introduction to education system

Created by the Great Schools Partnership , the GLOSSARY OF EDUCATION REFORM is a comprehensive online resource that describes widely used school-improvement terms, concepts, and strategies for journalists, parents, and community members. | Learn more »

Education System

The term education system generally refers to public schooling, not private schooling, and more commonly to kindergarten through high school programs. Schools or school districts are typically the smallest recognized form of “education system” and countries are the largest. States are also considered to have education systems.

Simply put, an education system comprises everything that goes into educating public-school students at the federal, state, or community levels:

• Laws, policies, and regulations
• Public funding, resource allocations, and procedures for determining funding levels
• State and district administrative offices, school facilities, and transportation vehicles
• Human resources, staffing, contracts, compensation, and employee benefits
• Books, computers, teaching resources, and other learning materials
• And, of course, countless other contributing elements

While the term education system is widely and frequently used in news media and public discourse, it may be difficult to determine precisely what the term is referring to when it is used without qualification, specific examples, or additional explanation.

Like the teaching profession, education systems are, by nature, extremely complex and multifaceted, and the challenges entailed in reforming or improving them can be similarly complex and multifaceted. Even reforms that appear to be straightforward, simple, or easily achieved may, in practice, require complicated state-policy changes, union-contract negotiations, school-schedule modifications, or countless other conditions. For a related discussion, see systemic reform .

Given its widespread use and universal familiarity, the term education system can fall prey to what psychologist call the “illusion of knowledge”—or the tendency for people to think they have a better understanding of something than they actually do. For example, most people would say they understand what a teacher is and does, yet—if pressed—many people would not be able to explain precisely what people need to do to become certified as teachers, how state policies and requirements may dictate or influence what teachers teach in a course, what specific instructional methods are commonly used by teachers and which seem to work best, how educational research informs new instructional approaches, or how certain kinds of professional development can improve teaching effectiveness in a school, among many other things. When investigating or reporting on education reforms, it may be useful to look for more concrete, understandable, and relatable ways to describe abstract concepts such as education system .

Alphabetical Search

• High contrast
• Press Centre

Search UNICEF

• Strengthening education systems and innovation

Getting all children in school and learning takes strong, innovative education systems.

Education systems are complex. Getting all children in school and learning requires alignment across families, educators and decision makers. It requires shared goals, and national policies that put learning at the centre. It also requires data collection and regular monitoring to help policymakers identify what’s working, who’s benefiting, and who’s being left behind.

Strong education systems are inclusive and gender-equitable. They support early learning and multi-lingual education, and foster innovations to extend education opportunities to the hardest-to-reach children and adolescents.

Innovation in education

Innovation in education is about more than new technology. It’s about solving a real problem in a fresh, simple way to promote equity and improve learning.

Innovation in education comes in many forms. Programmes, services, processes, products and partnerships can all enhance education outcomes in innovative ways – like customized games on solar-powered tablets that deliver math lessons to children in remote areas of Sudan. Or digital learning platforms that teach refugees and other marginalized children the language of instruction in Greece, Lebanon and Mauritania.

Innovation in education means solving a real problem in a new, simple way to promote equitable learning.

Innovation in education matches the scale of the solution to the scale of the challenge. It draws on the creativity and experience of communities – like a programme in Ghana that empowers local mothers and grandmothers to facilitate early childhood education – to ensure decisions are made by those most affected by their outcomes.

Many innovators are already at work in classrooms and communities. UNICEF collaborates with partners to identify, incubate and scale promising innovations that help fulfil every child’s right to learn.

UNICEF’s work to strengthen education systems

UNICEF works with communities, schools and Governments to build strong, innovative education systems that enhance learning for all children.

We support data collection and analysis to help Governments assess progress across a range of outcomes and strengthen national Education Management Information Systems. We also develop comprehensive guidelines for education sector analysis that are used in countries around the world to drive equity-focused plans and policies.

Our efforts promote transparency , shedding light on education systems so that students, parents and communities gain the information they need to engage decision makers at all levels and hold them to account.

More from UNICEF

Turning trash into building blocks for children's futures

Côte d'Ivoire’s innovative project to transform plastic waste into construction materials for new schools

Using data to improve education in Angola

A digital application, developed with support from UNICEF, aims to bring back children outside the education system

How popularity and fashion promote environmental solutions

High school students in North Macedonia team up to clean up their school.

Children call for access to quality climate education

On Earth Day, UNICEF urges governments to empower every child with learning opportunities to be a champion for the planet

Education Sector Analysis Guidelines: Volume 1 ( English , French , Spanish , Portuguese and Russian )

These guidelines support ministries of education and their partners in undergoing sector analysis and developing education sector plans.

Education Sector Analysis Guidelines: Volume 2 ( English , French , Spanish , Portuguese and Russian )

The investment case for education and equity.

This report analyses the learning crisis and its determinants and makes the case for an increase in funding for education and for more equitable and efficient spending.

Education Data Solutions Roundtable

Explore the Global Partnership for Education’s roundtable to leverage partners’ expertise and improve the availability and use of accurate, timely education data.

Collecting Data on Foundational Learning Skills and Parental Involvement in Education

This methodological paper measures foundational learning skills and parental involvement in education through household surveys.

The turning point: Why we must transform education now

Global warming. Accelerated digital revolution. Growing inequalities. Democratic backsliding. Loss of biodiversity. Devastating pandemics. And the list goes on. These are just some of the most pressing challenges that we are facing today in our interconnected world.

The diagnosis is clear: Our current global education system is failing to address these alarming challenges and provide quality learning for everyone throughout life. We know that education today is not fulfilling its promise to help us shape peaceful, just, and sustainable societies. These findings were detailed in UNESCO’s Futures of Education Report in November 2021 which called for a new social contract for education.

That is why it has never been more crucial to reimagine the way we learn, what we learn and how we learn. The turning point is now. It’s time to transform education. How do we make that happen?

Here’s what you need to know. 

Why do we need to transform education?

The current state of the world calls for a major transformation in education to repair past injustices and enhance our capacity to act together for a more sustainable and just future. We must ensure the right to lifelong learning by providing all learners - of all ages in all contexts - the knowledge and skills they need to realize their full potential and live with dignity. Education can no longer be limited to a single period of one’s lifetime. Everyone, starting with the most marginalized and disadvantaged in our societies, must be entitled to learning opportunities throughout life both for employment and personal agency. A new social contract for education must unite us around collective endeavours and provide the knowledge and innovation needed to shape a better world anchored in social, economic, and environmental justice.  

What are the key areas that need to be transformed?

• Inclusive, equitable, safe and healthy schools

Education is in crisis. High rates of poverty, exclusion and gender inequality continue to hold millions back from learning. Moreover, COVID-19 further exposed the inequities in education access and quality, and violence, armed conflict, disasters and reversal of women’s rights have increased insecurity. Inclusive, transformative education must ensure that all learners have unhindered access to and participation in education, that they are safe and healthy, free from violence and discrimination, and are supported with comprehensive care services within school settings. Transforming education requires a significant increase in investment in quality education, a strong foundation in comprehensive early childhood development and education, and must be underpinned by strong political commitment, sound planning, and a robust evidence base.

• Learning and skills for life, work and sustainable development

There is a crisis in foundational learning, of literacy and numeracy skills among young learners. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, learning poverty has increased by a third in low- and middle-income countries, with an estimated 70% of 10-year-olds unable to understand a simple written text. Children with disabilities are 42% less likely to have foundational reading and numeracy skills compared to their peers. More than 771 million people still lack basic literacy skills, two-thirds of whom are women. Transforming education means empowering learners with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to be resilient, adaptable and prepared for the uncertain future while contributing to human and planetary well-being and sustainable development. To do so, there must be emphasis on foundational learning for basic literacy and numeracy; education for sustainable development, which encompasses environmental and climate change education; and skills for employment and entrepreneurship.

• Teachers, teaching and the teaching profession

Teachers are essential for achieving learning outcomes, and for achieving SDG 4 and the transformation of education. But teachers and education personnel are confronted by four major challenges: Teacher shortages; lack of professional development opportunities; low status and working conditions; and lack of capacity to develop teacher leadership, autonomy and innovation. Accelerating progress toward SDG 4 and transforming education require that there is an adequate number of teachers to meet learners’ needs, and all education personnel are trained, motivated, and supported. This can only be possible when education is adequately funded, and policies recognize and support the teaching profession, to improve their status and working conditions.

• Digital learning and transformation

The COVID-19 crisis drove unprecedented innovations in remote learning through harnessing digital technologies. At the same time, the digital divide excluded many from learning, with nearly one-third of school-age children (463 million) without access to distance learning. These inequities in access meant some groups, such as young women and girls, were left out of learning opportunities. Digital transformation requires harnessing technology as part of larger systemic efforts to transform education, making it more inclusive, equitable, effective, relevant, and sustainable. Investments and action in digital learning should be guided by the three core principles: Center the most marginalized; Free, high-quality digital education content; and Pedagogical innovation and change.

• Financing of education

While global education spending has grown overall, it has been thwarted by high population growth, the surmounting costs of managing education during the COVID-19 pandemic, and the diversion of aid to other emergencies, leaving a massive global education financial gap amounting to US$ 148 billion annually. In this context, the first step toward transformation is to urge funders to redirect resources back to education to close the funding gap. Following that, countries must have significantly increased and sustainable financing for achieving SDG 4 and that these resources must be equitably and effectively allocated and monitored. Addressing the gaps in education financing requires policy actions in three key areas: Mobilizing more resources, especially domestic; increasing efficiency and equity of allocations and expenditures; and improving education financing data. Finally, determining which areas needs to be financed, and how, will be informed by recommendations from each of the other four action tracks .

What is the Transforming Education Summit?

UNESCO is hosting the Transforming Education Pre-Summit on 28-30 June 2022, a meeting of  over 140 Ministers of Education, as well as  policy and business leaders and youth activists, who are coming together to build a roadmap to transform education globally. This meeting is a precursor to the Transforming Education Summit to be held on 19 September 2022 at the UN General Assembly in New York. This high-level summit is convened by the UN Secretary General to radically change our approach to education systems. Focusing on 5 key areas of transformation, the meeting seeks to mobilize political ambition, action, solutions and solidarity to transform education: to take stock of efforts to recover pandemic-related learning losses; to reimagine education systems for the world of today and tomorrow; and to revitalize national and global efforts to achieve SDG-4.

• More on the Transforming Education Summit
• More on the Pre-Summit

Related items

• Future of education
• SDG: SDG 4 - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

This article is related to the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals .

More on this subject

Other recent news

Educational System

• Reference work entry
• pp 1836–1842
• Cite this reference work entry

• Adrian Hatos 3  

373 Accesses

Educational organization

Patterns of organization of education provision approached usually at country (or nation) level, the most important level where formal education is regulated.

Description

Introduction.

The concept of education systems refers to the patterns of organization of education provision approached usually at country (or nation) level, the most important level where formal education is regulated. Systematic description, comparison, and analysis of evolution of education systems are the main subjects of comparative education, an interdisciplinary field developed at the border of education sciences, history, economics, and philosophy.

In this chapter, I will treat education systems applying the following blueprint: I will start discussing the models of convergence and divergence in education systems, then I will refer briefly to theories of change in educational organization and will end the section by referring to contemporary tendencies in the...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Durable hardcover edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Adick, C. (1995). Formation of a world educational system. In P. M. Roeder & H.-P. Fussel (Eds.), Pluralism and education: Current world trends in policy, law and administration (pp. 41–60). Berkeley: University of California Press.

Google Scholar  

Archer, M. (1981). Educational systems. International Social Science Journal, 33 (2), 261–284.

Archer, M. S. (1984). Social origins of educational systems. The University edition . London/Beverly Hills: Sage.

Ball, S. (2004). Education for sale! The commodification of everything. In Department of Education and Professional Studies annual lecture (June 2004) . London: Institute of Education.

Cardoso, S., Carvalho, T., & Santiago, R. (2011). From students to consumers: Reflections on the marketisation of Portuguese higher education. European Journal of Education, 46 (2), 271–284.

Cummings, W. K. (2003). The institutions of education: A comparative study of educational development in the six core nations . Oxford: Symposium books.

Dougherty, K., & Hammack, F. (2000). Educational organization. In E. Borgatta & R. Montgomery (Eds.), Encyclopedia of sociology (pp. 760–772). New York: Macmillan.

Gellert, C. (1993). Structures and functional differentiation-remarks on changing paradigms of tertiary education in Europe. In C. Gellert (Ed.), Higher education policy series (Vol. 16, pp. 234–34). London: Jessica Kingsley.

Green, A. (1990). Education and state formation: The rise of education systems in England, France, and the USA . London: Macmillan Press.

Iversen, T., & Soskice, D. (2009). Distribution and redistribution: The shadow of the nineteenth century. World Politics, 61 (3), 438–486.

Meyer, J. W., Ramirez, F. O., Rubinson, R., & Boli-Bennett, J. (1977). The world educational revolution, 1950–1970. Sociology of Education, 50 , 242–258.

Meyer, J. W., Ramirez, F. O., & Soysal, Y. N. (1992). World expansion of mass education, 1870–1980. Sociology of Education, 65 , 128–149.

Ramirez, F. O., & Boli, J. (1987). The political construction of mass schooling: European origins and worldwide institutionalization. Sociology of Education, 60 (1), 2–17.

Schofer, E., & Meyer, J. W. (2005). The worldwide expansion of higher education in the twentieth century. American Sociological Review, 70 (December), 898–920.

Scott, P. (1996). Unified and binary systems of higher education in Europe. In A. Burgen (Ed.), Higher education policy series (Vol. 32, pp. 37–54). London: Jessica Kingsley.

Soysal, Y. N., & Strang, D. (1989). Construction of the first mass education systems in nineteenth-century Europe. Sociology of Education, 62 (October), 277–288.

Whitty, G., & Power, S. (2000). Marketization and privatization in mass education systems. International Journal of Educational Development, 20 (2), 93–107.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Sociology, Social Work and Philosophy, University of Oradea, Universitatii, 410311, Oradea, Romania

Adrian Hatos

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adrian Hatos .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George, BC, Canada

Alex C. Michalos

(residence), Brandon, MB, Canada

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this entry

Cite this entry.

Hatos, A. (2014). Educational System. In: Michalos, A.C. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_844

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_844

Publisher Name : Springer, Dordrecht

Print ISBN : 978-94-007-0752-8

Online ISBN : 978-94-007-0753-5

eBook Packages : Humanities, Social Sciences and Law

Share this entry

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Introduction to Education (BETA)

(8 reviews)

Jennifer Beasley, University of Arkansas

Myra Haulmark, University of Arkansas

Copyright Year: 2021

Publisher: University of Arkansas

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jessica Urbaniak, Assistant Professor, University of Wisconsin - Superior on 10/30/23

Nearly all content is included in the textbook. Here were some areas that I thought there could be some improvement: It does not go in-depth on the history of education, which other textbooks do. The textbook has an effective table of contents. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Nearly all content is included in the textbook. Here were some areas that I thought there could be some improvement: It does not go in-depth on the history of education, which other textbooks do.

The textbook has an effective table of contents.

Content Accuracy rating: 1

Problematic language portrays bias: "Alcohol can cause mental retardation, slower physical development, severe learning, and cognitive disabilities." Sadly, the use of the r-word in a current textbook makes this unacceptable to ask students to read.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

In almost all cases except the use of the r-word. There is person-first language in other areas of the book. I'm not sure how this slipped through. This, in my view, makes the test obsolete.

Clarity rating: 3

There are links to videos where it may be more helpful for the reader if they were embedded.

Consistency rating: 5

I did not see any inconsistencies.

Modularity rating: 4

The book is cleanly organized into sections and subsections. Some pages were very long and could have been divided into two chapters (ethics chapter in particular - there could have been a different chapter on laws).

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The topics are presented in a clear, logical fashion.

