quantitative research topics in leadership

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277 Top Leadership Research Topics for Your Thesis

For most students, working on leadership research topics is a fascinating task. That’s because this subject spans different disciplines, including education, management, sociology, politics, and psychology. For this reason, many learners choose these topics when writing college and university papers.

In most cases, educators do not specify the topic for learners. That means every learner must choose or develop a topic for their academic paper. Consequently, learners look for leadership areas that interest them and then pick their leadership paper topics.

Here are pointers for selecting a topic for your leadership essay or paper:

Start by choosing a subject area Narrow down your subject area Focus on leadership, not management Bear the educator’s instructions in mind Aim to answer a question in your subject area

If interested in this subject, here is a list of leadership topics you consider for your papers.

Interesting Dissertation Topics in Educational Leadership

When pursuing a course in educational leadership, educators require learners to complete a dissertation by employing their new learning and professional knowledge. When writing this paper, a learner should demonstrate organization, transformative leadership, and the ability to initiate community change. Here are sample topics in this category.

Interrelation between poor school results and poor leadership
How social media affects educational leadership
Impacts of technology on educational leadership
How leadership in mediocre schools can simulate top performing learning institutions
Effects of the leadership culture on running educational institutions
How to blend strategic teaching methods with efficient organization
How educational leadership affects society
How educational leadership influence researchers and literature
Educational leadership and success path
Educational leadership and social transformation
Educational leadership’s role in society
Can education leadership bring about change?
How to include the community in education leadership
Effectiveness of interdisciplinary teams in the running of the middle schools
Women role in education leadership
How cultural organization affects educational institutions
Diluting racist habits in accredited universities
How to seamlessly pass teachers’ excellence to students
How educational institutions can offer exceptional leadership by thinking outside the box
How to evaluate negative traits of instructors teaching similar subjects
How fighting for leadership positions affect schools and students
How to compassionately develop students with dyslexia
How to strategically blend teaching methods with efficient organization
How culture influences educational institutions’ leadership
How effective educational leadership helps learners achieve academic goals
How educational leadership affect how learners think about their future and intellectual abilities
How teachers can encourage learners to take exams and testing more seriously
Do teachers have adequate training on how to be influential leaders?
Should learning institutions evaluate teachers depending on their leadership abilities?
What changes in training opportunities can encourage teachers to exercise leadership strategies?

Pick any of these educational leadership research topics and investigate them extensively to develop a brilliant dissertation.

Hot Leadership Training Topics

Leadership training is crucial for future and current leaders. Anybody that wants to become a supervisor, manager, or leader at any capacity should undergo some training to cultivate and nurture their skills. Here are some of the best leadership topics to write about in this category.

How organizational leaders can enhance productivity
How company leaders can retain the best employees
How to improve decision making in an organization
How to implement effective leadership styles
How leaders can support succession in their organizations
How to delegate and empower employees
Role of organizational leaders in conflict resolution
How to change management and executive leadership
How leaders can command respect without issuing commands
How leaders can motivate and engage employees
How corporate leaders can enhance interpersonal relationships
How decision skills can streamline organizations and nurture confidence
How leaders can train employees on energy and time management
How leaders can train employees about self-awareness
Practical communication skills for organizational leaders
How leaders can encourage peer-to-peer training
The role of leadership in organizational development
How to design helpful leadership training modules
How to automate corporate learning paths
How to measure results in leadership training
Importance of leadership training
How leaders can deal with organizational change
How leaders can use coaching to enhance employee performance
Qualities of practical leadership training and mentorship programs
How leaders can create a learning culture in an organization
How a company employee can benefit from a leadership course
Which leadership strategies can enhance a team’s performance?
Describe different leadership styles with examples
What leadership training means for a business
Can leadership training affect organizational success?

Any of these topics can be the basis of an excellent paper. However, take your time to research your preferred idea to come up with a high-quality paper.

Trendy Leadership Development Topics for Research

Leadership development entails expanding individuals’ capacity to perform their leadership roles in organizations. Here are topic ideas to consider in this category.

When is leadership coaching necessary?
Who should provide leadership coaching?
Which are the best leadership development opportunities?
How emotional intelligence can enhance leadership development
Describe executive development
How innovation can enhance leadership development
Mentorship for leadership development- How does it work?
Can leaders act as teachers?
Why strategic planning matters when it comes to leadership development
Role of leadership development in team building
How coaching can enhance leadership development
Can leadership development enhance accountability?
Why change management coaching should be part of a leadership development program
How leadership development can turn leaders into negotiators and influencers
How communication skills can enhance leadership development
How organizational leaders can develop creativity
Essential skills to acquire from a leadership development program

Pick any of these topic ideas and then develop them via research to develop a winning paper. Use different information sources to gather relevant information before writing your essay.

Organizational Leadership Dissertation Topics

Organizational leadership is an exciting research field. What’s more, you can use a topic in this category to impact a difference in an organization. And this can enhance your employability when seeking a job. Depending on your dissertation requirements, you can pick and work with any of these topics.

How blended-learning techniques can enhance the critical thinking of organizational leaders
Essential administrative services that hospitality industry leaders should provide
Qualities of charismatic and prevention-oriented leaders for the success of medium-sized enterprises
How leadership behaviors affect the corporate culture
How leadership practices influence the success of an organization
How organizational leadership and culture affect the success of a small enterprise
Why executive leadership is essential in developing countries
Organizational leadership’s role in a multicultural environment
Investigating variations in conventional organizational leadership and charismatic leadership
How leadership quality and training can improve organizational performance
How corporate culture can influence the leadership decisions to try a new business strategy
How a country can produce the organizational leaders it requires
How managers can provide leadership aspirations to subordinates
How global company leaders can influence their overall cultures
How corporate culture impacts a company’s leadership
How assumption-based planning can save money for an organization
How organizational leadership differs from management
How differentiating leadership from management can enhance the achievement of organizational goals
How to evaluate the effects of administration on the organizational performance
How to examine leadership effects and vision clarity on business organizations
How leadership affects organizational performance
How a corporate leader can devise work teams in a company
Impacts of leadership skills on employees performance

Any of these organizational leadership topics can be the basis of a brilliant paper. However, you must research the idea extensively to include relevant information in your writing. That way, your educator and organizational leaders will find your essay worth reading.

Fantastic Women’s Leadership Topics

It’s no secret that studies about women in leadership topics have increased over the years. Perhaps, that’s because women’s status in workplaces has improved recently. Here are brilliant ideas to explore if interested in writing a research paper in this category.

The role of women personality in leadership
What are the primary barriers to women’s leadership?
Society stereotypes that threaten women leadership
How the responsibilities of women differ from those of their counterpart males
How the personality of women leaders differ from that of men
How women’s leadership style differs from that of men
How family responsibilities affect female leaders
Do current male leaders resist female leaders?
Must women leaders outperform their male counterparts to be considered adequate?
How lack of sufficient household support affects women leaders
How women leaders can help in unlocking the full economic potential of a country
How influential women leaders juggle between family and work
How powerful women leaders define work and success
How gender stereotypes affect female leaders
How modern female leaders balance careers and family
How stereotypes shape women leaders’ performance and intellectual identity
Family business success- What is the role of women?
Gender, sex, and leadership
How women can change organizational leadership
How great women leaders can inspire people to take action

Take any of these topics and develop them into an excellent paper through research. The internet is awash with resources that cover women and leadership issues. That means you won’t have a hard time finding relevant information for your topic.

Interesting Leadership Topics

Perhaps, you’re looking for an exciting topic for your research paper or essay. In that case, here are some of the best ideas to explore.

A case study of Bill Gates’ leadership
Motivation and leadership- What’s the difference?
What are the key characteristics of transformational leadership?
Investigating leadership and management across culture
Characteristics and distinctions of management and leadership
Explain radical leadership with examples
Discuss different leadership and management styles
Ethical leadership theories and models
Othello and Machiavelli’s leadership skills
Leadership concepts, according to Kentucky Fried Chicke
Moral and cultural contingencies of leadership
An investigation into team leadership
Discuss the hospitality industry’s leadership and management
How diversity affects the leadership effectiveness
Which are the best leadership practices
Socrates and organizational leadership
Aspects of leadership and team behavior
Leadership and management in business- How they relate
What is ethical leadership?
Leadership as a strategy in human resource and company policies
Leadership and organizational behavior- How they relate
Why is strategic leadership essential in the business environment?
How gender difference affects leadership styles
What is systematic leadership?
Why is civic leadership important?
How negative leadership affects an organization
Leadership role in an organization’s transformational
Classifications of different leadership theories
Theoretical perspectives of organizational leadership
Human resource planning and leadership development
Leadership contingency theories
Military leadership style and coaching combination
Benefits, roles, and limitations of leadership
Supervising and leadership influence on human services
Leadership theories and effective organization change
Discuss various leadership style concepts
Governance and leadership- What’s the difference?
Troubled companies and their leadership
Participative and situational leadership theories
Analyzing the authoritative leadership style
Effective management and leadership strategies
Why strong leadership is crucial in a business organization
Integrating different leadership styles
Leadership and education role modeling
How effective leadership can enhance employees productivity
How managers can motivate employees by serving as their leaders
How political leadership can affect an organization
Leadership role in solving organizational challenges
A critical perspective on leadership and management
Evaluation of John Kennedy and Bill Clinton’s political leadership
An analysis of the most influential leader in the world
Effective leadership learning processes in an organization
Servant and followership leadership
Leadership principles of effective teachers
Analyzing Ciulla Joanne’s The Ethics of Leadership
Is servant leadership effective in school administration?
Creativity and leadership revision
Leadership and motivation theories
The role of leadership in a multinational company
Participative approach versus autocratic leadership
How ethical leadership can influence decision-making
How a company’s leadership can manage change effectively
Innovation and leadership in a business
How transformational leadership can benefit women
Describe the role of leadership in a medical facility
Variations in ethical leadership
Scientific methods for studying leadership
Strategy as leadership and practice
Leadership and service quality
How school governance affects school leadership
How leadership and power relate
Investigating leadership through a behavioral approach
Effective styles for strategic leadership
Strategic leadership- A critical examination
Describe how contingency leadership works
Discuss theorists and theories on leadership
How to develop a leadership strategy in an organization
Why leadership models are valuable
Leadership strategies as success factors
Qualities of effective leadership strategies

These are exciting leadership topics for discussion in an academic paper or essay. Pick an issue in this category and then research it extensively to develop a brilliant piece.

Nursing Leadership Paper Topics

Do you want to write a research paper or essay about nursing leadership? If yes, pick any of these brilliant nursing leadership paper topics.

Strategies for developing nurse leaders
How concept-based learning techniques affect nurse leaders
What are the qualities of the best nurse leaders?
How a nurse leader can manage stress
Criteria for being considered a nurse leader’s mentor
Essential nursing leadership areas to study
Qualities of a practical nursing leadership program
Why nursing leadership is vital in healthcare management
A review of ethical nursing leadership and practice
What are the values of ethical nursing leadership and training?
How to balance nursing leadership and service quality
Nursing leadership fundamentals
The global status of nurse leaders
Practice experience that every nurse leader should exhibit
Nursing leadership from a patient’s perspective
How to apply nursing leadership in a nursing home
A comparison of nursing leadership in an adult ward and a pediatric ward
Vital skills for a nurse leader during an emergency
Challenges facing nursing leaders
What leadership means to nurses
Leadership from a nurse perspective- What does it mean?
Disadvantages of being a nurse leader
What are the inherent nurse leaders’ values?
The role of nurse leaders in public hospitals
Nursing leadership status in private hospitals
How nursing leadership differs in private and public hospitals
Trends in nursing leadership
Assessing nursing leadership in third-world countries
Long and short-term goals for nurse leaders
Activities for enhancing nursing leadership.

Any of these nursing leadership topics can be a great idea for research. However, prepare to investigate your preferred issue to develop an excellent paper. Nevertheless, you can even seek professional assistance if you love the topic but lack adequate time to write about it.

Leadership Speech Topics

Perhaps, you want to write a speech to present to your class or during a business meeting. In that case, this category comprises some of the best leadership presentation topics.

How to be a transformative leader
What makes a strategic leader?
Why organizations need moral leaders
How to lead with inclusion and integrity
Leadership and dissent- Doing the right versus doing something right
Practicing leadership in an inter-agency context
How to make a difference using leadership
Transactional or transformational leadership- What works?
How effective leadership looks like
How to practice effective leadership
How to become a leader
How to lead with compassion
Qualities that every great leader should exhibit
The power of effective leadership
How a leadership vision can propel an organization forward
How to understand and work with followers as a leader
How a leader can adapt and listen to changes in an organization
How consistent efforts make great leaders
Qualities that made great leaders in history
The golden rule of outstanding leadership

These are brilliant leadership discussion topics. However, prepare to research your preferred idea before you write a speech about it. That way, you will come up with a presentation that will move your audience.

Leadership Topics for Managers

Perhaps, you want to write about a leadership issue that managers will find interesting to read. In that case, these leadership research paper topics will interest you.

How managers can develop performance standards and goals
How managers can promote effective discipline
How a manager can improve work habits
How company managements can manage complaints
How a manager can provide performance feedback
Effective conflict resolution techniques for company managers
How a manager can support change in a company
Effective ways for managers to delegate tasks
How to effectively communicate with the upper management
How a manager can train or coach others
Essential leadership skills for managers
How managers can create trust and transparency in their organizations
How managers can encourage individual employees to find personal motivation
How managers can encourage innovation and initiative
How a manager can build self-confidence
Practical time management skills that every manager should have
Body language and public speaking for managers
How company managers can minimize employee complaints
How managers can lower stress among employees
Why training is essential for new managers
Why every manager should know industry-specific regulations
How managers can create an inclusive workforce
How managers can nurture talents and ensure employee retention
What training methods can managers use to empower employees?
Firing and hiring- What should know managers know about these responsibilities?
Which skills should managers cultivate to support company employees?

These are brilliant leadership essay topics for managers. However, you need time to research any of these topics to write a winning paper.

Having an Issue Completing Your Leadership Dissertation?

Whether you need leadership dissertation topics or essay ideas, you have many options to consider. Nevertheless, pick an interesting topic that you’ll enjoy working with, from research to proofreading your paper. But if you have difficulties writing your essay, seek an expert’s writing help online. With cheap, high quality assistance from reliable academic writers, you can have a competent specialist handle this assignment for you from the beginning to the end. And you can impress your educators to accord you the grade you desire. So, if stuck with this assignment, contact the best expert writers for hire to write your paper or essay without breaking a sweat.

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500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables. This method is widely used in social sciences, psychology , economics , and other fields where researchers aim to understand human behavior and phenomena through statistical analysis. If you are looking for a quantitative research topic, there are numerous areas to explore, from analyzing data on a specific population to studying the effects of a particular intervention or treatment. In this post, we will provide some ideas for quantitative research topics that may inspire you and help you narrow down your interests.

Quantitative Research Titles

Quantitative Research Titles are as follows:

Business and Economics

“Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
“Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
“Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
“Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
“Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
“Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
“Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
“Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
“Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
“The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
“Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
“Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”
“Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
“Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
“The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
“Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
“Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
“Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
“Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
“Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
“Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
“The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
“Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
“Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

Medicine and Health Sciences

“The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
“Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
“Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
“Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
“Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
“Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
“Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
“Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
“The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
“Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
“Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
“Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

Social Sciences

“Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
“Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
“Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
“The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
“Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
“Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
“Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
“Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
“Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
“Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
“The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
“Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

Engineering and Technology

“Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
“Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
“Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
“Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
“Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
“Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
“The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
“Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
“Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
“Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
“Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
“The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Quantitative Research Topics

Quantitative Research Topics are as follows:

The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers.
A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools.
The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
The correlation between parental involvement and academic performance of students.
The effect of mindfulness meditation on stress levels in college students.
The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction.
The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning.
The correlation between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
The impact of exercise on mental health among adults.
The relationship between social support and psychological well-being among cancer patients.
The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality.
A comparative study of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depression.
The relationship between physical attractiveness and job opportunities.
The correlation between smartphone addiction and academic performance among high school students.
The impact of music on memory recall among adults.
The effectiveness of parental control software in limiting children’s online activity.
The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among young adults.
The correlation between academic achievement and parental involvement among minority students.
The impact of early childhood education on academic performance in later years.
The effectiveness of employee training and development programs in improving organizational performance.
The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services.
The correlation between social support and academic achievement among college students.
The impact of technology on communication skills among children.
The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
The relationship between employee turnover and organizational culture.
The correlation between job satisfaction and employee engagement.
The impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior among children.
The effectiveness of nutritional education in promoting healthy eating habits among adolescents.
The relationship between bullying and academic performance among middle school students.
The correlation between teacher expectations and student achievement.
The impact of gender stereotypes on career choices among high school students.
The effectiveness of anger management programs in reducing violent behavior.
The relationship between social support and recovery from substance abuse.
The correlation between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use.
The impact of technology on family relationships.
The effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in promoting long-term abstinence.
The relationship between personality traits and academic achievement.
The correlation between stress and job performance among healthcare professionals.
The impact of online privacy concerns on social media use.
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation.
The correlation between physical activity and academic performance among elementary school students.
The impact of parental divorce on academic achievement among children.
The effectiveness of diversity training in improving workplace relationships.
The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health.
The correlation between parental involvement and substance abuse among adolescents.
The impact of social media use on romantic relationships among young adults.
The effectiveness of assertiveness training in improving communication skills.
The relationship between parental expectations and academic achievement among high school students.
The correlation between sleep quality and mood among adults.
The impact of video game addiction on academic performance among college students.
The effectiveness of group therapy in treating eating disorders.
The relationship between job stress and job performance among teachers.
The correlation between mindfulness and emotional regulation.
The impact of social media use on self-esteem among college students.
The effectiveness of parent-teacher communication in promoting academic achievement among elementary school students.
The impact of renewable energy policies on carbon emissions
The relationship between employee motivation and job performance
The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating eating disorders
The correlation between physical activity and cognitive function in older adults
The effect of childhood poverty on adult health outcomes
The impact of urbanization on biodiversity conservation
The relationship between work-life balance and employee job satisfaction
The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating trauma
The correlation between parenting styles and child behavior
The effect of social media on political polarization
The impact of foreign aid on economic development
The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational performance
The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy in treating borderline personality disorder
The correlation between childhood abuse and adult mental health outcomes
The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive function
The impact of trade policies on international trade and economic growth
The relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment
The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating postpartum depression
The correlation between family meals and child obesity rates
The effect of parental involvement in sports on child athletic performance
The impact of social entrepreneurship on sustainable development
The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
The effectiveness of art therapy in treating dementia
The correlation between social media use and academic procrastination
The effect of poverty on childhood educational attainment
The impact of urban green spaces on mental health
The relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being
The effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between childhood trauma and substance abuse
The effect of screen time on children’s social skills
The impact of trade unions on employee job satisfaction
The relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural communication
The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating chronic pain
The correlation between childhood obesity and adult health outcomes
The effect of gender diversity on corporate performance
The impact of environmental regulations on industry competitiveness.
The impact of renewable energy policies on greenhouse gas emissions
The relationship between workplace diversity and team performance
The effectiveness of group therapy in treating substance abuse
The correlation between parental involvement and social skills in early childhood
The effect of technology use on sleep patterns
The impact of government regulations on small business growth
The relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover
The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between parental involvement and academic motivation in adolescents
The effect of social media on political engagement
The impact of urbanization on mental health
The relationship between corporate social responsibility and consumer trust
The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional development
The effect of screen time on cognitive development in young children
The impact of trade policies on global economic growth
The relationship between workplace diversity and innovation
The effectiveness of family therapy in treating eating disorders
The correlation between parental involvement and college persistence
The effect of social media on body image and self-esteem
The impact of environmental regulations on business competitiveness
The relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction
The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating phobias
The correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement in college
The effect of social media on sleep quality
The impact of immigration policies on social integration
The relationship between workplace diversity and employee well-being
The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in treating personality disorders
The correlation between early childhood education and executive function skills
The effect of parental involvement on STEM education outcomes
The impact of trade policies on domestic employment rates
The relationship between job insecurity and mental health
The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating PTSD
The correlation between parental involvement and social mobility
The effect of social media on intergroup relations
The impact of urbanization on air pollution and respiratory health.
The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression
The correlation between early childhood education and language development
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in STEM fields
The impact of trade policies on income inequality
The relationship between workplace diversity and customer satisfaction
The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between parental involvement and civic engagement in adolescents
The effect of social media on mental health among teenagers
The impact of public transportation policies on traffic congestion
The relationship between job stress and job performance
The effectiveness of group therapy in treating depression
The correlation between early childhood education and cognitive development
The effect of parental involvement on academic motivation in college
The impact of environmental regulations on energy consumption
The relationship between workplace diversity and employee engagement
The effectiveness of art therapy in treating PTSD
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in vocational education
The effect of social media on academic achievement in college
The impact of tax policies on economic growth
The relationship between job flexibility and work-life balance
The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between early childhood education and social competence
The effect of parental involvement on career readiness in high school
The impact of immigration policies on crime rates
The relationship between workplace diversity and employee retention
The effectiveness of play therapy in treating trauma
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online learning
The effect of social media on body dissatisfaction among women
The impact of urbanization on public health infrastructure
The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in treating PTSD
The correlation between early childhood education and social skills in adolescence
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in the arts
The impact of trade policies on foreign investment
The relationship between workplace diversity and decision-making
The effectiveness of exposure and response prevention therapy in treating OCD
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in special education
The impact of zoning laws on affordable housing
The relationship between job design and employee motivation
The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy in treating traumatic brain injury
The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional learning
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in foreign language learning
The impact of trade policies on the environment
The relationship between workplace diversity and creativity
The effectiveness of emotion-focused therapy in treating relationship problems
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in music education
The effect of social media on interpersonal communication skills
The impact of public health campaigns on health behaviors
The relationship between job resources and job stress
The effectiveness of equine therapy in treating substance abuse
The correlation between early childhood education and self-regulation
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in physical education
The impact of immigration policies on cultural assimilation
The relationship between workplace diversity and conflict resolution
The effectiveness of schema therapy in treating personality disorders
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in career and technical education
The effect of social media on trust in government institutions
The impact of urbanization on public transportation systems
The relationship between job demands and job stress
The correlation between early childhood education and executive functioning
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in computer science
The effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy in treating PTSD
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in homeschooling
The effect of social media on cyberbullying behavior
The impact of urbanization on air quality
The effectiveness of dance therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between early childhood education and math achievement
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in health education
The impact of global warming on agriculture
The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in character education
The effect of social media on political participation
The impact of technology on job displacement
The relationship between job resources and job satisfaction
The effectiveness of art therapy in treating addiction
The correlation between early childhood education and reading comprehension
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in environmental education
The impact of income inequality on social mobility
The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational culture
The effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in physical therapy education
The effect of social media on misinformation
The impact of green energy policies on economic growth
The relationship between job demands and employee well-being
The correlation between early childhood education and science achievement
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in religious education
The impact of gender diversity on corporate governance
The relationship between workplace diversity and ethical decision-making
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in dental hygiene education
The effect of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
The impact of renewable energy policies on energy security
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in social studies
The impact of trade policies on job growth
The relationship between workplace diversity and leadership styles
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online vocational training
The effect of social media on self-esteem among men
The impact of urbanization on air pollution levels
The effectiveness of music therapy in treating depression
The correlation between early childhood education and math skills
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in language arts
The impact of immigration policies on labor market outcomes
The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in treating phobias
The effect of social media on political engagement among young adults
The impact of urbanization on access to green spaces
The relationship between job crafting and job satisfaction
The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating specific phobias
The correlation between early childhood education and spatial reasoning
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in business education
The impact of trade policies on economic inequality
The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating PTSD
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in nursing education
The effect of social media on sleep quality among adolescents
The impact of urbanization on crime rates
The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions
The effectiveness of pet therapy in treating anxiety disorders
The correlation between early childhood education and STEM skills
The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in culinary education
The impact of immigration policies on housing affordability
The relationship between workplace diversity and employee satisfaction
The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction in treating chronic pain
The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in art education
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Quantitative Research on Leadership and Business Ethics: Examining the State of the Field and an Agenda for Future Research

