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Research in Daily Life 1 (The Research P...

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Research in Daily Life 1 (The Research Process)

33 questions

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There is only one way of conducting a research.

You can improvise and innovate when conducting a qualitative research.

Which of the following is the first step in the research process?

Choosing a problem.

Choosing a research design and methodology

Theory and Hypothesis

Sampling and data collection

Data presentation, interpretation and analysis

Any research starts with a research problem

A researcher may study a topic that is beyond his/her field.

Studying on a topic that can benefit not just the researcher but also other people shows that the research is relevant.

A research problem does not have to be focused because it does not need any limitation.

If the research is focused, it has a lot of variables and some of them might be irrelevant and the study might become meaningless.

Poverty is a broad topic for a research.

Narrowing down a topic makes it more focused.

It means that it can be studied by a particular researcher considering different factors such as time, financial and ethical aspect.

The research problem is interesting.

The research problem is relevant.

The research problem is focused.

The research problem is plausible.

The research problem is verifiable.

It means that another researcher can confirm or falsify the result of the research.

For the research to be verifiable, the data must come from realistic sources.

Which of the following is the second step in the research process?

It is a form or kind of research you are going to do.

The research design may be quantitative or qualitative.

The research design and methodology is not a factor in the success of conducting a research.

A researcher must look into the research problem in order to choose the appropriate research design and methodology.

Which research design is more appropriate if you would like to study about causality?

Qualitative Research

Survey is one the common method used in quantitative research.

You can use correlation if you want to establish the relationship between variables.

Quantitative research is more appropriate when a research needs to give an in-depth description and explanation.

Quantitative research uses texts while qualitative research use statistical data.

Interview is one the common method used in qualitative research.

It has a set of pre-determined questions.

Structured interview

Unstructured interview

It is a free-flowing type of interview.

Which of the following is the third step in the research process?

It is a systematized body of ideas used for the explanation of phenomenon.

A theory has limitations because it is context-bound. It means that it may correct in one instance and wrong in another.

It is a tentative intellectual guess of a researcher.

It is a type of hypothesis that is stated negatively.

It is a type of hypothesis that is stated positively.

Which of the following is a null hypothesis?

There is no significant difference between the treatment of female and male inmates in local prisons.

There is significant difference between the treatment of female and male inmates in local prisons.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Research Methods for Studying Daily Life

Introduction, general overviews.

• Study Designs and Sampling Methods
• Advantages and Limitations of Daily-Life Methods
• Sampling and Measurement Considerations
• Technology/Equipment for Daily Assessments
• Additional Considerations and Future Directions

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A Q&A with WALS Lecturer Jenny Tung on her research with primates and advice for aspiring scientists

The NIH Director’s Wednesday Afternoon Lecture Series, colloquially known as WALS, is the highest-profile lecture program at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The speakers are some of the most prominent biomedical and behavioral scientists and are nominated by staff from across the National Institutes of Health.

The Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR) is honored that our nominee, Jenny Tung, Ph.D., was selected this year. She will be the featured WALS Speaker on May 1, 2024, at 2:00 p.m. ET . Please save the date and plan to join us virtually or in person. No registration is necessary.

Dr. Tung is the Director of the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (MPI-EVA) in Leipzig, Germany, and a Professor of Evolutionary Anthropology and Biology at Duke University. She founded the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at MPI-EVA in 2022. Research in the department focuses on the intersection between behavior, social structure, and genes. Dr. Tung’s lab is particularly interested in how the social environment influences gene regulation, population genetic structure, and health and survival across the life course.

As we look forward to her lecture on May 1, we asked Dr. Tung to share a little bit about her background, career, and research.

1. What initially drew you to studying the social life and health of primates?

I am fascinated by the importance of social relationships in our lives—friendly, antagonistic, or some mixture of both—and so have always gravitated towards work that seeks to understand social interactions.

Early in college, I took a course in evolutionary anthropology that introduced primate studies—particularly long-term field studies, where individuals could be followed from birth to death—as a method to get at these questions. It taught me that social behaviors could not only be measured, but their origins understood within the well-developed framework of evolutionary thinking—which in turn is directly connected to their consequences for health, survival, and reproduction.

2. What are some of the most important findings from your work? Has anything surprised you?

Our work has repeatedly revealed that analogues of the major social determinants of health in humans—early life adversity, social isolation, low social status—are also extraordinarily powerful predictors of life outcomes in other primates, including in unmanipulated natural populations. For example, we find that social isolation predicts 2–3 years of shortened adult lifespan in wild female baboons; early life adversity can shorten lifespan by up to a decade.