Interface rating: 5

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors spotted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

Some of the language used doesn't portray any nuance to situations which some may find problematic. Here is an example: "Homeless students are battered psychologically and emotionally"

Reviewed by Joanna Koch, Assistant Teaching Professor, North Carolina State University on 8/29/23

Overall, the Introduction to Education textbook provides a solid introduction to the major themes in the field of education. This textbook would serve as a resource for an introductory education course because the topics, terms, and issues are... read more

Overall, the Introduction to Education textbook provides a solid introduction to the major themes in the field of education. This textbook would serve as a resource for an introductory education course because the topics, terms, and issues are relevant and necessary to discuss with pre-service teachers. One of the strengths of the textbook is having essential questions at the beginning of each chapter. Then, throughout the chapter, the content provides answers to those essential questions. Also, the textbook provides different "scenarios" for students to apply their understanding in situations they may encounter in their future careers. An area for consideration would be providing more information through visual aids, diagrams, or charts throughout the different chapters. For instance, Chapter 2 would benefit from a table noting the differences between elementary, middle, and high school, which would serve as a quick reference and a representation of the differences between those types of schools. Altogether, the textbook provides the reader with an overview of the education field.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Generally, most of the book’s content is accurate. However, I would agree with previous reviewers' comments concerning inaccuracies. Additionally, Chapter 6 opens with a question of “excellence or equity - is one more important than the other?”. In reflecting on this chapter’s title, I would suggest changing the chapter to “Equality vs. Equity – What is the difference?” because this is a common question discussed in education courses. Furthermore, pre-service teachers will encounter situations of inequity and inequality and need to understand the differences in order to respond effectively.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The arrangement of the text is relevant. In particular, I appreciate how the chapters build upon each other to make the text relevant to teaching experiences both in the past and present. One suggestion is to update the websites to make sure the websites reflect data that is current, such as the teacher pay in chapter one. Understandably, websites can change over time, so it might be necessary to have more inquiry-based questions for students to explore the web. For instance, the chapter text could have the reader explore the web for their state’s curriculum standards and have reflection questions that guide the students in exploring the state education standards. In doing so, the websites in the text would not need to be continuously updated.

Clarity rating: 4

When reviewing the textbook, the text was a straightforward read that included student-friendly vocabulary. I appreciate when an introduction textbook provides students with clearly worded terms that students can understand and apply in appropriate contexts. One suggestion is to make sure all vocabulary terms are bolded in the text for easy reference. Bolding the vocabulary terms can assist students in applying them during assignments and studying them for assessments.

The chapters flowed well together and the text was very consistent in the format. One of the text's strengths was including an essential question at the beginning of the chapter that is answered throughout the chapter. In doing so, the book modeled effective teaching practices. I appreciate how the textbook's format was consistent in its framework and layout.

In reflecting upon the textbook holistically, it would be helpful if the "Philosophy", "History", and "Effective Teachers" chapters were earlier in the textbook. Introduction to Education courses typically teach this content during the early to middle part of the semester in order to set up the foundation of education for their students. Also, these chapters can be referenced back to when discussing more current policies and practices. Additionally, the "Classroom Management" chapter was a detailed chapter, which makes me wonder if some of the earlier, shorter chapters could include more information and content.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The text's organization flows well with the chapters having similar setups. In other words, the text's format was organized with a familiar layout for each chapter, so readers will feel comfortable using and referencing the text. As mentioned previously, some of the philosophical and historical chapters could be discussed earlier and then referenced in the curriculum chapter later in the book.

Interface rating: 4

Overall, there were no major issues with the text regarding navigating to different chapters. Additionally, the text's features would not be confusing for the reader. However, some of the images/charts were distorted or cut-off. It would be helpful to update the text to ensure the images/charts were on one page.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

As mentioned by previous reviewers, the book would benefit from another round of proofreading to ensure there are no words missing from the text.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

When updating the text, it would be beneficial to include a variety of individuals in the images, such as on page 26, “Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development”. It had the same individual in visual. Furthermore, it would be helpful if the textbook was updated with more representation of teachers and students from a variety of cultures.

The Introduction to Education text will provide the reader with an introduction to the field of education by exploring relevant topics, concepts, and issues.

Reviewed by Roberta Freeman, Instructor, Minnesota State Community and Technical College on 3/9/23

Beasley and Haulmark's Introduction to Education: Becoming a Professional covers similar content to other education texts I have examined and/or adopted. While most of the chapters are thorough, I did note a few that could have been expanded upon.... read more

Beasley and Haulmark's Introduction to Education: Becoming a Professional covers similar content to other education texts I have examined and/or adopted. While most of the chapters are thorough, I did note a few that could have been expanded upon. For example, adding a brief overview of the history of schools may provide more depth when discussing the purpose of schools in Chapter 2. Further, addressing current education reform may offer a broader perspective about what a new teacher can expect in Chapter 11. Finally, since some Introduction to Education courses require students to complete a certain number of field experience hours in K-12 classrooms and compile a portfolio, brief tips or questions could be added to the "What do you think?" sections at the end of the chapter.

Overall, the content is accurate. I noted a minor error at the end of Chapter 3. The information following "Who are today's students?" (p. 33 of downloaded text) seemed to be related to the first chapter.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The arrangement of the text makes it easy to update information or videos. I appreciated the relevant content the authors included, such as using movement and considering furniture choices to manage the learning environment.

Clarity rating: 5

I found this text to be conversational, engaging, easy to digest, and honest. Without mention of the current teacher shortage, the authors clearly explain the demands of teaching while also reflecting on the rewards of the profession.

Chapters in the text follow a similar organizational structure, making it consistent and predictable. However, the use of a variety of videos, links, and assignments keeps each chapter fresh and interesting.

Modularity rating: 5

The two sections of the text makes it easy to realign topics and chapters. For example, when teaching Introduction to Education, I often discuss educational philosophy before the midterm exam, so I would most likely assign Chapter 9 earlier on the syllabus without being disruptive to students.

The overall organization of the text was clear although some of the content in the shorter chapters could be integrated into another chapter. For example, some information about educational philosophy in Chapter 9, which is a brief chapter, could be incorporated into Chapter 5 about what is taught. The same could be true about Chapter 10 on excellence or equity.

Although some charts were small and difficult to read, the visual images were aptly chosen. Being able to enlarge them could be helpful to students.

The book contains a few minor errors, such as omitting an occasional word. For example, on p. 98 of the downloaded text, the word "be" should appear in this sentence: "...others may ruminating about...(p. 98).

Although the text includes chapters about today's students and social issues, I prefer a stronger focus on and examples of inclusiveness within each chapter, particularly with the increasing diversity and variety of students in our classrooms and a decreasing variety of teachers.

Reviewed by Jessica Fortner, Curriculum & Program Improvement Coordinator, Hutchinson Community College on 3/4/22

This book is comprehensive in that it covers many of the most current view of the daily life of a teacher while braiding in the historical background of education in the United States and theories of child development and teaching and learning. ... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This book is comprehensive in that it covers many of the most current view of the daily life of a teacher while braiding in the historical background of education in the United States and theories of child development and teaching and learning. The textbook covers what it means to teach and finishes with useful tools on ethics, curriculum and instruction, and classroom environment.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

Content is up to date and sources of information are cited throughout each chapter. A comprehensive list of sources is found at the end of the book. At the end of the chapter students have the option to "dig deeper" into the content and learn more from sources or with searchable terms like "Individuals with Disabilities Act, 20 U.S.C. 1400 (200)". I would suggest in the spirit of sharing current terms in education that the authors may want to mention the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act in chapter 4 under the the heading "Homelessness".

The authors cover relevant topics like Special Education law, Maslow's Heirarchy of Need, differentiated instruction, and socio-economic status. Each of these relevant topics are explained in adequate detail along with a connection to its impact on the daily life of a teacher. The presentation of information is broken up so that revisions and updates can be made without impacting the flow of information. Chapter 9 does discuss Danielsen's framework of teaching which is used in some states. Some states, however, measure teacher effectiveness using different measurements. I would say similarities can be found that are transferrable.

The textbook is written with the mindset of a true introduction. Information is shared in a conversational pattern which makes it easy to read. Any technical vocabulary is defined in understandable terms within the text. I do think bolding the key terms would be useful for readers.

Each chapter begins with a question that is answered throughout the chapter. Key terms and objectives are presented prominently following and introductory paragraph. Information progress with headings, videos, charts, images, videos, and links to further information. Each chapter ends by summarizing the answer to the chapter question, key term interactive flashcards, and the "dig deeper" section.

The textbook is broken into logical and appropriate lengths by chapters and headings. The presentation of information can easily broken into parts for instructors to mold and use alongside their own syllabus.

Each chapter follows a predictable pattern. The organizational pattern makes it easy to read and navigate.

Overall the text is easily navigated. I found the charts titled "Erikson's Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development" and Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs in chapter 3 hard to see. It would be nice if they were larger or if you could click on them and they would be magnified so you can read the fine print. White text on colored background can be hard for some readers. It may also be useful to bold the titles and headings.

The textbook was free of grammatical errors from my observation.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The authors have presented information on diversity and culture differences in a unbiased and positive way. Again, they reference the changes that the educational system has undergone through the last several years which includes creating inclusive environments.

In my personal opinion, this textbook is a great introductory text. This approach allows the reader to make connections and reflect on new information in a way that is productive and positive about education. In order to be a teacher today, it is essential for new teachers to have a wholistic view of education that makes sense at an introductory level. This will help them know what is ahead.

Reviewed by Teri Eckhoff, Academic Advisor with part time teaching responsibilities, Hutchinson Community College on 3/1/22

For students considering majoring in education the book is comprehensive, covering a myriad of topics they should consider as they decide, "Do I want to be a teacher?" The book begins by asking "Why Teach?" asking the students to examine their... read more

For students considering majoring in education the book is comprehensive, covering a myriad of topics they should consider as they decide, "Do I want to be a teacher?" The book begins by asking "Why Teach?" asking the students to examine their motives for teaching. After the students read through the following chapters they are presented with a final chapter on "What can the new teacher expect?" By the time they cover the content of the book that discusses many of the areas they probably haven't considered they should be able to make an informed decision about pursuing a career in education. In addition, the authors provide additional resources at the end of each chapter to allow students to "dig deeper."

Students are presented with relevant and timely content based on best practices in education including differentiated instruction, classroom management strategies, the importance of the school environment, connecting with families, etc. In addition, background knowledge students should have, but may not possess, is shared such as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Erikson's Eight States of Psychosocial Development.

The information in the textbook is up-to-date and informs the students not only about foundational topics in education but more recent information such as the ethics of teaching and current practices in teaching that have proven beneficial for student learning. The linked resources are from within the last few years providing timely information. The information is presented in such a manner that when updates are needed they can be done with relative ease.

The content of the textbook is presented in a way that students should understand it. Each chapter title is presented as a question and a very brief overview is given at the beginning of the chapter. In addition, the chapter objectives and key terms are given to the students within a framed window making them very clear to the students. While the key terms are identified within the colored window at the beginning of the chapter, they are not highlighted throughout the text of the chapter. In some cases, when doing a search, the term wasn't found within the text of the chapter. An example of this is in the chapter "How do social issues affect students?" the key terms "at-risk" and "socioeconomic status" were not found within the text of the chapter. However, each key term for the chapter is found in interactive flashcards at the end of the chapter. The text clarifies difficult to understand information by explaining it in terms students can understand.

Each chapter of the book is consistent in presenting the same format for students, so there are no surprises mid-way through the textbook. Students first encounter the ideas of the chapter in a question form with the title presented as a question. Then they read a short introduction followed by the chapter objectives and key terms and another paragraph or two on the topic after which they are asked the question, "What do you think?" After pondering their thoughts they dive into each concept within the chapter. Occasionally there is a link to an outside source or a video for them to watch, and/or an interactive activity for them to engage in. Once they read through the content they may encounter a summary or conclusion followed by the heading "Thoughts" in which they are given an idea to ponder. The end of the chapter also contains the interactive flashcards of the key terms.

Overall, the textbook is divided into two sections which can be seen in the sidebar menu. Each of the main sections has a drop down menu allowing students to see and access the specific chapters within the section. The sequence of the material is logical. The students have access to additional information via links that are provided which access additional articles about the topics being covered. In addition, the textbook chapters are segmented in ways making them accessible and allowing students to easily find sections to read if they are not assigned an entire chapter.

The textbook is divided into two sections: Foundations of Schools and Their Students and Teachers and the Profession. This organization allows the student to learn foundational information about education first and then follow that with more teacher-centric information. In order for students to gain an understanding of the "Teacher and the Profession" information having the foundational knowledge will be beneficial.

When working my way through the textbook, I didn't not experience any problems with the interface. All of the links were working, the images, charts, etc. were not distorted in any way and the interactive components worked effectively. I was able to navigate chapters non-sequentially by using the menu in the side-bar. After navigating my way through the textbook, I would not anticipate that the students would have any problems.

The text contained no grammatical errors and was easy to read and follow.

Students who read this textbook will gain an understanding of the importance of diversity, inclusiveness, and equity in education. The information provided is presented in a manner in which students are able to "digest" the information and it's relevance to education. The book also represents different cultures in the images and videos students will see.

I am confident if I used this OER Introduction to Education textbook the students would gain a valuable understanding of the concepts and be able to apply the relevant information to past educational experiences allowing them to move forward with their studies in education with a solid base of knowledge regarding key points in education.

Reviewed by Connie Phelps, Professor, Emporia State University on 1/5/22

Beasley and Haulmark provide a comprehensive introduction to P-12 education with 11 chapters in 2 parts: Foundations of Schools (Chapters 1-6) and Teachers and the Profession (Chapters 7-11). Each chapter includes objectives and keywords on key... read more

Beasley and Haulmark provide a comprehensive introduction to P-12 education with 11 chapters in 2 parts: Foundations of Schools (Chapters 1-6) and Teachers and the Profession (Chapters 7-11). Each chapter includes objectives and keywords on key topics in the field with links to Wikibooks, videos, and other relevant sources. A concluding reference section includes all sources in a chapter by chapter listing.

The authors present material from credible sources that exemplify inclusiveness, equity, and diversity in chapter narratives and linked material. External sources include primary and secondary materials relevant to today's schools, students, and teachers. The authors include special education law and prepares teachers to work effectively in Arkansas as well as schools nationally. The course highlights knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed to begin a teaching career successfully.

By constructing the course in two distinct parts related to schools/students and teachers, the authors can update chapters easily as laws and protocols change. The chapters introduce topics clearly and and engage participants in short activities that provide immediate reinforcement of concepts and terms. Each chapter includes key terminology as flashcards for review and reinforcement. All chapters provide additional reading for a deeper dive, and some chapters include short quizzes or questionnaires to engage learners in relevant topics.

The authors use an appropriate level of terminology and phrasing with illustrations, photos, and documents to reinforce learning. Mini-quizzes with key points and flashcard vocabulary provide short exercises to ensure learners acquire needed knowledge, skills, and dispositions for each topic. Some chapters include case studies written conversationally for more depth on topics.

The authors organize chapters consistently with primary and secondary headings, thought-provoking quotations, and adequate white space between sections. All chapter titles pose relevant questions that orient the learner to its purpose. Common features in chapters include Objectives and Key Terms, What do you think? exercises, Test Your Vocabulary Skills, Dig Deeper, and credits and citations.

Learners easily access the Contents as a sidebar on the left side of the page. The two course sections function with separate dropdown menus for each chapter that show or hide contents, as the learner prefers. Each chapter narrative scrolls down easily with chapter sections clearly indicated by primary and secondary headings. Hot links for supplemental information keep the chapter narrative uncluttered and focused. Each chapter seems manageable individually and clearly distinguished as an integral part of its respective section and context.

The course begins with the broader context of the school/student, then focuses on the teacher/profession. Within these two parts, chapter titles pose a short essential question to orient the learner. The foundations part avoids overlap of content by addressing a rationale for teaching (Ch. 1), purpose of schools (Ch. 2), today's students (Ch. 3), social issues (Ch. 4), education philosophy (Ch. 5), and excellence and equity (Ch. 6). The second part applies foundational understanding to ethics and legal issues (Ch. 7), elementary and secondary curricula (Ch. 8), effective teaching (Ch. 9), classroom environment (Ch. 10), and expectations of new teachers (Ch. 11). The course organizes these topics logically, clearly, and relevantly for persons entering the field of education.

Given 10 or more hot links in each chapter, only one in Chapter 7 (Michigan.gov) failed to open. When I requested access to a Google Document, the author sent the direct link within hours of the request. In Chapter 3, clearer images of the Erikson and Maslow models--or hot links--would reduce distortion. A limitation imposed by the New York Times prevent access to content in Chapter 6. In Chapter 9, I wondered if learners type in responses for their respective definitions of effective teachers. In Chapter 10, the chapter quiz link appeared missing. The Chapter 11 quiz seemed to indicate one response, yet all response selections applied. The references for each chapter help learners further study important topics.