Original Paper
Published: 29 August 2019
Volume 168 , pages 109–119, ( 2021 )

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quantitative research topics in leadership

Michael Palanski 1 ,
Alexander Newman 2 ,
Hannes Leroy 3 ,
Celia Moore 4 ,
Sean Hannah 5 &
Deanne Den Hartog 6

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In this article, the co-editors of the Leadership and Ethics: Quantitative Analysis section of the journal outline some of the key issues about conducting quantitative research at the intersection of business, ethics, and leadership. They offer guidance for authors by explaining the types of papers that are often rejected and how to avoid some common pitfalls that lead to rejection. They also offer some ideas for future research by drawing upon the opinions of four noted experts in the field to consider the types of research questions we should be asking, the types of theory we should be building, the types of models we should be testing, and the types of methods we should be using.

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Michael Palanski

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Palanski, M., Newman, A., Leroy, H. et al. Quantitative Research on Leadership and Business Ethics: Examining the State of the Field and an Agenda for Future Research. J Bus Ethics 168 , 109–119 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04267-9

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

The role of leadership in a digitalized world: a review.

$\nLaura Cortellazzo$

1 Department of Management, Ca' Foscari University, Venice, Italy
2 Department of Business and Management, LUISS Guido Carli University, Rome, Italy

Digital technology has changed organizations in an irreversible way. Like the movable type printing accelerated the evolution of our history, digitalization is shaping organizations, work environment and processes, creating new challenges leaders have to face. Social science scholars have been trying to understand this multifaceted phenomenon, however, findings have accumulated in a fragmented and dispersed fashion across different disciplines, and do not seem to converge within a clear picture. To overcome this shortcoming in the literature and foster clarity and alignment in the academic debate, this paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the contribution of studies on leadership and digitalization, identifying patterns of thought and findings across various social science disciplines, such as management and psychology. It clarifies key definitions and ideas, highlighting the main theories and findings drawn by scholars. Further, it identifies categories that group papers according to the macro level of analysis (e-leadership and organization, digital tools, ethical issues, and social movements), and micro level of analysis (the role of C-level managers, leader's skills in the digital age, practices for leading virtual teams). Main findings show leaders are key actors in the development of a digital culture: they need to create relationships with multiple and scattered stakeholders, and focus on enabling collaborative processes in complex settings, while attending to pressing ethical concerns. With this research, we contribute to advance theoretically the debate about digital transformation and leadership, offering an extensive and systematic review, and identifying key future research opportunities to advance knowledge in this field.

Introduction

The findings of the latest Eurobarometer survey show the majority of respondents think digitalization has a positive impact on the economy (75 percent), quality of life (67 percent), and society (64 percent) ( European Commission, 2017 ). Indeed, people's daily lives and businesses have been highly transformed by digital technologies in the last years. Digitalization allowed to connect more than 8 billion devices worldwide ( World Economic Forum, 2018 ), modified information value and management, and started to change the nature of organizations, their boundaries, work processes, and relationships ( Davenport and Harris, 2007 ; Lorenz et al., 2015 ; Vidgen et al., 2017 ).

Digital transformation refers to the adoption of a portfolio of technologies that, at varying degrees, have been employed by the majority of firms: Internet (IoT), digital platforms, social media, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), and Big Data ( Harvard Business Review Analytic Services, 2017 ). These tools and instruments are “rapidly becoming as infrastructural as electricity” ( Cascio and Montealegre, 2016 , p. 350). At macro levels, the shift toward different technologies is setting the agenda for new mechanisms of competition, industry structures, work systems, and relations to emerge. At the micro level, the digitalization has impacted on business dynamics, processes, routines, and skills ( Cascio and Montealegre, 2016 ).

Across different sectors and regardless of organization size, companies are converting their workplaces into digital workplaces. As observed by Haddud and McAllen (2018) , many jobs now involve extensive use of technology, and require the ability to exploit it at a fast pace. Yet, digitalization is being perceived both as a global job destroyer and creator, driving a profound transformation of job requirements. In result, leaders need to invest in upskilling employees, in an effort to support and motivate them in the face of steep learning curves and highly cognitively demanding challenges. Moreover, increased connectivity and information sharing is contributing to breaking hierarchies, functions and organizational boundaries, ultimately leading to the morphing of task-based into more project-based activities, wherein employees are required to directly participate in the creation of new added value. As such, the leadership role has become vital to capture the real value of digitalization, notably by managing and retaining talent via better reaching for, connecting and engaging with employees ( Harvard Business Review Analytic Services, 2017 ; World Economic Forum, 2018 ). However, leaders need to be held accountable for addressing new ethical concerns arising from the dark side of digital transformation. For instance, regarding the exploitation of digitalization processes to inflict information overload onto employees, or to further blur the lines between one's work and personal life.

In the last few decades, leadership scholars have been trying to monitor the effects of digitalization processes. Part of the academic debate has been focused on the role of leaders' ability to integrate the digital transformation into their companies and, at the same time, inspire employees to embrace the change, which is often perceived as a threat to the current status quo ( Gardner et al., 2010 ; Kirkland, 2014 ). To bring clarity to this debate, the construct of e-leader has been introduced to describe a new profile of leaders who constantly interact with technology ( Avolio et al., 2000 ; see also Avolio et al., 2014 for a review). Accordingly, e-leadership is defined as a “social influence process mediated by Advanced Information Technology (AIT) to produce a change in attitudes, feelings, thinking, behavior, and/or performance with individuals, groups, and/or organizations” ( Avolio et al., 2000 , p. 617).

Despite the increasing interest in discussing the relationship between digital technology and leadership, contributions have accumulated in a fragmented fashion across various disciplines. This fragmentation has made scholars struggle “to detect larger patterns of change resulting from the digital transformation” ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 , p. 114). It also suggests that scholars have relied on multiple theoretical models to explain the phenomenon. Indeed, if, on one hand, it is clear that organizations are changing due to technological improvements, on the other hand, the way in which the transformation is occurring remains under debate. Furthermore, due to the fast-changing development and implementation of digital technology, there is a need to continuously update and consider the latest contributions to the topic.

This article addresses the aforementioned issues by offering a systematization of the literature on digitalization and leadership that has been accumulating across different disciplines, while adopting an interdisciplinary approach and providing a systematization of articles from different fields that analyze digitalization and leadership. Specifically, the present article reviews the literature on how the advent of digital technologies has changed leaders and leadership roles. Moreover, it structures and summarizes the literature, considering both theoretical frameworks and empirical findings, and fostering the understanding of both the content of the debate and its practical underpinnings. Lastly, reflecting on the findings of this review, we offer suggestions for future directions of research.

The present review draws on the following boundary conditions. First, we relied on a broad definition of leadership, in which the leader is understood as a person who guides a group of people, an organization, or empowers their transformational processes. Second, we excluded studies referring to market or industry leaders, in which the leader is represented by an organization. Third, we considered studies that clearly referred to a digital or technological transformation. Fourth, we did not include studies in which there was not a clear link between information technology and leadership (e.g., city leaders protecting the physical and digital infrastructures of urban economies regarding climate change). Therefore, our review was guided by the following research questions: (i) What are the main theoretical frameworks guiding the academic discussion on digital transformation and leadership? (ii) What are the main categories emerging from the contributions that address the relationship between digital transformation and leadership? And (iii) Which are the main future directions of research that scholars should consider?

This paper is structured as follows: First, it describes the methodology used; Second, it proposes a classification of findings based on theoretical frameworks and content. Finally, it describes implications of our findings for both research and practice, and proposes directions for future research.

Research Design

The aim of this paper is to investigate how the debate on digital transformation and leadership has evolved in recent years, to identify key theories and findings, and to propose potential future directions of research. To answer our research questions, we use a mixed method approach, that involves both quantitative research through standard databases and qualitative coding ( Crossan and Apaydin, 2010 ; Peteraf et al., 2013 ; Zupic and Čater, 2015 ).

Data Collection

We collected papers from the Scopus database, one of the most widely used sources of scientific literature ( Zupic and Čater, 2015 ). We also checked Web of Science and Ebsco databases in order to avoid missing articles. Because we did not find any relevant distinction between these databases regarding this topic, we chose to use Scopus only. We firstly accessed the database on September 1st, 2018.

Since our research questions concerned the academic discussion on digital transformation and leadership, the scope of our search was limited to academic articles (not only from peer-reviewed journals but also from unpublished sources, such as unpublished manuscripts). Non-academic books and other publications were outside the scope of our study and were therefore excluded from our search. Our initial search was undertaken using the basic keywords: leader * AND digital * OR e-leader * . The keywords were used as a selection criterion for the topic (title, keywords, or abstract). We searched peer-reviewed papers published in English, in journals focusing on the following subject areas: Business, Management, and Accounting; Psychology; and Social Science, without any additional selection restrictions. We decided to scan articles published in other areas than Business and Management since the topic is covered by several disciplines. These criteria resulted in an initial sample of 790 articles. The following figure ( Figure 1 ) shows how the debate grew since 2000, and significantly expanded since 2015.

Figure 1 . Growth of articles on leadership and digitalization.

In order to avoid a potential publication bias ( O'Boyle et al., 2017 ), and to scan recent studies that might not have had the time to go through the entire publication process, we performed a search within conference proceedings since 2015, using the same aforementioned criteria. The initial sample comprised 113 articles.

The second step within our data collection process involved a qualitative selection of articles. We first considered publications with at least one citation among those published before 2013, seen that the number of citations is a common criterion of scientific rigor and impact in academia ( Garfield, 1979 , 2004 ; Peteraf et al., 2013 ). As citation-based methods may discriminate against recent publications ( Crossan and Apaydin, 2010 ), we kept all papers published after 2013. Based on the assumption that top journals publish high quality papers, we discarded studies that were not included within the first 200 journals appearing in the Scimago list within the Management and Business, Social Science, and Psychology areas. Then, both peer-reviewed articles and conference proceedings were filtered based on the assessment of whether the abstracts were in alignment with the topic and the boundary conditions. Articles were selected based on the following criteria: (i) the leader was a person who guides a group, organization, or empowers their transformational processes; (ii) there was a clear reference to digital or technological transformation; (iii) there was a clear link between information technology and leadership. Articles that focused on either digital transformation or leadership only were excluded, as well as papers that were outside our boundary conditions, such as studies on industry leaders using digital platforms. Figure 2 summarizes the selection criteria and the boundary conditions used to scan the articles. The search criteria resulted in a final dataset of 54 studies.

Figure 2 . Search strategy and selection criteria.

Data Analysis and Qualitative Coding

To attain a “systematic, transparent and reproducible review process” ( Zupic and Čater, 2015 , p. 429), and identify research streams and seminal works, we first performed a bibliometric analysis of the initial dataset of 790 articles. In order to map the origin and evolution of the academic debate on digital transformation and leadership, a systematic coding analysis was conducted on the entire set of articles. Then, the iterative reading and discussion of the final dataset of articles highlighted the following emerging categories that guided our analysis ( Strauss and Corbin, 1998 ): (i) theoretical or empirical papers; (ii) research methodology; (iii) level of analysis (micro and macro); (iv) definition of leadership and digitalization; (v) main themes or objectives of the article; (v) main underlying theories; (vi) field of study (e.g., Management and Planning, Economics and Business, Psychology and so forth). Based on this coding scheme, the three authors independently read and coded all articles. Subsequently, they discussed their coding attribution until an agreement on the final coding of each article was reached.

Dataset Description

The final database comprises 54 articles, of which 42 are peer-reviewed papers published by 33 journals, while the remaining 12 papers are conference proceedings (see Table 1 ).

Table 1 . Dataset citations, source, level of analysis and empirical/theoretical approach.

Regarding the peer reviewed articles in our dataset, most of them stem from Economic, Business and Management (22 articles), and Information and Communication Sciences (10 articles). Only three studies come from the Psychology discipline. As for the sources wherein these articles are published, we count two journals that specifically address the leadership field, such as “The Leadership Quarterly” and “Strategy and Leadership”, whereas the remaining 31 other journals are spread across areas such as Economics, Business and Management, Information and Communication Sciences, Psychology, Educational, Heath and Political Sciences. The novelty of the topic and the breadth of journals in which it is published confirms that the field of digital transformation and leadership has garnered interest from several difference disciplines. Such fragmentation of the literature and the different perspectives it has enabled, justifies the need for systematization and alignment of future research.

As for the conference proceedings, half of the articles come from international and peer-reviewed conferences advancing the debate of digital transformation in business, such as the International Conference on Electronic Business, the Scandinavian Conference on Information Systems, the IEEE Conference on e-Learning, e-Management and e-Services.

Among the top five most cited articles in our sample, three come from journals that specifically relate to Human Resources: “Leadership Quarterly” and “Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.” In these articles the authors focus on the characteristics of digital leaders in terms of roles and behaviors, stressing the idea that technology is deeply changing the way in which leaders conceive communication and cope with their followers ( Avolio et al., 2000 , 2014 ; Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ; Hambley et al., 2007 ).

As shown in Figure 1 , the early 2000s witnessed an initial interest in the topic, when pioneering work began to consider the changes that digitalization brings in the area of leadership and how the concept and practice of leadership are affected by new technologies ( Avolio et al., 2000 ; Coutu, 2000 ). However, it has been mostly over the last decade that the topic garnered seesawing attention. It is plausible to assert that the much stronger impact that technological development has had within organizations recently, and the expectation that technological evolution will be even more disruptive in the near future, has accelerated the interest on the topic. Indeed, while all peer-reviewed articles in our sample are from 2000 on, 60 percent were published after 2014. As for conference proceedings, we only considered the contributions presented after 2015 in order to understand how the debate has been developing in recent years.

Regarding the level of analysis (micro vs. macro), the majority of contributions within our sample are at the micro-level (30 articles), while 24 adopt a macro perspective. Within the latter, it is interesting to notice that a considerable number of articles do not pertain to the management field. As to the type of contribution, the majority of articles in our sample (37) are empirical studies, while only a few articles are conceptual. This imbalance reveals there is still a lack of theorization about the impact of technology on leadership. Nevertheless, in the next session we systematize the main theoretical frameworks that have been used to address this topic.

Main Theoretical Frameworks

The analysis of the theoretical content of our dataset highlighted that only a small set of studies explicitly refers to the extant theoretical frameworks describing the impact of digital transformation on leadership. Advanced information technologies theory ( Huber, 1990 ), according to which the adoption of information technologies influences changes in organization structure, information use, and decision-making processes, is used as common ground. Scholars agree on the high impact of technology in leadership behavior and identify Information Technologies (IT) developments as a driver for creating disruptive changes in businesses and in leadership roles across different organizational functions ( Bartol and Liu, 2002 ; Geoffrion, 2002 ; Weiner et al., 2015 ; Sousa and Rocha, 2018 ). These changes are so dramatic that scholars started to adopt a new terminology to characterize the e-world, e-business and e-organizations ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). Recent studies have been discussing the notion of digital ubiquity ( Gerth and Peppard, 2016 ; Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ), describing the pervasive proliferation of technology ( Roman et al., 2018 ). With this term, scholars refer to a context in which technological equipment is prevalent and constantly interacts with humans. It describes a scenario in which “computer sensors (such as radio frequency identification tags, wearable technology, smart watches) and other equipment (tablets, mobile devices) are unified with various objects, people, information, and computers as well as the physical environment” ( Cascio and Montealegre, 2016 , p. 350).

In terms of leadership theoretical frameworks, scholars seem to turn to a plethora of different theories and definitions. Horner-Long and Schoenberg (2002) contrapose two main theoretical approaches: universal theories and contingency theories. The former supports the view that leaders differ from other individuals due to a generic set of leadership traits and behaviors which can be applied to all organizations and business environments (see for example Lord et al., 1986 ; Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1991 ). The latter argues that, in order to be effective, leadership should adopt a style and behaviors that match the context (e.g., Tannenbaum and Schmidt, 1973 ; Goleman, 2000 ). The authors empirically explore leadership profile characteristics, comparing e-business leaders and leaders from traditional bricks and mortar organizations. Results do not clearly support any of the two approaches. They suggest that in both contexts most of leadership characteristics are equally valued. However, certain characteristics distinguish e-world leaders from leaders in traditional industries. While Horner-Long and Schoenberg (2002) analyze leader profile differences across industries, Richardson and Sterrett (2018) adopt a longitudinal design, exploring how digital innovations influenced the role of technology-savvy K-12 district leaders across time. They base their work on a unified model of effective leadership practices that influence learning ( Hitt and Tucker, 2016 ). Although the leadership practice model is maintained across time, the authors recognize some shifts in the way those practices are implemented.

Only Obschonka et al. (2017) specifically adopt a universal perspective, drawing from trait approach theory ( Stogdill, 1974 ). By analyzing the language used to communicate via Twitter, the authors identify the personality characteristics that distinguish the most successful managers and entrepreneurs.

Heinz et al. (2006) follow a contingency approach, emphasizing the need to take into account the context and consider situational aspects that can influence leadership and cooperation practices.

Most studies in our sample assume that the change in context due to technological advancement may influence leadership. According to Lu et al. (2014 , p. 55), it cannot be assumed that “leadership skills identified in offline context should be transferred to virtual leadership without any adjustment.”

However, some authors make this assumption tacitly (e.g., Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ), without explicitly addressing any related theoretical framework. Bolden and O'Regan (2016 , p. 439) report that “there is no one approach to leadership,” since leadership is context specific and must to be adapted to the needs of the day. Similarly, Lu et al. (2014) maintain that effective leadership behaviors are determined by the situation in which leadership is developed.

To address the diversity of situations and contexts, Jawadi et al. (2013) overcome the limits of a pure contingency approach and embrace complexity, adopting the framework of leadership behavioral complexity theory ( Denison et al., 1995 ). In a context characterized by complex and unanticipated demands, a leader needs to develop a behavioral repertoire that allows dealing with contradictory and paradoxical situations ( Denison et al., 1995 ). As contingencies are evolving so rapidly as to be considered in a state of flux, an effective leader needs to be able to conceive and perform multiple behaviors and roles.

Avolio et al. (2000 , 2014 ), make a step forward in defining the role of context.

