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Animal production research in the Department of Animal Science focuses on improving livestock production systems, management practices, animal health and welfare, and food quality and safety. Animal production research topics include:

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Experimental design for animal research: proposal examples

An outline of examples to show the level of detail and type of information that the Medical Research Council (MRC) is looking for in grant proposals.

Examples of justifications for experimental design and animal number in grant applications (PDF)

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This document provides an overview of examples that applicants can use for their grant proposal for animal research, including:

• examples for avoidance of bias
• examples covering breeding, pilot studies to determine effect size, justification of effect size, and sample size.

This is the website for UKRI: our seven research councils, Research England and Innovate UK. Let us know if you have feedback or would like to help improve our online products and services .

Writing a research proposal

Most granting sponsors have guidelines telling what should be included in a research proposal, as well as formal requirements such as maximum number of pages with a specified font size, line spacing, number of copies to be submitted etc. Make sure to follow these guidelines in every detail! You will not be happy if your project is not even considered for further evaluation because some formalities were not fulfilled in your application.

Your research proposal will usually be reviewed and graded by a number of referees, where some of the people might be specialists in your particular research area, but several of them may not be very familiar with the area. This further stresses the need for your application to be accurate, brief and clear and emphasize essentials. You cannot expect the graders to realize that your project is important unless you manage to convince them that it is!

Essential components of a research proposal

Writing a research proposal is partly similar to writing a scientific paper; you need to define the problem, the objectives, what is known and what is not known about the problem, as well as give your research plan. Instead of presenting results, you describe the expected outcomes. You also give a time plan with short milestones and present a budget for the project. Your (and your collaborators') qualifications are verified in a "C urriculum Vitae ". Make sure you make a structured and logical proposal with suitable headings and an appealing layout.

When writing a research proposal, it is also wise to check the criteria that will be used for grading the applications. Such criteria might be relevance, scientific quality, qualifications of applicant(s), research collaboration, plan for dissemination of results, and budget in relation to project plan and funds available.

Justification, background, objectives and expected output. Define the problem and emphasize the importance and relevance of your proposed research project, and tell what is unique in your approach. Present a brief literature review (and a coherent Reference list) to show what is done already, and also identify information gaps. The objectives might be split into major and specific objectives, and also be put in a broad framework. Specify the expected outcomes and possible applications of your research.

Research plan (including equipment), time schedule and milestones. Describe the research methods and materials to be used, including methods to analyse the materials or data collected (e.g. laboratory or statistical analyses). State the facilities and equipment needed, which of these your organization can provide, and what requires funding within the research proposal. Describe the research methods so that the scientific quality of the proposal can be evaluated, but avoid describing the methods in too much detail. Relate the experiment/study to the objectives. Present a time schedule for the activities to be performed and milestones to be achieved, e.g. as a time-delivery flow chart of achievements and outputs. Note that an ethical approval might be needed for animal experiments.

Dissemination of results . Scientific results must be communicated to relevant audiences. Obviously, scientists aim for publication in scientific journals, and at international and national conferences. In applied areas of research it is as important that the results are also, but not only, communicated to the industry and various authorities outside the scientific community. Such publications must be kept in a popularized form. Many funding organizations require a good plan for publication and information of results to approve an application.

Budget. Many sponsors provide a specific budget format that you must follow, but there might be the possibility to add more details elsewhere. The budget should be credible and realistic, and clearly reflect your research plan. Some items might need specific justification. Indicate whether your organization, or maybe other donors, will cover part of the research costs. If that will be the case, your chances for a research grant might be improved; cost-sharing/matching funds are sometimes a precondition.

Collaborating institutions. Performing the research in collaboration with other institutions might strengthen your proposal, and also indicate a multi-disciplinary approach. Across-country collaboration is sometimes a requirement. Costs for the collaborating institutions may need to be considered in the budget. Evidence of collaboration, i.e. letters of support from collaborating institutions, should be included as an appendix.