The authors write clearly connecting narrative without grammatical errors. In some cases, current APA style and formatting might update citations and references.

The text narrative seems learner-friendly and engaging for diverse learners, and the authors provide relevant resources that promote diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging for today's schools, classrooms, and teachers. The course provides an excellent orientation to dispositions needed for beginning elementary and secondary teachers to succeed in their chosen profession.

The collaboration of two seasoned educators contributes to the tone, content, and practice provided in the course. Each author contributes their unique perspective and background as a Director of Teacher Education (Beasley) and Director of Teacher Licensure (Haulmark). The blending of their respective roles contributes to a readable and engaging course to prepare teacher candidates for today's diverse primary and secondary schools.

Reviewed by Rachael Hoffert, Professor of Education, Grace College on 11/15/21

This textbook presented a thorough review of the teaching profession to students considering the field of education. Each chapter is organized by guiding questions regarding the purpose of school, student demographics, qualities of an effective... read more

This textbook presented a thorough review of the teaching profession to students considering the field of education. Each chapter is organized by guiding questions regarding the purpose of school, student demographics, qualities of an effective teachers, and issues facing educators in today’s society. The textbook provides opportunities for students to reflect on chapter content with interactive multiple-choice questions. Upon completion of the textbook, students will gain a better understanding of the demands and rewards of the teaching profession.

The textbook presented an accurate representation of the role of a teacher in today’s educational field. High leverage practices were incorporated throughout the textbook. These practices included student- centered instruction such as learning centers, choice boards, and explicit instruction. The importance of differentiating instruction to meet the diverse needs of learners was described. The practices and theories explained in this textbook are implemented in schools and classrooms throughout today’s society.

The content in this textbook is up to date and directly relates to today’s teaching profession. However, the content could easily be altered as the teaching profession continues to change to meet the needs of today’s learners. The content presented in this textbook answers big questions about education and the teaching profession. Due to this unique organization, the textbook could easily be updated to change instructional strategies, add technology teaching components or revise information regarding standards or student demographics.

The textbook language was concise and applies directly to the audience of preservice teachers. Each chapter begins with a relevant question and continues with student friendly objectives. Key terms are also presented in the beginning of each chapter allowing readers to preview important concepts. The chapter text is organized in paragraphs and contains bullets and charts for a variety of learners. Presentation of content is not overwhelming. An interactive vocabulary activity is available at the end of each chapter to review learning.

Students will appreciate the simplistic and expected format of each textbook chapter. Each chapter has a guiding question, objectives, terms, explanations and thinking prompts. In addition, each chapter provided students an opportunity to check their understanding of key concepts. Practical examples were also provided throughout the textbook.

This book could easily be divided into syllabus course topics and assigned readings. The textbook provides an overall view of the field of education. However, each topic is thoroughly explained regarding the role of an effective teacher, curriculum development, today's students.

Topics are presented in a logical and clear fashion making content accessible to grasp. The textbook begins with a broad understanding of education and moves to specific roles of teachers along with characteristics of today's students. In addition, the textbook presents ethical issues within the profession and how to develop a personal philosophy of education. Textbook organization moves from basic understanding to application.

I had no interface or navigation issues when reviewing this textbook. I was able to navigate easily through the chapter and all text features displayed properly. The interactive questions and vocabulary reviews were easy to use in order to review textbook content. The interface was not confusing.

The text contained no grammatical errors and was written in a way that was easy to understand and comprehend. There was varied sentence structure and relevant examples to ensure the readers' attention. I have no suggestions for grammatical edits.

I appreciated how the text addressed diversity regarding today's students. Family structure, cultural, language, socioeconomic status were examples of diversity included throughout the textbook in an inclusive and sensitive manner. The importance of equity and inclusiveness in the classroom was a priority.

This textbook provides a strong introduction to the field of education!

Reviewed by Jennifer Richardson, Assistant Professor of Reading, Pittsburg State University on 10/22/21

I think it is quite difficult to present an exhaustive view of teaching. I think the text was quite comprehensive, given it's an introduction. Other books are more narrow in scope. The First Days of School, by Wong and Wong, is generally... read more

I think it is quite difficult to present an exhaustive view of teaching. I think the text was quite comprehensive, given it's an introduction. Other books are more narrow in scope. The First Days of School, by Wong and Wong, is generally considered the gold standard for new teachers, but this is a good first look at teaching, in general.

I found no evidence of inaccuracy in the text. There were places I didn't agree with whole-heartedly, as I retired from 25 years of public school teaching, all in Title I schools. I have dealt with a lot of the topics they mention regarding poverty. I wouldn't say the authors' information is inaccurate, just different than my view.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The world of education has changed a great deal in a short period of time. Prospective teachers must also be masters of the Zoom parent-teacher conference, communicate via text message, and open their classrooms to scrutiny, like never before. That said, this text does cover teaching fairly comprehensively. I appreciated the references to Linda Darling-Hammond, to Hirsch, but was surprised that Wiggins and McTighe weren't mentioned. Most new teachers will have some accountability for backwards design, especially if their schools have adopted project-based learning and STEAM. I also missed the mention of Multi-Tiered Support Systems, having evolved from the simpler Response to Intervention model. Most new teachers will also be accountable for MTSS or RTI with the added behavior interventions. It's a new world in education. I believe with a few revisions to reflect the major changes, this text will be an excellent resource for pre-program teaching candidates to decide whether a teaching career is right for them.

The text appears to be written for a pre-program teacher candidate, possibly a high school senior. While there were some specific vocabulary that might be challenging for someone who is not a teacher, there were explanations and additional resources to add to the reader's growing understanding of teaching.

The book was arranged helpfully with initial objectives for reading and follow-up thinking prompts. Each chapter followed a predictable structure.

I prefer a book that can be easily segmented. This text has solid, stand-alone chapters yet supportive of the central message.

For the most part, this text is organized in a clear fashion. Chapter 6: What Makes an Effective Teacher, might be useful if directly following Chapter 1, Why Teach? The two chapters build very well on one another. Because each chapter is a fairly good stand-alone, however, this isn't a huge issue as a reader.

Interface rating: 3

There were some readability issues with graphs and charts. For instance, the t-chart on page 14 was cut off, and on page 74 I could not see the Fixed Mindset portion of the chart.

I found no significant areas for revision of grammar.

The text addresses topics that relate to culture, equity, and inclusion, however there have been significant changes in policy and norms. I'm wondering if these chapters should be moved up towards the beginning and double-checked for content.

Table of Contents

• 1. Why Teach?
• 2. What is the Purpose of School?
• 3. Who are Today's Students?
• 4. How Do Social Issues Affect Students?
• 5. What is Taught?
• 6. What Makes an Effective Teacher?
• 7. What is a Positive Classroom Environment?
• 8. What are the Ethical and Legal Issues in Schools?
• 9. What is an Educational Philosophy?
• 10. Excellence or Equity...Which is More Important?
• 11. What Can a New Teacher Expect?

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This book was written to provide students with an introduction to the field of education. The book is broken into chapters that focus on questions students may have about education in general. Although some chapters may go into more depth than others, this is created as an introductory text.

About the Contributors

Jennifer Beasley has more than 25 years of experience in education as an elementary school teacher, gifted facilitator, university professor, and education consultant. She is currently the Director of Teacher Education at the University of Arkansas and a professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction. Beasley specializes in Gifted Education, Differentiated Instruction, Understanding by Design, Teacher Education, Professional Development, and the Integration of Technology in the Classroom.

Myra Haulmark began her 25 plus years in education as a speech pathologist and gifted programs coordinator in K-12 schools.  Myra is currently the Director of Teacher Licensure at the University of Arkansas and works with teacher candidates as they prepare for state licensure and provides training and support in the areas of reciprocity and teacher ethics to students during their educator preparation programs.

Contribute to this Page

• Search Menu
• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Urban Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Lifestyle, Home, and Garden
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Neuroanaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• International Political Economy
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Developmental and Physical Disabilities Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

Education: A Very Short Introduction (1st edn)

Author webpage

A newer edition of this book is available.

• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

Education: A Very Short Introduction explores how and why education has evolved throughout history and explains the way in which schools work, noting how curricula are remarkably consistent around the world. Few people know how the schools that exist today came to their current state. Little is known about the intellectual traditions that have shaped education. There is a gap in awareness and understanding about what education is and how it has developed. As a result there is a dearth of creativity about how to improve it. There are always going to be strong opinions on how best to educate. What is the difference between progressive and formal education? How might education develop in the future?

Signed in as

Institutional accounts.

• Google Scholar Indexing
• GoogleCrawler [DO NOT DELETE]

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Sign in through your institution

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

Blog article

• Children and schools just keep getting better

External resources

• In the OUP print catalogue
• Does Education Really Help?: Skill, Work, and Inequality (2006) on Oxford Scholarship Online
• Education and Training in Europe (2007) on Oxford Scholarship Online
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

• Create Account

Understanding the American Education System

The American education system offers a rich field of choices for international students. There is such an array of schools, programs and locations that the choices may overwhelm students, even those from the U.S. As you begin your school search, it’s important to familiarize yourself with the American education system. Understanding the system will help you narrow your choices and develop your education plan.

The Educational Structure

Primary and secondary school.

Prior to higher education, American students attend primary and secondary school for a combined total of 12 years. These years are referred to as the first through twelfth grades.

Around age six, U.S. children begin primary school, which is most commonly called “elementary school.” They attend five or six years and then go onto secondary school.

Secondary school consists of two programs: the first is “middle school” or “junior high school” and the second program is “high school.” A diploma or certificate is awarded upon graduation from high school. After graduating high school (12th grade), U.S. students may go on to college or university. College or university study is known as “higher education.”

Grading System

Just like American students, you will have to submit your academic transcripts as part of your application for admission to university or college. Academic transcripts are official copies of your academic work. In the U.S. this includes your “grades” and “grade point average” (GPA), which are measurements of your academic achievement. Courses are commonly graded using percentages, which are converted into letter grades.

The grading system and GPA in the U.S. can be confusing, especially for international students. The interpretation of grades has a lot of variation. For example, two students who attended different schools both submit their transcripts to the same university. They both have 3.5 GPAs, but one student attended an average high school, while the other attended a prestigious school that was academically challenging. The university might interpret their GPAs differently because the two schools have dramatically different standards.

Therefore, there are some crucial things to keep in mind:

• You should find out the U.S. equivalent of the last level of education you completed in your home country.
• Pay close attention to the admission requirements of each university and college, as well as individual degree programs, which may have different requirements than the university.
• Regularly meet with an educational advisor or guidance counselor to make sure you are meeting the requirements.

Your educational advisor or guidance counselor will be able to advise you on whether or not you must spend an extra year or two preparing for U.S. university admission. If an international student entered a U.S. university or college prior to being eligible to attend university in their own country, some countries’ governments and employers may not recognize the students’ U.S. education.

Academic Year

The school calendar usually begins in August or September and continues through May or June. The majority of new students begin in autumn, so it is a good idea for international students to also begin their U.S. university studies at this time. There is a lot of excitement at the beginning of the school year and students form many great friendships during this time, as they are all adjusting to a new phase of academic life. Additionally, many courses are designed for students to take them in sequence, starting in autumn and continuing through the year.

The academic year at many schools is composed of two terms called “semesters.” (Some schools use a three-term calendar known as the “trimester” system.) Still, others further divide the year into the quarter system of four terms, including an optional summer session. Basically, if you exclude the summer session, the academic year is either comprised of two semesters or three quarter terms.

The U.S. Higher Education System: Levels of Study

• First Level: Undergraduate

"The American system is much more open. In Hong Kong you just learn what the teacher writes on the board. In America, you discuss the issues and focus more on ideas."

Paolo Kwan from Hong Kong: Studying English and Business Administration at Sierra College in California

A student who is attending a college or university and has not earned a bachelor’s degree, is studying at the undergraduate level. It typically takes about four years to earn a bachelor’s degree. You can either begin your studies in pursuit of a bachelor’s degree at a community college or a four-year university or college.

Your first two years of study you will generally be required to take a wide variety of classes in different subjects, commonly known as prerequisite courses: literature, science, the social sciences, the arts, history, and so forth. This is so you achieve a general knowledge, a foundation, of a variety of subjects prior to focusing on a specific field of study.

Many students choose to study at a community college in order to complete the first two years of prerequisite courses. They will earn an Associate of Arts (AA) transfer degree and then transfer to a four-year university or college.

A “major” is the specific field of study in which your degree is focused. For example, if someone’s major is journalism, they will earn a Bachelor of Arts in Journalism. You will be required to take a certain number of courses in this field in order to meet the degree requirements of your major. You must choose your major at the beginning of your third year of school.

A very unique characteristic of the American higher education system is that you can change your major multiple times if you choose. It is extremely common for American students to switch majors at some point in their undergraduate studies. Often, students discover a different field that they excel in or enjoy. The American education system is very flexible. Keep in mind though that switching majors may result in more courses, which means more time and money.

• Second Level: Graduate in Pursuit of a Master’s Degree

Presently, a college or university graduate with a bachelor’s degree may want to seriously think about graduate study in order to enter certain professions or advance their career. This degree is usually mandatory for higher-level positions in library science, engineering, behavioral health and education.

Furthermore, international students from some countries are only permitted to study abroad at a graduate level. You should inquire about the credentials needed to get a job in your country before you apply to a postgraduate university in the USA.

A graduate program is usually a division of a university or college. To gain admission, you will need to take the GRE (graduate record examination). Certain master’s programs require specific tests, such as the LSAT for law school, the GRE or GMAT for business school, and the MCAT for medical school.

Graduate programs in pursuit of a master’s degree typically take one to two years to complete. For example, the MBA (master of business administration) is an extremely popular degree program that takes about two years. Other master’s programs, such as journalism, only take one year.

The majority of a master’s program is spent in classroom study and a graduate student must prepare a long research paper called a “master’s thesis” or complete a “master’s project.”

• Third Level: Graduate in Pursuit of a Doctorate Degree

Many graduate schools consider the attainment of a master’s degree the first step towards earning a PhD (doctorate). But at other schools, students may prepare directly for a doctorate without also earning a master’s degree. It may take three years or more to earn a PhD degree. For international students, it may take as long as five or six years.

For the first two years of the program most doctoral candidates enroll in classes and seminars. At least another year is spent conducting firsthand research and writing a thesis or dissertation. This paper must contain views, designs, or research that have not been previously published.

A doctoral dissertation is a discussion and summary of the current scholarship on a given topic. Most U.S. universities awarding doctorates also require their candidates to have a reading knowledge of two foreign languages, to spend a required length of time “in residence,” to pass a qualifying examination that officially admits candidates to the PhD program, and to pass an oral examination on the same topic as the dissertation.

Characteristics of the U.S. Higher Education System

Classroom Environment

Classes range from large lectures with several hundred students to smaller classes and seminars (discussion classes) with only a few students. The American university classroom atmosphere is very dynamic. You will be expected to share your opinion, argue your point, participate in class discussions and give presentations. International students find this one of the most surprising aspects of the American education system.

Each week professors usually assign textbook and other readings. You will be expected to keep up-to-date with the required readings and homework so you can participate in class discussions and understand the lectures. Certain degree programs also require students to spend time in the laboratory.

Professors issue grades for each student enrolled in the course. Grades are usually based upon:

• Each professor will have a unique set of class participation requirements, but students are expected to participate in class discussions, especially in seminar classes. This is often a very important factor in determining a student’s grade.
• A midterm examination is usually given during class time.
• One or more research or term papers , or laboratory reports must be submitted for evaluation.
• Possible short exams or quizzes are given. Sometimes professors will give an unannounced “pop quiz.” This doesn’t count heavily toward the grade, but is intended to inspire students to keep up with their assignments and attendance.
• A final examination will be held after the final class meeting.

Each course is worth a certain number of credits or credit hours. This number is roughly the same as the number of hours a student spends in class for that course each week. A course is typically worth three to five credits.

A full-time program at most schools is 12 or 15 credit hours (four or five courses per term) and a certain number of credits must be fulfilled in order to graduate. International students are expected to enroll in a full-time program during each term.

