities for contact with the international community (e.g. Macaro and Akincioglu 2018 ) and the prestige related to learning English as a global language (e.g. Uçar and Soruç 2018 ). These findings have revealed that students’ motivations are diverse and there is a need for research studies to consider different factors that shape the influence of EMI on students’ language learning motivation.

2.4 Language learning strategies

L2 Learning strategies are techniques that students apply to enhance the effectiveness of their learning ( Dörnyei 2001 ; Zhou and Rose 2021 ). Students make use of resources and materials to take responsibility for their own language learning. Following a series of empirical studies on strategy use by L2 students, O’Malley and Chamot (1990) classify strategies into three groups: cognitive, metacognitive and social-affective. They state that cognitive strategies “operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning” ( O’Malley and Chamot 1990 : 44). They are therefore related closely to the processing of language, for example, inferencing, deductive reasoning and translation strategies. Metacognitive strategies, on the other hand, “involve thinking about the learning process, planning for learning, monitoring of comprehension or production while it is taking place, and self-evaluation after the learning activity has been completed” ( O’Malley and Chamot 1990 : 8). Students can be aware of the content to be learned, and awareness of one’s motives, what the task requires and whether they can meet those requirements ( Biggs 1984 ). The final category described by O’Malley and Chamot (1990) , is that of social-affective strategies which are defined as “either interaction with another person or ideational control over affect” (p. 45). The affective strategies are linked with motivation and attitudes, whereas the social strategies could take the form of questioning for clarification, cooperation with others, or creating opportunities for practice by seeking out native speakers.

A contemporary taxonomy of language learning strategies is developed by Oxford (1990) . Oxford (1990) compiles a list of 62 language learning strategies which are divided into two main groups: direct and indirect strategies. The direct strategies involve direct manipulation of the target language and are further divided into mnemonic, cognitive and compensatory strategies. The second main group is that of indirect strategies, which are further sub-divided into metacognitive, affective and social. A lot of the examples of metacognitive strategies coincide with those of O’Malley and Chamot, focusing on organisation, planning and evaluation of learning. This study adopts Oxford’s taxonomy ( 1990 ) for classifying the students’ use of L2 learning strategies that are reported in the questionnaire and student interview data. Such a taxonomy has been used in much research on L2 learning strategies (e.g. Oxford and Burry-Stock 1995 ; Peacock 2001 ; Peacock and Ho 2003 ). Although the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL), developed by Oxford (1990) , has been much criticised for its parametric measure issue, it can be argued that SILL still remains a useful instrument in L2 learning strategy research. Amerstorfer’s review of the literature ( 2018 ) reiterates that ‘the utility and reliability of SILL are both high’ (p. 504). Moreover, it is indicated that SILL has high content validity, high predictive validity and high concurrent validity (see Amerstorfer 2018 for further details).

3 Data and methodology

To what extent do secondary school medium-of-instruction and the university’s medium-of-instruction predict students’ attainment in academic English proficiency?

To what extent do motivation and L2 learning strategies predict students’ attainment in academic English proficiency?

How do students engage with intrinsic and extrinsic L2 motivation and L2 learning strategies inside and outside academic settings for facilitating their English language learning?

3.1 Setting

The study was carried out at The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), a government-funded university in HK. Founded in 1963, the university is unique in that the use of Chinese as the principal language of instruction is conceived in the university’s ordinance. It was established to provide education to Chinese middle school leavers for post-secondary education, particularly those who were arrivals from mainland China seeking refuge in HK in the late 1950s. The university has now evolved into a comprehensive university which offers a variety of disciplinary and interdisciplinary undergraduate and postgraduate degree programmes. The university is the only university in HK which adopts a bilingual policy, which allows academic departments to decide the medium-of-instruction for their courses. The courses are either taught in English and/or Chinese. According to the report produced by the university’s committee on bilingualism ( 2007 ), the report recommends that ‘depending on the nature of the academic subject, the language used at lectures should be set by the boards of various departments’ (clause 14). The academic departments have the flexibility to decide on the medium-of-instruction for lectures and they need to take into account other factors including ‘the language habits, the linguistic competence and the cultural background of the students and teachers, and have consulted the teachers concerned’ (clause 15).

All undergraduates are required to achieve an IELTS equivalent score of 6.0 as the minimum English language required for admission. Undergraduates at the university are required to fulfil the English language requirements by taking the courses offered by the English language teaching unit in order to graduate from their respective degree programmes. The 1,000-level course was a foundation English course for year 1 students, and it was designed to provide a comprehensive English language foundation to new undergraduate students for equipping them for university studies and developing their understanding of the common features of academic English. The 1,000-level course included topics, such as the L2 writing process, L2 listening and reading and features of L2 spoken English. The 2,000-level course was an advanced course for year 2 students, or above which focused on advanced academic English skills. The 2,000-level course entailed topics, including using academic writing skills for composing specific academic genres, critically evaluating the academic language use in research papers and developing students’ oral presentation skills for persuasion.

3.2 Data collection

The current study includes two research instruments: a questionnaire and follow-up semi-structured interviews with individual students from different faculties.

The comprehensive questionnaire is organised into two sections. The first section of the questionnaire asked the participants to indicate their faculty, their year of study, their gender, their secondary school’s medium-of-instruction, the types of secondary schools that they attended (e.g. government school and international school), the medium-of-instruction that is used in their lectures and tutorials, their English proficiency grades prior to enrolling at the university (i.e. IELTS scores or equivalent English language test results) and their use of language(s) at home. The second part of the questionnaire consists of 36 Likert-type statements related to the students’ frequency of using English for academic purposes, frequency of using English outside class, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in learning English and English language learning strategies (see Section 3.5 for further details). Cronbach’s alpha for the different sections ranged from 0.857 to 0.896, which suggests that the internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire was high ( Dörnyei 2007 ).

Additionally, follow-up individual semi-structured interviews were carried out with students of various levels of English attainment in order to gain more in-depth accounts of their previous and current language experiences (within and outside campus) and English language learning strategies.