Curriculum Vitae ( CV ) . It is common to add a CV as an appendix to the research proposal. Alternatively, if kept short, it may be incorporated at the end of the application. The main purpose of the CV is to provide the reviewers with such information that they can form an opinion whether the applicant(s) have the competence required to carry out the research described in a proposal. The qualifications and abilities of the principal investigator(s) are most important to describe, although CV s may also be required for the collaborating scientists. A CV must be kept brief and clear; include essentials of relevance for the application! Organize the information into categories, such as personal facts, academic education, relevant positions, main research topics, relevant publications, awards or honours received and other skills or experiences that might be of relevance for carrying out the research project. Scientists sometimes overdo the CV and harm themselves by writing a longer CV than the research proposal itself!

A CV is also required in many other situations, e.g. in applications for academic positions. The focus on research, teaching and administration or leadership merits may vary depending on the type of position and the tasks to be performed. Instructions and examples for writing a CV and related letters are easily found on the Internet.

Before delivering a research proposal, also let someone who is not in your area of discipline read it and give you her/his comments. And, remember to make a final check that all requirements set by the sponsor organization are fulfilled (including signatures required)!

Proposal Guidelines

M.s. and ph.d. research proposals:.

All ANSC graduate students must present to their advisory committees a thesis (M.S.) or dissertation (Ph.D.) research proposal for approval during the initial stages of their graduate studies. The timeline for submission is the end of the second semester for M.S. and the end of the third semester for Ph.D. students.

• Why so early in the program?   While these deadlines may seem early in comparison to some other programs, preparation of the proposal early in your graduate program will help focus your research and aid you in completing your program in a timely fashion.  Otherwise, you may jump from project to project without ever focusing on clear objectives or completing any publishable data.
• What is the goal (big picture) and why is it important?
• What is already known?
• Why do we need to know more?
• Will you have the resources (equipment, animals, and training) necessary to complete the research?
• Will your answers be valid? Will you be using the best approach to obtain the answers to your question? That is, what methods will you use and what are the appropriate statistical methods for the type of data you will obtain? How many samples/animal/replicates will you need to perform in order to obtain statistically significant results?
• How do I choose a problem to study?   Talk with your advisor!  Research is expensive so you will need to work within the parameters of your advisor’s research program unless you have your own funding. Most advisors enjoy talking science – but you should be prepared – read your advisor’s publications!  Read theses/ dissertations of previous graduate students from your lab (see online dissertation database available through library website: http://drum.lib.umd.edu/  and http://www.lib.umd.edu/dbfinder/id/UMD07254 ).

Typical terms used in research proposals include strategy, approach, hypotheses, aims, objectives, and mechanisms.  These words can be confusing to someone who hasn’t been involved in research before.

• Strategy - a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal, usually over a long period of time. More specifically, it is how a research team will meet its overall goals and objectives.
• Approach - a way of dealing with something.  In research, a cellular and molecular biology approach would mean that cellular and molecular biology techniques will be used to answer the question, while a genomics approach would focus more on evaluating genetic sequence information available in large databases.
• Hypothesis - a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or response. A testable hypothesis should include a prediction that you can assess using techniques available to your lab. An easily testable hypothesis is “If I ask the graduate director a question which can be easily answered by looking at the ANSC website, then she will frown at me.” 
• Aim vs. objective - Though very similar, an "aim" is a general direction or intent, while an "objective" is a more specific or concrete goal or accomplishment.
• Mechanism - a natural or established process by which something takes place or is brought about. For example, the binding of a ligand to a receptor that initiates a specific cascade of intracellular events.

Example of an animal sciences-related problem:

• Problem – Fertility has decreased in dairy cows selected for high milk production.
• Significance - This has a large economic impact on dairy production.
• Question – What genes are responsible for this decrease in fertility? 
• Approach – Genomics
• Strategy – Will use the large genetic databases that are available   
• Research hypothesis – Genes that are closely linked to milk production affect reproductive success.
• Aims – 1. Identify genes that are linked to known milk production QTLs. 2. Determine whether any of these genes might be involved in reproduction.

Writing Your Proposal:

You should establish ahead of time with your committee what specific format to follow. Typically, a proposal should follow the format of a grant proposal narrative (i.e., the portion of a NIFA, NIH, or NSF grant proposal that actually describes the proposed research plan), which commonly has a page limit of 10-18 pages (depending on the agency) single spaced (11 – 12 pt Arial/Times Roman font), but your committee may request double-spaced text for readability. Some committees may request that a complete literature review be included; this will likely result in a longer proposal. A research proposal should be realistic. Usually, the M.S. proposal will propose a more limited number of objectives relating to ongoing research utilizing methods already established in the lab. A Ph.D. proposal will be more comprehensive and may involve development of new approaches and/or methodology that add more risk/innovative than the typical M.S. proposal.