If a student enrolls at a new university before finishing a degree, generally most credits earned at the first school can be used to complete a degree at the new university. This means a student can transfer to another university and still graduate within a reasonable time.

Types of U.S. higher education

Xujie Zhao from China: Studying Computer Networking at Wentworth Institute of Technology in Boston

1. State College or University

A state school is supported and run by a state or local government. Each of the 50 U.S. states operates at least one state university and possibly several state colleges. Many of these public universities schools have the name of the state, or the actual word “State” in their names: for example, Washington State University and the University of Michigan.

2. Private College or University

These schools are privately run as opposed to being run by a branch of the government. Tuition will usually be higher than state schools. Often, private U.S. universities and colleges are smaller in size than state schools.

Religiously affiliated universities and colleges are private schools. Nearly all these schools welcome students of all religions and beliefs. Yet, there are a percentage of schools that prefer to admit students who hold similar religious beliefs as those in which the school was founded.

3. Community College

Community colleges are two-year colleges that award an associate’s degrees (transferable), as well as certifications. There are many types of associate degrees, but the most important distinguishing factor is whether or not the degree is transferable. Usually, there will be two primary degree tracks: one for academic transfer and the other prepares students to enter the workforce straightaway. University transfer degrees are generally associate of arts or associate of science. Not likely to be transferrable are the associate of applied science degrees and certificates of completion.

Community college graduates most commonly transfer to four-year colleges or universities to complete their degree. Because they can transfer the credits they earned while attending community college, they can complete their bachelor’s degree program in two or more additional years. Many also offer ESL or intensive English language programs, which will prepare students for university-level courses.

If you do not plan to earn a higher degree than the associate’s, you should find out if an associate’s degree will qualify you for a job in your home country.

4. Institute of Technology

An institute of technology is a school that provides at least four years of study in science and technology. Some have graduate programs, while others offer short-term courses.

Study in the USA ®

Get matched to the best program for you.

Let us know what you're looking for so we can find the best school for you.

Useful Articles

Check Out These Schools

East Tennessee State University

$25,000—$30,000 Year

University of North Georgia

$15,000—$20,000 Year

Ferris State University

$5,000—$10,000 Semester

Featured Programs

University of Mississippi

Typical cost per Semester: $10,000 — $15,000

Southwestern Community College District

Typical cost per Semester: $5,000—$10,000

Mohawk Valley Community College

Typical cost per Year: $5,000—$10,000

Related Stories

Start your U.S. adventure with Study in the USA

Learn About U.S. education financing, housing, and more

campusSIMS helps international students get connected with mobile phone service in the US. Through campusSIMS’ exclusive partner Mint Mobile, students can sign up and get their US phone number while in their home country, and have mobile phone servic...

CORT Furniture Rental Student Packages

Most U.S. apartments come unfurnished. Make your move easy with a student furniture rental package from CORT. Flexible lease terms. Delivered before you arrive. Starting at $99 per month.* *with a 12-month lease

Renters Insurance

SURE offers hassle-free renters insurance that'll protect your clothes, furniture, and even yourself from unexpected damages and injuries. The SURE team will get you set up with a free quote and the correct coverage that you need!

Learn about American culture and education direct from our experts at Study in the USA. Read more

Achieving Your Goal

Admissions and placement testing, beyond the basics, education system in the usa, financing your u.s. education, frequently asked questions, life in the usa, student experiences, for students age 10-18, study in canada, student voices, ask studyusa.com, subscribe to get the latest from study in the usa.

You can unsubscribe at any time.

16.2 Theoretical Perspectives on Education

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Define manifest and latent functions of education
• Explain and discuss how functionalism, conflict theory, feminism, and interactionism view issues of education

While it is clear that education plays an integral role in individuals’ lives as well as society as a whole, sociologists view that role from many diverse points of view. Functionalists believe that education equips people to perform different functional roles in society. Conflict theorists view education as a means of widening the gap in social inequality. Feminist theorists point to evidence that sexism in education continues to prevent women from achieving a full measure of social equality. Symbolic interactionists study the dynamics of the classroom, the interactions between students and teachers, and how those affect everyday life. In this section, you will learn about each of these perspectives.

Functionalism

Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions.

Manifest Functions

There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.

This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture.

School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day.

Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement . College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.

Latent Functions

Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting.

The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting.

The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country.

Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most important U.S. values students in the United States learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics. One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual.

In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive nature, but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also fill the role of teaching patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past.

Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting , or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance.

Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.

Conflict Theory

Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push people of lower status into obedience.

The fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of low socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students of higher status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Picture a student from a working-class home who wants to do well in school. On a Monday, he’s assigned a paper that’s due Friday. Monday evening, he has to babysit his younger sister while his divorced mother works. Tuesday and Wednesday, he works stocking shelves after school until 10:00 p.m. By Thursday, the only day he might have available to work on that assignment, he’s so exhausted he can’t bring himself to start the paper. His mother, though she’d like to help him, is so tired herself that she isn’t able to give him the encouragement or support he needs. And since English is her second language, she has difficulty with some of his educational materials. They also lack a computer and printer at home, which most of his classmates have, so they have to rely on the public library or school system for access to technology. As this story shows, many students from working-class families have to contend with helping out at home, contributing financially to the family, poor study environments and a lack of support from their families. This is a difficult match with education systems that adhere to a traditional curriculum that is more easily understood and completed by students of higher social classes.

Such a situation leads to social class reproduction, extensively studied by French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu. He researched how cultural capital , or cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency that helps us navigate a culture, alters the experiences and opportunities available to French students from different social classes. Members of the upper and middle classes have more cultural capital than do families of lower-class status. As a result, the educational system maintains a cycle in which the dominant culture’s values are rewarded. Instruction and tests cater to the dominant culture and leave others struggling to identify with values and competencies outside their social class. For example, there has been a great deal of discussion over what standardized tests such as the SAT truly measure. Many argue that the tests group students by cultural ability rather than by natural intelligence.

The cycle of rewarding those who possess cultural capital is found in formal educational curricula as well as in the hidden curriculum , which refers to the type of nonacademic knowledge that students learn through informal learning and cultural transmission. This hidden curriculum reinforces the positions of those with higher cultural capital and serves to bestow status unequally.

Conflict theorists point to tracking , a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations (Education Week 2004).

To conflict theorists, schools play the role of training working-class students to accept and retain their position as lower members of society. They argue that this role is fulfilled through the disparity of resources available to students in richer and poorer neighborhoods as well as through testing (Lauen and Tyson 2008).

IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather than actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments belong in an orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural knowledge—knowledge most often held by more affluent people who typically have more exposure to orchestral music. Though experts in testing claim that bias has been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this is impossible. These tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not provide opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of power.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theory aims to understand the mechanisms and roots of gender inequality in education, as well as their societal repercussions. Like many other institutions of society, educational systems are characterized by unequal treatment and opportunity for women. Almost two-thirds of the world’s 862 million illiterate people are women, and the illiteracy rate among women is expected to increase in many regions, especially in several African and Asian countries (UNESCO 2005; World Bank 2007).

Women in the United States have been relatively late, historically speaking, to be granted entry to the public university system. In fact, it wasn’t until the establishment of Title IX of the Education Amendments in 1972 that discriminating on the basis of sex in U.S. education programs became illegal. In the United States, there is also a post-education gender disparity between what male and female college graduates earn. A study released in May 2011 showed that, among men and women who graduated from college between 2006 and 2010, men out-earned women by an average of more than $5,000 each year. First-year job earnings for men averaged $33,150; for women the average was $28,000 (Godofsky, Zukin, and van Horn 2011). Similar trends are seen among salaries of professionals in virtually all industries.

When women face limited opportunities for education, their capacity to achieve equal rights, including financial independence, are limited. Feminist theory seeks to promote women’s rights to equal education (and its resultant benefits) across the world.

Sociology in the Real World

Grade inflation: when is an a really a c.

In 2019, news emerged of a criminal conspiracy regarding wealthy and, in some cases, celebrity parents who illegally secured college admission for their children. Over 50 people were implicated in the scandal, including employees from prestigious universities; several people were sentenced to prison. Their activity included manipulating test scores, falsifying students’ academic or athletic credentials, and acquiring testing accommodations through dishonest claims of having a disability.

One of the questions that emerged at the time was how the students at the subject of these efforts could succeed at these challenging and elite colleges. Meaning, if they couldn’t get in without cheating, they probably wouldn’t do well. Wouldn’t their lack of preparation quickly become clear?

Many people would say no. First, many of the students involved (the children of the conspirators) had no knowledge or no involvement of the fraud; those students may have been admitted anyway. But there may be another safeguard for underprepared students at certain universities: grade inflation.

Grade inflation generally refers to a practice of awarding students higher grades than they have earned. It reflects the observation that the relationship between letter grades and the achievements they reflect has been changing over time. Put simply, what used to be considered C-level, or average, now often earns a student a B, or even an A.

Some, including administrators at elite universities, argue that grade inflation does not exist, or that there are other factors at play, or even that it has benefits such as increased funding and elimination of inequality (Boleslavsky 2014). But the evidence reveals a stark change. Based on data compiled from a wide array of four-year colleges and universities, a widely cited study revealed that the number of A grades has been increasing by several percentage points per decade, and that A’s were the most common grade awarded (Jaschik 2016). In an anecdotal case, a Harvard dean acknowledged that the median grade there was an A-, and the most common was also an A. Williams College found that the number of A+ grades had grown from 212 instances in 2009-10 to 426 instances in 2017-18 (Berlinsky-Schine 2020). Princeton University took steps to reduce inflation by limiting the number of A’s that could be issued, though it then reversed course (Greason 2020).

Why is this happening? Some cite the alleged shift toward a culture that rewards effort instead of product, i.e., the amount of work a student puts in raises the grade, even if the resulting product is poor quality. Another oft-cited contributor is the pressure for instructors to earn positive course evaluations from their students. Finally, many colleges may accept a level of grade inflation because it works. Analysis and formal experiments involving graduate school admissions and hiring practices showed that students with higher grades are more likely to be selected for a job or a grad school. And those higher-grade applicants are still preferred even if decision-maker knows that the applicant’s college may be inflating grades (Swift 2013). In other words, people with high GPA at a school with a higher average GPA are preferred over people who have a high GPA at a school with a lower average GPA.

Ironically, grade inflation is not simply a college issue. Many of the same college faculty and administrators who encounter or engage in some level of grade inflation may lament that it is also occurring at high schools (Murphy 2017).

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism sees education as one way that labeling theory is seen in action. A symbolic interactionist might say that this labeling has a direct correlation to those who are in power and those who are labeled. For example, low standardized test scores or poor performance in a particular class often lead to a student who is labeled as a low achiever. Such labels are difficult to “shake off,” which can create a self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton 1968).

In his book High School Confidential , Jeremy Iversen details his experience as a Stanford graduate posing as a student at a California high school. One of the problems he identifies in his research is that of teachers applying labels that students are never able to lose. One teacher told him, without knowing he was a bright graduate of a top university, that he would never amount to anything (Iversen 2006). Iversen obviously didn’t take this teacher’s false assessment to heart. But when an actual seventeen-year-old student hears this from a person with authority over her, it’s no wonder that the student might begin to “live down to” that label.

The labeling with which symbolic interactionists concern themselves extends to the very degrees that symbolize completion of education. Credentialism embodies the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications. These certificates or degrees serve as a symbol of what a person has achieved, and allows the labeling of that individual.

Indeed, as these examples show, labeling theory can significantly impact a student’s schooling. This is easily seen in the educational setting, as teachers and more powerful social groups within the school dole out labels that are adopted by the entire school population.

As an Amazon Associate we earn from qualifying purchases.

This book may not be used in the training of large language models or otherwise be ingested into large language models or generative AI offerings without OpenStax's permission.

Want to cite, share, or modify this book? This book uses the Creative Commons Attribution License and you must attribute OpenStax.

Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction

• Authors: Tonja R. Conerly, Kathleen Holmes, Asha Lal Tamang
• Publisher/website: OpenStax
• Book title: Introduction to Sociology 3e
• Publication date: Jun 3, 2021
• Location: Houston, Texas
• Book URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/1-introduction
• Section URL: https://openstax.org/books/introduction-sociology-3e/pages/16-2-theoretical-perspectives-on-education

© Jan 18, 2024 OpenStax. Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . The OpenStax name, OpenStax logo, OpenStax book covers, OpenStax CNX name, and OpenStax CNX logo are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written consent of Rice University.

• Technical Support
• Find My Rep

You are here

Teach Introduction to Education

• Janice Koch - Emerita, Hofstra University
• Description

Recipient of the 2024 Textbook & Academic Authors Association (TAA) Textbook Excellence Award This award recognizes excellence in current textbooks and learning materials.

• Assignable Video with Assessment Assignable video (available in SAGE Vantage ) is tied to learning objectives and curated exclusively for this text to bring concepts to life. Watch a sample video now .
• LMS Cartridge: Import this title’s instructor resources into your school’s learning management system (LMS) and save time. Don’t use an LMS? You can still access all of the same online resources for this title via the password-protected Instructor Resource Site. Select the Resources tab on this page to learn more.

See what’s new to this edition by selecting the Features tab on this page. Should you need additional information or have questions regarding the HEOA information provided for this title, including what is new to this edition, please email [email protected] . Please include your name, contact information, and the name of the title for which you would like more information. For information on the HEOA, please go to http://ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html .

For assistance with your order: Please email us at [email protected] or connect with your SAGE representative.

SAGE 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, CA 91320 www.sagepub.com

Supplements

• Editable chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides
• Sample course syllabi
• Lecture notes
• All tables and figures from the textbook

"I especially appreciate the thorough coverage of community and student diversity.” 

“I love the technology and globalization pieces [of this text]. Our world is shrinking quickly due to our abilities to connect instantly with pretty much anyone in the world at any moment.”

“Reflection. Teaching is all about reflective practice--I try to relate the book's materials with what the students are experiencing as learners as well.”

“I love the idea of focusing the book on the reflective practitioner since it is important for future teachers to recognize they must be lifelong, reflective learners in order to become effective teachers.”

“Extensive coverage of academic vocabulary of education”

“Attractive, non-threatening, easy-to-read design for beginning education students.”

“Brings the idea of being a teacher full circle by beginning and ending with the candidate.”

Met program standards

• The new edition is available in SAGE Vantage , an intuitive learning platform that integrates quality SAGE textbook content with assignable multimedia activities and auto-graded assessments to drive student engagement and ensure accountability. Unparalleled in its ease of use and built for dynamic teaching and learning, Vantage offers customizable LMS integration and best-in-class support. Select the Vantage tab on this page to learn more.
• Incorporation of the effects of COVID-19 in the classroom throughout the text, but especially in Chapter 3, address the experiences of students and teachers during the school shutdown in historical and contemporary contexts.
• New stories and commentaries from teachers help students focus on the challenges and benefits of teaching today.
• A heavily-revised Chapter 5: Who Are Today’s Students? includes new sections on Anti-racist Teaching, Gender Identity, and Culturally Relevant Pedagogy to give a fuller portrait of today’s students.
• Chapter 6: Contemporary Trends in Education has been revised to include expanded sections on Social and Emotional Learning, School Choice, and Charter Schools to better reflect issues in today’s schools.
• Chapter 7: Classroom Teaching and Technology has also been heavily revised, with a new section on The Transition to 1-1 Computing and new information on Google Classroom, Padlet, TikTok and the digital divide.
• The latest technologies , such as social media, tablets, and online mentoring, have been incorporated throughout the text to better situate classrooms in current practices.
• Learning Outcomes have been fully revised to better focus on the progression of skills and content.
• Interstate Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) standards are now connected in every chapter.
• Each chapter features stories from teachers and classroom observations that bring authenticity to the content.
• End-of-chapter pedagogy supports student comprehension by summarizing learning outcomes, listing important key terms, providing journal prompts, and positioning succinct review questions that speak to the chapter’s themes and content.
• Brief yet comprehensive chapters present material in an engaging and accessible format, without sacrificing important content.
• Writing and Reflection boxes help students explore teaching as a possible profession.
• Authenticity is rooted throughout the text with stories from real teachers and opportunities for students to reflect on their connection with the material via Writing and Reflection boxes.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter 1. Becoming a Teacher

Chapter 2. Teaching Stories

For instructors

Select a purchasing option.