3.3 Participants

A total of 349 undergraduate students completed the questionnaire, who were drawn in roughly equal distributions from each of the university’s faculties. A convenience sampling strategy was employed in order to recruit student participants in completing the questionnaire. 7.7% of the students were from the Faculty of Arts, 15.1% of the students were from the Faculty of Business, 20% of the students were from the Faculty of Engineering, 9% of them were from the Faculty of Medicine, 23% of them were from the Faculty of Science and 25% of the students were from the Faculty of Social Sciences. All questionnaire participants were L2 English speakers and they all have scored the minimum English language entrance requirement (i.e. IELTS overall band 6 or equivalent) for enrolling on their respective degree programmes. 81.7% of the participants were HK local students, 12% of the participants were from Mainland China and 6.3% of the participants were classified as international students who come from overseas countries. 4% of the students were year one undergraduates, 6.6% were year two undergraduates, 37.1% of them were year three undergraduates and 52.3% of them were year 4 or above. Note that the duration of most of the degree programmes is four years. Some of the degree programmes, such as education and medicine, demand five years of study.

Additionally, the individual semi-structured interviews were held with six students who came from a range of academic fields, and this was largely achieved, with one student in the Faculty of Arts, one from the Faculty of Social Sciences, one from the Faculty of Engineering, one from the Faculty of Medicine and two from the Faculty of Science. All participating students achieved an A grade (i.e. 4.0 Grade Point Average) in both 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English language courses and based on the questionnaire data, these students are all highly motivated to learn English (both intrinsically and extrinsically). These high-performing students are chosen to participate in the interviews since their accounts can enable us to understand the potential success factors for high English attainment, particularly the student’s language learning motivation and their use of language learning strategies. Although the conclusions that can be drawn from these interviews are limited due to the low number of students who volunteered to participate in the interviews, these students come from different academic disciplines and graduated from different secondary schools, ranging from adopting different medium-of-instruction, from local schools to overseas high school. Hence, the interview data can offer some insight into the students’ perceptions of success in English language learning. The interviews were audio-recorded and conducted in the participant’s first language which allows them to offer adequate detail in their responses.

3.4 Key measures

3.4.1 demographic and institutional variables.

Participants self-reported their genders, and the major language of instruction used back in secondary schools. Gender had three categories, including female, male and not to disclose. We coded female as the reference category. Students’ primary language of instruction in secondary schools had three categories, including English as medium-of-instruction, Chinese as medium-of-instruction and other languages as medium-of-instruction. We coded EMI as the reference category.

Participants also specified their current faculty at the study university and the medium-of-instruction that is used during lectures and tutorials. There were six faculties: natural sciences, arts, business, engineering, medicine and social sciences. We coded natural sciences as the reference category. Predominant medium-of-instruction used in lectures and tutorials were both coded as binary variables. If participants received more than 90% of their lectures in English, then we assigned the value 1 to English as the predominant medium-of-instruction in lectures. If participants received more than 90% of their tutorials in English, we assigned the value 1 to English as the predominant medium-of-instruction in tutorials.

3.4.2 Language abilities at the entry to university

Participants self-reported their post-secondary English qualification and their grades. These qualifications included the HK Diploma of Secondary Education English Language examination (i.e. HK’s university entrance examination for secondary school leavers), the Gaokao (i.e. the standardised English test in traditional mainland curriculum), IELTS and the Test of English as a Foreign Language. We converted these scores into their IELTS equivalents in Table 1 based on the score comparison studies conducted by the examination boards, including Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority and Education Testing Service (see Table 1 for further information).

Details on operationalization of the variables.

3.4.3 Language learning motivation

Participants’ intrinsic and extrinsic language learning motivation in university was adapted from Detaramani and Chan’s study ( 1999 ) and Gan’s study ( 2003 ), which were originally designed for the HK higher education contexts. There were five questions on intrinsic motivation, which had good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.84. Through principal component analysis, only one component was extracted (i.e. intrinsic motivation) and it explained 62% of the total variances. There were three questions on extrinsic motivation, which had good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.85. There was only one component extracted through principal component analysis (i.e. extrinsic motivation) and it explained 77% of the total variances. Questions are included in Table 1 .

3.4.4 Language learning strategies

Measures of participants’ language learning strategies were adapted from Peacock and Ho’s study ( 2003 ), whose scale had previously been validated in the HK context. After piloting, deleting questions that would otherwise lower our reliability, and consulting with experts for the face validity of these questions, we came down to 10 questions. We further grouped the cognitive/metacognitive questions together, and social and affective questions together. There were 7 questions on cognitive/metacognitive strategies, which had good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.85. Only one component was extracted from principal component analysis, which explained 53% of the total variances. There were three questions on social/affective strategies, which had good internal consistency with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.79. Only one component was extracted through the principal component analysis that explained 71% of the total variances.

3.4.5 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English course grades

Students’ grades in the 1,000 and 2,000 English language courses were used as outcome measures of the students’ academic English language performance. It can be argued that using students’ grades in 1,000 and 2,000 English language courses is somewhat a crude measure of students’ success in academic English language learning because using a standardised English proficiency test can better assess the students’ academic English proficiency levels during their time at the university (e.g. Brown et al. 2018 ; DiFino and Lombardino 2004 ; Vogt and Tsagari 2014 ). Nonetheless, it is not possible for us to request all 349 undergraduates to take a standardised English proficiency test. As Brown et al. (2018) argue, collecting course grades can be done quickly and efficiently within an institutional context. Moreover, final course grades have been used in previous SLA studies as measures of L2 proficiency since course grades are of greater social capital and relevant to the students than any other L2 achievement indicators in some exam-oriented foreign language contexts (e.g. Cochran et al. 2010 ; Laufer and Goldstein 2004 ; Marcos-Llinás and Juan-Garau 2009 ; Wong 1996 ).