A Basic Research Proposal Outline:

• Research question - Clearly state the question you will address. This is the big picture question – not the specific objectives that you will describe later. For example – “What controls lineage differentiation in the early embryo?” or “What are the basic mechanisms that limit feed digestion and utilization by dairy cattle?” or “Which genes are associated with reproductive success?”  
• Significance to knowledge - Why is it important?
• Previous research - others and your lab’s 
• Rigor of the prior research. What are the main challenges to progress? What has led to success so far and what limitations remain? What knowledge is lacking?
• Your preliminary work on the topic (if any) relating to the questions
• Reprise of your research question(s) in this context (provide specific aims)
• Specific aims (goals) and rationale
• Methods used to test the hypotheses (specific techniques, resources to be used (e.g., animals, cells, materials, etc.), number of samples and replicates needed)
• Plan for interpreting results (statistical methods)
• Expected results and potential pitfalls – technical challenges (if doesn’t work as anticipated, what is your alternative plan?)
• Timeline for completion
• References (not included in the page limits)

If you would like to see an example of a Research Proposal, the ANSC Graduate Program can provide one.  You can also ask your mentor if you can look at a previous Research Proposal from your lab; however, you want to be careful not to copy from any old examples as that will be construed as plagiarism.

If you will be using animals in your study then sufficient information must be provided within the project description to justify the rationale for involving animals, choice of species and number of animals to be used. Be aware that if you will be using animals you will need to have approval from the University’s IACUC. This approval is needed whether the animals involved are on campus or off-site at another institution (e.g., Smithsonian). Talk with your advisor about this. You should have received the appropriate training (Responsible Conduct of Research (RCR), animal use, biological safety, etc.) prior to starting your research and your lab should have already obtained IACUC and ESSR approvals for the research.

Avoid plagiarism – be careful to correctly cite information and to write using your own words – do not cut and paste from others’ work.

PLAGIARISM: intentionally or knowingly representing the words or ideas of another as one’s own in any academic course or exercise. III-1.00(A) UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND CODE OF ACADEMIC INTEGRITY

These resources were used in preparing this description on how to prepare a research proposal and may provide additional information on preparing a research proposal:

• http://www2.hawaii.edu/~matt/proposal.html
• http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1998/nsf9891/nsf9891.htm
• http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sfinger/advice/advice.html
• NIHproposalGuidelines (squarespace.com)
• Graduate School Writing Center | The University of Maryland Graduate School (umd.edu)

Submitting Your Research Proposal:

Graduate (M.S. and Ph.D.) students are required to submit their research proposal to their advisory committee for approval.  Typically, the prepared proposal is distributed to the advisory committee in advance, followed by a meeting in which the student gives a brief presentation. The advisory committee may make valuable recommendations based on their knowledge and experience that may alter the proposal.  More often than not these recommendations help the student avoid problems that otherwise might delay execution and completion of the project. 

• Arrange a time and location for your meeting (reserve a room).
• Distribute your proposal to your committee in advance, at least 1 week in advance
• Prepare a short (20-30 minute) presentation of the proposed research. Include questions & hypotheses; methods & experimental design; preliminary data; broader context & significance of the project.
• Expect to be interrupted with questions during your presentation.

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Article Contents

Introduction, experimental design: initial steps, design of the animal experiment, experimental design: final considerations.

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Practical Aspects of Experimental Design in Animal Research

Paula D. Johnson, D.V.M., M.S., is Executive Director, Southwest Association for Education in Biomedical Research, University of Arizona, Tucson; David G. Besselsen, D.V.M., Ph.D., is Veterinary Specialist and Chief, Pathology Services, University Animal Care, University of Arizona, Tucson.