Shipped Options:

BUNDLE: Koch, Teach: Introduction to Education 5e (Vantage Shipped Access Card) + Koch, Teach: Introduction to Education 5e (Loose-leaf)

Search NYU Steinhardt

Introduction to us education.

This course introduces students to the central themes, issues, and controversies in American education. What is the purpose of “school”? How did schools begin, in the United States, and how have they evolved across time? How do children learn? How are they different from each other, and why and when should that matter? How should we teach them? and how should we structure schools and classrooms to promote learning?

Liberal Arts Core/CORE Equivalent - satisfies the requirement for Society and Social Sciences

James Fraser

Professor of history and education, department of applied statistics, social science, and humanities.

For syllabus, please email Dominic Brewer at [email protected] .

• The Open University
• Guest user / Sign out
• Study with The Open University

My OpenLearn Profile

Personalise your OpenLearn profile, save your favourite content and get recognition for your learning

A brief introduction to the Chinese education system

This content is associated with The Open University Childhood and Youth Studies qualification .

Structure of the Chinese education system

In China, education is divided into three categories: basic education, higher education, and adult education. By law, each child must have nine years of compulsory education from primary school (six years) to junior secondary education (three years). 

Basic education

Basic education in China includes pre-school education (usually three years), primary education (six years, usually starting at the age of six) and secondary education (six years).

Secondary education has two routes: academic secondary education and specialized/vocational/technical secondary education. Academic secondary education consists of junior (three years) and senior middle schools (three years). Junior middle school graduates wishing to continue their education take a locally administered entrance exam, on the basis of which they will have the option of i) continuing in an academic senior middle school; or ii) entering a vocational middle school (or leaving school at this point) to receive two to four years of training. Senior middle school graduates wishing to go to universities must take National Higher Education Entrance Exam (Gao Kao). According to the Chinese Ministry of Education, in June 2015, 9.42 million students took the exam.

Higher education

Higher education is further divided into two categories: 1) universities that offer four-year or five-year undergraduate degrees to award academic degree qualifications; and 2) colleges that offer three-year diploma or certificate courses on both academic and vocational subjects.  Postgraduate and doctoral programmes are only offered at universities. 

Adult education

Adult education ranges from primary education to higher education. For example, adult primary education includes Workers’ Primary Schools, Peasants’ Primary Schools in an effort to raise literacy levels in remote areas; adult secondary education includes specialized secondary schools for adults; and adult higher education includes traditional radio/TV universities (now online), most of which offer certificates/diplomas but a few offer regular undergraduate degrees.

Term times and school hours

The academic year is divided into two terms for all the educational institutions: February to mid-July (six weeks of summer vacation) and September to mid/late-January (four weeks of winter vacation).  There are no half-terms.

Most schools start in the early morning (about 7:30 am) to early evening (about 6 pm) with 2 hours lunch break. Many schools have evening self-study classes running from 7 pm-9 pm so students can finish their homework and prepare for endless tests. If schools do not run self-study evening classes, students still have to do their homework at home, usually up to 10 pm. On average, primary school pupils spend about seven to eight hours at school whilst a secondary school student spends about twelve to fourteen hours at school if including lunchtime and evening classes. Due to the fierce competitiveness to get into good universities, the pressure to do well for Gao Kao is intense.  Many schools hold extra morning classes in science and math for three to four hours on Saturdays. If schools do not have Saturday morning classes, most parents would send their children to expensive cramming schools at weekends or organise one-to-one private tuition for their children over the weekend.

Find out more on Chinese education

Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course

Learn about Mandarin Chinese as a tool for communication and gain insights into Chinese society and culture. This free course, Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course, provides a brief introduction to the Chinese language, its scripts and sounds, and how words are formed. You will hear short conversations where people greet each other and introduce ...

12 famous Confucius quotes on education and learning

What's your favourite Confucius quote on education and learning? Look at these examples...

Getting started with Chinese 1

Have you always wanted to learn how to speak Mandarin Chinese? Are you fascinated by the sound, the script and its ancient civilisation? If so, this introduction will get you started on the essentials of reading, writing, speaking and listening in Chinese through a variety of online activities. A perfect introduction for absolute ...

Become an OU student

Ratings & comments, share this free course, copyright information, publication details.

• Originally published: Tuesday, 14 July 2015
• Body text - Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 4.0 : The Open University
• Image 'students working at their desks in a Chinese school' - Copyright: Monkey Business Images | Dreamstime.com
• Image 'university in china' - David.78 under CC-BY-NC-ND licence under Creative-Commons license
• Image 'Getting started with Chinese 1' - Copyright: Toa55/iStock / Getty Images Plus
• Image '12 famous Confucius quotes on education and learning' - Copyright free: MorgueFile
• Image 'A brief introduction to the Chinese education system' - Copyright: Monkey Business Images | Dreamstime.com
• Image 'Beginners’ Chinese: a taster course' - Copyright free

Rate and Review

Rate this article, review this article.

Log into OpenLearn to leave reviews and join in the conversation.

Article reviews

For further information, take a look at our frequently asked questions which may give you the support you need.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to search
• Skip to footer

Products and Services

Cisco Training

Product, technology, and certification training, developed by IT experts for individuals and teams.

We offer flexible training options to fit everyone's needs

Whether you’re learning the fundamentals with CCNA or upskilling your team, Cisco can help you accelerate your career, sharpen your skills, or give your business a competitive edge. With multiple training formats available — including e-learning, instructor-led, and now digital subscriptions from Cisco U. — you can learn anywhere, anytime, and at your own pace. No matter what you choose to study, and how you choose to do it, training with Cisco means staying in sync with tech innovations as your career evolves. For a complete view of our training, searchable by course name, visit our product training catalog.

Learn your way

Your learning journey should fit your lifestyle. Choose the training method that works best for you – from group classes and instructor-led courses, to self-paced training, hands-on sandbox environments, and more.

Self-paced training

Self-paced courses with cisco u..

Start with free tutorials and webinars, or subscribe to access step-by-step Learning Paths and certification training.

Access a rich library of technology and certification training, study bundles, practice exams, simulators, and more.

Guided training

Cisco Training Bootcamps are a 9-day training program delivered over 8 weeks for teams of up to 12 learners.

Guided Study Groups

Cisco Guided Study Groups offer learners a 180-day journey of certification preparation that includes synchronous and asynchronous learning and support.

Virtual and in-person instructor-led training

Join lively classroom-style learning and discussions, online or in-person, through Cisco and our authorized Learning Partners.

Hands-on training

Sandboxes and simulators.

Get creative and experiment with your new skills in an open environment.

Test your skills in a guided, structured environment that simulates the real thing.

Introductory courses with Cisco Networking Academy

Start your Certification training with free practice-oriented courses on cybersecurity, networking, programming, data science, and more.

Transform your team with training for organizations

Upskill your entire team in an interactive, real-world environment. Led by expert instructors, group training encourages collaboration and takes your team’s productivity to the next level.

Partner role levels, specializations, and training

In addition to certifications for individual employees, Cisco's partner companies can qualify for role levels and specializations.

Partner role levels

Partner role levels reflect the breadth of a partner organization’s skills across multiple technologies, and require partner specializations. Find the right role(s) and level(s) for your business.

Partner specializations

Partner specializations reflect the depth of a partner organization’s expertise. They include required exams and recommended trainings for employees in various roles.

Black Belt Academy

An education framework for partners to become proficient in selling, deploying, and supporting Cisco’s latest technologies and software solutions.

We’ll create a learning plan for you

No matter what your team chooses to study, and how they choose to do it, training with Cisco means gaining a competitive advantage by staying in sync with tech innovations as your team evolves. Pick your products, certifications, or technologies, and the learning options that best fit your team. We’ll create a learning plan to match.  

A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.

A lock ( ) or https:// means you've safely connected to the .gov website. Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites.

• Risk Factors
• Health Equity
• Cancer Data and Statistics
• Cancer Research
• Resource Library
• Types of Cancer
• HPV and Cancer
• Cancer Research Citation Search Tips
• Initiatives

Colorectal Cancer: Screening Policies, Procedures, and Practices

What to know.

The screening policies, procedures, and practices within health facilities focus area includes tools and resources to: assess the status of cancer screening, make cancer screening a priority, reduce structural barriers, and use data to identify patients due for screening and opportunities to improve cancer screening rates within a clinical setting or system.

Introduction

This page is part of the Colorectal Cancer Screening Change Package.

Change concepts are "general notions that are useful for developing more specific strategies for changing a process." 1 Change ideas are evidence-based or practice-based "actionable, specific ideas or strategies." 1 Each change idea is linked to tools and resources that can be used or adapted to improve cancer screening.

Note : See a list of acronyms used in this change package.

Change concept: Make cancer screening a priority.

Assess primary care clinics' readiness to implement existing evidence-based interventions (ebis) to increase cancer screening..

• CDC — Field Guide for Assessing Readiness to Implement Evidence-Based Cancer Screening Interventions

Prioritize screening by engaging leaders and identifying screening champions.

• AICAF and NIHB — Advancing Health Systems Toolkit, A pages 5–7
• CDC, NACDD, and Kaiser Permanente CHR — Mailed FIT Implementation Guide, pages 11–14
• Health Promotion Practice Journal — The Health Promotion Practice Podcast: S2 Ep. 24 Exploring Sustainability Factors for a Colorectal Cancer Screening Program with Dara Schlueter
• NACHC — Value Transformation Framework: Cancer Screening, page 4

Use a whole-office approach by delegating screening tasks across the health care facility team.

• CDC, NACDD, and Kaiser Permanente CHR — Mailed FIT Implementation Guide, pages 9–12
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs (EBCCP) — Fecal Immunochemical Test and Colonoscopy Outreach, A see Program Materials [English and Spanish]

Make cancer screening a quality improvement measure at the system level.

• NQF — ABCs of Measurement

Change concept: Implement population management strategies for all eligible patients.

Benchmark or compare health care facility screening prevalence to state and national prevalence..

• ACS — Cancer Facts and Figures for African American/Black People 2022–2024
• ACS — Cancer Prevention and Early Detection Facts and Figures 2022, (tables and figures only) pages 35–36
• CDC — Use of Colorectal Cancer Screening Tests A
• CDC — United States Cancer Statistics: Data Visualizations Tool A (see Screening and Risk Factors tab)
• NACHC — Value Transformation Framework: Cancer Screening, page 5

Use community assessment to identify barriers to and resources for screening.

• ACS and CCCNP — Comprehensive Cancer Control Plan: Colorectal Cancer Tip Sheet, pages 4–7
• BMC and AVON Foundation for Women — The Boston Medical Center Patient Navigation Toolkit, 1st ed, pages 10–19

Run EHR reports on eligible patient populations to generate lists or create a registry of patients who are due for screening and conduct outreach.

• AICAF and NIHB — Advancing Health Systems Toolkit, A page 15
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs (EBCCP) — Smart Options for Screening (SOS), A see Program Materials: Implementation Guide and SOS ICD Codes

Analyze data by patient sub-populations to determine if screening disparities exist.

• CDC — United States Cancer Statistics (USCS): Data Visualizations Tool
• NIH, NCI, and CDC — State Cancer Profiles Interactive Maps

Change concept: Establish standard operating procedures for screening.

Develop formal written screening policies for the health care facility..

• NACHC — Value Transformation Framework: Cancer Screening, pages 6–7

Implement standing orders for screening.

• AAFP — Developing Standing Orders to Help Your Team Work to the Highest Level

Use implementation guides and quality improvement tools to create workflows and address workflow barriers.

• CCSPSC — CCSPSC Champions Program, see Phased Approach to Implementation with Partners (throughout document)
• CCSPSC — CCSPSC Champions Program, see Sandhills-Lugoff Provider Reminder Process, page 32
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Program (EBCCP) — Fecal Immunochemical Test and Colonoscopy Outreach, see Program Materials: Colonoscopy Strategy Workflow and FIT Strategy Workflow
• FluFIT, Potter M — FLU-FOBT Program Components and Flow Diagram A
• NACHC — Value Transformation Framework: Cancer Screening, A pages 5–8

Change concept: Use risk assessment tools and follow-up.

Use a family history algorithm to assess a patient's risk of developing cancer to help determine eligibility for screening..

• CDC — My Family Health Portrait

Use a risk calculator to determine a patient's eligibility for screening.

• NCI — Colorectal Cancer Risk Assessment Tool

Change concept: Practice patient education, communication, and shared decision-making.

Use tools and resources to facilitate shared decision-making regarding screening..

• GW Cancer Center — Guide for Patient Navigators: A Supplement to the Oncology Patient Navigator Training: The Fundamentals, pages 83–88
• Kunneman M, Montori VM, Castaneda-Guarderas A, Hess EP, 2016 — What Is Shared Decision Making? (and What It Is Not)
• Ottawa Hospital Research Institute — Colon Cancer: Which Screening Test Should I Have? A

Use patient education materials and small media such as videos and printed materials.

• AICAF and NIHB — Advancing Health Systems Toolkit, A B page 10
• ASCO — Colonoscopy B [English and Spanish]
• CDC — Colorectal Cancer Communication Resources B [videos and print materials in English and Spanish]
• Kaiser Permanente CHR — Patient Frequently Asked Questions B [English and Spanish]

Use patient education materials to support discussions on potential out-of-pocket costs for screening and follow-up.

• ACS — Insurance Coverage for Colorectal Cancer Screening B [English and Spanish]
• AGA — What to Expect: Paying for Your Colonoscopy B

Use communication tools and strategies to improve patient-centered communication.

• GW Cancer Center — Health Equity Toolbox: Resources to Foster Cultural Sensitivity and Equitable Care for All
• GW Cancer Center — Practice Patient-Centered Care Posters

Personalize messaging to increase screening among patients.

Provide educational and instructional materials to patients on screening procedures..

• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs (EBCCP) — Fecal Immunochemical Test and Colonoscopy Outreach, A B see Program Materials: Colonoscopy Invitation Letter [English and Spanish example letters] and Colonoscopy Bowel Prep Instructions [English and Spanish examples]

Change concept: Implement patient and provider reminder systems.

Use multi-modal screening reminders, such as mail, phone, or text messages, for patients..

• AltaMed, Kaiser Permanente CHR — PROMPT Study: Primer Calls for Never Completed FIT Screening: Outreach Team Call Scripts [English and Spanish patient letter, personalized alert, and reminder prompts for FIT]
• CDC, NACDD, and Kaiser Permanente CHR — Mailed FIT Implementation Guide, pages 24, 28, 32, and 38
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs — Against Colorectal Cancer In Our Neighborhoods (ACCION) — FIT Abnormal Results Letter A B [English and Spanish]
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs — Fecal Immunochemical Test and Colonoscopy Outreach [English and Spanish colonoscopy appointment reminder, FIT telephone scripts]
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs — Smart Options for Screening (SOS) — Implementation Guide
• Kaiser Permanente CHR — Prevention Research Center Colorectal Cancer Mailed Patient Reminder Template B [English and Spanish]
• Kaiser Permanente CHR — Reminder Call Phone Scripts to Return FIT Tests
• Kaiser Permanente CHR — Vendor Script: Colorectal Cancer Screening FOBT Kits
• NIHB — Health Systems Improvement Toolkit: A Guide to Cancer Screenings in Indian Country, A pages 15 and 21–24
• Washington State Department of Health — Colon Cancer Screening Provider Toolbox, page 1

Use electronic reminders, such as prompts in the EHR, for providers and staff.

• ACS and CCCNP — Comprehensive Cancer Control Plan: Colorectal Cancer Tip Sheet, page 9
• CCSPSC — CCSPSC Champions Program, see Provider Reminder Observation Form, pages 33–35, and Sandhills-Lugoff Provider Reminder Process, page 32
• CDC — Evidence-Based Interventions — Provider Reminder Planning Guide
• NIHB — Health Systems Improvement Toolkit: A Guide to Cancer Screenings in Indian Country, A pages 15 and 17–19

Use physical reminders, such as stickers or cards, for providers and staff.

• CCSPSC — CCSPSC Champions Program, see Provider Reminder Observation Form, pages 33–35
• CDC — Evidence-Based Interventions – Provider Reminder Planning Guide
• NIHB — Health Systems Improvement Toolkit: A Guide to Cancer Screenings in Indian Country, pages 15 and 17–19

Change concept: Reduce structural barriers in the health care setting.