Despite the limitation of the study, these students’ scores on their 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English language courses constitute the primary assessments of undergraduates’ English language performance at the university. This is because all undergraduates have to take these courses offered by the English language teaching unit to fulfil the English language requirements of the institution and these courses aim to develop students’ academic English proficiency to learn the essential academic English skills for university studies. We employed both 1,000- and 2,000-level course scores for evaluating the student’s academic English proficiency because the 1,000-level course was only provided to Year 1 undergraduate students and this group of students had only accumulated 1 year of university experience. On the other hand, the 2,000-level course was an advanced course which was offered to year 2 students or above and it further assessed the student’s academic English skills (see Section 3.1 for more information). Since this study adopts a cross-sectional approach in comparing students’ academic English proficiency from different years of study, it is, therefore, necessary for us to use 1,000- and 2,000-level course grades as outcome measures of the students’ academic English language performance. In terms of the makeup of the 1,000- and 2,000-level course grades, details can be found in Table 1 . All the assessments were set by the course coordinator and the first marking was shared between the course teachers. Samples of the student assessments were moderated by the course coordinator.

3.5 Data analysis

RQ one explores the secondary school-level influence on students’ academic English language performance in university (i.e. 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English course grades). Thus, this question is answered by two simultaneous linear regressions controlling for students’ sociodemographic backgrounds, academic English ability at the entry to university, the primary medium of instruction in secondary school, student’s faculty, and medium-of-instruction at university. In addition to these variables in RQ one, RQ two further examines the role of learner-level variables, including intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, cognitive/metacognitive and social/affective strategies in predicting both 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English course grades. Thus, in order to answer RQ two, we conducted two hierarchical regressions on top of the two regression analyses in RQ one.

To investigate RQ three, content analysis is used to analyse the interview transcripts. The first stage of the analysis entails an iterative process of reading and annotating the transcripts with comments and codes. These initial codes are then categorised into different themes that capture the recurring patterns in the interview data. The focus of the analysis is on the students’ comments on their own English language experiences and their learning strategies for enhancing their own general and academic English proficiency.

4.1 Descriptive statistics

Table 2 demonstrates participants’ background information at both secondary-school level and university level. In terms of medium-of-instruction used in secondary schools, the majority of participants received EMI (64.8%), followed by CMI (33.2%). Regarding participants’ faculties, the majority of them came from Social Sciences (24.9%), followed by Natural Sciences (22.9%), Engineering (20.3%), Business (15.1%), Medicine (9.1%) and Arts (7.7%). Among these participants, 66% of them received EMI in lectures and 63.7% of them received EMI in tutorials in CUHK.

Summary of variables.

4.2 The influence of medium-of-instruction in both secondary schools and university on students’ academic English proficiency

In order to answer the first RQ, we have controlled for both secondary-school-level and university-level information. Table 3 demonstrates the standardised results generated by linear regression analyses on predicting both 1,000-level (i.e. model 1) and 2,000-level grades (i.e. model 2). We have conducted post-estimation tests, which ensured that our analyses satisfied the assumptions of linearity, normality, no-multicollinearity, no-autocorrelation and homoscedasticity.

Unstandardised and standardised linear regression results for research question 1.

a p  < 0.001, b p  < 0.05, c p  < 0.01.

Model 1 explained 12.02% variances in 1,000-level grade, with F (12,336) = 4.97, p  < 0.001. In terms of medium-of-instruction in secondary school, students who received Chinese as medium-of-instruction did not obtain a significantly different 1,000-level grade in comparison to those who received English as medium-of-instruction ( β  = −0.007, p  = 0.889). Regarding medium-of-instruction in university, English predominantly used in university lectures ( β  = 0.105, p  = 0.132) and tutorials ( β  = 0.0098, p  = 0.888) were not significant predictors of 1,000-level grade.

Model 2 explained 10.77% variances in 2,000-level grade, with F (12,336) = 4.5, p  < 0.001. In terms of medium-of-instruction in secondary school, students who received Chinese as medium-of-instruction did not obtain a significantly different 2,000-level grade in comparison to those who received English as medium-of-instruction ( β  = 0.037, p  = 0.479). Similarly to model 1, students’ 2,000-level grade was not significantly predicted by the tutorial’s medium-of-instruction ( β  = −0.02, p  = 0.773). However, participants who received predominantly EMI in university lectures were more likely to receive a higher 2,000-level grade (i.e. β  = 0.213 and p  = 0.002).

4.3 Students’ motivation and L2 learning strategies predicting academic English proficiency

Table 4 demonstrates the results after adding in learner-level factors, where model 3 predicts 1,000-level grade and model 4 predicts 2,000-level grade. Model 3 explained 19.7% of total variances in 1,000-level grade, with F (16,332) = 6.34. Compared to model 1, the addition of learner-level variables resulted in 7.67% change in R 2 , with F (4, 332) = 9.02, p  < 0.001. Model 4 explained 19.8% of total variances in 2,000-level grade, F (16,332) = 6.37. Compared to model 2, the addition of learner-level variables resulted in 9.03% change in R 2 , with F (4, 332) = 10.46, p  < 0.001.

Unstandardised and standardised linear regression results for research question 2.

a p < 0.001, b p  < 0.05.

Similarly to model 1, as shown in model 3, there were no significant differences in 1,000-level grade between participants who received EMI in secondary school and those who received CMI in secondary school. Receiving predominantly EMI in university lectures ( β  = 0.056 and p  = 0.41) or in university tutorials ( β  = 0.02 and p  = 0.765) did not make a significant difference in 1,000-level grade.

However, in model 3, students who adopted more cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies with English learning in university were more likely to score higher on 1,000-level grade, i.e. β  = 0.197 and p  = 0.012. Moreover, the 1,000-level grade was not significantly predicted by university students’ intrinsic ( β  = 0.034 and p  = 0.41), extrinsic motivation ( β  = −0.056 and p  = 0.408), and social affective strategies ( β  = 0.136 and p  = 0.059) with L2 English learning.