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Paula D. Johnson, David G. Besselsen, Practical Aspects of Experimental Design in Animal Research, ILAR Journal , Volume 43, Issue 4, 2002, Pages 202–206, https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.43.4.202

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A brief overview is presented of the key steps involved in designing a research animal experiment, with reference to resources that specifically address each topic of discussion in more detail. After an idea for a research project is conceived, a thorough review of the literature and consultation with experts in that field are pursued to refine the problem statement and to assimilate background information that is necessary for the experimental design phase. A null and an alternate hypothesis that address the problem statement are then formulated, and only then is the specific design of the experiment developed. Likely the most critical step in designing animal experiments is the identification of the most appropriate animal model to address the experimental question being asked. Other practical considerations include defining the necessary control groups, randomly assigning animals to control/treatment groups, determining the number of animals needed per group, evaluating the logistics of the actual performance of the animal experiments, and identifying the most appropriate statistical analyses and potential collaborators experienced in the area of study. All of these factors are critical to designing an experiment that will generate scientifically valid and reproducible data, which should be considered the ultimate goal of any scientific investigation.

Experimental design is obviously a critical component of the success of any research project. If all aspects of experimental design are not thoroughly addressed, scientists may reach false conclusions and pursue avenues of research that waste considerable time and resources. It is therefore critical to design scientifically sound experiments and to follow standard laboratory practices while performing these experiments to generate valid reproducible data ( Bennett et al. 1990 ; Diamond 2001 ; Holmberg 1996 ; Larsson 2001 ; Sproull 1995 ; Weber and Skillings 2000 ; Webster 1985 ; Whitcom 2000 ). Data generated by this approach should be of sufficient quality for publication in well-respected peer-reviewed journals, the major form of widespread communication and archiving experimental data in research. This article provides a brief overview of the steps involved in the design of animal experiments and some practical information that should also be considered during this process.

Literature Search

A thorough search of the scientific literature must be performed to determine what is known about the focus of the study. The search should include current and past journal articles and textbooks, as well as information available via the internet. Journal searches can be performed in any number of appropriate journal databases or indexes (e.g., MEDLINE, TOXLINE, PUBMED, NCBI, AGRICOLA). The goals of the literature search are to learn of pertinent studies and methods, identify appropriate animal models, and eliminate unnecessary duplication of research. The “3Rs” of animal research ( Russell and Burch 1959 ) should also be considered at this stage: reduction of animal numbers, refinement of methods, and replacement of animals by viable nonanimal alternatives when these exist. The literature search is also an important component of an institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC 1 ) protocol submission to provide evidence that the project is not duplicative, that alternatives to the use of animals are not available, and that potentially painful procedures are justified.

Scientific Method

The core aspect of experimental design is the scientific method ( Barrow 1991 ; Kuhn 1962 ; Lawson 2002 ; Wilson 1952 ). The scientific method consists of four basic steps: (1) observation and description of a scientific phenomena, (2) formulation of the problem statement and hypothesis, (3) use of the hypothesis to predict the results of new observations, and (4) the performance of methods or procedures to test the hypothesis.

Problem Statement, Objectives, and Hypotheses

It is critical to define the problem statement, objectives, and hypotheses clearly. The problem statement should include the issue that will be addressed experimentally and its significance (e.g., potential application to human or animal health, improved understanding of biological processes). Objectives should be stated in a general description of the overall goals for the proposed experiments and the specific questions being addressed. Hypotheses should include two distinct and clearly defined outcomes for each proposed experiment (e.g., a null and an alternate hypothesis). These outcomes may be thought of as the two experimental answers to the specific question being investigated: The null hypothesis is defined as no difference between experimental groups, and the alternate hypothesis is defined as a real difference between experimental groups. Development of a clearly stated problem statement and the hypotheses are necessary to proceed to the next stage of the experimental design process, although they obviously can (and likely will) be modified as the process continues. Examples of a problem statement and various types of hypotheses follow:

Problem statement: Which diet causes more weight gain in rats: diet A or diet B?

Null hypothesis: Groups are expected to show the same results (e.g., rats on diet A will gain the same amount of weight as rats on diet B).

Alternate hypothesis: Experimental groups are expected to show different results (e.g., rats will gain more weight on diet A than diet B, or vice versa).

Nontestable hypothesis: A result cannot be easily defined or interpreted (e.g., rats on diet A will look better than rats on diet B). What does “better” mean? Its definition must be clearly stated to create a testable hypothesis.