Identify health-related social needs..

• Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services — Accountable Health Communities Model [social needs screening tool]

Offer nontraditional facility hours.

• NIHB — Health Systems Improvement Toolkit: A Guide to Cancer Screenings in Indian Country, page 25
• The Community Guide — Cancer Screening: Reducing Structural Barriers for Clients — Colorectal Cancer

Use telehealth for screening consultations and follow-up of results.

• President's Cancer Panel — Closing Gaps in Cancer Screening: Connecting People, Communities, and Systems to Improve Equity and Access, pages 3 and 17–19

Use patient navigation to improve completion of screening.

• BMC and AVON Foundation for Women — The Boston Medical Center Patient Navigation Toolkit 1st ed
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs (EBCCP) — Kukui Ahi (Light the Way): Patient Navigation — Addressing Barriers Worksheet; Implementation Guide
• GW Cancer Institute — Guide for Patient Navigators: A Supplement to the Oncology Patient Navigator Training: The Fundamentals
• NCCRT and Colorado School of Public Health — Paying for Colorectal Cancer Screening Patient Navigation Toolkit and Interactive Website
• NIHB — Health Systems Improvement Toolkit: A Guide to Cancer Screenings in Indian Country, pages 25–26

Ensure information or interpretation services are available in the patient's primary language.

• Juckett G, Unger K, 2014 — Appropriate Use of Medical Interpreters

Streamline administrative procedures, such as simplifying patient paperwork, reducing the number of required visits, and offering flexibility for late arrivals.

• The Community Guide — Cancer Screening: Reducing Structural Barriers for Clients — Breast Cancer
• NACHC — Value Transformation Framework: Cancer Screening, pages 6–9

Conduct an environmental scan and organizational assessment of cancer screening capacity.

• BMC and AVON Foundation for Women — The Boston Medical Center Patient Navigation Toolkit 1st ed, pages 5–19
• CCSPSC — CCSPSC Champions Program, see Readiness Assessment, pages 1–5
• Evidence-Based Cancer Control Programs (EBCCP) — Kukui Ahi (Light the Way): Patient Navigation — Facility Tour Worksheet
• This resource may contain some information that does not reflect the current US Preventive Services Task Force recommendations for cervical cancer screening.
• Indicates a patient resource.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Tobacco Cessation Change Package. US Department of Health and Human Services; 2019.

Learn how to lower your cancer risk and what CDC is doing to prevent and control cancer.

3.19: Issues And Trends In Healthcare Delivery System

Chapter 1: introduction to nursing, chapter 2: introduction to health, chapter 3: healthcare delivery systems, chapter 4: communication, chapter 5: infection prevention and control, chapter 6: the nursing process i, chapter 7: the nursing process ii, chapter 8: the nursing process iii.

The JoVE video player is compatible with HTML5 and Adobe Flash. Older browsers that do not support HTML5 and the H.264 video codec will still use a Flash-based video player. We recommend downloading the newest version of Flash here, but we support all versions 10 and above.

The issues and trends in healthcare delivery are constantly evolving.

The COVID-19 pandemic is one recent issue that has wreaked havoc on healthcare systems and has led to a shortage of healthcare professionals, high demand for medicines and supplies, and increased medical expenditure due to lack of insurance.

Other issues include rising healthcare costs and care fragmentation. Care fragmentation refers to the need for various specialists and healthcare providers to work together to treat serious and complicated illnesses and diseases.

Present trends in healthcare systems include demographic shifts, technological advancements, globalization of healthcare, educated consumers, and effects of health policies and regulations.

As healthcare digitizes, blockchain and cloud computing technologies are becoming increasingly crucial in collecting, storing, and interpreting clinical data.

Nowadays, artificial intelligence and Internet of Medical Things are used for continuous, real-time, and retrospective patient monitoring.

Telemedicine and e-consultations benefit patients who cannot visit hospitals.

Bioprinting allows high-quality prostheses and organ transplants while lowering the chances of graft rejection.

Developments in genomics, nanomedicine, and regenerative medicine are providing personalized healthcare.

The issues and trends in healthcare delivery are constantly changing. The COVID-19 pandemic is one recent issue that wreaked havoc on healthcare systems, causing a shortage of healthcare workers, high demand for medicines and supplies, and increased medical expenditure due to a lack of insurance. Other issues include rising healthcare costs and care fragmentation.

Cost Containment

Payment for healthcare services has historically promoted adoption of costly and often unnecessary or inefficient services. Because health insurance did not cover preventative measures in the past, healthcare primarily focused on treating illnesses rather than prevention. The third-party reimbursement structure effectively shielded patients from learning the actual cost of their treatment. Competition among hospitals has pushed the rise in healthcare expenses even more. Hospitals have spent a lot of money on technologically advanced equipment to attract patients. As new technology and more complex treatments have been created and employed, patients' expectations regarding the availability and utilization of such resources have risen. Cost-cutting support encourages hospitals to collaborate and share resources rather than compete. Other cost-cutting initiatives include reorganizing and consolidating many hospitals into a single system.

Care Fragmentation

Expanded healthcare research resulted in an upward cycle of new technologies and knowledge. Because many healthcare professionals can no longer keep up with the breakthroughs in all fields, specialization in fewer areas has become the norm rather than the exception. A general practitioner diagnoses and treats a wide range of common health conditions; however, a patient who requires diagnosis and treatment for a more difficult illness is typically referred to a specialist physician. This fragmentation of treatment can result in a loss of continuity of care, contradictory care plans, too much or too little medicine, and increased healthcare expenses.

Present trends in healthcare systems include demographic shifts, technological advancements, globalization of healthcare, educated consumers, and the effects of health policies and regulations.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

AI is replacing traditional labor-intensive and time-consuming procedures in healthcare with quick, remotely accessible, and real-time solutions for diagnosis, treatment, and disease prevention. Health technology firms provide software platforms, application programming interfaces (APIs), and other digital goods to expand the benefits of AI. Improved surgery support, clinical workflow management, and medical diagnostics are just a few uses of artificial intelligence in healthcare.

Internet of Medical Things (IoMT)

IoMT helps create products that require little or no human involvement to offer healthcare services. Connected medical devices, equipment, and infrastructure allow various applications, including automated disinfection, smart diagnostics, and remote patient care. Cognitive IoMT (CIoMT) is a recent subtrend that merges sensory data, automated processing, and network connectivity for real-time diagnosis, monitoring, tracking, and illness management.

Telemedicine

Many governments, healthcare institutions, professionals, and patients have expedited their use of telemedicine due to the COVID-19 epidemic. To counteract the pandemic, governments devised telemedicine suggestions to decongest healthcare institutions. Telemedicine relieves the strain on facilities and reduces the need for personal protective equipment (PPE) by allowing doctors to contact their patients via telecommunication. Health technology businesses are developing telehealth services to aid public health mitigation initiatives by improving social distancing. Telemedicine also aids in the remote assistance of the elderly, decreases bed utilization, and conserves clinical resources.

3D Printing

3D printing is gaining popularity in healthcare for various applications, such as producing lightweight prostheses, bionics, and casts used to immobilize body parts to heal fractures. Utilizing low-cost, lightweight biomaterials and innovative materials improves care delivery and production time while lowering expenses. 3D printing technologies produce patient-specific organ models and surgical equipment using the patient's specific dimensions measured by medical imaging. 3D printing can also produce individualized surgical tools, which improve a surgeon's dexterity and promote better surgical results while permitting faster and less stressful treatments.

Blockchain's security and traceability make it suited for a wide range of applications in the healthcare business. Electronic medical records, remote patient monitoring, tracking of pharmaceutical supply chains, and processing health insurance claims are just a few examples of applications of blockchain technology. Blockchain technology also assists with EHR administration and FHIRChain (Fast Health Interoperability Records) for clinical data exchange. It is also utilized in smart contracts, combating medicine counterfeiting, storing, distributing, and retrieving remotely obtained biological data.

In recent years, significant efforts have been made to create genomics tools for various applications. Integrating both genomic knowledge and procedures into existing clinical workflows will guarantee that clinicians follow established communication and actionable recommendations to patients through a genetic test. Because of advances in genomics, a new era of individualized medicine is now feasible. For various unmet clinical requirements, gene therapy and gene-based therapeutic options have changed clinical treatment and specialist care.

Get cutting-edge science videos from J o VE sent straight to your inbox every month.

mktb-description

We use cookies to enhance your experience on our website.

By continuing to use our website or clicking “Continue”, you are agreeing to accept our cookies.

Beta This is a new service – your feedback will help us to improve it.

• Children accommodated in secure children's homes

Introduction

This release contains statistics on children accommodated in secure children's homes, including:

• numbers of approved and available places
• availability and occupancy rates
• children accommodated by sex, age, ethnicity, and length of stay.

The data in this release is used to support monitoring and assessment of capacity within the system. The data is reported for England and Wales and is collected directly from secure children's homes. 

Figures relate to a snapshot of the position on 31 March each year, except for 2020 when the reference date was changed to 29 February to reflect the position in secure children's homes before the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic and the national lockdown. 

Headline facts and figures - 2024

Figures relate to 31 March 2024, for England and Wales, comparisons are to 31 March 2023 unless otherwise stated. 

• The number of places that were approved for use has risen by 7 to 237, up from 230 last year. However, this is still slightly below the approved places in recent years - between 2015 and 2022 the figure remained fairly stable around 250 places.
• Children accommodated in secure children's homes increased by 12% (17 more children) to 156. Between 2010 and 2021 there was an overall gradual decline in children accommodated in secure children's homes, but since 2021 the figure has fluctuated more - generally around 150 each year.
• The occupancy rate increased to 66% - up from 60% last year - but the same as in 2022.
• 59 children were placed by the Youth Custody Service (YCS), up 5% (3 more children) from 56. Between 2010 and 2021 there was a longer-term trend of fewer children being placed in secure children's homes by the YCS, however since 2021 the number has remained fairly stable at around 60 children. 

Explore data and files used in this release

View or create your own tables.

View tables that we have built for you, or create your own tables from open data using our table tool

Data catalogue

Browse and download open data files from this release in our data catalogue

Data guidance

Learn more about the data files used in this release using our online guidance

Download all data (ZIP)

Download all data available in this release as a compressed ZIP file

Secure children's homes 

Secure children's homes provide a safe place where very vulnerable children and young people can receive the care, support and education they need. Beds within secure children's homes are either contracted to the Youth Custody Service (YCS), or are available to local authorities (LAs) for welfare or criminal justice placements, so children can be placed within these children's homes either by LAs or the YCS. The YCS place vulnerable children when they are remanded to custody by the courts or are serving a custodial sentence. LAs place children when no other type of placement can keep them safe as they are a significant risk to themselves or others.

There are currently two other types of secure accommodation - young offender institutions   and secure training centres . Data on children placed in these are not included in this release but are published by the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) .

Places contracted to the  Ministry of Justice (MoJ)

From September 2017, the overall responsibility for commissioning of youth custody transferred to the MoJ from the Youth Justice Board. At the same time the YCS took over responsibility for individual placements of children and young people into youth custody and day-to-day management of youth custody. Some places within secure children's homes are contracted out for use to the MoJ and children are placed in them by the YCS. 

Places approved and available

There are currently 14 secure children’s homes in England and Wales, with 237 approved places which is an increase of 7 approved places on last year. This increase is largely due to the increase in approved beds at Clare Lodge (where capacity was reduced last year).

The availability of approved places has increased since last year, at 93% up from 88%. The availability rate is above 90% for the first time since 2016 - it was consistently above 90% between 2010 and 2016 but had been below in each year since. 

Not all approved places are always available for use, for example homes may temporarily close to make improvements, a bed may be out of use due to damage or refurbishment or if staffing ratios mean a reduced number of places can be filled. 

The number of approved places contracted to the MoJ steadily declined from 191 places in 2010 to 106 in 2019. Since then places contracted to the the MoJ have remained at a similar level - there were 105 places this year - the same as in 2023.

The number of children placed by the YCS in secure homes decreased from 146 in 2011 and 2012 down to 56 in 2023. This year YCS placements have increased slightly to 59.

Figures published by the  His Majesty's Prison Service  show the overall population of the youth secure estate has declined in the last decade, influenced by a move by courts towards sentencing children being a last resort. This is reflected in the secure children’s homes data for MoJ contracted places and YCS placements.

Children accommodated and occupancy rate

Within the 14 secure children’s homes, there were 156 children accommodated, up 12% since 2023. Between 2010 and 2021 there was an overall gradual decline in children accommodated in secure children's homes, but since 2021 the number of children accommodated has fluctuated more - generally around 150 children each year.  

The occupancy rate was 66% - up from 60% last year.  Note that a lower occupancy rate does not necessarily mean that there are available spaces within secure children's homes - availability of a suitable place may depend upon whether or not the place is contracted to the YCS. In addition, placements are complex and each home will assess the resources required to support the individual needs of the children they accommodate. 

Occupancy rates These are based on the number of children accommodated in relation to the number of places for which the home has approval to operate with 

Children and young people placed within secure children's homes may be placed as:

• Children detained  or sentenced and placed by the YCS include children detained for, or convicted of, a serious offence under the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000 or the Criminal Justice Act 2003; or subject to a Supervision Order with a residence requirement or a Detention and Training Order under the Powers of Criminal Courts (Sentencing) Act 2000.
• Children placed by the local authority in a criminal justice context include  children remanded by a court under section 102 (Remand to youth detention accommodation) of the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012; or accommodated pursuant to section 38 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984.
• Children placed by the local authority on welfare grounds include children who are placed into the homes by their local authority under section 25 of the Children Act 1989 for the protection of themselves and/or others.

In 2024, 46% of children in secure children's homes were placed on welfare grounds, 38% were detained or sentenced and placed by the YCS and 16% were placed by the LA in a criminal justice context.

Children placed in secure homes on a welfare basis fell slightly to 72 (down by 2 children), continuing a longer term trend, decreasing steadily from a peak of 105 children in 2016. 

Children detained or sentenced and placed by the YCS increased slightly to 59 (up by 3 children). Placements by the YCS have been broadly similar since 2021 - down from a peak of 146 in 2012.

Children placed by the LA in a criminal justice context increased to 25 (up by 14 children). 

Sex, age, and ethnicity

Note that due to the relatively small size of the cohort, users should be cautious interpreting year on year changes.

There are more males than females accommodated in secure children’s homes. The proportion of children who were accommodated who were male was 72% - the same as last year.  Males are over-represented in the secure children's homes population (compared to 51% in the overall child population - as shown in the latest ONS mid-year population estimates).

Children aged 15 years or over make up 74% of the children accommodated. The numbers in each age group are small and do fluctuate over time - children accommodated by age in 2024:

• 9 were aged 13 years (6%)
• 26 were aged 14 years old (17%)
• 41 were aged 15 years old (26%)
• 40 were aged 16 years old (26%)
• 32 were aged 17 years old (21%)
• the remaining 5% were either aged under 13, or 18 years and over.

Information on the ethnicity of children accommodated in secure homes was reported for the first time in 2021. The numbers and proportions of children accommodated by ethnicity are in the table. 

Length of stay

The length of stay of children accommodated is given in the table. 

Help and support

Methodology.

Find out how and why we collect, process and publish these statistics.

National statistics

These accredited official statistics have been independently reviewed by the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR). They comply with the standards of trustworthiness, quality and value in the Code of Practice for Statistics . Accredited official statistics are called National Statistics in the Statistics and Registration Service Act 2007 .

Accreditation signifies their compliance with the authority's Code of Practice for Statistics which broadly means these statistics are:

• managed impartially and objectively in the public interest
• meet identified user needs
• produced according to sound methods
• well explained and readily accessible

Our statistical practice is regulated by the Office for Statistics Regulation (OSR).

OSR sets the standards of trustworthiness, quality and value in the Code of Practice for Statistics that all producers of official statistics should adhere to.

You are welcome to contact us directly with any comments about how we meet these standards. Alternatively, you can contact OSR by emailing [email protected] or via the OSR website .

If you have a specific enquiry about Children accommodated in secure children's homes statistics and data:

Children looked after statistics team

Press office.