Similarly to model 2, as shown in model 4, medium-of-instruction used in secondary school did not make significant differences regarding their influences on 2,000-level grade but using English predominantly in university lectures predicted higher 2,000-level grade, i.e. β  = 0.144 and p  = 0.034. In contrast, using English predominantly in university tutorials did not hold a significant impact on 2,000-level grade.

However, in model 4, among all the learner-level factors, social and affective learning strategies (i.e. β  = 0.166 and p  = 0.022) and extrinsic motivation (i.e. β  = 0.133 and p  = 0.05) significantly and positively predicted 2,000-level grade. In contrast, cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies and intrinsic motivation were not significant predictors of 2,000-level grade.

4.4 Qualitative analysis

In the quantitative analysis, the results indicate that the medium-of-instruction of students’ secondary schools does not play a role in determining their academic English proficiency at university. Moreover, students’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use, alongside social and affective strategy use, students’ extrinsic motivation and attending EMI lectures contribute to the success of students’ English language learning. In this section, we will be discussing the potential success factors that are identified from the interviews with high-performing students, which include L2 strategy use and motivation.

4.4.1 L2 strategy use: use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies

Reading English books and articles and watching TV movies are the most common metacognitive strategies that many students have mentioned. Student A is a year 4 law student, and she previously attended a British secondary school before joining the university. In the following excerpt, she explains how reading English books and watching English TV programmes enhance her general English proficiency:

Student A recounts her prior English learning experience which involves using metacognitive strategies, such as ‘doing past papers’ and adopting ‘a very academic way’ of learning English. As she commenced her tertiary education, she employed different kinds of metacognitive strategies, including reading English books in different genres and watching English TV programmes via Netflix and YouTube. She believes that engaging in these activities regularly allows her to learn English in a stress-free manner.

Similar to student A, student B, who is a year 4 Anthropology student, expresses similar ways of learning English:

Student B attended a CMI secondary school in HK and prior to studying at the university, she achieved an IELTS band 7 which classifies her as a proficient English user. Student B relates her success in English learning to the employment of cognitive strategies, including watching movies and drama and listening to podcasts in English in order to observe how English is being used in different social contexts. By doing so, it enables her to develop an interest in learning the western culture and enhance her language awareness in terms of the ways of communicating ideas through different modes of communication (English writing and speaking in this case).

4.4.2 L2 strategy use: social and affective strategy

Some students attribute their success in English learning to their effort in speaking English outside the classroom. This is achieved through communicating with international students or academic staff at the university.

In the interview, student A explains that participating in intercultural communication with people who come from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds creates opportunities for student A to immerse in an English-speaking environment. She describes that these events make her ‘felt natural because I just came back from the UK’. In this extract, it is noticeable that student A has displayed an understanding of using diverse communicative resources (verbal English utterances and gestures in this case) to include different people in the community. Such a practice is often referred to as translanguaging, which involves using available linguistic and multimodal resources for promoting social inclusion and participation ( Tai 2022 , forthcoming ; Tai and Li 2020 , 2021a , 2021b , 2021c ). It can be argued that student A is adopting a social strategy in order to engage in social interaction with other international students in order to improve language learning and cultural understanding ( Oxford 1990 ).

Although the questionnaire data illustrates that social and affective strategies play a more important role in contributing to students’ success in English learning, the interview data shows that the high achieving students mostly refer to both their use of cognitive strategies and social strategies for facilitating their English learning. This may be the result of selection bias, that is of motivated students who volunteered to take part in the semi-structured interviews. Nevertheless, it is noted that all of the six students explain how they enjoy learning English through doing English-related leisure activities, such as listening to English songs and movies and reading English books.

4.4.3 L2 motivation

Extrinsic motivation is the most common form of motivation for successful students attributed to when they learn English. This is evidenced in some of the students’ responses as they explain their reasons for motivating them to acquire a high level of academic English proficiency.

It is evidenced that student A’s family values the importance of education and her family was keen to financially support her overseas study plan in order to enable her to receive the best secondary education in the UK. Hence, student A’s family influence and her self-determination for honouring her family’s expectations are the extrinsic motives which encourage her to improve her academic English proficiency. It is also noticeable that student A also states her goal to be a successful lawyer and acquiring a strong English proficiency is a prerequisite for becoming an ‘elite’ in the law profession.

However, apart from extrinsic motives, some successful learners also attribute high importance to intrinsic motives. This is evidenced in student C’s account:

Student C is a year 4 Biomedical Science student, and he previously attended a CMI local school in HK. Before joining the university, he achieved an IELTS band 8 score, which classifies him as a proficient English user. In the interview, student C explains how he transitions from attending to extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation. When he was a secondary school student, he only focused on achieving good grades in his English language public examination. As he received more opportunities to engage in more English activities at the university, he gradually developed an interest in learning English through reading English texts and engaging in English-related activities.

Overall, in the student interviews, students display a genuine interest in learning English, and they explore different ways for enhancing their English proficiency. It is observed that undergraduates with high academic English proficiency levels tend to relate their success in learning English with their L2 strategy use (particularly the use of cognitive and social strategies) and intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

5 Discussion and conclusion

For the first part of our quantitative analysis which explores the influence of secondary school and university medium-of-instruction on students’ L2 academic English proficiency, the results illustrate that using EMI in university lectures and university tutorials and the adoption of any named language as medium-of-instruction in secondary schools are not significant predictors of students’ 1,000-level course grades. However, in comparison to the 2,000-level course grades, the medium-of-instruction in secondary schools remains an insignificant predictor of students’ 2,000-level course grades. It is noted that students’ attendance of EMI lectures at university is a significant predictor which contributes to higher 2,000-level course grades.