In one sense, these very large effects should perhaps not be surprising. After all, humans share millions of years of evolutionary history and a lot of physiological similarities with other primates. But there is always a question about whether the human case is qualitatively different—because of our complex modern societies, or our cognitive sophistication, or something else. So, I’ve been a little surprised nonetheless—in part pleasantly so, in the sense that these parallels create valuable opportunities to study nonhuman primates (and other social mammals) to understand behavioral and social factors that influence health in humans.

3. How can we apply the insights from your research to improve human health and influence human behavior?

One of the difficult questions about the social determinants of health in humans, I think, is the causality question: can social factors per se really influence how our bodies function, or is it all confounded by health care access, diet, toxin exposure, etc.? I think some of the important takeaways from our work for human health is where we show—this is most clearly done in our experimental studies—that controlled changes to the social environment by themselves have downstream consequences for social behavior, stress physiology, and even the regulation of the cells in our immune system and the response to vaccines.

In our studies in wild primates, we show how social and early life adversity can have long-term consequences in the next generation and suggest a simple explanation based on the lasting effects of early adversity on maternal condition. Both types of studies don’t immediately test interventions, but they help with the work of identifying the levers that might be most important to pull.

4. What were some key decision points in your career? What factors went into the choices you eventually made?

A very important decision point was choosing to work with my former thesis advisor and now long-standing collaborator, Susan Alberts. By doing so, I not only got fantastic training and mentorship, but also the opportunity to start working with the Amboseli Baboon Research Project (ABRP), one of the longest-running field sites on wild primates in the world. The life course data available for ABRP spans up to nine or ten generations now, based on granular, near-daily observations: it is a treasure trove for understanding how and why social interactions influence life outcomes, and for biodemographic studies in general. My close collaborations with Susan and my other ABRP co-directors, Jeanne Altmann and Beth Archie, have also been tremendously personally and professionally rewarding.

A second important decision point was starting my faculty job at Duke through an interdisciplinary hire led by the Duke Population Research Institute (DUPRI). Most members of DUPRI are social scientists, but we share interests in life course studies, biodemography, and the social determinants of health. My colleagues there, especially Angie O’Rand and Seth Sanders, and also Kathie Mullan Harris at UNC’s Carolina Population Center, helped introduce me to entirely new ideas, data sets, and ways of thinking about these topics, which have been very valuable in developing my research program over the years.

5. What challenges have you faced in your training and career? How have you addressed and perhaps grown from them?

In general, I have felt very fortunate in my training and career: I had wonderful mentors and colleagues during my training experience, and they form a part of my extended scientific and personal network today. A challenge that’s on my mind a lot these days is the difficulty, though, of being far from my support network, especially my immediate family.

My research reminds me a lot about the importance of social support, but in academics, moving around and following your career, traveling a lot, means that there’s often just not a lot of net to catch you. And this job, as stimulating and wonderful as it is, means that there’s always a long to-do list, people you want to support, obligations to meet. It’s easy to convince myself that there’s no room for slack. But I suppose one thing I can say I’ve learned is that, when you needed to ask for it—people are often more understanding than you might fear.

6. Any words of advice you have for trainees seeking a career in science?

Find collaborators you love working with and hold on to them—they will enrich your life scientifically and personally in a unique and special way. Everyone needs people they trust to whom they can ask “dumb questions.”

Don’t accidentally trap yourself into disciplinary silos. Talk to anyone, regardless of discipline, who is interested in talking to you. Sometimes it’s just a one-off conversation, but sometimes it makes a new connection or opens a new research direction.

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Why is looking at a solar eclipse dangerous without special glasses? Eye doctors explain.

By Sara Moniuszko

Edited By Allison Elyse Gualtieri

Updated on: April 8, 2024 / 8:54 AM EDT / CBS News

The solar eclipse will be visible for millions of Americans on April 8, 2024, making many excited to see it — but how you watch it matters, since it can be dangerous for your eyes. 

A  solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes between the sun and Earth, blocking the sun's light . When the moon blocks some of the sun, it's a partial solar eclipse, but when moon lines up with the sun, blocking all of its light, a total solar eclipse occurs,  NASA explains . Either way, you need eye protection when viewing.

"The solar eclipse will be beautiful, so I hope that everyone experiences it — but they need to experience it in the right way," said Dr. Jason P. Brinton, an ophthalmologist and medical director at Brinton Vision in St. Louis.

Here's what to know to stay safe.

Why is looking at a solar eclipse dangerous?

Looking at the sun — even when it's partially covered like during an eclipse — can cause eye damage.

There is no safe dose of solar ultraviolet rays or infrared radiation, said  Dr. Yehia Hashad , an ophthalmologist, retinal specialist and the chief medical officer at eye health company Bausch + Lomb.