If you have a media enquiry:

Telephone: 020 7783 8300

Public enquiries

If you have a general enquiry about the Department for Education (DfE) or education:

Telephone: 037 0000 2288

Opening times: Monday to Friday from 9.30am to 5pm (excluding bank holidays)

• Open access
• Published: 13 May 2024

The impact of the world’s first regulatory, multi-setting intervention on sedentary behaviour among children and adolescents (ENERGISE): a natural experiment evaluation

• Bai Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2706-9799 1 ,
• Selene Valerino-Perea 2 ,
• Weiwen Zhou 3 ,
• Yihong Xie 4 ,
• Keith Syrett 5 ,
• Remco Peters 1 ,
• Zouyan He 4 ,
• Yunfeng Zou 4 ,
• Frank de Vocht 6 , 7 &
• Charlie Foster 1  

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity volume  21 , Article number:  53 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

804 Accesses

122 Altmetric

Metrics details

Regulatory actions are increasingly used to tackle issues such as excessive alcohol or sugar intake, but such actions to reduce sedentary behaviour remain scarce. World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on sedentary behaviour call for system-wide policies. The Chinese government introduced the world’s first nation-wide multi-setting regulation on multiple types of sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents in July 2021. This regulation restricts when (and for how long) online gaming businesses can provide access to pupils; the amount of homework teachers can assign to pupils according to their year groups; and when tutoring businesses can provide lessons to pupils. We evaluated the effect of this regulation on sedentary behaviour safeguarding pupils.

With a natural experiment evaluation design, we used representative surveillance data from 9- to 18-year-old pupils before and after the introduction of the regulation, for longitudinal ( n  = 7,054, matched individuals, primary analysis) and repeated cross-sectional ( n  = 99,947, exploratory analysis) analyses. We analysed pre-post differences for self-reported sedentary behaviour outcomes (total sedentary behaviour time, screen viewing time, electronic device use time, homework time, and out-of-campus learning time) using multilevel models, and explored differences by sex, education stage, residency, and baseline weight status.

Longitudinal analyses indicated that pupils had reduced their mean total daily sedentary behaviour time by 13.8% (95% confidence interval [CI]: -15.9 to -11.7%, approximately 46 min) and were 1.20 times as likely to meet international daily screen time recommendations (95% CI: 1.01 to 1.32) one month after the introduction of the regulation compared to the reference group (before its introduction). They were on average 2.79 times as likely to meet the regulatory requirement on homework time (95% CI: 2.47 to 3.14) than the reference group and reduced their daily total screen-viewing time by 6.4% (95% CI: -9.6 to -3.3%, approximately 10 min). The positive effects were more pronounced among high-risk groups (secondary school and urban pupils who generally spend more time in sedentary behaviour) than in low-risk groups (primary school and rural pupils who generally spend less time in sedentary behaviour). The exploratory analyses showed comparable findings.

Conclusions

This regulatory intervention has been effective in reducing total and specific types of sedentary behaviour among Chinese children and adolescents, with the potential to reduce health inequalities. International researchers and policy makers may explore the feasibility and acceptability of implementing regulatory interventions on sedentary behaviour elsewhere.

The growing prevalence of sedentary behaviour in school-aged children and adolescents bears significant social, economic and health burdens in China and globally [ 1 ]–[ 3 ]. Sedentary behaviour refers to any waking behaviour characterised by an energy expenditure equal or lower than 1.5 metabolic equivalents (METs) while sitting, reclining, or lying [ 3 ]. Evidence from systematic reviews, meta-analyses and longitudinal studies have shown that excessive sedentary behaviour, in particular recreational screen-based sedentary behaviour, affect multiple dimensions of children and adolescents’ wellbeing, spanning across mental health [ 4 ], cognitive functions/developmental health/academic performance [ 5 ], [ 6 ], quality of life [ 7 ], and physical health [ 8 ]. In China, over 60% of school pupils use part of their sleep time to play mobile phones/digital games and watch TV programmes, and 27% use their sleep time to do homework or other learning activities [ 9 ]. Screen-based, sedentary entertainment has become the leading cause for going to bed late, which is linked to detrimental consequences for children’s physical and mental health [ 10 ]. Notably, academic-related activities such as post-school homework and off campus tutoring also contribute to the increasing amounts of sedentary behaviour. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report, China is the leading country in time spent on homework by adolescents (14 h/week on average) [ 11 ].

The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated this global challenge, with children and adolescents reported to have been the most affected group [ 12 ]. Schools are a frequently targeted setting for interventions to reduce sedentary behaviour [ 13 ]. However, school-based interventions have had limited success when delivered under real-world conditions or at scale [ 14 ]. School-based interventions alone have also been unsuccessful in mitigating the trend of increasing sedentary behaviour that is driven by a complex system of interdependent factors across multiple sectors [ 13 ]. Even for parents and carers who intend to restrict screen-based sedentary behaviour and for children who wish to reduce screen-based sedentary behaviour, social factors including peer pressure often form barriers to changing behaviour [ 15 ]. In multiple public health fields such as tobacco control and healthy eating promotion, there has been a notable shift away from downstream (e.g., health education) towards an upstream intervention approach (e.g., sugar taxation). However, regulatory actions for sedentary behaviour are scarce [ 16 ]. World Health Organization (WHO) 2020 guidelines on sedentary behaviour encourage sustainable and scalable approaches for limiting sedentary behaviour and call for more system-wide policies to improve this global challenge [ 8 ]. Up-stream interventions can act on sedentary behaviour more holistically and have the potential to maximise reach and health impact [ 13 ]. In response to this pressing issue, and to widespread demands from many parents/carers, the Chinese government introduced nationwide regulations in 2021 to restrict (i) the amount of homework that teachers can assign, (ii) when (and for how long) online gaming businesses can provide access to young people, and (iii) when tutoring businesses can provide lessons [ 17 ], [ 18 ]. Consultations with WHO officials and reviewers of international health policy interventions confirmed that this is currently the only government-led, multi-setting regulatory intervention on multiple types of sedentary behaviour among school-aged children and adolescents. A detailed description of this programme is available in the Additional File 1 .

We evaluated the impact of this regulatory intervention on sedentary behaviour in Chinese school-aged children and adolescents. We also investigated whether and how intervention effects differed by sex, education stage, geographical area, and baseline weight status.

Study design

The introduction of the nationwide regulation provided a unique opportunity for a natural experiment evaluation where the pre-regulation comparator group data (Wave 1) was compared to the post-regulation group data (Wave 2). Multiple components of the intervention (see Additional File 1 ) were introduced in phases from July 2021 with all components being fully in place by September 2021 [ 17 ], [ 18 ]. This paper follows the STROBE reporting guidance [ 19 ], [ 20 ].

Data source, study population and sampling

We obtained regionally representative data on 99,947 pupils who are resident in the Chinese province of Guangxi as part of Guangxi Centre for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) routine surveillance. The data, available from participants in grade 4 (aged between 9 and 10 years) and higher, were collected using a multi-stage random sampling design (Fig.  1 ) through school visits by trained health professionals following standardised protocols (see Supplementary Fig.  1 , Additional File 1 ). In Wave 1 (data collected from September to November 2020), pupils were randomly selected from schools in 31 urban/rural counties from 14 cities in Guangxi. At least eight schools, including primary, secondary, high schools, and ‘vocational high schools’, were selected from urban counties. Five schools were selected from rural counties. Approximately 80 students were randomly selected from each grade at the schools selected. The same schools were invited to participate in Wave 2 (data collected from September to November 2021), and new schools were invited to replace Wave 1 schools that no longer participated. Children with available data at both Wave 1 and Wave 2 represented approximately 10% of the sample ( n  = 7,587). Paper-based questionnaires were administrated to students by trained personnel or teachers. The questionnaires were designed and validated by China National Health Commission, and have been utilised in routine surveillance throughout the country.

Flow diagram of participants included in the ENERGISE study

We used data from the age groups 7–18 years for most analyses. For specific analyses of homework and out-of-campus tutoring, we excluded high school pupils (16–18 years) because the homework and out-of-campus tutoring regulations apply to primary (7–12 years) and middle (13–15 years) school pupils only. Furthermore, participants without socio-demographic data or those who reported medical history of disease, or a physical disability were excluded. This gave us a total sample of 7,054 eligible school-aged children and adolescents with matching data (longitudinal sample).

Outcomes and subgroups

Guangxi CDC used purposively designed questions for surveillance purposes to assess sedentary behaviour outcomes (Table  1 ).

The primary outcomes of interest included: (1) total sedentary behaviour time, (2) homework time, (3) out-of-campus learning (private tutoring) time, and (4) electronic device use time (Table  1 ). We considered electronic device use time, including mobile phones, handheld game consoles, and tablets, the most suitable estimator of online game time (estimand) in the surveillance programme since these are the main devices used for online gaming in China [ 23 ]. Secondary outcomes were: (1) total screen-viewing time, (2) internet-use time, (3) likelihood of meeting international screen-viewing time recommendations, and (4) likelihood of meeting the regulation on homework time (Table  1 ).

We calculated total sedentary behaviour time as the sum of total screen-viewing time (secondary outcome), homework time, and out-of-campus learning time (Table  1 ). Total screen-viewing time represents the sum of electronic device use time per day, TV/video game use time per day, and computer use time per day (Table  1 ). Total screen-viewing time was considered as an alternative estimator of online game time (estimand) since TV/videogame console use time and computer time could also capture the small proportion of children who use these devices for online gaming (Table  1 ). The international screen-viewing time recommendations were based on the American Academy of Paediatrics guidelines [ 21 ]. We did not include internet use time (secondary outcome) in total screen-viewing time, and total sedentary behaviour time, because this measure likely overlaps with other variables.

We defined subgroups by demographic characteristics, including the child’s sex (at birth: girls or boys), date of birth, education stage [primary school or secondary school [including middle school, high school, and ‘occupational schools’]), children’s residency (urban versus rural) and children’s baseline weight status (non-overweight versus overweight/obesity). Each sampling site selected for the survey was classified by the surveillance personnel as urban/rural and as lower-, medium-, or higher-economic level based on the area’s gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. The area’s GDP per capita was measured by the Chinese Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Trained personnel also measured height, and weight using calibrated stadiometers and scales. Children’s weight/height were measured with light clothing and no shoes. Measurements during both waves were undertaken when students lived a normal life (no lockdowns, school were opened normally). We classified weight status (normal weight vs. overweight/obesity) according to the Chinese national reference charts [ 24 ].

Statistical analyses

We treated sedentary behaviour values that exceeded 24-hours per day as missing. We did not exclude extreme values for body mass index from the analyses 25 . Additional information, justifications, and results of implausible and missing values can be found in the Supplementary Table 1 , Additional File 1 .

The assumptions for normality and heteroscedasticity were assessed visually by inspecting residuals. We assessed multicollinearity via variance inflation factors. The outcome variables for linear regression outcomes were transformed using square roots to meet assumptions. We reported descriptive demographic characteristics (age, sex, area of residence, socioeconomic status), weight status, and outcome variables using means (or medians for non-normally distributed data) and proportions [ 26 ]

We ran multilevel models with random effects nested at the school and child levels to compare the outcomes in Wave 1 against Wave 2. We developed separate models for each sedentary behaviour outcome variable. We treated the introduction of the nationwide regulation as the independent binary variable (0 for Wave 1 and 1 for Wave 2). We ran linear models for continuous outcomes, logistic models for binary outcomes, and ordered logistic models for ordinal outcomes in a complete case analysis estimating population average treatment effects [ 27 ]. For the main analysis, in which participants had measurements in both Waves (longitudinal sample), only those with non-missing data at both time points were included.

We estimated marginal effects for each sedentary behaviour outcome. With a self-developed directed acyclic graph (DAG) we identified age (continuous), sex (male/female), area of residence (urban/rural), and socioeconomic status (high/medium/low) as confounders (see Supplementary Figs. 2–4, Additional File 1 ).

We evaluated subgroup effects defined by child’s sex at birth (boys versus girls), child’s stage of education (primary school versus secondary school [including middle school, high school, and ‘occupational schools’]), children’s residency (rural versus urban), and children’s baseline weight status (non-overweight versus overweight/obesity). We also repeated the covariate-adjusted model with interaction terms (between Wave and sex; Wave and child stage of education; Wave and residency; and Wave and weight status). We adjusted for multiple testing using Bonferroni correction ( p 0.05 divided by the number of performed tests for an outcome). The resulting cut-off point of p  < 0.005 was used to determine the presence of any interaction effects.

We also conducted exploratory analyses (including subgroup analyses) by evaluating the same models with a representative, cross-sectional sample of 99,947 pupils. This cross-sectional sample included different schools and children at Wave 1 and Wave 2. We therefore used propensity score (PS) weighting to account for sample imbalances in the socio-demographic characteristics. Propensity scores were calculated by conducting a logistic regression, which calculated the likelihood of each individual to be in Wave 2 (dependent variable). Individual’s age, sex, area of residence and the GDP per area were treated as independent variables. Subsequently, inverse probability of treatment weighting was applied to balance the demographic characteristics in the sample in Wave 1 (unexposed to the regulatory intervention) and Wave 2 (exposed to the regulatory intervention). The sample weight for individuals in Wave 1 were calculated using the Eq. 1/ (1-propensity score). The sample weight for individuals in Wave 2 were calculated using the Eq. 1/propensity score [ 28 ].

We only ran linear models for continuous outcomes since it was not possible to run PS-weighted multilevel models with this sample size in Stata. We conducted all statistical analyses in Stata version 16.0.

Participant sample

In our primary, longitudinal analyses, we analysed data from 7,054 children and adolescents. The mean age was 12.3 years (SD, 2.4) and 3,477 (49.3%) were girls (Table  2 ). More detailed information on characteristics of subgroups in the longitudinal sample are presented in the Supplementary Tables 2–5, Additional File 2 .

Primary outcomes

Children and adolescents reported a reduction in their daily mean total sedentary behaviour time by 13.8% (95% CI: -15.9 to -11.7), or 46 min, on average between Waves 1 and 2. Participants were also less likely to report having increased their time spent on homework (adjusted odd ratio/AOR: 0.39; 95% CI: 0.35–0.43) and in out-of-campus learning (AOR: 0.53; 95% CI: 0.47 to 0.59) in Wave 2 in comparison to Wave 1, respectively (Tables  3 and 4 ). We did not find any changes in electronic device use time.

Secondary outcomes

Participants reported reducing their mean daily screen-viewing time by 6.4% (95% CI: -9.6 to -3.3%), or 10 min, on average (Tables  3 and 4 ). Participants were also 20% as likely to meet international screen time recommendations (AOR: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.09 to 1.32) and were 2.79 times as likely to meet the regulatory requirement on homework time (95% CI: 2.47 to 3.14) compared to the reference group (before the introduction of the regulation).

Subgroup analyses

Most screen- and study-related sedentary behaviour outcomes differed by education stage ( p  < 0.005) (see Supplementary Tables 6–13, Additional File 2 ), with the reductions being larger in secondary school pupils than in primary school pupils (Tables  3 and 4 , and Table  5 ). Only secondary school pupils reduced their total screen-viewing time (-8.4%; 95% CI: -12.4 to -4.3) and were also 1.41 times as likely to meet screen-viewing recommendations (AOR: 1.41; 95% CI: 1.23 to 1.61) at Wave 2 compared to Wave 1.

Conversely, at Wave 2, primary school pupils reported a lower likelihood of spending more time doing homework (AOR: 0.30; 95%: 0.26 to 0.34) than secondary school pupils (AOR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.50 to 0.67) compared to their counterparts at Wave 1. At Wave 2, primary school pupils also had a higher likelihood of reporting meeting homework time recommendations (AOR: 3.61; 95% CI: 3.09 to 4.22) than secondary school pupils (middle- and high school) (AOR: 2.11; 95% CI: 1.74 to 2.56) compared to their counterparts at Wave 1 (Table  5 ). There was also a residence interaction effect ( p  < 0.001) in total sedentary behaviour time, with participants in urban areas reporting larger reductions (-15.3%; 95% CI: -17.8 to -12.7) than those in rural areas (-11.2%; 95% CI: -15.0 to -7.4). There was no evidence of modifying effects by children’s sex or baseline weight status (Tables  4 and 5 ).

Findings from the exploratory repeated cross-sectional analyses were similar to the findings of the main longitudinal analyses including total sedentary behaviour time, electronic device use time, total screen-viewing time and internet use time (see Supplementary Tables 14–23, Additional File 2 ).