After adding the learners’ factors (motivation and language learning strategies) into the models, the analysis of the results illustrates a different picture. For the 1,000-level course, predominately using EMI in university lectures and tutorials and the medium-of-instruction in secondary school remain insignificant. Students’ language learning motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic) and social-affective learning strategies do not significantly contribute to the students’ success in English learning. However, students’ cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies significantly predicted higher 1,000-level course grade. In comparison to the 1,000-level course grades, students’ use of social and affective strategies and their extrinsic motivation become statistically significant for predicting 2,000-level grade. Medium-of-instruction used in students’ secondary school remain statistically insignificant, but students’ attendance of EMI lectures still has significant differences in students’ performance on the 2,000-level course grades.

In previous research studies, researchers (e.g. Evans and Morrison 2011 ; Evans and Morrison 2018 ; Lin and Morrison 2010 ) suggest that undergraduates who received CMI secondary education typically have lower academic English proficiency than those from EMI secondary schools. Students from L1-medium-of-instruction secondary school typically struggle to cope with the English language demand of university study in comparison to students who receive EMI secondary education ( Evans and Morrison 2011 , 2018 ). Previous research also suggests that the influence of secondary school medium-of-instruction is an important determinant of undergraduates’ English proficiency since EMI secondary schools allow students to receive more exposure to English. This potentially enables students who previously attend EMI secondary school to activate more academic vocabulary when they are undertaking their assignments at university ( Lin and Morrison 2010 ). However, the quantitative analysis in this study shows that the secondary school medium-of-instruction is not the pre-determined factor which contributes to the students’ success in achieving high attainment in English. Such a finding challenges the argument suggested by Lin and Morrison (2010) and Evans and Morrison (2018) . The current finding implies that undergraduate students’ academic English proficiency will not be hindered by their secondary school medium-of-instruction. Students from EMI or CMI secondary school background can enhance their academic English proficiency in various ways, which includes attending EMI university lectures, deploying cognitive and metacognitive strategies and social and affective L2 learning strategies, and developing their extrinsic motivation in learning English.

Additionally, the quantitative analysis demonstrates the usefulness for university to adopt EMI to deliver lectures at university for promoting students’ academic English proficiency. This study confirms the findings of previous studies that examine how studying academic subjects through EMI can lead to improvement in university students’ academic English proficiency (e.g. Rogier 2012 ; Yuksel et al. 2021 ). As Evans and Morrison (2011) argue, EMI lectures allow students to expose to English and this is possibly due to the lecturers’ inclination to speak English and conform with the EMI policy. However, the study indicates that EMI tutorial is not a predicting factor of students’ academic English proficiency. This is possibly because tutorials typically involve students in engaging in group discussions and students tend to use Cantonese in small group activities and only occasionally use English when reporting answers to the discussion tasks ( Evans and Morrison 2011 ). This affirms Thompson’s et al. (2022) argument that EMI lectures have the potential in shaping students’ English L2 proficiency when listening to lectures in English.

In response to RQ 2 and RQ 3, the questionnaire and interview data highlight the important role of learners’ factors in predicting students’ English learning. This includes students’ use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies, social and affective strategies and the students’ extrinsic motivation. In the interview data, it is noticeable that high-achieving students, such as students A and C, tend to find ways to participate in social activities that require using English in order to create opportunities for them to experiment with using the language and enhance their speaking competence. Such a view affirms the findings from considerable research literature which explores the benefits of learning L2 through participating in social activities outside the classroom (e.g. Brandt and Jenks 2011 ; Greer and Wagner 2021 ).

The study has important implications for university policymakers worldwide and in HK. These findings affirm the significance for researchers and institutions to pay attention to the different institutional and learners’ factors that contribute to the outcomes of students’ L2 proficiency. The findings suggest that other than the university’s role in delivering lectures in the university’s medium-of-instruction (EMI in this case), the university can also facilitate the creation of various social activities for encouraging students to engage in using English outside the classroom and develop students’ extrinsic motivation in learning English. University English language courses can also play a role in teaching various language learning strategies, particularly cognitive and metacognitive, social and affective L2 learning strategies, for enabling students to learn English effectively. Moreover, the findings suggest that students who come from secondary school that adopts languages other than English as the medium-of-instruction may not put them in a disadvantaged position in enhancing their academic English proficiency. This means that all students from different secondary school backgrounds can potentially further improve their English proficiency as long as they are propelled by pragmatic learning strategies, sheer hard work and developing a genuine interest in learning English. A better language support system could be put in place in order to develop students’ academic English skills. This can equip all students to use English to participate in academic- and non-academic-related activities.

Though important these findings are, these findings should be considered within the limitations of the study. Firstly, this study focuses on students’ 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English course grades as a sole outcome measure of language proficiency. Future research may invite students to take standardised English proficiency assessments in order to evaluate both their general and academic English proficiency and discover whether the results are similar, different or comparable. Secondly, the study adopts a cross-sectional approach in comparing students’ 1,000- and 2,000-level course grades. We recognise that a cross-sectional design cannot represent the concurrent students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation when taking the 1,000- and 2,000-level academic English courses. It may also run the risk of confounding variables, such as the teacher effect, discipline-based differences in EMI contexts and so on. Therefore, future research could potentially take these factors into account.

Funding source: Centre for Learning Enhancement and Research, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

About the authors

Acknowledgement.

The authors would like to thank Professor Cecilia Chun and the Centre for Learning Enhancement And Research (CLEAR) for their support. Thanks must be given to the anonymous reviewers who took time to give feedback on our work.

Research funding: Teaching Development and Language Enhancement Grant, University Grants Committee (UGC) (Project Code: TDLEG2019-22-LE15).

Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Thesis Topics Related to Language Learning and Acquisition

ESL Topics for a Research Paper

Language learning and acquisition is an excellent potential thesis topic for students working towards a master's degree in English, Linguistics, Education or English as a Second Language (ESL). It is also a good choice for seniors who have opted for the thesis option, especially those in honors programs. Specific topic choices are plentiful, ranging from general areas like developmental language acquisition in children to demographic studies of international students in college.