Similarly to Bartol and Liu (2002) , the authors adopt a structurational perspective (Adaptive Structure Theory) (AST; DeSanctis and Poole, 1994 ) as the main theoretical framework. According to their point of view, digital technologies and leadership reciprocally influence and change each other in a recursive relationship. In their perspective, not only technology influences leadership, but also leaders appropriate technology, and it is through the interaction between information technology and organizational structures that the effect of technology on individuals, groups, and organizations emerges. In this view, the context is not only shaping and shaped by leaders; it is part and parcel of the construct of e-leadership itself. Avolio et al. (2000 , 2014 ) remarkably paved the way for the conceptualization of e-leadership, which has since been adopted by many other authors to inform their studies ( Avolio et al., 2000 ; Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ; Roman et al., 2018 ).

Similarly, Orlikowski (1992) develop a Structurational Model of Technology, whereby technology influences the context in which actors perform but is also designed and socially constructed by its users ( Van Outvorst et al., 2017 ).

Looking at leaders' relationships with their teams, scholars refer to the following main theories: transactional leadership theory, transformational leadership theory ( Burns, 1978 ; Bass, 1981 , 1985 ), and leader-member exchange theory (LMX; Graen and Scandura, 1987 ). Transactional and transformational leadership are among the most influential and discussed behavioral leadership theories of the last decade ( Diaz-Saenz, 2011 ). They distinguish transformational leaders, who focus on motivating and inspiring followers to perform above expectations, from transactional leaders, who perceive the relationship with followers as an exchange process, in which follower compliance is gained through contingent reinforcement and rewards ( Bass, 1985 ). Previous studies reveal that leadership styles may influence virtual team interactions and performance (e.g., Sosik et al., 1997 ; Sosik et al., 1998 ; Kahai and Avolio, 2006 ). As such, Hambley et al. (2007) explore the effects of transactional and transformational leadership on team interactions and outcomes, comparing teams interactions across different communication media: face-to-face, desktop videoconference, or text-based chat. Likewise, Lu et al. (2014) compare virtual and offline interactions, drawing on transactional and transformational leadership theories to understand whether leadership styles of individuals playing in Massive Multiplayer Online Games (MMOGs) can be associated to their leadership status in offline contexts. However, this association is found to be significant only with offline leadership roles in voluntary organizations, not in companies. Results in Hambley et al. (2007) also show that the association between leadership style and team interaction and performance does not depend on the communication medium being used.

While transactional and transformational leadership theories adopt a behavioral perspective in which the focal point is the leader behavior with regards to the follower, leader-member exchange theory (LMX) introduces a dyadic point of view. Leader-member exchange theory focuses on the nature and quality of the relationship between leaders and their team members. The quality of this relationship, which is characterized by trust, respect, and mutual obligation, is thought to predict individual, group and organizational outcomes ( Gerstner and Day, 1997 ). Jawadi et al. (2013) use the concept of leader-member exchange as a dependent variable, exploring how multiple leadership roles influence cooperative and collaborative relationships in virtual teams. Bartol and Liu (2002) build on leader-member exchange theory to suggest policies and practices HRM professionals can use to implement IT-information sharing and positively influence employee perceptions.

The democratization of informational power gave momentum to distributed power dynamics. Moving beyond the centrality of the sole vertical leader, the shared leadership approach emphasizes the role of teams as potential source of leadership ( Pearce, 2004 ; Ensley et al., 2006 ; Pearce et al., 2009 ). Shared leadership is “a manifestation of fully developed empowerment in teams” ( Pearce, 2004 , p. 48) in which leadership behaviors that “guide, structure, or facilitate the group may be performed by more than one individual, and different individuals may perform the same leadership behaviors at different times” ( Carte et al., 2006 : p. 325).

Acknowledging the relevance of increased connectivity in the digital era, some studies underscore the importance to take into account a network perspective. Lynn Pulley and Sessa (2001) contrapose the industrial economy to the current networked economy. Bartol and Liu (2002) define networked organizations as those organizations characterized by three major types of connectivity: inter-organizational (also known as boundaryless; Nohria and Berkley, 1994 ), intra-organizational, and extra-organizational. Kodama (2007) views the organization as the integration of different types of networked strategic communities, wherein knowledge is shared and assessed. Sullivan et al. (2015) use a network representation to depict shared leadership. Gordon (2007) explores how the network is embedded in the concept of web that is currently accepted.

The Macro Perspective of Analysis: Main Categories

The studies on digitalization and leadership that adopt a macro-perspective of analysis can be classified in four different categories, according to whether they focus on: (1) The relationship between e-leaders and organizations; (2) How leaders adopt technology to solve complex organizational problems; (3) The impact of digital technologies on ethical leadership; or (4) The leader's use of digital technologies to influence social movements.

The Relationship Between E-Leaders and Organizations

The studies within our sample that take a macro or organizational-level approach are considerably less than those which investigate the micro dynamics occurring within organizations. A summary is shown in Table 2 . This imbalance is probably due to the relatively greater urgency and challenge to understand the role of leaders and leadership in guiding and implementing the digitalization process within organizations, rather than what new forms of organizations are emerging as a result of the digital transformation. As observed by a recent Harvard Business Review Analytic Services report (2017 ), leaders have increasingly become the key players in driving positive results from the investments on digital tools and technologies.

Table 2 . Main categories summary.

In the last few years, scholars have begun to adopt the construct of e-leader in order to specifically refer to those leaders who have initiated a massive process of digitalization in their organizations. Despite the call to understand how organizations and e-leaders are intertwined, few studies provide an empirical explanation of the new organizational configurations emerging from the interaction between technology and the human/social system. Berman and Korsten (2014) is one among the few. By surveying a large sample of CEOs, running companies of different sizes and across 64 countries and 18 industries, the authors showed that outperforming organizations had leaders that created open, connected and highly collaborative organizational cultures. The authors suggest future leaders should base their organizations on three pillars: (1) Assuring a highly connected and open working environment at any hierarchical levels and units in organizations; (2) Engaging customers by gathering knowledge about the whole person; and (3) Establishing more integrated and networked relationships with partners and competitors ( Berman and Korsten, 2014 ). They posit these three pillars transform the organizations at all levels. This implies organizations are becoming boundaryless, at both the internal and external levels. Further, the organizational structure is no longer a static feature, but an ongoing process ( Van Outvorst et al., 2017 ). While a shift toward an ecological perspective— one where organizations' boundaries are loose and permeable—requires higher coordination, collaboration and individual responsibility, it also enhances innovative capabilities ( Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ). According to Kodama (2007) , managers at any level can foster innovation if they go beyond the formal organization, to create real or virtual networks among internal and/or external communities of practice. These communities of practice enable a more agile response to change, promoting the free-flow of information and breaking down information silos ( Petrucci and Rivera, 2018 ), thereby empowering both managers and employees to integrate, transform and stimulate knowledge that fosters innovation. This way, information and communication technology enables the creation of shared information pools wherein diverse staff across the organization contribute to a collaborative and dynamic process of idea generation. Moreover, such co-generation of ideas and knowledge cultivates stronger relationships between disparate organizational units, further facilitating open innovation processes ( Henttonen et al., 2012 ).

In sum, by breaking the organizational boundaries within and between internal and external stakeholders, the traditional leader-centered information and decision-making process is giving way to novel processes that democratize access to information and share decision power among all parties involved.

Digital Tools and Organizations: How Technology Enhances the Optimization of Complex Organizational Environments

Although most papers adopting a macro perspective reflect on the novel structures of organizations, they tend to underestimate the effect of digital transformation on organizational processes. That is, however, not the case with Weiner et al. (2015) , who discuss how the effective achievement of operational goals relies on the fit between strategic planning and information technology, particularly in operationally complex organizations, such as hospitals. Their empirical study shows that digital tools could highly contribute in the planning and monitoring of internal processes, increasing the transparency and accountability across all levels of management, and engaging customers' trust. For instance, the intelligent use of data through sophisticated digital tools, allowed hospitals administrators to lead improvements in decision-making processes and service quality by enhancing the usage of traditional management tools, such as key performance indicators (KPIs), and storage of critical data, namely on infections and diseases. Notably, this study offers empirical evidence on the need to adopt digital technology to develop efficient internal organizational processes and guarantee high quality service to customers. In another empirical study conducted in a hospital, the authors confirmed that the use of digital tools helped leaders solve complex issues related to personnel and operational costs. Similarly to the previous study aforementioned, data were used to re-design the entire organization with the aim of optimizing the efficiency in the use of both facilities and processes ( Morgareidge et al., 2014 ).

Leaders are responsible for verifying the suitability of technological tools being adopted or implemented in relation to the organizational needs and objectives. Moreover, while we acknowledge that digital technologies hold the potential for improving the efficiency of organizational processes, we contend that they need to be internalized and integrated within employees' routine tasks in order for organizations to minimize attritions from their adoption and fully capture its benefits.

Organizations and Ethics

Ethics in leadership roles has been an issue of concern to scholars especially since the emergence of the transformational leadership paradigm ( Burns, 1978 ; Bass and Avolio, 1993 ). In general, ethical leadership is defined as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making” ( Brown et al., 2005 , p. 120). With the advent of digital transformation and the massive use of data, scholars have begun to call into question the integrity of leaders. Indeed, the use of data and technologies exposes leaders to new dilemmas, which nature is intertwined with ethical concerns. For instance, the use of sensitive data is driving leaders' increased concerns about privacy protection and controlling mechanisms in the workplace ( Kidwell and Sprague, 2009 ). Electronic surveillance (ES) is a way to collect data about employees and their behavior, so as to improve productivity and monitor behaviors in the workplace ( Kidwell and Sprague, 2009 ). ES rules vary across countries and cultures. For instance, the US Supreme Court of Justice obliged employers to adopt ES to monitor employees in order to prevent sexual harassment ( Kidwell and Sprague, 2009 ). Notwithstanding, Europe has been more concerned with individual privacy. Notably, in 1986, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) approved a declaration on social aspects of technological change, whereby member states “were concerned that employers and unions ensure that workers' privacy be protected when technological change occurs” ( Kidwell and Sprague, 2009 , p. 199). Perhaps the boldest manifestation of this concern is the recently adopted EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which has just come into force the past May 25th, 2019.

In this scenario, leaders are required to set clear guidelines and practices that lie within national and international data security policies. In particular, they need to monitor the use of personal sensitive data, if not for the ethical concern per se , because if otherwise caught in unlawful data practices, their organizations' reputation, trustworthiness, and brand image could suffer irreparable damage (e.g., the recent scandal of Cambridge Analytica about an inappropriate use of personal data, has affected the reputation of all organizations involved) ( Gheni et al., 2016 ; Jones, 2017 ). Leaders also need to set clear expectations for employees and act as role models for all members of the organization in order to clarify what ethical behavior regarding personal sensitive data looks like. This is especially true for organizations that strongly rely on virtual communications, as these tend to stimulate more aggressive and unethical behavior, due to their lack of face-to-face interactions ( Gheni et al., 2016 ). Leaders, therefore, have a pivotal role in weeding out potential unethical behaviors from their organizations.

Finally, an emerging topic in leadership concerns the unlawful appropriation of technology from private and public organizations. Specifically, it refers to situations wherein technology is used for purposes other than those it had originally been intended ( Jones, 2017 ). For instance, improper use of technology may result in unauthorized access to data and lead to cyber security breaches ( Jones, 2017 ).

Despite the interdisciplinary relevance of ethics, the debate of ethical concerns within e-leadership seems to be currently confined to the literature on governance and information technology. Yet, there is room for more theoretical and empirical discussion about how ethics is affecting power relations, surveillance, safety perceptions in the workplace, and human resource processes.

Leadership and Digital Tools: Insights From Social Movement Studies

A complementary perspective of leadership and digitalization is provided by several recent studies that analyze social and political events, in particular grassroots movements such as the Occupy and Tea Party ( Agarwal et al., 2014 ), the Umbrella Movement in China ( Lee and Man Chan, 2016 ) and the political tensions in Russia ( Toepfl, 2018 ). These contributions share the notion of leader as someone who directs collective action and creates collective identities ( Morris and Staggenborg, 2004 ). These studies, mainly rooted in communication and political sciences, are certainly relevant to our review as they shed light on the social nature of leadership in the new digital era.

These studies focus on how social media and digital tools are disrupting traditional forms of leadership, altering the structure, norms and hierarchy of organizations, and creating new practices to manage and sustain consensus ( David and Baden, 2018 ). New forms of leadership are for instance defined as horizontal and leaderless ( Castells, 2012 ; Bennett and Segerberg, 2013 ). The horizontality defines movements and groups in which authority is dismissed, whereas leaderless points to the lack of power stratification among the participants ( Sitrin, 2006 ; Gerbaudo, 2017 ).

In a similar vein, recent studies looking at the use of digital tools by participants in social movements, observe how power struggles were changed by new information and communication technologies (ICTs): “ICTs have transformed the power dynamics of social movement politics by challenging traditional forms of [social] organizations” ( Agarwal et al., 2014 , p. 327).

The single case study of the ultra-orthodox community illustrates for instance how authoritarian leadership can be broken down by digital tools and social media ( David and Baden, 2018 ). When the leadership of a closed and conservative religious community is questioned in social media, that creates a new space to renegotiate the community's boundaries and modify its power dynamics: “the fluidity and temporality of digital media have advanced to become an influential, independent factor shaping community opinion” ( David and Baden, 2018 , p. 14). As such, the identity of a closed and inaccessible community and its leadership are challenged by both internal and external actors through the use of digital media.

The study of different digital tools is also considered a relevant subject matter to gain understanding about what tools are more efficient in organizing and mobilizing resources ( Agarwal et al., 2014 ). Technology and digital tools are not value-neutral nor value free, because they influence how people organize, coordinate, and communicate with others ( Hughes, 2004 ; Agarwal et al., 2014 ). For instance, the study on the Russian activists shows how the long-term success of the movement was a result of a centralized, formalized and stable network, wherein its leading representatives and other members were bonded together by a new digital tool ( Toepfl, 2018 ). The use of digital instruments enabled the transformation of an organization that was initially chaotic into a more structured one, as they facilitated the discussion and coordination between the leader and its followers ( Toepfl, 2018 ). This resulted in a more efficient and effective way to achieve consensus.

Taken together, these studies show how technology is far from being a neutral instrument. Rather, digital tools influence power dynamics in any type of organization (e.g., flat, bureaucratic or networked), and at any level. If on one hand, digital tools can lead to the de-structuring of extant hierarchies and challenge organizational boundaries and rules, on the other hand, they can be used as communication and coordination mechanisms that allow leaders to build structured networks from scratch and, through them, reinforce their power.

In sum, these studies stress that, despite the participatory dynamics that characterize social movements, power struggles and hierarchies are still the underlying forces that bond heterogenous groups of people together. Leaders are then the key actors in identifying objectives, orienting followers, and providing a clear identity to organizations, by means of a shared vision ( Gerbaudo, 2017 ; Bakardjieva et al., 2018 ).

The Micro Level of Analysis: Main Categories

The studies that adopt a micro-perspective to the topic of leadership and digital technology can be classified in three different categories, depending on whether they focus on: (1) The increased complexity of C-level roles; (2) The skills e-leaders need; and (3) The practices for leading virtual teams effectively.

The Evolution of C-Level Roles

The huge impact that digitalization has had in the competitive business environment, transforming markets, players, distribution channels, and relationships with customers, has made it necessary for organizations to adopt a high-level strategic view on digital transformation. New responsibilities on the selection of digital technologies that will drive an organization's ability to remain competitive in a highly digitized world, are given mainly to its CEO ( Gerth and Peppard, 2016 ). CEOs in the Digital Age assume the additional role of digital change agents and digital enablers, implying that they should recognize the opportunities offered by new technologies, and also push for their implementation. As suggested by Avolio et al. (2000) , e-leaders have a fundamental role in appropriating the right technology that is suitable to their organizations' needs, but also in transmitting a positive attitude to employees about their adopting of new technology. CEOs are required to instill a digital culture into the top management team, involving it in actively sustain a digital change inside the organization ( Gerth and Peppard, 2016 ). For this matter, a greater interaction is needed between the CEO and the Chief Information Officer (CIO), who will increasingly become a key player in the digital strategy definition and implementation, rather stay confined to an “IT-is-a-mess-now-fix-it” flavor of a role ( Gerth and Peppard, 2016 ; Bekkhus and Hallikainen, 2017 ). Bekkhus and Hallikainen (2017) acknowledge an increased ambidexterity in the role of CIOs and develop a toolbox related to their role as gatekeepers and contributors. In order to reach their goals successfully, CIOs need to have a clear picture of both the characteristics of the digital strategy and the organizational needs it is supposed to satisfy. They should also carefully evaluate the readiness of the organization in every step of the changing process in order to adopt the proper pace. To avoid IT project failures, CEOs need to facilitate the recognition of the CIO's role, as well as promote collaboration between the CIO and other top managers ( Bygstad et al., 2017 ).

As described before, digital technologies are not only used to support internal processes, but are also a way to build relationships with different actors in the external environment. Social media platforms in particular, are de facto powerful tools that C-level executives use to build communications channels with their followers ( Obschonka et al., 2017 ). In a study analyzing the rhetoric of CEOs in social media, Grafström and Falkman (2017) suggest that CEOs' willingness and ability to construct a continuative dialogue through digital channels is a powerful way not only to manage organizational crisis but also to sustain the reputation and the image of the organization, positioning the brand and communicating the organizational values. Thus, as Tsai and Men (2017) unveil, by properly using social media, CEOs, as organizational leaders and spokespersons, can build trust, satisfaction and advocacy among their followers. According to the authors, digital technologies, and social media in particular, support CEOs in becoming “Chief Engagement Officers [who develop] meaningful interpersonal interactions and relationships with today's media savvy publics” ( Tsai and Men, 2017 , p. 1859). Even if CEOs have always been considered the personification of the organization, the rising need for transparency and authenticity has led CEOs to embrace the task of visible, approachable and social leaders who actively contribute to the engagement of followers and costumers ( Tsai and Men, 2017 ).

In sum, C-level managers are faced with higher complexity of roles, related not only to new responsibilities in the digital strategy development, but also in the engagement of stakeholders across the organization's boundaries.

Leaders' Skills in the Digital Era

Defining what skills characterize leaders in the digital era has become a matter of interest in the literature. Studies analyze what are the relevant skills e-leaders should display in order to be effective. In line with the debate on universal and contingency theories, scholars ask to what extent the skills leaders need in order to lead e-businesses differ from the ones needed in traditional organizations ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). Most studies are based on expert surveys that engage with digital experts, managers, CEOs and Managing Directors of e-businesses ( Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ; Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ; Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ; Sousa and Rocha, 2018 ). A few studies also integrate expert surveys with interviews to IT specialists ( Sousa and Rocha, 2018 ) and C-level managers ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ).

Scholars agree that the introduction of digital tools affects the design of work, and, particularly, how people work together ( Barley, 2015 ; Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ). For example, digitalization opens up new possibilities such as virtual teams and smart working, introduces new communication tools, increases speed and information access, influences power structures, and increases efficiency and standardization. In order to steer organizations and help them reap the benefits from such digital transformations, leaders may need to develop a variety of different skills. We present below the main skills leaders need in the digital transformation era that have been highlighted in the literature.

Communicating through digital media

Global connectivity and fast exchange of information have created a much more competitive and turbulent environment for e-businesses, which must deal with rapid and discontinuous changes in demand, competition and technology ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). Scholars agree that the need for speed, flexibility, and easier access to information has facilitated the adoption of flatter and more decentralized organizational structures ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). In the digital context, knowledge and information become more visible and easier to share, allowing followers to gain more autonomy ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ) and to make their voices heard at all levels of the organization ( Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ). As information becomes more distributed within the organization, power tends to be decentralized. Digital transformation allows real-time involvement of followers in many decision processes, increasing their participation. Therefore, leaders are expected to adopt a more inclusive style of leading ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ), asking for and taking into account followers' ideas into everyday decision making, using a two-way communication and interaction. Scholars maintain that followers' higher autonomy and participation can lead to a higher sense of responsibility for the work they are accountable for. This in turn should reduce the need for control-seeking behaviors previously exerted by leaders ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ; Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ).

At the same time, inspiring and motivating employees have become pivotal skills for leaders to master ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ), and seem to be required to an even greater extent in order to encourage the continuous involvement and active participation of followers. Indeed, the same digital tools that provide autonomy to followers, may also drive them toward greater isolation ( Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ). According to Van Wart et al. (2017) and Roman et al. (2018) , some of the most common problems generated by the digitalization of organizations are worker alienation, weak social bonding, and poor accountability. It is therefore extremely important that leaders support and help followers in dealing with the challenges of greater autonomy and increased job demands, by adopting coaching behaviors that promote their development, provide resources, and assist them in handling tasks ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ).

Similarly, the ability to create a positive organizational environment that fosters a strong sense of collaboration and unity among employees has become vital for leaders to have. Yet, e-leaders' reliance on traditional social skills, such as the abilities of active listening and understanding others' emotions and points of view, may not be enough to warrant success in creating such environments. Rather, they need to integrate these social skills with the ability to master a variety of virtual communication methods ( Roman et al., 2018 ). According to Carte et al. (2006 , p. 326), “while leadership in the more traditional face-to-face context may emerge using a variety of mechanisms, in the virtual context it likely relies largely on the communication effectiveness of the leader.”