Identification of Animal Model

In choosing the most appropriate animal models for proposed experiments, we offer the following recommendations: (1) Use the lowest animal on the phylogenic scale (in accordance with replacement, one of the 3Rs). (2) Use animals that have the species- and/or strain-specific characteristics desirable or required for the specific study proposed. (3) Consider the costs associated with acquiring and maintaining the animal model during the period of experimentation. (4) Perform a thorough literature search, network with colleagues within the selected field of study, and/or contact commercial vendors or government-supported repositories of animal models to identify a potential source of the animal model. (5) Consult with laboratory animal veterinarians before final determination of the animal model.

Identification of Potential Collaborators

The procedures required to carry out the experiments will determine what, if any, additional expertise is needed. It is important to identify and consult with potential collaborators at the beginning of project development to determine who will be working on the project and in what capacity (e.g., as coinvestigators, consultants, or technical support staff). Collaborator input into the logistics and design of the experiments and proper sample acquisition are critical to ensure the validity of the data generated. Core facilities at larger research institutions provide many services that involve highly technical procedures or require expensive equipment. Identification of existing core facilities can often lead to the development of a list of potential intramural collaborators.

Research Plan

A description of the experimental manipulations required to address the problem statement, objectives, and hypotheses should be carefully devised and documented ( Keppel 1991 ). This description should specify the experimental variables that are to be manipulated, suitable test parameters that accurately assess the effects of experimental variable manipulation, and the most appropriate methods for sample acquisition and generation of the test data. The overall practicality of the project as well as the time frame for data collection and evaluation are determined at this stage in the development process.

Practical issues that may need to be addressed include the lifespan of the animal model (for chronic studies), the anticipated progression of disease in that model (to determine appropriate time points for evaluation), the amount of personnel time available for the project, and the costs associated with performing the experiments ( De Boer et al. 1975 ). If the animals are to receive chemical or biological treatments, an appropriate method for administration must be identified (e.g., per os via the diet or in drinking water [soluble substances only], by osmotic pump, or by injection). Known or potential hazards must also be identified, and appropriate precautions to minimize risk from these hazards must be incorporated into the plan. All experimental procedures should be detailed through standard operating procedures, a requirement of good laboratory practice standards ( EPA 1989 ; FDA 1987 ).

Finally, the methods to be used for data analysis should be determined. If statistical analysis is required to document a difference between experimental groups, the appropriate statistical tests should be identified during the design stage. A conclusion will be drawn subsequently from the analysis of the data with the initial question answered and/or the hypotheses accepted or rejected. This process will ultimately lead to new questions and hypotheses being formulated, or ideas as to how to improve the experimental design.

Experimental Unit

The entity under study is the experimental unit, which could be an individual animal or a group. For example, an individual rat is considered the experimental unit when a drug therapy or surgical procedure is being tested, but an entire litter of rats is the experimental unit when an environmental teratogen is being tested. For purposes of estimating error of variance, or standard error for statistical analysis, it is necessary to consider the experimental unit ( Weber and Skillings 2000 ). Many excellent sources provide discussions of the types of experimental units and their appropriateness ( Dean and Voss 1999 ; Festing and Altman 2002 ; Keppel 1991 ; Wu and Hamada 2000 ).

N Factor: Experimental Group Size

The assignment of an appropriate number of animals to each group is critical. Although formulas to determine the proper number of animals can be found in standard statistical texts, we recommend consulting a statistician to ensure appropriate experimental design for the generation of statistically significant results ( Zolman 1993 ). Indeed, the number of animals assigned to each experimental group is often determined by the particular statistical test on the basis of the anticipated magnitude of difference between the expected outcomes for each group. The number of animals that can be grouped in standard cages is a practical consideration for determining experimental group size. For example, standard 71 sq in (460 sq cm) polycarbonate shoebox cages can house up to four adult mice, so group sizes that are divisible by four will maximize group size and minimize per diem costs.

A plethora of variables (e.g., genetic, environmental, infectious agents) can potentially affect the outcome of studies performed with animals. It is therefore critical to use control animals to minimize the impact of these extraneous variables or to recognize the possible presence of unwanted variables. In general, each individual experiment should use control groups of animals that are contrasted directly to the experimental groups of animals. Multiple types of controls include positive, negative, sham, vehicle, and comparative.

Positive Controls

In positive control groups, changes are expected. The positive control acts as a standard against which to measure difference in severity among experimental groups. An example of a positive control is a toxin administered to an animal, which results in reproducible physiological alterations or lesions. New treatments can then be used in experimental groups to determine whether these alterations may be prevented or cured. Positive controls are also used to demonstrate that a response can be detected, thereby providing some quality control on the experimental methods.