One of the best areas of specialization to begin looking for topics for the thesis is has to do with theories on how children learn language. Most research in this area will fit well into the one or two semester model of thesis research and writing. Students will find a fascinating array of possibilities, like best practices for language facilitation among prekindergarten children, or the role of music in the developmental stages of speech and language training. The latter topic could even lend itself to studies of children with autism disorders. You could also concentrate on a specific demographic, such as fifth-grade English language learners.

Another excellent possibility for thesis topics would be to concentrate your research in a technology-related area. For example, you could examine the relationship between computer-assisted language learning and success among two different study groups, such as boys and girls. Other good topics would include the use of web technologies for language interaction or the use of smart phone apps in language learning: Demographic groups that would offer interesting studies along these lines would include Japanese students in American colleges, children of multilingual families or Latino students who spend a good deal of time using social networking.

Second Language

The trials, tribulations and successes of second language learners also make for interesting theses. Along these lines, you could investigate the effects of reflective journal writing on a particular student population, such as Romanian or Japanese students. You would likely also find fascinating the possibility of topics such as vocabulary learning strategies for speakers of English who are trying to learn Chinese, possibly comparing the success rates of those who do so in the United States versus in China. Another engaging topic would be the perceptions of ESL teachers who work with adolescent learners with specific learning disabilities.

Special Subjects

Finally, you could simply choose to write on a specialized topic for your thesis, provided you get the approval of your thesis director. You could investigate motivational teaching strategies for foreign language learning by teens or the use of multimedia to help Thai and Filipino college students learn independently. You could even decide to examine the efficacy of a specific learning theory, such as Mezirow's Transformative Learning Theory, which involves critical thinking and goes beyond knowledge acquisition, using active engagement and questioning.

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Anthony Fonseca is the library director at Elms College in Massachusetts. He has a doctorate in English and has taught various writing courses and literature survey courses. His books include readers' advisory guides, pop culture encyclopedias and academic librarianship studies.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'English as a second language; Foreign language education; Language'

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Randolph, Gerda Ann Packard. "Building written language: A program for second language literacy in English." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2000. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1866.

Chen, Yih-Lan. "Motivation and language learning strategies in learning English as a foreign language /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 1999. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/7593.

Pen, Ibrahem Rotha. "Integrating technology into the English as a second language curriculum: Computer-assisted English language learning." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2136.

Obeid, Hoda. "Think-alouds' effects on first language and second language reading comprehension of English as a foreign language students in a Lebanese context." Thesis, McGill University, 2010. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=94927.

Pino, Daniela. "Learning Italian as a Second Language in an Italian/English Dual Language Program| Evidence from First to Fifth Grade." Thesis, California State University, Long Beach, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10751886.

This research study was conducted with the intention of determining the most common errors that occur in the development of Italian oral language skills among 102 students participating in a 90/10 (90% in Italian/10% in English) dual language program offered at a California public elementary school. The 90/10 program breaks down instruction as follows: Kfirst grade 90% instruction in the target language/10% in English; in second grade 80/20; in third grade, 70/30; in fourth, 60/40, and in fifth, 50/50. Although the ratios change, the program is officially known as 90/10. The students in this study, a mixed group ranging from first to fifth grade, observed a series of pictures representing a story, which they then had to orally tell in their own words. The oral presentations were recorded and then transcribed word by word, including pauses and hesitations. The productions were then analyzed in depth, with special attention given to hesitations, the insertion of phrases and/or words in English, errors with lexical choice and grammatical errors (auxiliary verb choice, as well as the usage of subjects, verbs, and pronouns). The results from this study demonstrate that the age of the student influences second language oral fluency. In general, students with more schooling tended to commit fewer errors in their oral production. However, some categories of errors did not seem to be affected by the length of time students had been enrolled in the program. It is hypothesized that some errors persist due to the decreased amount of Italian instruction that characterizes the upper years in the program.

Lin, Li-Ching. "MEASURING ADULT LEARNERS’ FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY, MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS, AND ACHIEVEMENT EXPECTATIONS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN CHINESE AS A SECOND-LANGUAGE STUDENTS AND ENGLISH AS A SECOND-LANGUAGE STUDENTS." Cleveland State University / OhioLINK, 2012. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=csu1355861939.

Powell, Judith Ann. "Teaching reading to adults where English is their second language." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2008. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/3346.

Liu, Kuan-Ting. "Promoting metalinguistic awareness through peer response in writing in elementary English as a foreign language." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2807.

Ono, Leslie. "Coherence in Quantitative Longitudinal Language Program Evaluation." Diss., Temple University Libraries, 2018. http://cdm16002.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p245801coll10/id/495808.

Yin, Chengbin. "Language learning strategies in relation to attitudes, motivations, and learner beliefs : investigating learner variables in the context of English as a foreign language in China /." College Park, Md.: University of Maryland, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1903/8258.

Panzeri-Alvarez, Christina. "Metacognition and language transfer for an English language development transitional program." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1998. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1780.

Chen, Chun-Hsiu. "Constructivism and mediated learning in designing English-as-a foreign-language instruction." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2744.

Reineman, Juliana Theresa. "Examining English as a second language: Textbooks from a constructivist perspective." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2946.

Martins, Cristiana Gomes de Freitas Menezes. "The evaluation of educational software programs for English as a foreign language and/or second language pronunciation development." Universidade Federal do CearÃ, 2015. http://www.teses.ufc.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=14859.

Farina, Marcella. "The Effect of Input Modality on Pronunciation Accuracy of English Language Learners." Doctoral diss., University of Central Florida, 2013. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/5734.

Zhang, Xiangmei. "Authentic materials in English as a Second Language conversation instruction." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2004. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2526.

Picpican-Bell, Anne. "Developing oral proficiency through poem recitation in elementary English as a second language." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2932.

Chou, Pei-Ying. "Co-teaching and reciprocal teaching for English-as-a-foreign-language reading." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2006. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2873.