Roman et al. (2018 , p. 5) label this skill as e-communication, and define it as “the ability to communicate via ICTs in a manner that is clear and organized, avoids errors and miscommunication, and is not excessive or detrimental to performance.” The leader needs to set the appropriate tone for the communication, while organizing it and providing clear messages. Moreover, the leader needs to master different communication tools, as their communication effectiveness depends largely on the ability to choose the right communication tool. Roman et al. (2018) provide a set of major selection criteria, which includes richness of the tool, synchronicity, speed of feedback, ease of understanding by non-experts, and reprocessing capability (ability to use the communication artifact multiple times in different venues). This ability allows to adapt the communication to the receiver preferences (as it would otherwise happen in a face-to-face interaction), so as to provide a variety of cues that enhance social bonding ( Shachaf and Hara, 2007 ; Stephens and Rains, 2011 ), convey the right message to the target audience, and better manage urgency and complexity.

High speed decision making

One way in which the introduction of technology has changed the organizational life has been the greater need for speed. Scholars agree that e-business leaders are forced to make decisions more rapidly ( Lynn Pulley and Sessa, 2001 ; Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). This seems to suggest that decisiveness, and problem-solving abilities keep being extremely relevant for e-leaders, and may become even more prominent in the future ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). According to Lynn Pulley and Sessa (2001) , never-ending urgency can create situations in which leaders needs to make decisions without having all information or without having time to think and analyze the problem properly, which may lead to falling back onto habitual responses, instead of creating novel and innovative ideas. To help navigate such situations, leaders need to be able to tolerate ambiguity, while being creative at the same time ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ; Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ). If it is true that the digital world forces leaders to examine problems and provide innovative answers at a faster peace, the use of information technology also allows them to make more informed decisions. Information systems can provide enormous amounts of real-time data. For this reason, the ability to process high volumes of fast-paced incoming and outgoing data (e.g., Big data), in order to analyze it, prioritize and make sense of the relevant information for decision-making, has become and will be even more relevant in the future. Recent research points out that leaders will increasingly need to collaborate with IT managers, providing directions for data analysis and offering meaningful interpretations of results ( Harris and Mehrotra, 2014 ; Vidgen et al., 2017 ).

Managing disruptive change

The fast-paced technological evolution places high demands on organizations' ability to deal with continuously changing conditions and players. Lynn Pulley and Sessa (2001) highlight the constant need for organizations to adapt, foresee opportunities, and sometimes improvise, in order to maintain their competitiveness in the market. Under increasing pressure to innovate, leaders need to undertake an active role in identifying the need for change, as well as handling, and initiating change within their teams and organizations ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ). Horner-Long and Schoenberg (2002) findings confirm that e-leaders tend to show more entrepreneurial and risk-taking characteristics than leaders in traditional contexts. However, continuous change should not disrupt the focus and mission of the organization. While promoting a flexible and innovative attitude in the organization, the leader needs to clarify a common direction. Lynn Pulley and Sessa (2001) identify the ability to inspire and share a common vision about the future of the organization as one of the challenges of e-leaders, who are frequently confronted with the need for change. While acknowledging the importance of this skill, Horner-Long and Schoenberg (2002) did not find it to characterize e-leaders any more than traditional leaders.

Managing connectivity

Scholars maintain that e-leaders also need to foster their networking abilities. Beyond the need to explore and create networks to lobby for resources and stakeholder support ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ) developing social interactions seems to play a key role in favoring innovation. As innovation becomes a top priority, leaders need to understand how to take advantage of networking opportunities ( Avolio et al., 2014 ). The hyper-connected environment, in which leaders operate, especially with the ubiquitous use of social media and other digital platforms, provides new networking opportunities due both to an easier access to larger groups of individuals, and the possibility to establish connections through more immediate communication. New technologies and especially the advent of social networks might have reinforced the perception that being persistently part of the network is compulsory. As reported in Horner-Long and Schoenberg (2002 , p. 616) “in the new economy some leaders do nothing but network - there is no commercial need. It is simply networking for networking's sake.” Although it is a general requirement to be able to create and maintain social relationships with various stakeholders, effective leaders differ specifically in the ability to recognize those relationships that lead to tangible benefits ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ).

The renaissance of technical skills

Lastly, scholars underscore the increased value of technical competencies. This represents a shift from the latest paradigm established over the past four decades, whereby leadership primarily requires emotional and social intelligence competencies that enable the leader to understand, motivate and manage his team effectively. Notwithstanding, leaders also need to understand and manage the use of various technologies. Indeed, IT knowledge and skills have become high on demand requirements to operate in a digitalized environment ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ). Furthermore, the mastery of current technologies must be balanced with the ability to stay current on the newest technological developments ( Roman et al., 2018 ). This emphasizes the need to adopt a life-long learning approach to developing one's digital skills.

Developing leadership skills in the digital era

To lead in the era of digital transformation requires individuals to be both people-oriented and technically minded ( Diamante and London, 2002 ). These two skills often characterize very different profiles of people that, yet, need to come together in order to implement an effective digital transformation in their organization. The case study presented by Coutu (2000) , highlights the need to establish a profitable exchange relationship between leaders of people-oriented (e.g., sales), and IT functions, in order to create a cross-functional and cross-skill contamination. Systematic knowledge dissemination from the individual to the group is highlighted as the most effective way to spread knowledge and expertise across the organization ( Boe and Torgersen, 2018 ). Coutu (2000) addresses how this cross-skill contamination can be performed, by means of implementing reverse-mentoring programs. Nonetheless, the author uncovers the problem of potential generational conflicts, whereby newer generations, who tend to be more knowledgeable and skilled in digital technologies, may gain informational power over others, generating concern and skepticism in older, change averse, individuals ( Coutu, 2000 ).

Studying modern military operational environments, Boe and Torgersen (2018) highlight the need to lead under volatile, uncertain and complex situations, characteristics they find similarly describe the context of modern e-businesses. According to the authors, leadership training needs to combine both technology and change, creating simulations of scenarios in which ambiguous information and improvisation create complex and uncertain conditions.

One way in which exposure to technology and simulations can be combined is through training in virtual spaces ( Lisk et al., 2012 ; Lu et al., 2014 ). In large community games, leaders may have to recruit, motivate, reward, and retain talented team members. They have to make quick decisions that may affect their outcomes in the long-run, for which they need to analyze the environment in order to build and keep their competitive advantage ( Avolio et al., 2014 ). Lu et al. (2014) adopt experiential learning theory ( Kolb and Kolb, 2005 ) to explain e-leadership skills development, referring to activities in which learning is performed in a virtual context. Their study attempts to empirically examine the transferability of virtual experiences into in-role job situations. Results show partial association between virtual games behaviors and hierarchical position of the participants, however, conclusions concerning the transferability of certain skills or experiences gained in virtual games may be highly affected by reverse causality. Ducheneaut and Moore (2005) , conduct a virtual ethnography to show that people participating in multiplayer role-playing games train behaviors related to networking, management and coordination in small groups. However, in a recent review on the use of games, based on digital tools or virtual realities, for training leadership skills, Lopes et al. (2013) highlight a general lack of theoretical grounding in the development and analysis of virtual games. Moreover, they find extant studies rarely show these games affect leadership skill outcomes ( Lopes et al., 2013 ). Robin et al. (2011) find that while simulations facilitate learning, they do not seem to lead to better results than traditional methods. The authors suggest simulations' main advantage lies in the possibility to enable learning in situations where it would otherwise be difficult or impossible. They thus propose the use of a combination of traditional and technology-based training to achieve the most effective learning outcomes.

Leading Virtual Teams

The introduction of digital tools has enable the organizational structure to become not only flatter and decentralized, but also dispersed. One way in which digital technology has shaped organizational life and people management has been by enabling the potential use of virtual teams. Virtual teams are defined as “interdependent groups of individuals that work across time, space, and organizational boundaries with communication links that are heavily dependent upon advanced information technologies” ( Hambley et al., 2007 , p. 1). They have become increasingly pervasive in the last years, especially in multinational organizations ( Gupta and Pathak, 2018 ).

Indeed, several benefits of virtual teams have been acknowledged in the literature. First, the use of virtual teams has allowed for a dramatic reduction of travel times and costs ( Bartol and Liu, 2002 ; Bergiel et al., 2008 ). Second, it has enabled teams to draw upon a varied array of expertise, regardless of location ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ), making it easier to access and recruit talent across the globe. Third, by facilitating the heterogeneity of team members, it has fostered creativity and innovation, due to the possibility of combining different perspectives ( Gupta and Pathak, 2018 ).

Despite its advantages, certain specificities of virtual teams' challenge the traditional way in which teams are managed and led. For instance, virtual teams are characterized by geographical and/or organizational distance. This implies that leaders cannot physically observe team members' behavior nor rely on verbal cues, facial expressions, and other non-verbal communication in order to understand the team's thoughts, feelings, moods and actions. This is considered one of the biggest barriers to developing and managing interpersonal relationships ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ). The heavy dependence on ICT may lead to communication problems, such as failing to distribute information to all team members, understand or convey the level of urgency or importance of the information, and interpret silence ( Cascio and Montealegre, 2016 ). Geographical dispersion often implies cultural diversity between team members, which may affect leaders' ability to build and maintain team spirit and trust ( Gupta and Pathak, 2018 ). According to Sullivan et al. (2015) , space may suppress leadership capacity, even in situations of shared leadership. Moreover, virtual teams are subject to time differences.

In order to overcome these challenges, virtual team leaders need to adopt specific behaviors and practices. One of the most important practices highlighted in the literature involves the setting and periodical revision of communication norms within the team ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ). Instead of focusing on behavioral norms, as in traditional teams, virtual teams require a clear definition of the norms pertaining to their use of communication tools, through witch information flows and activities are performed. Clear communication norms entail a number of advantages for virtual teams, such as: correct exchange of information, regular interaction and feedback, less ambiguity about teamwork processes, better monitoring of each member's contributions, faster detection of problems and mistakes. Moreover, because leaders play a fundamental role in enabling and mediating the communication between team members, they are able to lead them in the construction of a common language. This involves gaining a deep understanding of the underlying meaning of words and expressions used in the team. The mutual understanding of the organizational and social context in which each team member is embedded facilitates this process ( Plowman et al., 2007 ; Bjørn and Ngwenyama, 2009 ; Rafaeli et al., 2009 ).

As mentioned in the previous section, virtual team leaders also need to be able to choose the right communication tools and navigate well through their functionalities and the interactivity across various tools, if they are to avoid disruptions in communication and achieve a more vivid and open communication that favors positive team member relationships ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ). While synchronous communication is considered more appropriate to manage complex, interdependent tasks ( Hambley et al., 2007 ), asynchronous instruments may allow for team members with different backgrounds to adopt their own pace in processing others' ideas or generating new ones ( Malhotra et al., 2007 ). Moreover, asynchronous communication facilitates a continuous flow of information and the ability to work for a greater number of hours ( Gupta and Pathak, 2018 ). Furthermore, leaders need to use multiple channels with different levels of richness ( Hambley et al., 2007 ). According to Hambley et al. (2007) , “a rich medium allows for transmitting multiple verbal and nonverbal clues, using natural language, providing immediate feedback, and conveying personal feelings and emotions.” A richer tool is supposed to lead to better team cohesion. Yet, the authors found mixed results in terms of the association between constructive interaction and task performance ( Hambley et al., 2007 ).

Virtual teams often group together individuals from different educational, functional, geographical and cultural backgrounds. On one hand, such heterogeneity should promote innovative solutions, but on the other hand, it may also undermine collaboration. A virtual team leader thus needs to have good cross-cultural skills ( Schwarzmüller et al., 2018 ), to identify different cultures' characteristics and understand similarities and differences across cultures. Especially at the early stages of a virtual team's lifecycle, the leader needs to assure that the diversity of team members is understood, appreciated, and leveraged. As virtual teams do not usually have the chance to enjoy in-person informal activities typically used to share personal characteristics and abilities and foster team building, the leader needs to share and manage personal information virtually and ensure the team has a clear understanding of each team member's expertise and skills ( Malhotra et al., 2007 ). Once the diversification of skills is acknowledged, virtual teams can also benefit from a clear distribution of roles and tasks ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ). Especially if virtual teams adopt asynchronous communication tools, tasks and schedules need to be clearly defined to avoid delays due to task misallocation or overlapping.

According to Malhotra et al. (2007) , virtual teams may also engage in practices aimed at digitally monitoring the team activity, relying on remote monitoring of virtual communication and participation, as well as document posting. However, Jawadi et al. (2013) notice how monitoring and controlling mechanisms may be negatively perceived by team members. Indeed, their findings show that behaviors directed at monitoring and coordinating team interactions are not associated with higher leader-member relationship quality. According to Carte et al. (2006) , high performing virtual teams are characterized by monitoring behaviors, but only when these are shared between members. Although, traditional performance appraisal and monitoring mechanisms are being replaced by alternative systems that rely on real-time digital feedback, the key features that characterize effective face-to-face feedback have been kept ( Petrucci and Rivera, 2018 ).

Perhaps the best measure of impact of the pervasive adoption of virtual teams in organizations has been the extensive accumulation of literature focused on studying the phenomenon, alongside its antecedents, challenges and outcomes. As our study reveals, scholars have identified a number of best practices, whereby virtual team leaders become the key players in charge of resolving the challenges posed by physical and organizational distance.

However, especially when considering virtual teams, there has been a shift in the literature to steer away from traditional notions of leadership as being assigned to one individual, toward focusing on new conceptualizations of shared and distributed leadership. Virtual teams, which are often cross-functional, are indeed characterized by a relative absence of formal hierarchical authority ( Pearce et al., 2009 ). In the same way that the need for speed in responding to accelerated environmental change and higher connectivity led to the development of virtual teams, that same need may be driving the flattening of hierarchical structures toward more evenly distributed, shared and empowered leadership among virtual team members ( Pearce et al., 2009 ). As such, virtual teams are often left alone to shape and define their own leadership style, which may encourage all team members to perceive themselves as leaders and drive the collective development of leadership skills ( Gupta and Pathak, 2018 ). In these so called self-managing work teams (SMWTs; Manz and Sims, 1987 ; Druskat and Wheeler, 2003 ), decisions and leadership responsibilities are equitably allocated among team members, who are also engaged in supporting and accompanying each other in the accomplishment of their tasks. The concept of shared leadership does not necessarily imply the rejection of a “formal” leader, but introduces the idea that any team member may be a leader, and as such, is expected to assess the team in its context and assert what is best for the team: whether to volunteer himself as team leader or empower any fellow team member(s) to serve the team as leader(s). This process leads to the creation of a shared understanding of both the leadership responsibilities and the power dynamics within the team ( Grisoni and Beeby, 2007 ; Hoch and Kozlowski, 2014 ; Hoegl and Muethel, 2016 ).

Toward The Future: Research Directions

Despite the urgency felt by scholars to understand how leaders keep the pace with technological change, the literature seems to lack a shared approach in studying and theorizing about this phenomenon. Although researchers have been introducing relevant new concepts, such as e-leader and e-organizations, there is a shortage of well-established and consensual definitions in the literature. Our review reveals scholars have relied on several leadership theories to explain the relationship between leadership and digital transformation. However, we question whether theories based on traditional views of industrial organization and business, that still prevail in the literature, are the most suitable to comprehend the multifaceted phenomenon of digital transformation and its impact on all matters leadership of organizations, communities, teams, and even self. As suggested by Kahai et al. (2013) , scholars may need to go beyond traditional leadership theories to explain the impact digitalization exerts on leadership and leaders. Are the existing theories in social sciences able to explain the antecedents, characteristics and outcomes of this disruptive phenomenon or do we need new theoretical lenses to make sense of how leaders may respond to this change?

One of the most complex and pressing issues concerns e-leaders (un)ethical behaviors. Notably, the higher risk leaders now face of engaging in unethical uses of personal and sensitive information, or the inexistence of a code of conduct for ethical leadership behavior are critical concerns to raise in any debate of e-leadership ( Lee, 2009 ). Collaboration through digital technologies brings about new questions regarding the role leaders may play in the digital environment. What is the role of leaders in guiding an ethical appropriation of digital technologies? What can e-leaders do in order to be an example and instill an ethical culture within their followers? How do digital tools such as social media and online communities and forums change the conditions under which interactions occur and how do these affect the maintenance of ethical behaviors? These are questions that future research is pressed to answer. While the theoretical debate has already started to address some of these questions, empirical research remains considerably underdeveloped.

The present review uncovers a shortage of contributions addressing the role that institutions play in supporting ethical behaviors of leaders. In particular, what remains unclear is whether and how leaders will be prepared to face the new wave of data and policies that affect their ability to manage privacy and regulatory issues. Studies in this area are thus highly encouraged.

The leader-follower relationships mediated by ICTs can also be affected by concerns for privacy and information that the parties do not want to share. Social media interactions, for example, leave digital footprints that can be monitored by leaders and organizations, which may compromise the interactions and responses of followers that feel their privacy is at risk. The same can be said regarding the instruments that digital technologies provide for tracing personal productivity. Project management applications, for instance, trace individual contributions to a certain project, but can challenge an impartial evaluation if the relationship between individual effort and contribution to the results is not clear, thus putting into question the trust in the relationship with leaders. Future research should consider these aspects and work toward a broader comprehension of how to balance the need for higher transparency in ICT- mediated relationships with followers' higher autonomy and need for privacy.

We acknowledge that the introduction and use of digital tools it strictly linked to organizational cultures that value the use of technology and establishes the readiness of organizations to successfully implement digital tools. Therefore, we suggest further research needs to investigate the extent to which culture affects the selection and effective implementation of digital technologies within organizations. Answering to this question also provides relevant information on how digital technology alters organizational identity and shapes new organizational boundaries. Exploring this line of inquiry using both theoretical and empirical approaches, may inform the creation of new organizational identities, and their relationship with different types of organizations and institutions.

Since digitalization is enabling a growing propensity to share information, organizational boundaries are becoming more fluid and expanding outside the formal organization. Hence, collective forms of leadership are expected to increase. Notably, distributed or shared leadership is supposed to gain momentum, especially if it is considered a better fit to the characteristics of virtual teams, such as the informal nature of its communication channels, task interdependence and team member autonomy ( Avolio et al., 2014 ; Hoch and Kozlowski, 2014 ). What remains unclear is the role that leaders play in recognizing and encouraging distributed leadership in teams. Moreover, how much does the success of shared leadership styles depend on the organizational culture? What is the effect of shared leadership on virtual team dynamics? We claim that these are questions that should be explored with greater detail in the future.

Networked organizations, as well as the rise of virtual teams, speak volumes about the endless connectivity possibilities that digital technology has enabled. However, empirical studies on virtual teams also highlight that digital tools and media can disconnect individuals and undermine established power dynamics. Despite the relevance of increased connectivity, only a few studies adopt a network approach to understand how leaders and followers are interconnected to one another.

Literature has already acknowledged that the lack of face-to-face interactions makes the task of leading virtual teams a more complex job ( Purvanova and Bono, 2009 ). Indeed, the physical and cultural distance that characterizes virtual teams threatens the ability to build trust, create commitment and enhance cohesion among team members ( Hoch and Kozlowski, 2014 . As suggested by Lee (2009) trust in virtual teams is related to ethics: the way in which leaders and team members behave, the extent to which they demonstrate transparency when interacting with others, the integrity and compliance to the rules and procedures of the organization and the team are key issues that should not be neglected. However, little is known about the methods and behaviors that effective leaders can adopt in order to build trust in virtual teams. Literature on this topic needs contributions that focus specifically on the process of trust creation in virtual teams, describing its characteristics and mechanisms and informing about which digital tools can be used to support such process. Indeed, along with the ability of creating trust among team members, virtual team leaders are required to have the ability of choosing and exploiting the right communication tools ( Jawadi et al., 2013 ; Roman et al., 2018 ). Future research should try to uncover the effect different characteristics of communication tools may have on team dynamics and leader-followers relationships.

The lack of face-to-face interaction also creates new challenges in the deployment of social skills. Processes related to interpersonal understanding may be inhibited by distance and by the use of interfaces. Indeed, comparing traditional face-to-face teams and pure virtual teams, Balthazard et al. (2009) found that leader characteristics that are easier to perceive from nonverbal cues, such as personality traits, predicted the emergence of transformational leadership in face-to-face teams, but not in computer-mediated teams. Considering the importance of social understanding and affect-based perceptions, we encourage future research that analyzes the ways in which leaders can create positive emotional contagion, through technology. For example, it could be interesting to inquire whether the use of facial/emotional recognition devices ( Pentland and Choudhury, 2000 ), and affective haptics ( Arafsha et al., 2012 ) can contribute to interpersonal emotional understanding and sharing, and how it affects leader-follower relationships and team dynamics. Balthazard et al. (2009) found written communication quality to be positively related to the emergence of transformational leadership in virtual teams. Indeed, the increasing adoption of written communication-based tools such as chats, social media, or document sharing platforms, calls for the use of linguistic analysis of online communication to understand how leaders effectively instill emotions, convey their vision, or communicate urgency through text.

As suggested by Avolio et al. (2014) , leadership in the digital world may be influenced by gender. Men and women may adopt different criteria in choosing which technologies to adopt. However, this topic of research has earned little attention in the literature. We claim that other studies are needed to investigate more in depth gender differences, and its effect on organizational outcomes.