"A very small dose could cause harm to some people," he said. "That's why we say the partial eclipse could also be damaging. And that's why we protect our eyes with the partial as well as with the full sun."

Some say that during a total eclipse, it's safe to view the brief period time when the moon completely blocks the sun without eye protection. But experts warn against it. 

"Totality of the eclipse lasts only about 1 to 3 minutes based on geographic location, and bright sunlight suddenly can appear as the moon continues to move," notes an eclipse viewing guide published in JAMA , adding, "even a few seconds of viewing the sun during an eclipse" can temporarily or permanently damage your vision. 

Do I need special glasses for eclipse viewing?

Yes.  Eclipse glasses are needed to protect your eyes if you want to look at the eclipse.

Regular sunglasses aren't protective enough for eclipse viewing — even if you stack more than one. 

"There's no amount of sunglasses that people can put on that will make up for the filtering that the ISO standard filters and the eclipse glasses provide," Brinton said.

You also shouldn't look at the eclipse through a camera lens, phone, binoculars or telescope, according to NASA, even while wearing eclipse glasses. The solar rays can burn through the lens and cause serious eye injury.

Eclipse glasses must comply with the  ISO 12312-2 international safety standard , according to NASA, and should have an "ISO" label printed on them to show they comply. The American Astronomical Society  has a list  of approved solar viewers.

Can't find these, or they're sold out near you? You can also  make homemade viewers ,   which allow you to observe the eclipse indirectly — just don't accidentally look at the sun while using one.

How to keep kids safe during the solar eclipse

Since this eclipse is expected to occur around the time of dismissal for many schools across the country, it may be tempting for students to view it without the proper safety precautions while getting to and from their buses. That's why some school districts are  canceling classes early so kids can enjoy the event safely with their families.

Dr. Avnish Deobhakta, vitreoretinal surgeon at New York Eye and Ear Infirmary at Mount Sinai, said parents should also be careful because it can be difficult for children to listen or keep solar eclipse glasses on. 

"You want to actually, in my opinion, kind of avoid them even looking at the eclipse, if possible," he said. "Never look directly at the sun, always wear the right eclipse sunglasses if you are going to look at the sun and make sure that those are coming from a reliable source."

Brinton recommends everyone starts their eclipse "viewing" early, by looking at professional photos and videos of an eclipse online or visiting a local planetarium. 

That way, you "have an idea of what to expect," he said. 

He also recommends the foundation  Prevent Blindness , which has resources for families about eclipse safety.

What happens if you look at a solar eclipse without eclipse glasses?

While your eyes likely won't hurt in the moment if you look at the eclipse without protection, due to lowered brightness and where damage occurs in the eye, beware: The rays can still cause damage .

The harm may not be apparent immediately. Sometimes trouble starts to appear one to a few days following the event. It could affect just one or both eyes.

And while some will regain normal visual function, sometimes the damage is permanent. 

"Often there will be some recovery of the vision in the first few months after it, but sometimes there is no recovery and sometimes there's a degree to which it is permanent," Brinton said. 

How long do you have to look at the eclipse to damage your eyes?

Any amount of time looking at the eclipse without protection is too long, experts say. 

"If someone briefly looks at the eclipse, if it's extremely brief, in some cases there won't be damage. But damage can happen even within a fraction of a second in some cases," Brinton said. He said he's had patients who have suffered from solar retinopathy, the official name for the condition.

Deobhakta treated a patient who watched the 2017 solar eclipse for 20 seconds without proper eye protection. She now has permanent damage in the shape of a crescent that interferes with her vision. 

"The crescent that is burned into the retina, the patient sees as black in her visual field," he said. "The visual deficit that she has will never go away."

How to know if you've damaged your eyes from looking at the eclipse

Signs and symptoms of eye damage following an eclipse viewing include headaches, blurred vision, dark spots, changes to how you see color, lines and shapes. 

Unfortunately, there isn't a treatment for solar retinopathy.

"Seeing an eye care professional to solidify the diagnosis and for education I think is reasonable," Brinton said, but added, "right now there is nothing that we do for this. Just wait and give it time and the body does tend to heal up a measure of it."

Sara Moniuszko is a health and lifestyle reporter at CBSNews.com. Previously, she wrote for USA Today, where she was selected to help launch the newspaper's wellness vertical. She now covers breaking and trending news for CBS News' HealthWatch.