Blunt, Sandra Viki. "An analysis of how the Senior Certificate examination constructs the language needs of English second language learners." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1006243.

Huang, Shih-Hao. "Foreign-language immerision as preferred bilingual/biliterate program model for elementary English education in Taiwan." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2696.

Arcuino, Cathy Lee T. "The relationship between the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) scores and academic success of international Master's students." Thesis, Colorado State University, 2013. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3565474.

The purpose of this study was to examine if the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) and the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) are related to academic success defined by final cumulative grade point average (GPA). The data sample, from three Midwestern universities, was comprised of international graduate students who graduated within 2006-2011. The total number of students records utilized were 793 (35.7% were female and 65.3% were male).

The study did not find a significant difference between TOEFL (paper-based, computer-based, and internet-based) and IELTS scores in relation to academic success. Students tended to score higher on TOEFL iBT followed by TOEFL PBT. Indian and Taiwanese students performed better on TOEFL iBT and Chinese and Indian students performed better on the TOEFL PBT. A statistical significance was found among final cumulative GPA and college program of study in relation to TOEFL and IELTS scores.

Knowing more about the reasons behind international graduate students' academic success is a benefit to institutions. The findings of this study may help graduate offices in comprehensive Midwestern institutions, with the recruitment and retention of international students. The research may also assist in the evaluation of admission requirements.

Kazemi, Ali School of Modern Language Studies UNSW. "A systematic study of self-repairs in second language classroom presentations: with some reference to social variables and language proficiency." Awarded by:University of New South Wales. School of Modern Language Studies, 2006. http://handle.unsw.edu.au/1959.4/24298.

Bado, Niamboue. "Video Games and English as a Foreign Language Education in Burkina Faso." Ohio University / OhioLINK, 2014. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ohiou1395498334.

Tsai, Tzu-Ru. "Innovative literacy content, methods, and assessment in English-as-a-foreign language primary instruction." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2006. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2878.

Fujita, Masahiro. "Developing listening comprehension competence in Japanese English as a Foreign Language Learners." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2150.

Watkins-Mace, Sarah P. "The effects of first language literacy skills on second language literacy skills for native Spanish and native English speakers." Diss., Manhattan, Kan. : Kansas State University, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2097/224.

Sklar, Fabiana. "English as a Foreign language in Brazil and Sweden : A comparative study." Thesis, Karlstad University, Faculty of Arts and Education, 2009. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kau:diva-6353.

In Brazil, English is studied from first grade of elementary school. For some reason after eleven years of study, students in general have problems communicating orally and in writing. Swedish students, on the other hand, seem to be able to communicate quite proficiently in English, even though it is also considered to be foreign language learning. The purpose of this comparative study is to discover what differs in the Brazilian and Swedish learning and teaching that makes the Swedish results superior. The purpose was to compare English learning as a foreign language in Sweden and in Brazil, and questionnaires were distributed to teacher and students. Of the many possibilities raised as hypotheses for the effective English learning in Sweden, teacher’s educational background, working hours per week, number of students per teacher, were found to be more problematic in Brazil, according to the teachers’ questionnaire. When it comes to students, it appears that Brazilian students show a lack of commitment to their learning tasks and awareness of the importance of learning English. In addition, several social aspects have to be taken into account when judging the educational situation of a country, but the importance of a good education can never be overlooked.

Hadjioannou, Adamantia. "The role of corpus linguistics in a lexical approach to college level English-as-a-foreign-language pedagogy." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2791.

Enbody, Catherine Levander. "Integrating technology into standards-based instruction for second grade English language learners." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2373.

Kotze, Tanja. "Teaching and learning strategies to support isiXhosa learners who receive education in a second/third language." Thesis, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11838/2373.

Jung, Miso. "When English as a Second Language students meet text-responsible writing." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2906.

Tsai, Pei-Chen. "Online storybook as a facilitator for english as a second language learning." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2003. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2398.

Yen, Alvin Charles. "The intelligences of creative English-as-a-foreign-language learning." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2737.

Cornell, Carohn. "Script-writing for English second language classes in Cape Town : a contribution to liberatory education." Thesis, University of Cape Town, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/23676.

Marrero, Colon Michelle Ivette. "A Case Study| Meeting the Needs of English Learners With Limited or Interrupted Formal Education." Thesis, Nova Southeastern University, 2019. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=13428604.

Increasing numbers of English-language learners with limited or interrupted formal education are entering schools across the United States. This new trend is affecting school districts with new challenges as high school teachers of English speakers of other languages are not prepared to address the beginning literacy needs of students with limited or interrupted formal education. In addition, students with limited or interrupted formal education are encountering challenges in high school as they are simultaneously learning a new language and academic content in a new culture in addition to learning how to read and write for the first time in their lives. Moreover, additional challenges that arise with this group of students involve addressing their socioemotional and acculturation needs.

This qualitative study examined how high school teachers of English speakers of other languages in a small urban mid-Atlantic school district integrated social and academic English-development skills for students with limited or interrupted formal education. To accomplish this, the researcher collected data by conducting eight individual teacher interviews and six classroom observations. The researcher also gathered student background information, which included assessment scores that aided during the analysis of classroom observations.

Five general themes emerged from data analysis: (a) meeting the socioemotional needs of students with limited or interrupted formal education by building relationships, (b) differentiating instruction to meet the academic needs of students with limited or interrupted formal education, (c) meeting the beginning literacy needs of students with limited or interrupted formal education who have limited knowledge of literacy instruction, (d) lack of integration into the school culture and students creating their own community, and (e) the power of students’ native languages. The findings of this study will assist school districts across the United States to focus on the areas of needs to provide high-quality educational opportunities to students with limited or interrupted formal education. The gathered information will also contribute to enhance teaching practices that benefit the socioemotional, academic, and acculturation needs of this unique student population.

Chien, Ya Chi. "Effects of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) instruction on the acquisition of passive grammatical forms by post-secondary English as a second language (ESL) students." Doctoral diss., University of Central Florida, 2011. http://digital.library.ucf.edu/cdm/ref/collection/ETD/id/4869.