Another topic that future researcher needs to address regards the way in which leaders can develop the skills needed to perform in the digital era. Some scholars maintain virtual games might be useful instruments to foster both social and technical skills ( Ducheneaut and Moore, 2005 ; Lu et al., 2014 ). However, findings have not yet showed whether virtual games have a clear effect on social and digital skills development. We suggest future research could inspect what types of virtual behaviors foster team engagement and higher team performance in multiplayer virtual games, while examining the role of these variables in organizational settings. Other scholars propose digital natives and technical experts in organizations may be engaged in the training of those who are less familiar with or demonstrate a negative attitude toward the adoption of technology, for example by means of reverse mentoring programs ( Coutu, 2000 ). However, conditions that can favor a successful digital transformation of organizations should be analyzed. The technological skill advantage of young generations may destabilize traditional power relations. A closer look to this phenomenon is suggested.

In a digital world where physical presence is becoming unnecessary, the possibility that some leadership responsibilities begin to be performed by AI-based technology is not unrealistic. A tough debate is raising awareness as to whether robots can be programmed to express emotions and how this fosters the possibility that robots may be better leaders than humans ( Avolio et al., 2014 ). Complementing the literature that has so far stressed the importance of emotions and emotional intelligence for leaders' performance (see for instance Boyatzis, 2006 ; Boyatzis et al., 2017 ), future research should shed light on whether and how robots, algorithms and technological tools substitute or complement leaders.

Even if macro and micro level of analysis are explored by social science scholars, management literature would still lack the analysis of the phenomenon of leadership and digitalization at the meso-level. A promising way of combining micro and macro levels of theorizing might be to introduce a multiple level of analysis. Some of the papers in our dataset move toward this direction, however, it is not clear how digitalization is affecting relationships between diverse organizations.

Finally, from a methodological point of view, our study shows a plethora of methods employed by scholars to analyze leaders' behavior ( Hambley et al., 2007 ; Malhotra et al., 2007 ; Jawadi et al., 2013 ), leaders' skills ( Horner-Long and Schoenberg, 2002 ; Roman et al., 2018 ), or technology adoption ( Bartol and Liu, 2002 ; Weiner et al., 2015 ). If on one hand, this richness provides a portfolio of techniques that scholars could use depending on the subject of analysis, on the other hand, it confirms that there is still a confusion about how to monitor this recent phenomenon. Moreover, we observe that contributions are confined within their own disciplinary frontiers. For instance, social movements literature, that mainly draws on qualitative methods such as ethnography, case study, and interviews, should inform organizational scholars how to observe power relations within companies. Extant contributions investigating what are the skills leaders facing the digital transformation require are based mainly on experts' surveys and interviews. Literature reveals a lack of empirical research which examines the relationship between identified leadership skills and successful performance in highly digitalized organizations. Future studies should also take into account how much this relationship may be affected by the context in which the leader operates.

Nowadays, digital transformation is an unavoidable choice for any company, regardless of size or sector. Leaders cope with new tools on a daily basis and they make decisions according to the data they have access to. Therefore, we highly encourage future research to shed more light on the effect of digital transformation on leadership, both at organizational and individual level. If the debate about the relationship between human beings and machine is not a recent one ( Turing, 1950 ), not to management literature, nor social sciences in general, the relationship between digital transformation and leadership requires updated lenses. This systematic review offers a structured framework of a promising field, and we hope it will help future research generate coherent efforts to garner novel and relevant knowledge in this research topic.

The purpose of this review was 3-fold. First, we discussed how leadership in the digital era has been conceptualized, reviewing the theoretical perspectives that have been used in prior research. Our review did not reveal a strong unifying theory of the relationship between leadership and digital transformation, thus calling for more attention to theoretical contributions.

Second, we mapped the academic debate on the relationship between digital transformation and leadership, organizing and structuring the main emerging themes at macro and micro level of analysis. We observed that both contributions with micro and macro approaches underscore that information technology and strategic management need greater alignment. Digital transformation is successful in the long term when the overall organizational objectives match the need to adopt a new digital tools or instruments. In a similar vein, individuals embrace technological advancement only when they perceive it is relevant to their tasks. It is an important responsibility of the leader, particularly of C-level leaders, to steer this strategic alignment and the proliferation of a digital culture.

In a networked economy, the digital transformation has led organizations to open their boundaries, and connect with other industries, stakeholders, and customers, to generate innovation. From a micro perspective, this openness is also required by leaders who need to invest in networking. This means to be “out there” ( Grafström and Falkman, 2017 ), present in the network ( Gordon, 2007 ), and willing to communicate with different types of stakeholders, through digital tools and social media. Especially for leaders, the digital tools are no longer a distant container of everyday life; rather, they are instruments in which everyday life emerges ( Gordon, 2007 ).

Although the introduction of digital tools influenced organizational boundaries and leadership boundaries, for instance favoring the development of concepts such as shared leadership, studies show that trust among members and employees is still achieved and maintained through leaders' intervention ( Carte et al., 2006 ). Cascio and Montealegre (2016 , p. 356), reminds us that inspirational leaders will remain pivotal in making the right decisions, as “humans will continue to enjoy a strong comparative advantage over machines.” However, the growing development and use of AI-based technology to make decisions, calls for a closer understanding of what leadership will mean in the future. Growing ethical concerns related to the application of AI in managerial activities as well as to the appropriation of technology and data are becoming an urgent topic to address.

To overcome the challenges derived from the digital transformation, leaders are required to develop a combination of digital and human skills, mainly related to the ability to communicate effectively in a digitalized context, create cohesion between geographically distant followers, foster initiative and change attitudes, and deal with complex and fast problem solving.

Third, we highlighted the current gaps and open questions in the literature, and laid out a future research agenda that targets opportunities for the empirical and theoretical advancement of knowledge.

While our review is timely and includes the most recent contributions, some limitations should be considered and overcome in future studies. First, since our concern was to map prior research, we have not provided detailed propositions to the suggested categories, a void that should be addressed by future studies. The second concern regards the sample. We drew from the Scopus database only. Albeit we checked other databases to avoid potential bias, we may have missed some relevant articles contained elsewhere. Third, despite the rigorous procedure of our systematic review, a limitation is ascribed to the inclusion of only peer-reviewed articles and conference proceedings. A future review should also include industry research reports, professional outlets publishing research-based findings, and other non-pear reviewed manuscripts to better clarify how the multidimensional phenomenon of digitalization is affecting organizations and leadership. Finally, we excluded, as per our boundary conditions, articles that considered organizations as leaders in the digital transformation, and studies that discussed about digital platforms. Future studies should adopt a broader overview of the macro-organizational and strategic effects in order to understand how digital transformation is implemented across different organizations, communities and teams.

Author Contributions

LC and EB contributed conception and design of the study. LC, EB, and RZ organized and analyzed the database. LC and EB wrote the first draft of the manuscript. RZ wrote sections of the manuscript. All authors contributed to manuscript revision, read and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords: leadership, e-leadership, digital transformation, digital technology, literature review, skills, ethics, virtual teams

Citation: Cortellazzo L, Bruni E and Zampieri R (2019) The Role of Leadership in a Digitalized World: A Review. Front. Psychol. 10:1938. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01938

Received: 25 February 2019; Accepted: 07 August 2019; Published: 27 August 2019.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2019 Cortellazzo, Bruni and Zampieri. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Laura Cortellazzo, laura.cortellazzo@unive.it

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Published: 28 May 2024

Impact of psychological safety and inclusive leadership on online learning satisfaction: the role of organizational support

Sampson Agyapong Atuahene ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7550-4962 1 ,
XuSheng Qian 1 &
Thomas Ahoto Ahotovi 2

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 11 , Article number: 685 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The appeal of online education within the academic community has grown significantly due to advancements in technology and increased investments made during the pandemic. Despite the rapid expansion of research in online education, most studies have concentrated on technology and teaching techniques, overlooking social factors that also play a crucial role in students’ contentment with online learning. This study uses quantitative methods to investigate the impact of selected social variables on students’ satisfaction with online education. The research employed a designed questionnaire to gather data from African students engaged in online studies abroad. The collected data was then analyzed using SPSS-AMOS version 23. The study utilized a hierarchical linear regression model to assess the influence of different variables on students’ satisfaction with online education. The findings revealed that psychological safety and inclusive leadership positively influenced students’ satisfaction with online education. Conversely, perceived organizational support and learner–learner interaction adversely affected students’ satisfaction in the online learning environment. Moreover, the research highlighted that psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support positively influenced learner–learner interaction. Additionally, perceived organizational support was identified as a moderator, affecting the relationships between other variables and students’ satisfaction with online education. Because of these findings, educational institutions and researchers are recommended to recognize social constructs’ critical role in students’ satisfaction with online education. It is essential to broaden the focus beyond technological aspects and teaching methods, as social variables are equally vital for students to have a fulfilling academic experience in online education.

Introduction

In recent years, the field of education has undergone a significant transformation, primarily due to technological advancements and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which restricted global movement and gatherings (Mahabubul and Parvin, 2021 ; Oyedotun, 2020 ). One major significance of this digital revolution has been the widespread adoption and improvement of online learning platforms (Rosecrance et al., 2023 ). Even though the pandemic has ended, many schools now offer online education alongside traditional classroom teaching, allowing students to learn from home (McFadden et al., 2021 ).

However, the increasing popularity of online classes has brought about challenges in creating a suitable online learning environment (Ahoto et al., 2022b ). During the pandemic, extensive research was conducted on online education, as experts were uncertain about its future once the crisis subsided (McFadden et al., 2021 ; Rosecrance et al., 2023 ). Educational institutions have invested heavily in enhanced online education, sustaining it at levels higher than before the pandemic (Cui et al., 2023 ). This situation necessitates research into the utilization of online education post-COVID-19. Several factors affect the effectiveness of online education, with inclusive leadership, psychological safety, perceived organizational support, and learner–learner interaction emerging as crucial areas of study to determine students’ satisfaction with online learning (Gupta et al., 2021 ; Gumede and Badriparsad, 2022 ).

The current study examines the complex interaction of technological and social factors, specifically focusing on how they influence students’ satisfaction with online courses (Mahabubul and Parvin, 2021 ). Inclusive leadership, characterized by active engagement with diverse perspectives and creating an inclusive environment, has been acknowledged as a catalyst for positive outcomes in various organizational contexts (Adiguzel et al., 2020 ). In the context of online education, inclusive leadership implies that educational leaders should involve students in the design of online education procedures (Damoah and Omodan, 2022 ).

However, while students may opt for online courses, their perspectives on addressing challenges such as internet reliability, student-instructor interaction, and student-student engagement are often overlooked (Ceesay, 2021 ). Inclusive leadership in online education was lacking during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, as online education was hastily implemented as an emergency measure (McFadden et al., 2021 ; Guadix et al., 2020 ). Consequently, inclusive leadership principles were ignored, and decisions were dictated by institutional leaders, neglecting the input of students, who are essential stakeholders in online education (Ceesay, 2021 ). Post-COVID-19, adopting inclusive leadership principles is crucial to involve students in decision-making processes related to online education and addressing challenges more effectively from students’ perspective (Ahoto et al., 2022b ).

Similarly, psychological safety, which involves feeling free to express oneself without fear of judgment or retaliation, is crucial for fostering a supportive and collaborative online learning environment (Alam and Asimiran, 2021 ). However, while psychological safety may theoretically exist, students may not have adequate platforms to voice their opinions and criticisms about online education (Tuma et al., 2021 ). Educational authorities often fail to provide appropriate channels for students to express their views, hindering the effective communication of student concerns about online education (Akay and Aypay, 2016 ).

Research on psychological safety has primarily focused on freedom of speech, neglecting to explore how the concerns raised by individuals are integrated into decision-making processes (Liu et al., 2019 ). In the case of online students, who often come from diverse countries and study in specific educational institutions, their ability to form a cohesive voice for influencing changes within educational institutions is weaker than that of their counterparts in traditional classrooms (Leach et al., 2020 ). Existing studies have disproportionately concentrated on the psychological safety of classroom students, allowing them to dominate decisions that affect the entire student body (Liu et al., 2019a ). Online students typically lack significant representation in student leadership positions, diminishing their influence on decisions related to their teaching and learning experiences (Nabolsi et al., 2021 ). Moreover, student satisfaction is evaluated from the perspective of classroom students, further marginalizing online learners (Cui et al., 2023 ).

In this context, perceived organizational support becomes crucial in shaping how inclusive leadership and psychological safety impact student satisfaction (Karatepe et al., 2022 ). Online students’ perception of the support provided by educational institutions profoundly influences their overall learning experience (Teo et al., 2019 ). This perception affects their engagement, motivation, and contentment in online classes. To enhance student satisfaction and emotional well-being in online learning environments, educational institutions must comprehend the intricate dynamics between inclusive leadership, psychological safety, and organizational support (Akay and Aypay, 2016 ). This understanding can guide educational institutions in refining their strategies, implementing interventions, and creating online learning environments that cater to student’s academic needs and nurture their emotional fulfillment (Odetayo and Walsh, 2021 ).

Educational institutions need to offer online students the same financial and counseling services as they do for those attending physical campuses (Mahabubul and Parvin, 2021 ). However, there might be disparities in the support provided, with campus students potentially receiving more assistance due to the physical proximity (Dhahri et al., 2020 ). Perceived organizational support for online students is vital in fostering psychological safety, promoting inclusive leadership, facilitating learner–learner interaction, and enhancing students’ satisfaction with online education (Oyedotun, 2020 ).

This study seeks to contribute significantly to the progressing realm of online education by delving into its complex intricacies. It aims to thoroughly comprehend the several factors involved, including inclusive leadership, psychological safety, perceived organizational support, and learner–learner interaction. By illuminating the influence of these elements, the research aims to present practical suggestions for educators, administrators, and policymakers. These recommendations are geared towards creating an online learning environment that is both inclusive and supportive, thereby promoting the comprehensive development and contentment of students.

Literature review

The global COVID-19 pandemic’s reach extended beyond public health, profoundly impacting education and social landscapes worldwide. This included widespread closures of educational institutions at all levels, from primary schools to universities, and the abrupt shift to online learning. Social distancing measures became the norm, further altering the educational and social fabric.

Psychological safety on learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction

While numerous studies across the globe have documented increased levels of depression, anxiety, and stress among students during this period, the evaluation of psychological safety is defined as the belief that one can express ideas, ask questions, and make mistakes without fear of negative consequences (Edmondson, 1999 )—a crucial factor in fostering student well-being—remains surprisingly scarce. This gap in research presents a significant barrier to fully understanding the pandemic’s multifaceted impact on students’ educational and psychological well-being.

Online learning environments can be inherently isolated and lack the natural social cues present in traditional classrooms. This can lead to feelings of anxiety, insecurity, and apprehension about participating actively (Swan et al., 2003 ). Psychological safety acts as a buffer against these anxieties, fostering a sense of belonging and encouraging active engagement (Koria et al., 2022 ).

Studies have begun to shed light on the positive association between psychological safety and student satisfaction in online settings. For instance, Liu et al. ( 2023 ) found that students who perceived a higher degree of psychological safety in their online courses reported greater satisfaction with the learning experience (Liu et al., 2023 ). Similarly, Wu et al. ( 2022 ) observed a positive correlation between psychological safety and student engagement, a key predictor of satisfaction.

The mechanisms by which psychological safety contributes to student satisfaction are multifaceted. One key factor is increased risk-taking (Edmondson, 1999 ). When students feel safe, they are more likely to share ideas, ask questions, and seek help, leading to deeper learning and greater confidence. Additionally, psychological safety fosters collaboration and peer support, creating a sense of community and belonging that can be particularly valuable in online environments.

In recent years, online education has become integral to global education, offering learners flexibility and accessibility (Tuma et al., 2021 ). However, the effectiveness of online education goes beyond the quality of content or the sophistication of technology; it is intricately linked with students’ experiences of psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support (Nabolsi et al., 2021 ). These social constructs refer to an individual’s perception of the consequences of taking interpersonal risks, the necessity for leaders to involve students in decision-making, and the provision of support that establishes a caring image of the organization in the students’ minds (Arabyat et al., 2022 ). In online education, this entails creating an environment where students feel secure expressing their thoughts, asking questions, and engaging in meaningful discussions without the fear of judgment or ridicule (Venkatesh and Davis, 2000 ).

While psychological safety concerning organizational performance has been extensively studied, the concept has not been explored comprehensively in online education (Liu et al., 2019a ). Most researchers have focused on technological advancements in online education, neglecting the critical aspect of psychological safety. Drawing from previous studies on the impact of psychological safety on organizational performance, it is inferred that psychological safety will positively affect students’ satisfaction with online education. This positive impact can be attributed to its role in promoting open communication, reducing stress, and alleviating student anxiety (Doyle, 2022 ).

The hypothesis that psychological safety positively impacts students’ satisfaction with online education is rooted in robust theoretical principles (McFadden et al., 2021 ). By promoting open communication, encouraging risk-taking, fostering trust, and reducing anxiety, psychological safety creates an environment conducive to meaningful learning experiences (Ceesay, 2021 ). Institutions and educators must acknowledge the pivotal role of psychological safety in enhancing student satisfaction, leading to more effective and enjoyable online education (Ahoto et al., 2022b ). Further research and practical implementations in online educational settings can offer valuable insights into the intricate aspects of this relationship, contributing to the continuous improvement of online learning experiences for students globally (Kotoua et al., 2015 ).

Inclusive leadership on learner–learner interaction and Students’ Satisfaction

Inclusive leadership, defined as a leader’s ability to establish a supportive environment that values and respects diverse perspectives and backgrounds, has gained significant attention in various organizational contexts (Danse et al., 2020 ). In online education, where diverse student populations engage in learning, the impact of inclusive leadership on student satisfaction is becoming increasingly relevant (Fanu et al., 2022 ). The hypothesis suggests that inclusive leadership significantly and positively affects student satisfaction in online education.

Like psychological safety, inclusive leadership has not received ample attention concerning student satisfaction in online education. Inclusive leadership has positively affected firms’ performance in organizational development, indicating its potential positive impact on student satisfaction if effectively implemented (Olayungbo, 2019 ). The hypothesis that inclusive leadership positively influences student satisfaction in online education and learner–learner interaction is rooted in the core principles of respect, support, and collaboration (Deniz et al., 2013 ). Inclusive leaders establish a nurturing and inclusive learning environment where students feel valued, engaged, and supported, leading to higher satisfaction levels (Tnay et al., 2013 ). As online education continues to expand, recognizing the pivotal role of inclusive leadership is crucial for institutions and educators in creating enriching and satisfying learning experiences for all students, regardless of their backgrounds or identities (McFadden et al., 2021 ). Further research in this area can provide valuable insights into specific strategies and approaches that maximize the positive effects of inclusive leadership on student satisfaction in online education.

Inclusive leadership is crucial for creating successful online learning environments. It requires balancing effective pedagogy with the unique challenges and opportunities technology presents. Foundational aspects include accessible learning materials, diverse engagement methods, and clear communication. Building a strong online community and addressing equity of access are crucial. Culturally responsive teaching and leveraging technology for personalized learning further enhance inclusivity.

Data-driven decision-making and individual support are essential for continuous improvement and ensuring all students thrive. According to Ganon-Shilon et al. ( 2023 ) by prioritizing pedagogy and technology with a reflective, flexible, and collaborative approach, inclusive leaders can create an online space where all students feel valued, engaged, and empowered to succeed.

Perceived organizational support on learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction

Perceived organizational support (POS) is a social construct in psychology that refers to how individuals, including students in this context, believe that their organization values their efforts and genuinely cares about their well-being (Aloisio et al., 2021 ). Despite its significance, POS has received limited attention in the context of online education (Hatcher et al., 2020 ). The hypothesis posits that when students perceive organizational solid support, it significantly and positively influences their satisfaction with the learning experience (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). Researchers anticipate that perceived organizational support positively affects students’ satisfaction and engagement in learner–learner interaction.

Perceived organizational support influences students’ sense of being valued and supported, their emotional well-being, stress reduction, feedback, recognition, and trust and confidence in the institution. These attributes significantly influence students’ satisfaction and engagement. The hypothesis suggesting that perceived organizational support positively affects student satisfaction in online education and learner–learner interaction is grounded in the principles of providing support, validation, and trust (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). Educational institutions must prioritize creating a supportive environment that values students’ contributions, offers necessary resources, and nurtures their emotional well-being (Y. C. Kuo et al., 2014 ). Institutions that focus on enhancing perceived organizational support are likely to observe increased levels of student satisfaction, resulting in a more positive and enriching online learning experience (Aborajooh et al., 2020 ). Continuous efforts to improve support mechanisms and demonstrate genuine care for students can significantly enhance overall student satisfaction in online education, ensuring their success and fulfillment throughout their learning journey (Linda and Reddy, 2014 ). Based on the above explanation, the following hypotheses were developed.

H1: Do psychological safety, inclusive leadership, perceived organizational support, learner–learner interaction positively affect students’ satisfaction with online education?

H2: Do psychological safety, inclusive leadership and perceived organizational support positively affect learner–learner interaction in online education?

Moderating effects of perceived organizational support on the relationships between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, perceived organizational support, learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction with online education

In the ever-changing online education landscape, inclusive leadership and perceived organizational support significantly influence students’ satisfaction and overall learning experiences (Bohak and Metljak, 2022 ). The hypothesis delves into the idea that perceived organizational support is a moderator, influencing the relationship between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, learner–learner interaction, and student satisfaction in online education settings. The level of support students perceive from their educational institution shapes how psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and learner–learner interaction affect their satisfaction with the learning process (Aborajooh et al., 2020 ).