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The physical sensations of watching a total solar eclipse

Regina G. Barber

Science writer David Baron witnesses his first total solar eclipse in Aruba, 1998. He says seeing one is "like you've left the solar system and are looking back from some other world." Paul Myers hide caption

Science writer David Baron witnesses his first total solar eclipse in Aruba, 1998. He says seeing one is "like you've left the solar system and are looking back from some other world."

David Baron can pinpoint the first time he got addicted to chasing total solar eclipses, when the moon completely covers up the sun. It was 1998 and he was on the Caribbean island of Aruba. "It changed my life. It was the most spectacular thing I'd ever seen," he says.

Baron, author of the 2017 book American Eclipse: A Nation's Epic Race to Catch the Shadow of the Moon and Win the Glory of the World , wants others to witness its majesty too. On April 8, millions of people across North America will get that chance — a total solar eclipse will appear in the sky. Baron promises it will be a surreal, otherworldly experience. "It's like you've left the solar system and are looking back from some other world."

Baron, who is a former NPR science reporter, talks to Life Kit about what to expect when viewing a total solar eclipse, including the sensations you may feel and the strange lighting effects in the sky. This interview has been edited for length and clarity.

Baron views the beginning of a solar eclipse with friends in Western Australia in 2023. Baron says getting to see the solar corona during a total eclipse is "the most dazzling sight in the heavens." Photographs by David Baron; Bronson Arcuri, Kara Frame, CJ Riculan/NPR; Collage by Becky Harlan/NPR hide caption

Baron views the beginning of a solar eclipse with friends in Western Australia in 2023. Baron says getting to see the solar corona during a total eclipse is "the most dazzling sight in the heavens."

What does it feel like to experience a total solar eclipse — those few precious minutes when the moon completely covers up the sun?

It is beautiful and absolutely magnificent. It comes on all of a sudden. As soon as the moon blocks the last rays of the sun, you're plunged into this weird twilight in the middle of the day. You look up and the blue sky has been torn away. On any given day, the blue sky overhead acts as a screen that keeps us from seeing what's in space. And suddenly that's gone. So you can look into the middle of the solar system and see the sun and the planets together.

Can you tell me about the sounds and the emotions you're feeling?

A total solar eclipse is so much more than something you just see with your eyes. It's something you experience with your whole body. [With the drop in sunlight], birds will be going crazy. Crickets may be chirping. If you're around other people, they're going to be screaming and crying [with all their emotions from seeing the eclipse]. The air temperature drops because the sunlight suddenly turns off. And you're immersed in the moon's shadow. It doesn't feel real.

Everything you need to know about solar eclipse glasses before April 8

In your 2017 Ted Talk , you said you felt like your eyesight was failing in the moments before totality. Can you go into that a little more?

The lighting effects are very weird. Before you get to the total eclipse, you have a progressive partial eclipse as the moon slowly covers the sun. So over the course of an hour [or so], the sunlight will be very slowly dimming. It's as if you're in a room in a house and someone is very slowly turning down the dimmer switch. For most of that time your eyes are adjusting and you don't notice it. But then there's a point at which the light's getting so dim that your eyes can't adjust, and weird things happen. Your eyes are less able to see color. It's as if the landscape is losing its color. Also there's an effect where the shadows get very strange.

Crescent-shaped shadows cast by the solar eclipse before it reaches totality appear on a board at an eclipse-viewing event in Antelope, Ore., 2017. Kara Frame and CJ Riculan/NPR hide caption

You see these crescents on the ground.

There are two things that happen. One is if you look under a tree, the spaces between leaves or branches will act as pinhole projectors. So you'll see tiny little crescents everywhere. But there's another effect. As the sun goes from this big orb in the sky to something much smaller, shadows grow sharper. As you're nearing the total eclipse, if you have the sun behind you and you look at your shadow on the ground, you might see individual hairs on your head. It's just very odd.

Some people might say that seeing the partial eclipse is just as good. They don't need to go to the path of totality.

A partial solar eclipse is a very interesting experience. If you're in an area where you see a deep partial eclipse, the sun will become a crescent like the moon. You can only look at it with eye protection. Don't look at it with the naked eye . The light can get eerie. It's fun, but it is not a thousandth as good as a total eclipse.

A total eclipse is a fundamentally different experience, because it's only when the moon completely blocks the sun that you can actually take off the eclipse glasses and look with the naked eye at the sun.

And you will see a sun you've never seen before. That bright surface is gone. What you're actually looking at is the sun's outer atmosphere, the solar corona. It's the most dazzling sight in the heavens. It's this beautiful textured thing. It looks sort of like a wreath or a crown made out of tinsel or strands of silk. It shimmers in space. The shape is constantly changing. And you will only see that if you're in the path of the total eclipse.