Negative Controls

Negative controls are expected to produce no change from the normal state. In the example above, the negative control would consist of animals not treated with the toxin. The purpose of the negative control is to ensure that an unknown variable is not adversely affecting the animals in the experiment, which might result in a false-positive conclusion.

Sham Controls

A sham control is used to mimic a procedure or treatment without the actual use of the procedure or test substance. A placebo is an example of a sham control used in pharmaceutical studies ( Spector 2002 ). Another example is the surgical implantation of “X” into the abdominal cavity. The treated animals would have X implanted, whereas the sham control animals would have the same surgical procedure with the abdominal cavity opened, as with the treated animals, but without having the X implanted.

Vehicle Controls

A vehicle control is used in studies in which a substance (e.g., saline or mineral oil) is used as a vehicle for a solution of the experimental compound. In a vehicle control, the supposedly innocuous substance is used alone, administered in the same manner in which it will be used with the experimental compound. When compared with the untreated control, the vehicle control will determine whether the vehicle alone causes any effects.

Comparative Controls

A comparative control is often a positive control with a known treatment that is used for a direct comparison to a different treatment. For example, when evaluating a new chemopreventive drug regime in an animal model of cancer, one would want to compare this regime to the chemopreventive drug regime currently considered “accepted practice” to determine whether the new regime improves cancer prevention in that model.

Randomization

Randomization of the animals assigned to different experimental groups must be achieved to ensure that underlying variables do not result in skewed data for each experimental group. To achieve randomization, it is necessary to begin by defining the population. A homogeneous population consists of animals that are considered to share some characteristics (e.g., age, sex, weight, breed, strain). A heterogeneous population consists of animals that may not be the same but may have some common feature. Generally, the better the definition of the group, the less variable the experimental data, although the results may be less pertinent to large broad populations. Methods commonly used to achieve randomization include the following ( Zolman 1993 ):

Identifying each animal with a unique identification number, then drawing numbers “out of a hat” and randomly assigning them in a logical fashion to different groups. For example, the first drawn number is assigned to group 1, the second to group 2, the third to group 1, the fourth to group 2, and so forth. Dice or cards may also be used to randomly assign animals to experimental groups.

Using random number tables or computer-generated numbers/sampling to achieve randomization.

Experimental Protocol Approval

Animal experimentation requires IACUC approval of an animal care and use protocol if the species used are covered under the Animal Welfare Act (regardless of funding source), the research is supported by the National Institutes of Health and involves the use of vertebrate species, or the animal care program is accredited by the Association for the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International ( Silverman et al. 2000 ). In practice, virtually all animal experiments require IACUC approval, which entails full and accurate completion of appropriate protocol forms for submission to the IACUC, followed by clarification or necessary modification of any procedures the IACUC requires. Approval must be obtained before the animal purchase or experimentation and is required before submission of a grant proposal by some funding agencies. If the research involves hazardous materials, then protocol approval from other intramural oversight committees or departments may also be required (e.g., a Biosafety Committee if infectious agents or recombinant DNA are to be used, or a Radiation Safety Committee if radioisotopes or irradiation are to be used).

Animal welfare regulations and Public Health Service policy mandate that individuals caring for or using research animals must be appropriately trained. Specifically, all personnel involved in a research project must be appropriately qualified and/or trained in the methods they will be performing for that project. The institution where the research is being performed is responsible for ensuring this training, although the actual training may occur elsewhere.

Pilot Studies

Pilot studies use a small number of animals to generate preliminary data and/or allow the procedures and techniques to be solidified and “perfected” before large-scale experimentation. These studies are commonly used with new procedures or when new compounds are tested. Preliminary data are essential to show evidence supporting the rationale of a proposal to a funding agency, thereby increasing the probability of funding for the proposal. All pilot projects must have IACUC approval, as for any animal experiment. As soon as the pilot study is completed, the IACUC representative will either give the indication to proceed to a full study or will indicate that the experimental manipulations and/or hypotheses need to be modified and evaluated by additional pilot studies.