Perceived organizational support pertains to students’ perceptions of the institution’s care, recognition, and assistance (Jones et al., 2021 ). When students believe they are well supported, they feel valued and secure, which enhances their well-being and satisfaction (Giustini, 2020 ). In this context, the moderating effect suggests that the impact of inclusive leadership on student satisfaction depends on the perceived level of organizational support (Dhahri et al., 2020 ). In simpler terms, the positive relationship between inclusive leadership and satisfaction may be more robust when students perceive higher organizational support and weaker when organizational support is perceived as low (Maruyama et al., 2022 ). This concept also applies to psychological safety and learner–learner interaction (Rosenzweig et al., 2020 ).

Inclusive leadership practices are amplified in environments where students sense strong organizational support (Oudes-slob et al., 2022 ). Supportive surroundings magnify the effects of inclusive leadership, such as building trust and encouraging active participation (Donkoh et al., 2023 ). This amplification leads to a more profound sense of satisfaction as students feel supported by their leaders and the institution (Freeman et al., 2021 ). Conversely, low perceived organizational support may affect psychological safety, hindering full student engagement. However, even moderate organizational support can mitigate the negative impact of limited inclusive leadership (Amorim et al., 2022 ). Students still feel a basic level of support, countering some dissatisfaction that might arise due to less inclusive leadership (Jaspers et al., 2022 ). Perceived organizational support boosts students’ trust and confidence in the institution. When this support aligns with efforts to foster learner–learner interaction, students are more likely to perceive their learning environment positively (Ellison et al., 2021 ). This alignment builds a cohesive, trusting community where students are more satisfied and engaged in online education 2011.

Understanding how perceived organizational support moderates the relationship between inclusive leadership and student satisfaction is vital for comprehending the complexity of student experiences in online education (Lewin and Sabates, 2012 ). Institutions striving to enhance student satisfaction should invest in nurturing inclusive leadership and psychological safety and prioritize fostering a supportive organizational culture (Biltagy, 2015 ). Doing so makes students more likely to perceive a comprehensive and inclusive support system, leading to higher satisfaction, active participation, and a fulfilling online learning experience (Jones et al., 2021 ). This understanding is essential for educators and institutions aiming to create an enriching and supportive online education environment for all students (Ceesay, 2021 ). Based on the above explanation, the hypotheses below were developed.

H3: Does perceived organizational support moderate the relationship between psychological safety and student satisfaction with online education?

H4: Does perceived organizational support moderate the relationship between inclusive leadership and student satisfaction with online education?

H5: Does perceived organizational support moderate the relationship between learner–learner interaction and student satisfaction with online education?

This cross-section study employed quantitative techniques for data collection and analysis.

Questionnaires were adapted to measure all the research variables. These are stated below.

Psychological safety

Psychological safety was measured with seven items adapted from (Rafique et al., 2023 : and Carmeli et al., 2010 ). The measurement item contains: (1) if you make mistakes in my class, is it often held against you? (2) Members of my class can bring up problems and challenging issues. (3) People in our class sometimes reject others based on the ideas they propose; it is safe to take a risk (e.g., experiment with modern technology, propose initiatives, raise complex issues, disclose own knowledge gaps) on my team, (4) I feel comfortable asking our class instructor for help. (5) No one in our class would deliberately act in a way that undermines my efforts. (6) Working with instructors means unique skills and talents are valued and utilized. There is a higher correlation between the original variables. Verification of these variables by Cronbach alpha = 0.905, Composite Reliability = 0.918, AVE = 0.655.

Inclusive leadership

Inclusive leadership was measured with nine items covering the three dimensions: openness, accessibility, and availability. These are: (1) our instructors are open to hearing the latest ideas. (2) Our instructors are attentive to new opportunities to improve work processes. (3) Our instructors are open to discussing the desired goals and new ways to achieve them. (4) Our instructors are available for consultation on problems. (5) Our instructors are an ongoing ‘presence’ in this team, someone who is readily available. (6) Our instructors are available for professional questions. I want to consult with them after online classes. (7) our instructors are ready to listen to my requests. (8) Our instructors encourage me to access ¼ her on emerging issues, (9) our instructors are accessible for discussing emerging problems. Validation of these items generate Cronbach alpha = 0.912, Composite reliability = 0.927, and AVE = 0.586 (Carmeli et al., 2010 ).

Perceived organizational support

Perceived organizational support was measured with nine items: (1) the instructor strongly considers my goals and values. (2) Help is available from the institution management when I have a problem. (3) The university management cares about my well-being; (4) it is willing to extend itself to help me learn to the best of my ability. (5) Even if we have difficulties with online classes, the university managers fail to notice, (6) the university management cares about our satisfaction with online classes. (7) The university management shows little concern about the cost of data and other things. (8) The university management cares about my opinions. (9) The university management takes pride in our accomplishments; these items have a Cronbach alpha of 0.96 (Carmeli et al., 2010 ).

Learner–learner interaction

Learner–learner interaction was measured with eight adapted items (Y. Kuo et al., 2014 ; Ahoto et al., 2022a ). (1) I had numerous interactions related to the course content with fellow students. (2) I got lots of feedback from my classmates. (3) I communicated with my classmates about the course content through different electronic means, such as email, discussion boards, instant messaging tools, etc. (4) I answered questions from my classmates through different electronic means, such as email, discussion board, instant messaging tools, etc. (5) I shared my thoughts or ideas about the lectures and its application with other students during this class. (6) I comment on other students’ thoughts and ideas. (7) Group activities during class allowed me to interact with my classmates. (8) Class projects led to interactions with my classmates. The items have a Cronbach alpha of 0.92

Student satisfaction

Student satisfaction was measured with Online Classes with ten items used; this item has three dimensions. First is satisfaction with course organization: (1) The course objectives are transparent to the student from the start of the course. (2) The conduct of the course was consistent with the course outline. (3) I was told about the requirements to pass this course. (4) The assessment methods were clarified at the beginning of the course. (5) The learning sources have been clarified at the beginning of the course. (6) The learning resources were appropriate and valuable, and (7) the learning resources were available. (8) Practical sessions were complementary to the course and extremely useful. (7) The frequency of practical sessions is appropriate; (10) the variety of practical material is reasonable. All the variables were measured with a 5-point Likert scale starting from strong 1. Disagree 2. Disagree 3—neutral 4. Disagree and 5. Strongly agree (Liu et al., 2019b ; Tnay et al., 2013 ).

Participants

The study participants are African students studying bachelor’s and master’s degree programs in health sciences outside the African continent and who were and or still using online platforms for their studies as a result of COVID protocols. The selection of bachelor’s and master’s degree students for the study is because these were students who can provide detailed online education since they have long-term learning classes through the online system.

Internet search was carried out on the portal of foreign universities still running online courses to identify African students who left Africa while undertaking their studies through online platforms. A total of 23 universities were selected based on the number of bachelor’s and master’s students from Africa having their programs online. Eleven universities are from Asia, eight are from Europe, and the rest are from the United States of America.

Data collection

The researchers first contacted at least four students from these universities, and their response rate was about 60%. These students became representatives that helped in data collection. Specific selection criteria were given to the students’ representatives to select the respondents. These are: a student should be staying in Africa while having their study online, the student should be a master’s or first-degree student who has spent at least the first semester, and thirdly, the respondent should be willing to participate without any financial rewards.

The designed questionnaire was submitted to the students’ representatives through Google and WeChat platforms. The students’ representatives monitored the data collection processes on different platforms and reported to the researchers. A total of 14 days were spent on data collection, after which data from the two platforms were merged.

Data analysis

Data was analyzed using a statistical package for social science and AMOS version 23 software. The items used to measure the variables were validated using SPSS to perform the exploratory factor analysis (EFA). This helped the researchers establish how items were loaded to their respective variables. To determine the data’s goodness fit, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using AMOS. The use of AMOS was due to its accuracy and consistency in checking the goodness fit of data. Other reliability and validation tests of variables were also carried out using AMOS.

After the exploratory factor analysis, items loaded below the minimum threshold of 0.6 were deleted. The issue of the minimum threshold for variable loading remains uncertain as some studies prescribed that the minimum threshold should be 0.5 while others mentioned 0.6; the researcher took the 0.6 threshold. The following number of items were deleted under each of the variables. One item was deleted from items used to measure psychological safety; three were deleted from items used to measure inclusive leadership; two were deleted from items used to measure perceived organizational support; and two were deleted from under internet self-efficacy.

Demography of respondents

A total of 1257 respondents from various educational institutions were recruited, of which 947 responded to the questionnaire. After scrutiny, 879 questionnaires were fit for use. Respondents aged between 20 to 25 years were 37.3%, 25 to 30 years were 51.5%, and only 11.2% were above 30 years. Females made up 28.3% of respondents, while 77.7% were males. The majority of 68.9% of respondents were master’s degree students, while 21.1 were first-degree students and doctorate and other diploma students were 10. 97.6% of respondents agreed they were studying all their subjects online, while 2.4% said some subjects would be studied in the classroom. Most respondents were from West Africa (59.2%), followed by 27.3% from East and Central Africa, and the rest were from other parts of Africa.

Initial correlation analyses

Initial correlation analysis was conducted to test the relationships between the variables; the results show some correlation between the variables. The mean value of the constructs ranges from 3.3134 to 3.6094, indicating that most respondents chose the third and fourth options on the Likert scale.

Unidimesionality, reliability, and validity of variables

The results of the uni-dimensionality, reliability, and validity of variables are contained in Table 1 . To establish the set of measures that triggered each construct. Under this study, all constructs achieved a comparative fit index (CFI) greater than 0.95 and a standard root mean square (SRMS) of 0.6 or lower, indicating that uni-dimensionality was achieved, enabling the researchers to be clear of knowing a set of measurement items that underlie each construct. With confirmatory factor analysis results, all standard beta below 0.6 were deleted, and most items loaded with standard beta above 0.6 were significant at 95% at confident intervals. The total model measure recorded CFA value of X 2 (387) = 502.305, X 2 /df = 1.274, Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = 0.922, SRMR = 0.037, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.027, Tucker–Lewis Fit Index (TLI) = 0.977, CFI = 0.969. All the above indicates that the model is fit for the data. Further reliability tests were performed, and reliability coefficients ranging from 0.904 to 0.966 were achieved, indicating consistency. Data validity was also performed, and AVE results of 0.613 to 0.873 were achieved, indicating convergent validity was achieved (Table 2 ).

Testing results of Hypotheses 1 to Hypotheses 4

The study tested its hypotheses by examining the direct relationships between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, perceived organizational support, learner–learner interaction, and students’ satisfaction with online education. This analysis was conducted in Table 3 and Table 4 using hierarchical linear regression, where the respondents’ background information was utilized as control variables. The results from Model 1 in Table 3 revealed that psychological safety positively impacts students’ satisfaction with online education. In model 2 of the same table, inclusive leadership positively influenced students’ satisfaction with online education. However, in model 3 and model 4 of Table 3 , perceived organizational support and learner–learner interaction were found to have adverse effects on students’ satisfaction with online education. These findings indicate that hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported, while hypotheses 3 and 4 were not.

Testing direct and indirect relationships

The study tested hypotheses related to the direct relationships between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support concerning learner–learner interactions. These tests were conducted in Table 4 , spanning from model 1 to model 3. Additionally, the study examined the moderating effects of perceived organizational support on the connections between psychological safety and students’ satisfaction with online education, inclusive leadership and student satisfaction with online education, and learner–learner interaction. These examinations were carried out in models 4 to 6 of Table 4 .

The findings demonstrated that psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support enhance learner–learner interaction, as evidenced in models 1 to 3 of Table 4 indicating the acceptance of hypothesis 2. Furthermore, perceived organizational support was observed to moderate the relationships between psychological safety and students’ satisfaction with online education, inclusive leadership and student satisfaction with online education, and learner–learner interaction, as depicted in models 4 to 6 of the same table. These results supported hypotheses 5 to hypothesis 10.

The expansion of online education was prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic (Cheng and Agyeiwaah, 2021 ). Although the pandemic appears to be over, the investment in technology to enhance online education has led some educational institutions to offer virtual and in-person education simultaneously, allowing students to attend classes online or in person (Akay and Aypay, 2016 ). This study assesses the impact of psychological safety, inclusive leadership, perceived organizational support, and learner–learner interaction on the satisfaction of African students with post-COVID-19 online education.

Considering hypothesis 1(H1), the research revealed that psychological safety, defined as an individual’s perception of the consequences of taking interpersonal risks in the context of online education, significantly influences student satisfaction. This finding aligns with previous studies highlighting the pivotal role of psychological safety in shaping students’ satisfaction and overall learning experiences (Cheng and Agyeiwaah, 2021 ). Psychological safety enables open communication, risk-taking, and innovation, fostering an environment where students can freely express their thoughts and concerns without fearing judgment (Akay and Aypay, 2016 ). In online education, platforms like discussion forums and chat rooms facilitate active participation, question-asking, and meaningful discussions, enhancing overall satisfaction (Gupta et al., 2021 ). Online education’s virtual nature reduces the intimidating atmosphere often found in physical classrooms, where students are in the presence of teachers and peers (Cui et al., 2023 ).

Supporting articles also emphasize that psychological safety in online education helps alleviate student anxiety and builds trust, a fundamental component of psychological safety (Weld et al., 2021 ). When learners feel secure in their online learning environments, they experience reduced stress about making mistakes or asking questions, positively influencing their focus, concentration, and overall satisfaction with the learning process. Psychological safety in online education creates an atmosphere where students feel valued and supported, empowering them to participate actively, take risks, collaborate effectively, and engage with learning materials (Y. C. Kuo et al., 2014 ). This increased sense of security and freedom of expression enables students to interact meaningfully with their online education, leading to greater satisfaction (Ahoto et al., 2022a ).

The study’s results confirmed that inclusive leadership positively impacts students’ satisfaction with online education. Inclusive leadership involves leaders actively fostering a diverse and inclusive environment, leading to several positive outcomes for students in online education (Megahed et al., 2022 ). This finding aligns with previous studies indicating that encouraging student participation through inclusive leadership creates a space where students feel at ease expressing their opinions, asking questions, and engaging in discussions (Srisakda et al., 2016 ). Also as mentioned by Ahoto et al. ( 2022a ) stated when students are encouraged to participate in online sessions, they feel valued and content with their learning experiences. Although campus-based students often have more opportunities for involvement in educational matters, continuous engagement with online students can bridge this inclusivity gap, enhancing their satisfaction with online education (Bower, 2014 , Ahoto et al., 2022a ).

Another supporting aspect of inclusive leadership’s positive impact on student satisfaction in online education is its ability to diminish stereotyping (Akyeampong et al., 2013 ). Inclusive leadership actively eliminates stereotypes and biases, which is especially vital in online education (Singh et al., 2021 ). This approach ensures that students do not feel judged based on their gender, race, ethnicity, or other characteristics, allowing them to focus on learning; this, in turn, boosts their satisfaction with the educational experience (Mahabubul and Parvin, 2021 ).

On the contrary, perceived organizational support and learner–learner interaction were identified as factors negatively affecting students’ satisfaction with online education. Perceived organizational support in online education can diminish students’ satisfaction if they perceive that the institution fails to provide essential resources for online teaching and learning (Gupta et al., 2021 ). Research supporting this argument highlights deficiencies in specific online education platforms, such as outdated learning materials, limited interactive tools, or insufficient technical support, resulting in frustration (Alam and Asimiran, 2021 ). These shortcomings impede effective engagement with the course material, decreasing satisfaction levels (Tuma et al., 2021 ). Additionally, studies have emphasized the crucial role of perceived organizational support in online education (Nabolsi et al., 2021 ).

In line with the study of Cui et al. ( 2023 ), when students perceive a lack of adequate resources, support services, clear communication, interactivity, and recognition from the institution, it adversely affects their satisfaction levels. Educational institutions must consider these factors to ensure students have a positive and fulfilling online learning experience (Weld et al., 2021 ). Confusion regarding the responsibilities of educational institutions and learners in providing specific resources can also contribute to perceived organizational support issues (Jessell et al., 2018 ; Cui et al., 2023 ). Perceived organizational support encompasses resource provision and social and psychological support (Cheng and Agyeiwaah, 2021 ). However, research indicates that social and psychological support for online students is weaker than that for on-campus students, potentially leading to dissatisfaction among online learners (Akay and Aypay, 2016 ). To address students’ levels of perception of their security and safety in their online environment, educational institutions can implement comprehensive strategies to enhance the digital experience while ensuring a secure and supportive learning atmosphere. First, institutions can invest in robust cybersecurity measures and privacy protocols to protect students’ personal information and data from unauthorized access or breaches (Amorim et al., 2022 ). This involves using secure, encrypted platforms for learning management systems (LMS), video conferencing tools, and online discussion forums. Educating students and faculty about digital literacy, including safe online practices, awareness of phishing frauds, and the importance of password security, can further reinforce a culture of cybersecurity. By prioritizing the protection of digital spaces, educational institutions can alleviate concerns over data privacy and foster a sense of safety among students, encouraging them to engage more freely and confidently in their online educational pursuits (Cheng and Agyeiwaah, 2021 ).

Learner–learner interaction, denoting interactions, and collaborations among students in an online learning environment can positively and negatively affect students’ satisfaction with online education (Sjögren et al., 2019 ). Positive interactions enhance the learning experience, foster community, and boost satisfaction (Deng et al., 2022 ). However, it was found that learner–learner interactions could lead to dissatisfaction among online students. Similar findings attributing negative impacts on online students’ satisfaction point to issues such as lack of collaboration and social isolation (Bower, 2014 ). Successful collaborative learning relies on effective communication and learner cooperation (Ahoto et al., 2022b ). Also, Bower ( 2014 ) observed that unequal workloads and perceptions of unfairness can arise in group activities when some students do not actively participate or contribute meaningfully (Bower, 2014 ). Students burdened by group work without adequate peer collaboration will become dissatisfied with the online learning experience (Aborajooh et al., 2020 ). The above explanation somehow fits into how online education is designed, allowing students to experience less collaboration than campus students (Srisakda et al., 2016 ).

Similarly, the absence of positive effects of learner–learner interaction on the satisfaction of online students can be attributed to the social isolation experienced by these students (Letseka, 2014 ). Some students may feel socially isolated in online learning environments, especially if they struggle to establish meaningful connections with their peers (Mclaughlin et al., 2015 ). A lack of social interaction and a sense of community can result in feelings of loneliness and dissatisfaction. Many students value the social aspect of learning, and when this element is lacking, their overall satisfaction with the online education experience can decline.

Other studies that echo these findings have highlighted that negative learner–learner interaction in online education can lead to dissatisfaction by creating a hostile, isolating, or unfair learning environment (Jacobs, 2016 ; Bruns et al., 2019). To counter these adverse effects, educational institutions must promote positive communication, teach conflict resolution skills, and cultivate a respectful and inclusive atmosphere (Mishra et al., 2021 ). These measures ensure a satisfying and enriching online learning experience for all students (Baum et al., 2018 ).

In another aspect of the study, the effects of psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support on learner–learner interaction were examined, and all these variables were found to enhance learner–learner interactions. Indeed, psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support positively affect learner–learner interactions in online education by fostering a conducive environment for collaborative learning (Aborajooh et al., 2020 ). Previous studies have demonstrated that psychological safety promotes learner–learner interaction in educational institutions by creating an atmosphere where learners feel at ease expressing their thoughts and asking questions (Dhahri et al., 2020 ). Specifically, psychologically safe students are likelier to engage in open and honest discussions with their peers in learner–learner interaction. This open communication leads to sharing ideas and perspectives, fostering meaningful dialog, and understanding among learners (Maruyama et al., 2022 ).

Regarding perceived organizational support, research indicates that when students perceive such support, they feel confident that the institution provides necessary resources and assistance for their learning (Izudi et al., 2019 ). Access to resources, tutoring services, and technical support ensures that students can actively participate in collaborative activities and discussions (Rosenzweig et al., 2020 ). As learner–learner interactions become respectful, inclusive, and collaborative, students are more likely to engage in meaningful discussions, exchange diverse perspectives, and effectively collaborate on projects.

Perceived organizational support was utilized to moderate the relationship between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and learner–learner interactions concerning student satisfaction in online education. Despite the negative impact of perceived organizational support on students’ satisfaction, it positively moderated all the mentioned relationships. This implies that perceived organizational support strengthens and enhances the effects of psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and learner–learner interactions on student satisfaction (Kim et al., 2017 ). Perceived organizational support moderates the connections between these three constructs and student satisfaction by providing a robust foundation of trust, support, and resources (Madden et al., 2014 ). When students perceive an elevated level of organizational support, it boosts their psychological safety and inclusivity, enabling them to engage more effectively and confidently in their online education (Ríos-Risquez and García-Izquierdo, 2016 ). Consequently, these results in higher satisfaction levels, as students feel valued, supported, and secure within their learning environment (Aloisio et al., 2021 ).

Conclusion and recommendation

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted the widespread adoption of online education. Despite the return to on-campus classes, the increased investments and improved reputation of online learning have made it a viable alternative to traditional classroom education. Many educational institutions now offer virtual education alongside in-person classes. Remarkably, previous studies on online education primarily focused on technology and teaching methods, overlooking the vital social aspects that contribute significantly to student satisfaction.