Shots - Health News

Watching a solar eclipse without the right filters can cause eye damage. here's why.

So looking at a partial eclipse is not the same?

It is not at all the same. Drive those few miles. Get into the path of totality.

This is really your chance to see a total eclipse. The next one isn't happening across the U.S. for another 20 years.

The next significant total solar eclipse in the United States won't be until 2045. That one will go from California to Florida and will cross my home state of Colorado. I've got it on my calendar.

The digital story was written by Malaka Gharib and edited by Sylvie Douglis and Meghan Keane. The visual editor is Beck Harlan. We'd love to hear from you. Leave us a voicemail at 202-216-9823, or email us at [email protected].

Listen to Life Kit on Apple Podcasts and Spotify , and sign up for our newsletter .

NPR will be sharing highlights here from across the NPR Network throughout the day Monday if you're unable to get out and see it in real time.

Correction April 3, 2024

In a previous audio version of this story, we made reference to an upcoming 2025 total solar eclipse. The solar eclipse in question will take place in 2045.

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Stanford and MIT study: A.I. boosted worker productivity by 14%—those who use it 'will replace those who don't'

Artificial intelligence tools like chatbots helped boost worker productivity at one tech company by 14%, according to new research from Stanford and MIT that was first reported by Bloomberg .

The study is thought to be the first major real-world application of generative AI in the workplace. Researchers measured productivity of more than 5,000 customer support agents, based primarily in the Philippines, at a Fortune 500 enterprise software firm over the course of a year.

Tech support agents who used AI tools that created conversational scripts boosted their productivity, measured as issues resolved per hour, by 14% on average, but the improvement was even more pronounced for "novice and low-skilled workers" who were able to get their work done 35% faster.

In some cases, using AI trumped having real-life work experience: Customer service agents with two months of experience who used AI support performed as well or better than agents with over six months of experience working without AI.

Meanwhile, the use of AI tools showed a minimal impact on "experienced or highly skilled workers," the authors note, and at times served as a distraction.

AI support can be especially helpful to entry-level or early-career workers, says Lindsey Raymond, an MIT Ph.D. candidate and co-author of the paper. Less experienced workers benefit from AI by taking its recommendations to get up to speed and learn skillsets that usually come with experience.

With that said, AI tools benefit from the best and brightest workers training the AI itself by providing examples of best practices, which the technology then turns into recommendations for others workers to apply.

Businesses should understand that, despite less dramatic changes in productivity, high-performing employees should be recognized and compensated for generating the solutions that others can learn from, Raymond says.

Happier workers and customers

The year-long experiment also revealed that AI assistance improved customer satisfaction, reduced requests for managerial intervention and improved employee retention.

The research isn't meant to hypothesize whether AI will replace workers, Raymond says, but rather concludes the technology will help workers more effectively multitask and handle more complicated questions faster.

Better and faster work led to happier customers, who were in turn nicer to customer service agents and improved employee retention, Raymond says.

Tools that make people more effective at their jobs make the experience of work less stressful, she adds.

Results that generative AI can boost productivity is generally good news, though the biggest benefits may not be evenly distributed, says Erik Brynjolfsson, the director of the Digital Economy Lab at the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI, and co-author on the report. "There's no guarantee we'll all benefit, but it certainly sets the table for us all being better off," he says.

'Workers who work with generative AI will replace those who don't'

Brynjolfsson says call centers are a great place to use generative AI because it involves a lot of scripted language, but that "almost any kind of information or knowledge work that involves language could benefit from this," including across legal, marketing, medicine, teaching and other fields.

Workers at all levels can benefit from the technology, he adds — he recently spoke with a CEO who used generative AI to prepare for a board meeting.

"Probably over half of the U.S. workforce will be significantly affected by these tools," Brynjolfsson says.

He adds that workers, especially young workers, can stay ahead of the curve by embracing the reality of the technology: "Workers who embrace the technology, play around with it and learn how to use it are the ones that are going to succeed and benefit the most," Brynjolfsson says. "I don't think the generative AI is going to replace workers, but workers who work with generative AI will replace those who don't."

Some experts say generative AI tools could affect how two-thirds of current jobs are performed and could eventually raise global gross domestic product by as much as 7%, according to one economic report from Goldman Sachs .

One recent survey of LinkedIn's Top Companies found that nearly 70% say AI is already helping them be faster and smarter, and another 32% say they expect to see larger gains from using AI in the coming years. And companies like EY explicitly listed AI as one of their top three hiring priorities, while Wells Fargo and Kaiser Permanente are implementing AI across their workflows .

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Check out: Meta has a new AI tool to fight misinformation—and it’s using Wikipedia to train itself