Data Entry and Analysis

The researcher has the ultimate responsibility for collecting, entering, and analyzing the data correctly. When dealing with large volumes of data, it is especially easy for data entry errors to occur (e.g., group identifications switched, animal identifications transposed). Quality assurance procedures to identify data entry errors should be developed and incorporated into the experimental design before data analysis. This process can be accomplished by directly comparing raw (original) data for individual animals with the data entered into the computer or with compiled data for the group as a whole (to identify potential “outliers,” or data that deviates significantly from the rest of the members of a group). The analysis of the data varies depending on the type of project and the statistics required to evaluate it. Because this topic is beyond the scope of this article, we refer the reader to the many outstanding books and articles on statistical analysis ( Cobb 1998 ; Cox and Reid 2000 ; Dean and Voss 1999 ; Festing and Altman 2002 ; Lemons et al. 1997 ; Pickvance 2001 ; Wasserman and Kutner 1985 ; Wilson and Natale 2001 ; Wu and Hamada 2000 ).

Detection of flaws, in the developing or final experimental design is often achieved by several levels of review that are applicable to animal experimentation. For example, grant funding agencies and the IACUC provide input into the content and design of animal experiments during their review processes and may also serve as advisory consultants before submission of the grant proposal or animal care and use protocol. Scientific peers and the scientific literature also provide invaluable information applicable to experimental design, and these resources should be consulted throughout the experimental design process. Finally, scientific peer-reviewed journals provide a final critical evaluation of the soundness of the experimental design. The overall quality of the experimental data is evaluated and a determination is made as to whether it is worthy of publication. Obviously, discovering major experimental design deficiencies during manuscript peer review is not desirable. Therefore, pursuit of scientific peer review throughout the experimental design process should be exercised routinely to ensure the generation of valid, reproducible, and publishable data.

The steps listed below comprise a practical sequence for designing and conducting scientific studies. We recommend that investigators

Conduct a complete literature review and consult experts who have experience with the techniques proposed in an effort to become thoroughly familiar with the topic before beginning the experimental design process.

Ask a specific question and/or formulate an appropriate hypothesis. Then design the experiments to specifically address that problem/question.

Consult a biostatistician during the design phase of the project, not after performing the experiments.

Choose proper controls to ensure that only the variable of interest is evaluated. More than one control is frequently required.

Start with a small pilot project to generate preliminary data and work out procedures and techniques. Then proceed to larger scale experiments to generate statistical significance.

Modify original question and procedures, ask new questions, and begin again.

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Abbreviation used in this article: IACUC, institutional animal care and use committee.

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• Published: 19 May 2011

Writing clear animal activity proposals

• David M. Pinson 1  

Lab Animal volume  40 ,  pages 187–192 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

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Although IACUC-related topics are frequently discussed in the literature, there is little published information about how to write animal activity proposals. In this article, the author discusses key considerations in the writing and review of animal activity proposals. The author then describes a framework for developing and writing clear animal activity proposals that highlight animal welfare concerns. Though these recommendations are aimed at individuals writing and reviewing research proposals, the framework can be modified for other types of animal activity proposals.

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Pinson, D. Writing clear animal activity proposals. Lab Anim 40 , 187–192 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/laban0611-187

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An Introduction to Animal Research

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• Lord Ara Darzi 4  

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Despite advances in computer modelling and bioinformatics, animal models remain a vital component of biomedical research. The growth in this area of work is in part due to the evolution next generation of biotechnologies, which more than ever necessitate the need for in vivo experimentation. An understanding of the principals of animal research therefore remains a necessity for medical researchers as it permits scientific analysis to be interpreted in a more critical and meaningful manner. Initiating and designing an animal experiment can be a daunting process, particularly as the law and legislation governing animal research is complex and new specialist skills must be acquired. This chapter reviews the principles of animal research and provides a practical resource for those researchers seeking to create robust animal experiments that ensure minimal suffering and maximal scientific validity.