This research uncovers that psychological safety and inclusive leadership positively influence students’ satisfaction with online education. Conversely, perceived organizational support and learner–learner interaction adversely affect students’ satisfaction with online education. Furthermore, psychological safety, inclusive leadership, and perceived organizational support influence learner–learner interaction. These findings highlight the importance of social constructs in online education, emphasizing the need to enhance online learning from a technological and social perspective. Just as both social and technical factors influence the satisfaction of on-campus students, the same integrated approach must be applied to online students to enrich their learning experience.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available. Making the full dataset publicly available could potentially breach the privacy promised to participants when they agreed to participate, for the individual informants from a small, specific population. It may breach the ethics approval for the study. The data are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

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Atuahene, S.A., Qian, X. & Ahotovi, T.A. Impact of psychological safety and inclusive leadership on online learning satisfaction: the role of organizational support. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 685 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03196-x

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Topic Kickstarter: Research topics in education

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

How to find a research topic (video)
List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
List of 120+ level-specific research topics
Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

The impact of school funding on student achievement
The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
The impact of teacher training on student learning
The impact of classroom design on student learning
The impact of poverty on education
The use of student data to inform instruction
The role of parental involvement in education
The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
The use of technology in the classroom
The role of critical thinking in education
The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
The use of gamification in education
The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
The impact of school leadership on student achievement
The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
The implementation of blended and online learning
The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
The effects of standardized testing on student learning
The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
The effects of school culture on student achievement
The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
The use of project-based learning in the classroom
The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
The use of positive reinforcement in education
The impact of school climate on student engagement
The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
The effects of school choice on student achievement
The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

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parental involvement and students academic performance

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Research Defense for students in senior high

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Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

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Look at British Library as they keep a copy of all PhDs in the UK Core.ac.uk to access Open University and 6 other university e-archives, pdf downloads mostly available, all free.

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I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

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J Korean Med Sci
v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

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Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

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EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
- Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
“BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
“Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
- Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
“BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
- Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
“Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
“Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
- A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
“As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
“In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
- Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
“We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
“Conclusion
Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
“We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
- An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
“Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
“Statistical Analysis
( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
“Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
“ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
“This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
“We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
“ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
“In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
“This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
“ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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8 Pain Points Facing Learning and Development Leadership

Getting Leadership Development right and focusing on leadership pain points will unlock transformative leadership and other benefits.

“High stakes.”

This term was used recently by a learning and development lead in charge of designing and implementing effective leadership development initiatives in her organization. Her point was that, while the ROI on development at the leadership level is potentially very high, the impact and risk of poor outcomes are similarly compounded when compared with learning and development at other levels of the business.

Korn Ferry’s research found that 80% of CEOs see a gap in their employee skills as a direct threat to their business. If a leadership development initiative fails to land, poor outcomes at this level may lead to the failure of major change initiatives such as digital transformation.

Other risks include the impact of poor leadership on the rest of the team; disengagement, attrition, increased recruitment costs, productivity loss, and cultural impact. At an individual level, failing to offer development opportunities to leaders risks losing some of your best people. We found that 94% of employees would stay at a company longer if it invested in their development .

Yes, it’s a high-stakes exercise. But with a well-planned leadership development program, leaders can establish a pipeline of highly engaged, agile, and change-ready leaders who will take the organization to the next level. Getting it right will help drive down recruitment costs, unlock transformative leadership, and a host of other benefits—so long as the lead can overcome the common challenges and pain points that exist at this level.

Below, we unpack the eight major pain points faced by leadership learning and development leads and demonstrate how Korn Ferry's Leadership Development solutions help address each challenge.

1 Creating the Business Case for Leadership Development

The payback for investing in leadership development is potentially enormous—if you can get the program right.

Industry insights show how the ROI on leadership development can be considerable, but with leadership development generally costing more than training at other levels of the organization, unlocking budgets and winning executive buy-in is the first (and often the most difficult) challenge to overcome.

Korn Ferry can help you address this challenge by framing the need for leadership development in the context of business requirements, such as reshaping organizational culture, growing the business, or increasing productivity. Clarify your demand for new skills to senior stakeholders by identifying exactly how the organization is changing along with the specific areas of change, and define the new competencies that leaders will need to navigate the change.

At this level of investment, it is critical that senior leaders support the organization’s leadership development initiatives—not only from an approval point of view, but because they will be personally participating in the program and need to agree on the design. This creates a unique circumstance where leaders are signing off on their own training programs.

2 Aligning Training Programs to Organizational Needs

Aligning leadership training programs with the unique needs and objectives of your organization presents another significant challenge. Effective leadership development requires a deep understanding of your organization's specific context, goals, and culture.

Conduct a thorough needs analysis to identify skill gaps and areas of improvement. This can be a fairly lengthy process, but by doing so you can tailor training initiatives that directly address your organization's specific challenges, ensuring maximum relevance and impact.

Equally important is understanding your organizational culture, as it shapes leadership behaviors and directly influences the effectiveness of your programs. By aligning your training programs with the cultural nuances of your organization, you can foster a cohesive leadership approach that resonates with your values.

Korn Ferry’s discovery process and deep immersion enables us to gain a thorough understanding of your organization's unique needs, context, goals, and culture to ensure a well-aligned leadership development solution.

3 Defining What Good Looks Like

So, you’ve made the case for leadership development and linked your proposed program to organizational needs. But do you have a clear picture of the ideal outcomes?

Flying blind or guessing what good looks like in a leader increases the risk of developing the wrong skills and hiring the wrong people. Attempting to develop a generic set of leadership skills will not take the unique context of your organization into account.

With the stakes this high, every decision about leadership development investment needs to be based on data-backed benchmarks.

At Korn Ferry, our approach is to develop Success Profiles that define the skillset and mindset needed to deliver greatness in a specific job role, with benchmarks to measure your talent. We describe the work that needs to be done in any given role, and the skills, experiences, competencies and traits successful leaders should possess. Once your Success Profiles are built, then we work with you on assessing against them, and developing what you need to succeed.

4 Assessing Strengths and Weaknesses

Tailored leadership development means identifying and addressing skills gaps among potential and existing leaders. Just as importantly, it means avoiding training leaders in areas where they are already strong. Training leaders in skills they already possess is not only a waste of time and money but will inevitably lead to disengagement and even boredom among participants.

Conduct a comprehensive skills assessment to measure against the combination of capabilities outlined in your Success Profiles. This will enable you to identify gaps and design targeted leadership development programs.

From high-volume, high-tech self-assessments to personal evaluations led by our consultants, Korn Ferry works to give you the full picture by understanding competencies, traits, drivers, and experiences—the proven predictors of engagement, productivity, and leadership effectiveness. Assessments draw on methodologies including behavioral and market interviews, team and peer feedback, self-assessments, and simulations.

Leadership Development

Leaders who can tap into the power of all

5 Developing a Well-Planned and Targeted Learning Journey

By this point, if you have already taken the time to develop Success Profiles and assessed your leaders’ capabilities against those profiles, you are well on your way to planning your leadership development journey. Again, the challenge is to create targeted interventions for specific gaps rather than employing one-size-fits-all solutions.

Korn Ferry’s Strategic Leadership Journey Design Process provides a flexible framework for creating an integrated development strategy. At its heart is the crafting of a design architecture that addresses learning objectives and creates a high-level map of accessible development experiences.

Talk to your participants and seek ongoing feedback to make sure the program remains aligned with individual and organizational goals. Don’t make the mistake of building a program that’s immovable or set-in-stone: make it flexible enough for regular assessment and refinement to adapt swiftly to evolving needs.

6 Catering to Diverse Learning Styles

While a senior executive would benefit from intensive one-on-one coaching sessions, a first-time manager may prefer self-paced online modules that can be accessed from anywhere. Should you attempt to cater to both?

Designing leadership development programs that accommodate a variety of learning preferences is challenging but crucial for engaging participants, enhancing their learning experience, and making the training stick. Leadership programs should address the unique learning needs of individuals at different seniority levels, from senior executives to mid-level managers and high potentials. Be aware that people have different learning preferences, with noticeable differences across generations.

Make sure your learning journeys have options by introducing a variety of training formats such as experiential learning that allows for practical application of leadership concepts, virtual classrooms that offer flexibility and convenience, self-paced modules, and one-on-one coaching.

At Korn Ferry, we embrace this diverse approach to training formats by offering a variety of programs such as the Chief Executive Institute and Executive Coaching for senior, executive, and enterprise-level leaders; and Leadership Accelerators and Leadership U for mid-level, first-time managers and high potentials.

7 Scaling Leadership Development Programs

We get it. All this talk of tailoring and customization inevitably raises concerns about cost, especially when scaling a development program through every layer of leadership in the organization. Program leads need to manage cost, complexity, and ensure the quality of the training experience is retained at scale.

From one employee to many, Korn Ferry can enable development however you need it, through scalable journeys that can be run any time, for any number of leaders, anywhere in the world. In order to make the learning last, we ground every journey in the science of behavior change and proven experience.

Technology is the catalyst that makes this possible. Through self-scheduled coaching sessions, self-guided learning, and assessments, we offer a scalable digital learning platform designed to embed new behaviors, mindsets, and knowledge.

8 Measuring Success and ROI

You can’t improve what you can’t measure. What are the evaluations and metrics that help you understand the effectiveness of your learning journeys and the progress of your leaders?

Measuring the success and ROI of leadership development programs is crucial for assessing their impact and making informed decisions. Several evaluation methods can be employed:

360-Degree Feedback: Collecting feedback from participants offers insights into strengths, areas for improvement, and the effectiveness of the program in enhancing leadership capabilities.
Pre- and Post-Assessments: Conducting assessments before and after the program allows for measuring changes in knowledge, skills, and behavior. Comparing the results helps gauge the program's effectiveness in achieving desired outcomes.
Performance Metrics: Tracking relevant performance metrics such as employee engagement, productivity, and retention rates can indicate the impact of leadership development on organizational success.

Ongoing evaluation and feedback loops are vital for continuous improvement. Regular check-ins, post-program surveys, and follow-up assessments will enable you to gather insights, address gaps, and refine future programs. Embrace a data-driven approach to measuring success.

Get in Touch

Take the pain out of leadership development by partnering with Korn Ferry. Our experts work with your team as a transparent and inclusive partner to achieve and exceed your business goals. We have the knowledge, expertise and experience to help you achieve greatness. Talk to a Leadership and Professional Development Expert today.

Key takeaways

Why leadership development is a high-stakes exercise
How to build a business case for leadership development
The eight pain points facing leadership development leads

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Communicating Through Conflict: How to Get Along with Anyone

In this episode, Amy Gallo shares how disagreements, if reframed, can lead to more productive outcomes.

May 28, 2024

Many of us would rank getting along with colleagues as an important aspect of work, but, as Amy Gallo explains, relationships devoid of disagreement can actually be less productive.

“While our natural human instinct is to avoid conflict, I believe that conflicts are not only an inevitable part of interacting with other humans, but they’re a necessary part.”

Gallo is a workplace expert, host of HBR’s Women at Work podcast, and the author of Getting Along: How to Work With Anyone . Across her work, Gallo demonstrates that the key to transforming conflicts into something productive is to understand their root causes and learn how to reframe them.

“Even at the base of those unhealthy conflicts or those unproductive conflicts is something that needs to be resolved,” she says.

In her conversation with host and strategic communications lecturer Matt Abrahams, Gallo provides useful frameworks and new concepts on how we can approach conflicts at work.

Listen & Subscribe

Think Fast, Talk Smart is a podcast produced by Stanford Graduate School of Business. Each episode provides concrete, easy-to-implement tools and techniques to help you hone and enhance your communication skills.

Full Transcript

Note: Transcripts are generated by machine and lightly edited by humans. They may contain errors.

Matt Abrahams: Many of us seek to keep conflict out of our work, but counterintuitively conflict can actually help us be better at work. My name is Matt Abrahams and I teach Strategic Communication at Stanford Graduate School of Business. Welcome to Think Fast Talk Smart, the podcast . Today I look forward to speaking with Amy Gallo. Amy is a workplace expert who writes and speaks about gender, interpersonal dynamics, difficult conversations, feedback, and effective communication. She’s the author of Getting Along: How to Work with Anyone, even Difficult People , and the HBR Guide to Dealing With Conflict , and she co-hosts HBR’s popular Women at Work podcast. Amy, thanks for being here.

Amy Gallo: Thanks for having me. I feel like we’re going to have a lot to talk about.

Matt Abrahams: Oh, I agree, and I’m so excited to get started. Are you ready?

Amy Gallo: I’m Ready.

[01:00] Matt Abrahams: Many of us see conflict as bad as something that we should avoid. Can you give us your thoughts on conflict and its importance in relationships, teams and organizations?

Amy Gallo: Yeah, it’s funny you’d think that I would be brought in to situations, organizations, teams where people are having too much conflict, but it’s actually quite the reverse. I’m often brought in because there’s not enough disagreement happening, there’s not enough feedback, not enough tension or friction, and I am a big believer that while our natural human instinct is to avoid conflict, because of course we are hardwired for likability and we see conflict as a potential rupture in our relationship or possibly damaging to our reputation, I actually believe that conflicts are not only inevitable part of interacting with other humans, but they’re a necessary part. There’s lots of research that shows that conflict leads to better work outcomes, stronger relationships, and of course that depends on navigating the conflict in a professional, productive, relational way with compassion and caring. But when done well, conflict has a whole host of good outcomes, both for our relationships, most certainly for teams, and as well for organizations. And I think we actually should be spending more time not trying to eliminate conflict, but trying to create the right kinds of conflict.

Matt Abrahams: Wow, I love that you’re brought in to talk about how to actually facilitate effective conflict. What are some of the things we can do to bring around what you call the right type of conflict? How do we do that?

[02:39] Amy Gallo: Well, one, I think we have to normalize conflict, right? So I’m sure you’ve been in this situation where you’re in a team meeting and someone disagrees with someone, someone says, or maybe is a slightly dismissive or just something starts to happen and the whole room just gets tense, right? And everyone feels like, oh gosh, well, how are we going to deal with this? And some people may immediately try to smooth it over. It might devolve quickly. The reality is we don’t make conflict normal. We don’t say we’re going to disagree. We’re not going to see eye to eye all the time. We should be debating ideas. And that’s the first step I think for teams and organizations. We want leaders who say, conflict’s going to happen. That’s good. We want the tensions. We want people to disagree about the best way to roll out this project or the right way to design a feature for our customers.

We want that disagreement and we want it to be about the ideas, not about the people. And I think that’s the key part is that when conflicts happen, we immediately think, oh, Matt and Amy aren’t getting along. Oh, there’s going to be a fight. What’s going to happen here? And we immediately think it’s you versus me as opposed to, oh wow, Matt really cares about speed. Matt is always the one who really puts the pedal to the metal, wants us to get there fast, whereas Amy is pressing on the brakes saying No highest quality product possible. Those are good tensions to have. We’re glad Matt and Amy are debating this because we’ll figure out the right way to proceed if we keep it on that level of ideas. The other thing I think is really key is I go back always to Amy Edmondson or at Harvard Business Schools work around psychological safety. You really need to have psychological safety on your team in order to have these disagreements, right? We talk about admitting mistakes, speaking up without fear of retribution or fear of negative consequences. If people are going to feel comfortable enough to say, you know what, Matt, I’m not sure I see that the same way. Let’s talk it through. That is a potential risk to our relationship, so it’s going to cause a disruption, but we have to normalize those disruptions and give people permission to raise them.

[04:45] Matt Abrahams: So there’s a lot that we can do to set up in our relationships, be they in our personal life or in our work life, to actually facilitate conflict that is actually productive. So establishing psychological safety makes a lot of sense. Amy was a guest on the podcast, and I encourage everybody to listen in to the specifics of how we can do that. We have to feel comfortable disagreeing, and then it sounds like those in power, the leaders of a group can acknowledge that conflict is good and recognize it when it’s happening. I like that example you gave where you say, Hey, these two people are in conflict and we need that conflict to help us stay of the course. And then clearly it’s really important that we focus on the problem or the issue and not the people, because once it becomes personal, the emotions can certainly change. So I really appreciate you helping us understand how we can set up an environment for positive conflict. Now, I’d like to have you help us when that conflict we’re having is not so positive. Can you share a framework or two for helping us navigate conflict that might not be the kind of conflict we really want to have?

Amy Gallo: Yeah, and the idea is not to eliminate conflict even if we feel like it’s unhealthy, but it’s to try to transform it into something more productive. Because usually even at the base of those unhealthy conflicts or those unproductive conflicts is something that needs to be resolved. So one framework I’ll share, and this is from my first book, the HBR Guide to Dealing with Conflict, is really thinking about before you even have a difficult conversation, say you have a conflict where you and the other person have been disrespecting each other, maybe there was a snarky email that got sent with lots of people CC’d on it, and you need to actually have a conversation before you do that. I recommend taking four steps, and these also, by the way, can be used as a coaching tool. So perhaps you’re a leader and someone comes to you and says, I’m having a conflict with so-and-So you can use these four steps to help that person think through the conflict as well.

[06:42]: The first step is to think about the other person. So when we are under stress or when we have a threat, conflict is often seen as a threat, as a threat to our identity, to our resources, to the sense of harmony we have. When that happens, we become naturally narcissistic and we become focused on what do I want to say? What do I want to do? We don’t think about the other person, not out of generosity, but the very first step is to think strategically what’s going on with that other person? What’s motivating them? What do they care about? What would be a rational reason that they’re behaving this way? And that’s going to give you some cues as to how to navigate this not so healthy conflict. Put yourself in their shoes just for a few minutes. Then you want to think about what are we actually disagreeing about?

[07:27]: Because sometimes we take these shortcuts, like the snarky email goes out and we’re like, oh, Matt and I have never gotten along. We have this total personality clash attributed to the person, or we make it bigger than it really is, and you have to really think what is at issue here, right? Are we disagreeing about the goal of this project? Are we disagreeing about status? Who actually gets to make the call? What do we actually disagree about? Really try to understand. Then the third step is to think about your goal. What is it that I actually want to achieve? You might be tempted to have a short-term goal. I just want to prove I’m right and he’s wrong, not helpful. What’s your long-term goal? What is it you? Is it that you need to get this project done on time? Is it that you want to preserve your relationship with the other person because you need to work closely together for the next six months?

[08:14]: Whatever it is, focus on that and with that information, what you know about the other person, what you’re disagreeing about, what your goal is, you then make a decision about how to proceed. It has to be really thoughtful. I think we often act rashly because we’re sort of activated from the conflict, but you have to really be thoughtful. Does it make sense to sit down and talk this through? Who else might need to be in the room? Should I have a phone call if we’re remote, should I do a zoom meeting? Whatever it is, think through what’s the best way to set up this conversation for success. So that four step framework is something I always use whenever I’m trying to coach someone who’s really uncomfortable in thinking, I don’t want to have this conversation, or I just want to tell them they’re wrong and have them fix it. So those four steps can help you be much more thoughtful about preparing and being ready for the conversation.

[09:06] Matt Abrahams: One of the things I appreciate so much about your work is the frameworks that you provide, and I think frameworks are wonderful to help. Give us a moment to step back and reflect on what it is in terms of the best approach to managing these situations. I love that we first start by being other focused. It is so easy to get focused on our needs and what we want in that moment, and then to really look at what’s the source? What’s causing this conflict? What is it I want to achieve for me and perhaps for the other person or the organization. And then to really create a plan for how to proceed and then to think about when I actually do have the conversation, what’s the best way to do it in terms of timing, in terms of who else needs to be present and in terms of which is the best channel through which to have that communication really, really matters. I know for myself, when I’m in conflictual situations, I just want it to be over. I want to make sure that I get my way and I just want to move on. Having a framework like yours can really help slow me down and make me other focused, which I think will really help in resolving these conflicts.

Amy Gallo: Can I just make a comment? Having it my way is so normal, it’s so relatable. I mean, I’m thinking about a conflict I had yesterday and I was like, how can I set this up and truthfully, how can I manipulate this situation so it just goes my way? And then I was like, wait a second, I’m going to put this person completely on the defensive. This is all going to devolve, and then I’m going to have to have five more conversations instead of one in which I’m actually collaborative instead of manipulative. And so I think we really, that’s an important part is I often get asked, well, how can I make them do this? I was like, you cannot make them do anything, but what you can do is lay the groundwork for a collaborative discussion in which hopefully you both will get what you want or at least part of what you want. It’s rare to have a zero sum situation where you can’t sort of find something where you both can win a little.

[11:09] Matt Abrahams: People can’t see that I’m smiling broadly because it does my heart well to know that an expert in conflict management still falls into some of the traps that I do. Something there that you said that I think is really critical that I want to call out is that the goal of these conversations is invitation rather than getting the person to be defensive, that you want to invite the person to work with you to solve the problem. It’s a collaborative effort rather than a manipulative effort where you’re just trying to work around the other person. And one of the biggest payoffs beyond collaboration is it ultimately saves you time because as you implied, if you just try to manipulate the situation, you then have to spend so much time cleaning up that mess. So there’s an incentive just in terms of efficiency, I think, in all of this.

Amy Gallo: Absolutely.