Koo, Kyosung Koo Kyosung. "Effects of using corpora and online reference tools on foreign language writing a study of Korean learners of English as a second language /." Thesis supplement (Stimulated recall data, Korean):, 2006. http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/65.

Isiah, Rosa I. "Teacher Implementation and Impact of Academic Vocabulary Instructional Protocols for Long Term English Learners." Thesis, Loyola Marymount University, 2016. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10101046.

English learners are expected to acquire academic language and content simultaneously. Long Term English Learners (LTELs), a growing English Learner subgroup, struggle academically and do not have the necessary academic vocabulary proficiency to achieve academic success in our current educational system.

This mixed-methods study examined the implementation of Academic Vocabulary Instructional protocols in the upper grades in a small urban elementary school district. Semistructured interviews, focus group, observation protocol, and data analysis methods were used as primary methods for data collection. Overall, four key themes emerged in this study. First, all 4th- and 5th-grade teachers implemented the new Academic Vocabulary Toolkit and protocol to address the academic language needs of English learner students. Second, teachers consistently used the academic vocabulary and grammatical frames. Third, teachers regularly modeled the use of an academic register. Finally, there was an increase in the use of grammatical sentence frames and academic vocabulary by students across the content areas. Language Acquisition and Sociocultural Theory in Language conceptual frameworks were used.

Hong, Tia-Ying. "Curriculum design for strategy-based listening in English as a foreign language." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1997. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1461.

Shintani, Emi. "Teaching film to enhance brain compatible-learning in English-as-a-foreign language instruction." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2003. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2403.

Sprague, Maureen Denise. "Foreign Student Enrollment Planning in Five Oregon Institutions with English as a Second Language Programs." PDXScholar, 1992. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/4562.

Shimono, Torrin Robert. "The Dynamic Cognitive Processes of Second Language Reading Fluency." Diss., Temple University Libraries, 2019. http://cdm16002.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p245801coll10/id/586672.

Vujisic, Zoran. "The role of achievement motivation on the interlanguage fossilization of middle-aged English-as-a-second-language learners." Thesis, Rhodes University, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10962/d1003748.

Rau, Man-Lin. "Creative, imaginative English-as-a-foreign-language using storytelling and drama." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2693.

Yang, Chen-Yuan. "Promoting communicative competence through drama in elementary English as a foreign language." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1999. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1723.

Dullien, Starley Beatrix. "Constructivism for the English-as-a-second-language learning environment and professional development." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2005. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2691.

Sampson, Neil Edward. "An Extensive Reading Approach to Teaching English Second Language Reading Comprehension with the American Language Institute at the University of Toledo." University of Toledo / OhioLINK, 2013. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=toledo1383970960.

Kunisawa, Tae. "Thinking-for-Speaking and the EFL Mind| Face-to-Face Dialogue to Talk about Vertical Space." Thesis, The University of New Mexico, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10642449.

Studies of thinking-for-speaking (Slobin, 1987) and of linguistic relativity (Gumperz & Levinson, 1996) in multilinguals have been attracting more attention (Ortega, 2015). I propose the incorporation of sociocultural theory and linguistic relativity as a novel research approach in second language acquisition (SLA). Japanese learners of English go through a process in which word meaning develops from a single to binary semantic categorization as they learn to express vertical spatial operations in their second language (L2). Japanese has a nonobligatory distinction between contact and noncontact relationships when expressing vertical space (single semantic categorization), whereas English has an obligatory contrast (binary semantic categorization) (Munnich et al., 2001). The expression of vertical spatial relationships in Japanese and English is further influenced by language typology. Japanese, an SOV language, uses postpositions while English, an SVO language, uses prepositions.

Vygotsky (1987) argues that verbal thinking (the internalization of speech) is tied with word meaning, and thus, as Japanese EFL high school students learn to express the obligatory contact-noncontact feature of vertical spatial configurations in English, moving from a single to a binary semantic categorization, verbal thinking will also develop. Vygotsky (1987) further claims that verbal thinking has sociocultural origins. In this dissertation, I investigate whether gesture can be instrumental in overcoming the constraints imposed by linguistic relativity. Vygotsky (1998) states, “Speech becomes the means for thinking mainly because it reflects an objectively occurring intellectual operation. This is a moment of major importance in the development of speech and thinking, which discloses the secret of the development of verbal thinking as a whole” (p. 114). I predict that a distinct worldview and the “development of cognitive processes” (Matyushkin, 1997b, p. 272) arise together when Japanese EFL students learn vertical spatial structure with the Gesture Listening Higher Concept Approach, which leads to “a qualitatively new mental formation that develops according to completely special laws and is subject to completely different patterns” (Vygotsky 1998, p. 34).

The purpose of this study: (1) To pursue the new research path regarding incorporating linguistic relativity into SLA in sociocultural theory; (2) to explore whether the concurrent use of iconic co-speech co-thought gesture (ICSCTG) and listening practice can help Japanese high school students learn to express vertical spatial relationships in English more than they would learn from either treatment alone; (3) to investigate whether teaching ICSCTG and listening practice together will help Japanese EFL learners preserve knowledge of how to express vertical spatial relationships in English for a month after the intervention. I employed quantitative methods to accomplish the goals noted above. Results in this study suggest that the Gesture Listening Higher Concept Approach is an effective, evidence-based theoretical and pedagogical framework, which can facilitate L2 learning and conceptual change at the high school level. The effect of the Gesture Listening Higher Concept Approach on long-term foreign language learning would be a valuable avenue for future research.

Slobin, D. I. (1987). Thinking for Speaking. Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 13, pp. 435-445.

Papadomichelaki, Roumpini Alkaterini, and Lash Keith Vance. "English language institute in Greece: A business proposal." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2151.

Williams, George Edward. "The effects of computer assisted language learning and specially designed academic instruction in English on second language acquisition." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2002. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/2954.

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