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Abbreviations

The American College of Laboratory Animal Medicine

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service

Animal Welfare Act

Control of substances hazardous to health

European Coalition for Biomedical Research

The Food and Drug Agency

Health and Safety Executive

The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

Individually ventilated cage

In vitro fertilisation

Laboratory animal allergy

Named animal care and welfare officer

National Institute for Clinical Excellence

Named veterinary surgeon

The Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare

Public Health Service

Personal License under the Scientific (Animal Procedures) Act 1986

Project License under the Scientific (Animal Procedures) Act 1986

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals

Specified pathogen free

The United States Department of Agriculture

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Kinross, J., Darzi, L.A. (2010). An Introduction to Animal Research. In: Athanasiou, T., Debas, H., Darzi, A. (eds) Key Topics in Surgical Research and Methodology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-71915-1_17

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COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE AND AGRICULTURE Department of Animal Production Studies DVM THESIS PROPOSAL ON PREVALENCE OF TICKS ON LOCAL AND CROSSBRED CATTLE IN AND AROUND ASELLA TOWN, SOUTHEAST ETHIOPIA BY: SISAY TSEGAYE (EXTERNSHIP STUDENT

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Introduction: Diseases have numerous negative impacts on the productivity and fertility of cattle. Reduced productivity, stunted growth of young animals, and reproductive failure are among the major impediments which wane the economic benefits of cattle producers. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from October, 2018 to June, 2019 at five selected districts of North Shewa zone; with a prime objective of assessing major diseases of cattle circulating in the area. Three peasant associations were purposively selected from the study districts based on the available cattle population and accessibility to transportation. A total of 308 households rearing cattle were proportionally obtained using systematic random sampling. The data was collected using a semistructured questionnaire. Ranking index was used to rank major cattle diseases in the area based on socioeconomic relevance. Results: The three economically important cattle diseases occurring in the area ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd were Blackleg, Foot and Mouth Disease, and Anthrax, respectively. Summer was identified as the season of high burden. A statistically significant (P<0.05) indigenous knowledge of disease prevention strategies was observed among respondents of middle age groups (30-50 years). Sharing the meat of dead animals and thronging it out to the environment were identified as risky practices of socioeconomic and public health concern. Conclusion: The study identified major diseases of cattle circulating in the area and management practices and knowledge gaps attributed to the problem. It is crucial to confirm the occurrence of such diseases in the area using better diagnostic tools and device appropriate intervention strategies to overcome their concurrent devastating effects.

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Participatory impact assessment of ticks on Borana cattle milk production was conducted from January 2010 to July 2010. The objectives of this study were to assess the status of tick infestation in relation to climate change, teats blinding and milk production and to estimate the economic losses caused as a result of the effect of ticks on dairy cattle and its implications on food security in Yabello, Moyale and Meo districts of Borana zone. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed and the data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and matrix triangulation. Thus, about six villages "Ollas" were systematically identified and a total of 86 households were interviewed employing questionnaires comprising 6-12 pastoralists and agro-pastoralists per ten PAs which in sum contained 60-120 individuals who provided information pertaining to the objectives set; in which increase of ticks population at an alarming rate was perceived having several factors affecting and its real impact of blinding on teats which signal loss of milk production which in fact revealed economic loss and implicated food insecurity on vulnerable social groups, specifically children and elders >80 years old within the settings. Tick resistance to currently available acaricides was complained by communities. It was observed that acaricides were sold in open market and there was no strong control on illegal veterinary drug vendors. Communities also purchase these acaricides and misuse them which, contributed to the increase of acaricide resistance. This is a good indication for policy makers and local authorities to take strict action on illegal drug vendors.

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A cross-sectional study design using questionnaire based interview and field visit was used to study on major constraints of livestock development in Lalo Kile District of Kellem Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia from October, 2017 to March, 2017. For the interview of the livestock and fisheries development office of the district, veterinary clinics found in the district and respondents were randomly selected from the district. In addition to the data collected from the interview, the recorded data about the livestock in the district were taken from the office. Furthermore field visit was conducted to take different tangible evidences related to the constraints of livestock development. In the study area, the observed major constraints of livestock development were feed shortage, poor breed improvement, practices, Insufficient training of the farmers, market demand after fattening, unavailability of factory feed by-products of feed, lack of improved animal nutrition, lack of infrastructure and different animal diseases. Common animal diseases in the study area were trypanosomosis, external and internal parasites, ovine and bovine pasteurellosis, foot and mouth disease, lumpy skin disease and new castle disease. Among these animal diseases trypanosomosis was one of the main problem from all the animal diseases in the study area. These animal diseases are the main constraints for most of the livestock development in the district. Therefore, animal disease control and prevention strategy should be widely conducted in the study area.

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