[11:56] Matt Abrahams: Now, we’ve talked a lot about conflict and people that are difficult. I’d like to switch gears and look at the other side of the coin. In your book getting along, you share the benefits of having friends at work and actually seeking out those friendships. Can you shed some light on the benefits of having colleagues and friends at work, and what are some of your principles for how we can get along with anyone that we work with?

[12:22] Amy Gallo: I love this question because I think we could spend all day talking through the patterns of behavior that drive us up a wall, but the reality is when you look at all of the stats, most people have a majority of positive relationships at work, or at least neutral. The problem is those negative relationships take up an outsized portion of our energy and emotion, and so we’re really thinking a lot about the difficult people when in reality we should be spending most of our time focusing on the more positive relationships because there’s lots and lots of research that shows that those positive relationships have such a huge benefit, not only emotionally on us, right? Of course, it feels good to have a best friend on work, but also creatively in terms of efficiency. One of my favorite pieces of research I found in working on the book was a group of researchers at Rutgers University found that people who reported having a best friend at work had higher performance ratings.

[13:20] I think we often think about relationships as a bonus, right? Like, oh, I like the people I work with. Oh, how lucky you are. But the reality is it affects how we actually do our jobs. It’s not the icing on the cake. It is the cake. Now, that doesn’t mean that everyone at work has to be your best friends. You don’t have to go out for drinks. You don’t have to invite each other over for cookouts on the weekend. It just means you have to care about one another and be invested in one another’s success. That sort of warmth and benevolence between people really can make a big difference in how we experience work, but also in how we carry out and do the work.

[13:58] Matt Abrahams: But I’m hearing you say as your friends help you lighten your load. That’s right. That’s amazing. I know I made a mistake early in my managerial career where my whole goal was to be liked. I just wanted people to like me to be my friends, and I over-indexed on that so much so that people would take advantage of me. I’d love for you to share some advice about how to actually foster friendships at work without going to the extreme as I did and actually end up not making friends and actually making life a little bit worse for those who are reporting to me.

[14:29] Amy Gallo: So many people have been in your shoes, myself included, of if I’m liked, that is the gold. Every manager just wants to be everyone’s favorite manager. Why wouldn’t you want that? But if you think back to the managers you had, they weren’t necessarily my favorite managers. Sometimes it was actually the person who I didn’t have the warmest relationship with, but I respect it and I learned a lot and they pushed me. So I think really mentally thinking, focus on respect over likability. The other key piece is boundaries, and I think the issue there is you’re managing people, you’re becoming friends, and then you either feel taken advantage of, people start to perceive favoritism, all of those things that can happen, and that’s where you really need boundaries. In fact, I actually reported at one point in my career to someone who was a very good friend from college, and when we began our working relationship, we were very clear.

[15:22] We’re like, we got to keep this separate for the perception of others. We don’t want us to be perceived as playing favorites or giving one another advantages, but also because we don’t want it to impact our friendship. If she called me, I would say I’d pick up and say, friend call or work call, and I think it was really clear, and when there were potential conflicts of interest, which there were sometimes we were very clear about, okay, how are we going to navigate this? And I think that has to be true even if your friend is your peer, right, have a conversation. It doesn’t have to be sort of this in depth define the relationship conversation, but it could be helpful to say, sometimes I’m going to have information that you’re not going to be privy to. Sometimes I’m going to have to make a decision that I know is not going to be something you’re going to be super happy with, but how do we want to handle that? When that comes up, how do we want to make sure our friendship stays intact and not impact the work relationships? So I think boundaries are really important.

[16:16] Matt Abrahams: That is so helpful, and the notion of boundary setting is critical to those relationships, and you might set different boundaries with different colleagues, but having an overt, explicit conversation about the boundaries I think is critical, and certainly your advice to focus on being respected versus being liked is what I ultimately came to that conclusion, but it certainly had some, there were negative consequences before I learned that lesson, and in fact, the advice I give all new managers is focus on building trust, focus on building respect and liking often comes from that.

Amy Gallo: That’s right.

Matt Abrahams: Amy, this has been fantastic. I’ve enjoyed listening to all of your advice and guidance and it is so applicable in my daily life and I’m sure in the lives of the listeners we have. Before we end, I’d like to ask you three questions. One, I’m going to create just for you, and the other two are consistent across all of our guests. Are you up for answering?

Amy Gallo: Absolutely

[17:12] Matt Abrahams: Great. I’d like for you to think back to a challenging or conflictual situation you’ve had and what are you most proud of in terms of how you handled it?

[17:23] Amy Gallo: I have a 17-year-old daughter, and we talk about conflict a lot. What I’m realizing and what I’m most proud of in negotiating conflicts with her is being able to in the moment say, here are the various things that I’m struggling with. I want to be a good mom. I want to appear as a good mom. I want to care for you, and I also need my needs met, and to be able to talk through the conflicts of interest that have, it’s not always easy. Sometimes I’m just at level 10 and losing my mind, but when I can sort of take it down a few levels and actually be present enough to say, Hey, this is what’s going on, she’s so much more responsive because instead of being that know it all mom who’s just telling her what to do instead, I’m a real person who’s struggling saying, I don’t know what the best answer is, and this is why I’m doing what I’m doing.

[18:16] Matt Abrahams: I think that is wonderful that you can do that, and I strive to do that. It can help in any interaction, not just with our kids to say, here are the things I’m struggling with in this moment, sounding real, and maybe even getting some advice and guidance to be more collaborative. Question number two, who is a communicator that you admire and why?

Amy Gallo: I have maybe a slightly strange answer, but there’s a comedian named TIG Nataro. She’s an interesting communicator. She speaks very slowly. She’s very dry, sense of humor. The other thing I like about the way she communicates, it’s delightful. She doesn’t always say what you expect, the element of surprise, not in a bad way because you can also really feel the authenticity and the intention behind what she says, and so the way that she sort of surprises you by reacting in a certain way or just sort of laying a joke that’s very relatable, very human. I always appreciate what TIG has to say.

Matt Abrahams: So it sounds like the conversational and surprising nature of the communication is what really attracts you to it. I think those are two criteria that can draw all of us into communication. We often can be very scripted and purposeful in everything we say, and sometimes having a little bit of surprise can be helpful. Final question for you, what are the first three ingredients that go into a successful communication recipe?

Amy Gallo: First, I would say empathy. I think ultimately communication is about balancing your needs and someone else’s needs. I would say assertiveness, actually knowing what you want to say and saying it confidently, and then curiosity. I really always try to lead with what do I not know that I want to know, and how do I communicate in a way that will help me get that

[20:01] Matt Abrahams: Empathy, curiosity, and assertiveness. Great communication recipe. Start with what the others need, understand their perspective. Be curious about how you can connect and collaborate and then be clear and assertive in what you want. Amy, thank you so much for your time and for your guidance. I certainly have benefited personally in dealing with challenging situations. I appreciate your time and your information. Thank you so much.

Amy Gallo: Thank you, Matt. This has been really fun.

[20:34] Matt Abrahams: Thanks for joining us for another episode of Think Fast Talk Smart, the podcast from Stanford Graduate School of Business. This episode was produced by Jenny Luna, Michael Reilly, and me Matt Abrahams. For more information and episodes, visit gsb.stanford.edu or subscribe to our show wherever you get your podcasts. Finally, find us on social media at StanfordGSB.

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Power, culture, persuasion, and the self: communication insights from stanford gsb faculty, when words aren’t enough: how to excel at nonverbal communication, navigating the nuance: the art of disagreeing without conflict, editor’s picks.

April 15, 2024 Embracing Failure: How to Make Mistakes That Work In this podcast episode, Amy C. Edmonson outlines how leaders can foster an environment where failure is viewed as a success.

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Emerging Community College Leaders Engage at Second Illinois Community College Leadership Institute

What started as a popular institute for community college leaders in Iowa is now gaining traction in the Land of Lincoln.

The Illinois Community College Leadership Institute (ICCLI), an event co-sponsored by OCCRL and the Illinois Community College Board, took place in May for the second year in a row. The institute’s theme was “ Community Colleges, Data Literacy, and Equitable Leadership. ”

This year’s ICCLI at Richland Community College drew 40% more invited participants compared to last year, with topics ranging from quantitative data literacy to how community college leaders can build better relationships with boards of trustees. Participants received a tour of parts of campus, which included information on a major project at Richland in which carbon dioxide is being captured and stored in the nearby ground. Lunch came courtesy of the Bistro Five Thirty Seven.

“The 48 community colleges in Illinois are spread throughout the state, especially in rural areas, making it challenging to find equity-minded individuals to be in community with,” said Kuneyl, who is studying community colleges and their history. “My goal is to help facilitate that sense of community for these scholars and practitioners who are shining as leaders.”

ICCLI began under the direction of OCCRL Director Lorenzo Baber, who for four years at Iowa State University led the “grow your own leadership” concept initiated by Dr. Larry Ebbers. In 1989, Ebbers began the Leadership Institute for a New Century program, which was created for women and minorities who were preparing for leadership positions at community colleges.

Several years later, Ebbers started the Community College Leadership Initiative Consortium, which focused on providing leadership development for mid- and upper-level administrators in community colleges. ICCLI combines key elements of both of Ebbers’ programs through its focus on equity within each topic for burgeoning community college leaders.

A decade after the programs at Iowa State began, Ebbers said he saw an impressive number of past attendees emerge into leadership roles at community colleges.

“The relationships throughout the system are enhanced by the number of people who are able to work together because of bonds developed through programs such as ICCLI,” Ebbers said. “The scholar-practitioner approach is a benefit to all.”

The institutes in Iowa drew community college presidents from 11 community colleges in the state, with most of the deans from Iowa’s 15 community colleges attending the institutes as well.

“We saw the benefits of that in terms of elevating people’s trajectory and also giving the state an opportunity to grow its own generation of leaders of community colleges,” said Dr. Baber, who was an associate professor in the School of Education at Iowa State from 2015 to 2019.

Baber added that ICCLI offers a forum for staving off the inevitable “leadership void” at community colleges as Baby Boomers continue to retire.

ICCLI strives to support the upward trajectory of the invited community college leaders, Baber said. Presenters relate a wealth of research and policy knowledge that participants can learn from and utilize long after the day-and-a-half event ends. Attendees ask questions and discuss issues in groups, forging potential career-long connections.

Jim Reed presenting at the 2024 Illinois Community College Leadership Institute

Jim Reed, executive director of the Illinois Community College Trustees Association, gave a presentation on the importance of leaders understanding how to engage with boards of trustees. He shared perspectives on what leadership entails and the importance of leaders understanding how their bosses and fellow leaders approach situations.

“ The leadership team of the president and the board work much more efficiently when the board is a high-performing one and working together as an individual unit,” Reed said. “The education and training we provide help boards achieve that high level of functionality.”

Dr. Felecia Commodore’s talk was in a similar realm but with an equity focus. Using culturally sustaining governance as a framework, she discussed strategies for developing partnerships with governing boards in equity work, sharing with participants how they can “make the equity argument” and “identify board capacity for partnership.”

Dr. Commodore said that engaging with emerging and current community college leaders was a valuable learning experience.

“It was great to hear the passion and commitment toward one of our most important sectors of higher education and their students,” said Commodore, a visiting associate professor in EPOL.

Dr. LaDrina Wilson presenting at the 2024 Illinois Community College Leadership Institute

Keynote speaker LaDrina Wilson’s talk highlighted how the political nature of diversity, equity, and inclusion has left organizations unequipped to position diversity and inclusion as assets. Dr. Wilson, who runs Iman Consulting, said leaders in higher education should leverage the benefits of DEI and disaggregate data to position their institutions to invest the needed time and financial resources for DEI.

“The goal in doing this is to ensure student success, employee engagement, and localized inclusive economies ,” she said.

Dr. Marci Rockey’s talk focused on ways geographical context can influence educational and workforce opportunities at the individual level. Rockey is an Illinois graduate and former assistant director for community college relations and research at OCCRL. She discussed her research, conducted with Dr. Jasmine Collins, that centers on the extent to which higher education policy initiatives in Illinois support rural communities of color.

“These topics are important,” Dr. Rockey said, “given the current polarizing political atmosphere and the need for community college leaders statewide to work in collaboration with policymakers to close opportunity gaps across diverse rural, suburban, and urban districts.”

View a photo gallery of the event and read about the inaugural 2023 Illinois Community College Leadership Institute.

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NIST Launches ARIA, a New Program to Advance Sociotechnical Testing and Evaluation for AI

NIST’s new Assessing Risks and Impacts of AI (ARIA) program will assess the societal risks and impacts of artificial intelligence systems (i.e., what happens when people interact with AI regularly in realistic settings).
The program will help develop ways to quantify how a system functions within societal contexts once it is deployed.
ARIA’s results will support the U.S. AI Safety Institute’s testing to help build the foundation for trustworthy AI systems.

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is launching a new testing, evaluation, validation and verification (TEVV) program intended to help improve understanding of artificial intelligence’s capabilities and impacts.

Assessing Risks and Impacts of AI (ARIA) aims to help organizations and individuals determine whether a given AI technology will be valid, reliable, safe, secure, private and fair once deployed. The program comes shortly after several recent announcements by NIST around the 180-day mark of the Executive Order on trustworthy AI and the U.S. AI Safety Institute’s unveiling of its strategic vision and international safety network.

“In order to fully understand the impacts AI is having and will have on our society, we need to test how AI functions in realistic scenarios — and that’s exactly what we’re doing with this program,” said U.S. Commerce Secretary Gina Raimondo. “With the ARIA program, and other efforts to support Commerce’s responsibilities under President Biden’s Executive Order on AI, NIST and the U.S. AI Safety Institute are pulling every lever when it comes to mitigating the risks and maximizing the benefits of AI.”

“The ARIA program is designed to meet real-world needs as the use of AI technology grows,” said Under Secretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology and NIST Director Laurie E. Locascio. “This new effort will support the U.S. AI Safety Institute, expand NIST’s already broad engagement with the research community, and help establish reliable methods for testing and evaluating AI’s functionality in the real world.”

ARIA expands on the AI Risk Management Framework , which NIST released in January 2023, and helps to operationalize the framework’s risk measurement function, which recommends that quantitative and qualitative techniques be used to analyze and monitor AI risk and impacts. ARIA will help assess those risks and impacts by developing a new set of methodologies and metrics for quantifying how well a system maintains safe functionality within societal contexts.

“Measuring impacts is about more than how well a model functions in a laboratory setting,” said Reva Schwartz, NIST Information Technology Lab’s ARIA program lead. “ARIA will consider AI beyond the model and assess systems in context, including what happens when people interact with AI technology in realistic settings under regular use. This gives a broader, more holistic view of the net effects of these technologies.”

The results of ARIA will support and inform NIST’s collective efforts, including through the U.S. AI Safety Institute, to build the foundation for safe, secure and trustworthy AI systems.

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DG Quantitative Stock Analysis

May 28, 2024 — 12:05 pm EDT

Written by John Reese for Validea ->

Below is Validea's guru fundamental report for DOLLAR GENERAL CORP ( DG ) . Of the 22 guru strategies we follow, DG rates highest using our Shareholder Yield Investor model based on the published strategy of Meb Faber . This strategy looks for companies returning cash to shareholders via dividends, buybacks and debt paydown.

DOLLAR GENERAL CORP ( DG ) is a large-cap growth stock in the Retail (Department & Discount) industry. The rating using this strategy is 65% based on the firm’s underlying fundamentals and the stock’s valuation. A score of 80% or above typically indicates that the strategy has some interest in the stock and a score above 90% typically indicates strong interest.

The following table summarizes whether the stock meets each of this strategy's tests. Not all criteria in the below table receive equal weighting or are independent, but the table provides a brief overview of the strong and weak points of the security in the context of the strategy's criteria.

Detailed Analysis of DOLLAR GENERAL CORP

DG Guru Analysis

DG Fundamental Analysis

More Information on Meb Faber

Meb Faber Portfolio

About Meb Faber : Meb Faber is the founder of Cambria Investments. His research has covered a wide spectrum of the investment world, including topics like shareholder yield, trend following, global asset allocation and home country bias. His shareholder yield strategy, which is based on his book "Shareholder Yield" and forms the basis for an ETF of the same name, looks for companies that are focused on creating value for shareholders by returning cash to them in the form of dividends, share buybacks and debt paydown. Meb is also the author of 4 other books and numerous white papers on investing related topics.

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About Validea : Validea is an investment research service that follows the published strategies of investment legends. Validea offers both stock analysis and model portfolios based on gurus who have outperformed the market over the long-term, including Warren Buffett, Benjamin Graham, Peter Lynch and Martin Zweig. For more information about Validea, click here

The views and opinions expressed herein are the views and opinions of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Nasdaq, Inc.

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IMAGES

100+ Quantitative Research Topics & Ideas 2023
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COMMENTS

277 Engaging Leadership Research Topics And Ideas
277 Top Leadership Research Topics for Your Thesis. For most students, working on leadership research topics is a fascinating task. That's because this subject spans different disciplines, including education, management, sociology, politics, and psychology. For this reason, many learners choose these topics when writing college and ...
500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics
Quantitative Research Topics. Quantitative Research Topics are as follows: The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers. A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools. The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
Quantitative Research on Leadership and Business Ethics ...
In this article, the co-editors of the Leadership and Ethics: Quantitative Analysis section of the journal outline some of the key issues about conducting quantitative research at the intersection of business, ethics, and leadership. They offer guidance for authors by explaining the types of papers that are often rejected and how to avoid some common pitfalls that lead to rejection. They also ...
Review of Empirical Research on Leadership and Firm Performance
The topics of leadership and performance of firms garnered the greatest attention in 2020 (n = 12) and 2021 (n = 10), while only three articles were published during the 2016 to 2018 period. Of the 60 studies, 5 were published in 2019, of which one study was located in the Journal of Business Research. The upward trend in the figure illustrates ...
Analysis of Leader Effectiveness in Organization and Knowledge Sharing
Yukl (2013) defined leadership as "the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to understand and influence the people to realize what is to be done and how and to realize the shared objectives." Chemers (2000) states that leadership is "the process of social influence that one can get the help and support of others to achieve a common objective."
Transformational leadership effectiveness: an evidence-based primer
To do so, we draw on quantitative syntheses (i.e. meta-analyses, a statistical technique that quantitatively amalgamates results from multiple studies in a research topic by combining single effect sizes into a single aggregated estimate [(American Psychological Association (APA) Citation n.d)]) of existing empirical research. The result is an ...
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Her research often integrates these areas to explore the leadership effectiveness and consequences of strategic leadership. Her current research is on strategic leadership and innovative mindset for sustainable business development. Dr. Farhan has published in leading peer-reviewed journals.
A Quantitative Model Studying the Effects of Transformational
Abstract Hotels have lost $3.4 billion over the last 5 years because of high rates of employee turnover. Leaders must use the tools necessary to increase job satisfaction and retain
Servant Leadership: A Quantitative Review of Instruments and Related
This article provides a review of six instruments that measure constructs related to servant leadership, and summarizes 84 statistical results from 20 quantitative, peer-reviewed studies. Keywords: Servant leadership instruments, organizational leadership. Among many leadership enthusiasts, the idea of being a servant leader is very appealing.
Quantitative research on leadership and business ethics: Examining the
In this article, the co-editors of the Leadership and Ethics: Quantitative Analysis section of the journal outline some of the key issues about conducting quantitative research at the intersection of business, ethics, and leadership. They offer guidance for authors by explaining the types of papers that are often rejected and how to avoid some common pitfalls that lead to rejection. They also ...
The Role of Leadership in a Digitalized World: A Review
To answer our research questions, we use a mixed method approach, that involves both quantitative research through standard databases and qualitative coding (Crossan and Apaydin, 2010; Peteraf et al., 2013; ... Finally, an emerging topic in leadership concerns the unlawful appropriation of technology from private and public organizations.
Quantitative Research Methods Training in Education Leadership and
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Muhammad Hassan

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Quantitative Research on Leadership and Business Ethics: Examining the State of the Field and an Agenda for Future Research

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Introduction

Research Design

Data Collection

Data Analysis and Qualitative Coding

Dataset Description

Main Theoretical Frameworks

The Macro Perspective of Analysis: Main Categories

The Relationship Between E-Leaders and Organizations

Digital Tools and Organizations: How Technology Enhances the Optimization of Complex Organizational Environments

Organizations and Ethics

Leadership and Digital Tools: Insights From Social Movement Studies

The Micro Level of Analysis: Main Categories

The Evolution of C-Level Roles

Leaders' Skills in the Digital Era

Communicating through digital media

High speed decision making

Managing disruptive change

Managing connectivity

The renaissance of technical skills

Developing leadership skills in the digital era

Leading Virtual Teams

Toward The Future: Research Directions

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest Statement

Impact of psychological safety and inclusive leadership on online learning satisfaction: the role of organizational support

Introduction

Literature review

Psychological safety on learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction

Inclusive leadership on learner–learner interaction and Students’ Satisfaction

Perceived organizational support on learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction

Moderating effects of perceived organizational support on the relationships between psychological safety, inclusive leadership, perceived organizational support, learner–learner interaction and students’ satisfaction with online education

Psychological safety

Inclusive leadership

Perceived organizational support

Learner–learner interaction

Student satisfaction

Participants