Principal findings

Our study evaluated the impact of the world’s first regulatory, multi-setting intervention on multiple types of sedentary behaviour among school-aged children and adolescents in China. We found that children and adolescents reduced their total sedentary behaviour time, screen-viewing time, homework time and out-of-campus learning time following its implementation. The positive intervention effects on total screen-viewing time (-8.4 vs. -2.3%), and the likelihood of meeting recommendations on screen-viewing time (1.41 vs. 1.02 AOR) were more pronounced in secondary school pupils compared with primary school pupils. Intervention effects on total sedentary behaviour time (-15.3 vs. -11.2%) were more pronounced among pupils living in the urban area (compared to pupils living in the rural area). These subgroup differences imply that the regulatory intervention benefit more the groups known to have a higher rate of sedentary behaviour [ 29 ].

Interestingly, the observed reduction in electronic device use itself did not reach statistical significance following implementation of regulation. This could be viewed as a positive outcome if this is correctly inferred and not the result of reporting bias or measurement error. International data indicated that average sedentary and total screen time have increased among children due to the COVID-19 pandemic [ 12 ]. However, such interesting finding might be explained by the absence of lockdowns in Guangxi during both surveillance waves when most school-aged students outside China were affected by pandemic mitigation measures such as online learning.

Strengths and weaknesses

Our study has several notable strengths. This is the first study to evaluate the impact of multi-setting nationwide regulations on multiple types of sedentary behaviour in a large and regionally representative sample of children and adolescents. Still, to gain a more comprehensive view of the regulatory intervention on sedentary behaviour across China, similar evaluation research should be conducted in other regions of China. Furthermore, access to a rich longitudinal dataset allowed for more robust claims of causality. The available data also allowed us to measure the effect of the intervention on multiple sedentary behaviours including recreational screen-time and academic-related behaviours. Lastly, the large data set allowed us to explore whether the effect of the regulatory intervention varied across important subgroups, suggesting areas for further research and development.

Some limitations need to be taken into consideration when interpreting our findings. First, a common limitation in non-controlled/non-randomised intervention studies is residual confounding. We aimed to limit this by adjusting our analysis for confounders known to impact the variables of interest, but it is impossible to know whether important confounding may still have been present. With maturation bias, it is possible that secular trends are the cause for any observed effects. However, this seems unlikely in our study as older children may spend more time doing homework [ 23 ] and engage more in screen-viewing activities [ 30 ]. In this study, we observed reductions in these outcomes. The use of self-reported outcomes (social desirability bias) was a limitation and might have led to the intervention effects being over-estimated [ 13 ]. However, since our data were collected as part of a routine surveillance programme, pupils were unaware of the evaluation. This might mitigate reporting bias. In addition, the data were collected in Guangxi which might not representative of the whole population in China. Another limitation is using electronic device use time as a proxy measure of online gaming time. It is possible that electronic devices can be used for other purposes. However, mobile phones, handheld game consoles and tablets are the main devices used for online gaming. In this study, electronic device use time provided a practical means of assessing the broad effects of regulatory measures on screen time behaviours, including online gaming, in a large (province level) surveillance programme. In the future, instruments specifically designed to capture online gaming behaviour should be used in surveillance and research work.

Comparisons with other studies

Neither China nor other countries globally have previously implemented and evaluated multi-setting regulatory interventions on multiple types of sedentary behaviour, which makes comparative discussions challenging. In general, results of health behaviour research over the past decades have shown that interventions that address structural and environmental determinants of multiple behaviours to be more effective in comparison with individual-focussed interventions [ 31 ]. Furthermore, the continuous and universal elements of regulatory interventions may be particularly important explanations for the observed reductions in sedentary behaviour. Standalone school and other institution-led interventions may struggle with financial and logistic costs which threaten long-term implementation [ 13 ]. In contrast, the universality element of regulatory intervention can reduce or remove peer pressures and potential stigmatisation among children and teachers that are often associated with more selective/targeted interventions [ 24 ]. Our findings support WHO guidelines for physical activity and sedentary behaviour that encourage sustainable and scalable approaches for limiting sedentary behaviour and call for more system-wide policies to improve this global challenge[ 8 ].

Implications for future policy and research

Our study has important implications for future research and practice both nationally and internationally. Within China, future research should focus on optimising the implementation of the regulatory intervention through implementation research and assess long-term effects of the regulation on both behavioral and health outcomes. Internationally, our findings also provide a promising policy avenue for other countries and communities outside of China to explore the opportunities and barriers to implement such programmes on sedentary behaviour. This exploratory process could start with assessing how key stakeholders (including school-aged children, parents/carers, schoolteachers, health professionals, and policy makers) within different country contexts perceive regulatory actions as an intervention approach for improving health and wellbeing in young people, and how they can be tailored to fit their own contexts. Within public health domains, including healthy eating promotion, tobacco and alcohol control, regulatory intervention approaches (e.g., smoking bans and sugar taxation) have been adopted. However, regulatory actions for sedentary behaviour are scarce [ 19 ]. Within the education sector, some countries recently banned mobile phone use in schools for academic purpose [ 25 ]. While this implies potential feasibility and desirability of such interventions internationally, there is little research on the demand for, and acceptability of, multi-faceted sedentary behaviour regulatory interventions for the purpose of improving health and wellbeing. It will be particularly important to identify and understand any differences in perceptions and feasibility both within (e.g., public versus policy makers) and across countries of differing socio-cultural-political environments.

This natural experiment evaluation indicates that a multi-setting, regulatory intervention on sedentary behaviour has been effective in reducing total sedentary behaviour, and multiple types of sedentary behaviour among Chinese school-aged children and adolescents. Contextually appropriate, regulatory interventions on sedentary behaviour could be explored and considered by researchers and policy makers in other countries.

Data availability

Access to anonymised data used in this study can be requested through the corresponding author BL, subject to approval by the Guangxi CDC. WZ and SVP have full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Abbreviations

Centre for disease control and prevention

Directed acyclic graph

Gross domestic product

Metabolic equivalents

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Bao R, Chen S-T, Wang Y, Xu J, Wang L, Zou L, Cai Y. Sedentary Behavior Research in the Chinese Population: a systematic scoping review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020, 17(10).

Nguyen P, Le LK-D, Ananthapavan J, Gao L, Dunstan DW, Moodie M. Economics of sedentary behaviour: a systematic review of cost of illness, cost-effectiveness, and return on investment studies. Prev Med. 2022;156:106964.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

World Health Organization. WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. In. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020.

Zhang J, Yang SX, Wang L, Han LH, Wu XY. The influence of sedentary behaviour on mental health among children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Affect Disord. 2022;306:90–114.

Madigan S, Browne D, Racine N, Mori C, Tough S. Association between Screen Time and children’s performance on a Developmental Screening Test. JAMA Pediatr. 2019;173(3):244–50.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Pagani LS, Fitzpatrick C, Barnett TA, Dubow E. Prospective Associations between Early Childhood Television Exposure and academic, psychosocial, and Physical Well-being by Middle Childhood. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2010;164(5):425–31.

Boberska M, Szczuka Z, Kruk M, Knoll N, Keller J, Hohl DH, Luszczynska A. Sedentary behaviours and health-related quality of life. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Health Psychol Rev. 2018;12(2):195–210.

Fiona CB, Salih SA-A, Stuart B, Katja B, Matthew PB, Greet C, Catherine C, Jean-Philippe C, Sebastien C, Roger C et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2020, 54(24):1451.

China Sleep Research Association. Sleep White Paper of Chine People’s Health. In. Beijing, China; 2022.

Chaput J-P, Gray CE, Poitras VJ, Carson V, Gruber R, Olds T, Weiss SK, Gorber SC, Kho ME, Sampson M, et al. Systematic review of the relationships between sleep duration and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(6):S266–82. (Suppl. 3)).

OECD. Does Homework Perpetuate inequities in Education? OECD Publishing 2014(46):4.

Trott M, Driscoll R, Iraldo E, Pardhan S. Changes and correlates of screen time in adults and children during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review and meta-analysis. eClinicalMedicine 2022, 48.

van Sluijs EMF, Ekelund U, Crochemore-Silva I, Guthold R, Ha A, Lubans D, Oyeyemi AL, Ding D, Katzmarzyk PT. Physical activity behaviours in adolescence: current evidence and opportunities for intervention. Lancet. 2021;398(10298):429–42.

Cassar S, Salmon J, Timperio A, Naylor P-J, van Nassau F, Contardo Ayala AM, Koorts H. Adoption, implementation and sustainability of school-based physical activity and sedentary behaviour interventions in real-world settings: a systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Activity. 2019;16(1):120.

Article   Google Scholar  

Martins J, Costa J, Sarmento H, Marques A, Farias C, Onofre M, Valeiro MG. Adolescents’ perspectives on the barriers and facilitators of physical activity: an updated systematic review of qualitative studies. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021, 18(9).

Gelius P, Messing S, Tcymbal A, Whiting S, Breda J, Abu-Omar K. Policy Instruments for Health Promotion: a comparison of WHO Policy Guidance for Tobacco, Alcohol, Nutrition and Physical Activity. Int J Health Policy Manage. 2022;11(9):1863–73.

Google Scholar  

The General Office of the CPC Central Committee and the General Office of the State. Council issued the opinions on further reducing the Burden of Homework and off-campus training for students in the stage of Compulsory Education. https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2021-07/24/content_5627132.htm .

Notice of the State Press and Publication Administration on Further Strict. Management to Effectively Prevent Minors from Being Addicted to Online Games. https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/zhengceku/2021-09/01/content_5634661.htm .

Craig P, Cooper C, Gunnell D, Haw S, Lawson K, Macintyre S, Ogilvie D, Petticrew M, Reeves B, Sutton M, et al. Using natural experiments to evaluate population health interventions: new Medical Research Council guidance. J Epidemiol Commun Health. 2012;66(12):1182–6.

Craig P, Campbell M, Bauman A, Deidda M, Dundas R, Fitzgerald N, Green J, Katikireddi SV, Lewsey J, Ogilvie D, et al. Making better use of natural experimental evaluation in population health. BMJ. 2022;379:e070872.

American Academy of Pediatrics. Children, adolescents, and television. Pediatrics. 2001;107(2):423–6.

Bauer CP. Applied Causal Analysis (with R). In. Bookdown; 2020.

Matthay EC, Hagan E, Gottlieb LM, Tan ML, Vlahov D, Adler NE, Glymour MM. Alternative causal inference methods in population health research: evaluating tradeoffs and triangulating evidence. SSM - Popul Health. 2020;10:100526.

Greenberg MT, Abenavoli R. Universal interventions: fully exploring their impacts and potential to produce Population-Level impacts. J Res Educational Eff. 2017;10(1):40–67.

Selwyn N, Aagaard J. Banning mobile phones from classrooms—An opportunity to advance understandings of technology addiction, distraction and cyberbullying. Br J Edu Technol. 2021;52(1):8–19.

Boushey CJ, Harris J, Bruemmer B, Archer SL. Publishing nutrition research: A review of sampling, sample size, statistical analysis, and other key elements of manuscript preparation, Part 2. J Acad Nutr Dietet. 2008;108(4):679–688.

Matthay EC, Hagan E, Gottlieb LM, Tan ML, Vlahov D, Adler NE, Glymour MM. Alternative causal inference methds in population health research:Evaluating tradeoffs nd triangulating evidence. SSM - Population Health. 2020;10:100526.

Chesnaye NC, Stel VS, Tripepi G, Dekker FW, Fu EL, Zoccali C, Jager KJ. An introduction to inverse probability of treatment weighting in observation research. Clin Kid J. 2021;15(1):14–20.

Song C, Gong W, Ding C, Yuan F, Zhang Y, Feng G, Chen Z, Liu A. Physical activity and sedentary behaviour among Chinese children agd 6-17 years: a cross-sectional analysis of 2010-2012 China National Nutrition and Health Survey. BMC Public Health. 2019;19(1):936.

Zhu X, Haegele JA, Tang Y, Wu X. Physical activity and sedentary behaviors of urban chinese children: grade level prevalence and academic burden associations. BioMed Res Int. 2017;2017:7540147.

Rutter H, Bes-Rastrollo M, de Henauw S, Lathi-Koski M, Lehtinen-Jacks S, Mullerova D, Rasmussen F, Rissanen A, Visscher TLS, Lissner L. Balancing upstream and downstream measures to tackle the obesity epidemic: a position statement from the european association for the study of obesity. Obesity Facts. 2017;10(11):61–63.

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge Dr Peter Green and Dr Ruth Salway for providing feedback on the initial data analysis plan, and Dr Hugo Pedder and Lauren Scott who provided feedback on the statistical analyses.

This work was funded by the Wellcome Trust through the Global Public Health Research Strand, Elizabeth Blackwell Institute for Health Research. The funder of our study had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for Exercise, Nutrition and Health Sciences, School for Policy Studies, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Bai Li, Remco Peters & Charlie Foster

Public Health Wales, Cardiff, UK

Selene Valerino-Perea

Department of Nutrition and School Health, Guangxi Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning, Guangxi, China

Weiwen Zhou

School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, China

Yihong Xie, Zouyan He & Yunfeng Zou

Centre for Health, Law, and Society, School of Law, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Keith Syrett

Population Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Frank de Vocht

NIHR Applied Research Collaboration West (ARC West), Bristol, UK

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

BL conceived the study idea and obtained the funding with support from WZ, CF, KS, YX, YZ, ZH and RP. BL, CF, FdV and KS designed the study. WZ led data collection and provided access to the data. YX, SVP and ZH cleaned the data. SVP analysed the data with guidance from BL, FdV and CF. BL, SVP and RP drafted the paper which was revised by other authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript for submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bai Li .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval and consent to participate.

Ethics approvals were granted by the School for Policy Studies Research Ethics Committee at the University of Bristol (reference number SPSREC/20–21/168) and the Research Ethics Committee at Guangxi Medical University (reference number 0136). Written informed consent was obtained from each participant, and a parent or guardian for participants aged < 20 years.

Consent for publication

The co-authors gave consent for publication.

Competing interests

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential competing interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Supplementary material 2, supplementary material 3, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Li, B., Valerino-Perea, S., Zhou, W. et al. The impact of the world’s first regulatory, multi-setting intervention on sedentary behaviour among children and adolescents (ENERGISE): a natural experiment evaluation. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 21 , 53 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-024-01591-w

Download citation

Received : 20 December 2023

Accepted : 04 April 2024

Published : 13 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-024-01591-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Sedentary behaviour
• Physical activity
• Regulatory intervention
• Health policy
• Screen time
• Natural experiment
• Mental health
• Health promotion
• Child health

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity

ISSN: 1479-5868

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]

• Open access
• Published: 14 May 2024

Comparative analysis of GoPro and digital cameras in head and neck flap harvesting surgery video documentation: an innovative and efficient method for surgical education

• Xin-Yue Huang 1   na1 ,
• Zhe Shao 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Nian-Nian Zhong 1 ,
• Yuan-Hao Wen 1 ,
• Tian-Fu Wu 1 , 2 ,
• Bing Liu 1 , 2 ,
• Si-Rui Ma 1 , 2 &
• Lin-Lin Bu 1 , 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  531 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

180 Accesses

Metrics details

An urgent need exists for innovative surgical video recording techniques in head and neck reconstructive surgeries, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where a surge in surgical procedures necessitates more skilled surgeons. This demand, significantly intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic, highlights the critical role of surgical videos in medical education. We aimed to identify a straightforward, high-quality approach to recording surgical videos at a low economic cost in the operating room, thereby contributing to enhanced patient care.

The recording was comprised of six head and neck flap harvesting surgeries using GoPro or two types of digital cameras. Data were extracted from the recorded videos and their subsequent editing process. Some of the participants were subsequently interviewed.

Both cameras, set at 4 K resolution and 30 frames per second (fps), produced satisfactory results. The GoPro, worn on the surgeon’s head, moves in sync with the surgeon, offering a unique first-person perspective of the operation without needing an additional assistant. Though cost-effective and efficient, it lacks a zoom feature essential for close-up views. In contrast, while requiring occasional repositioning, the digital camera captures finer anatomical details due to its superior image quality and zoom capabilities.

Merging these two systems could significantly advance the field of surgical video recording. This innovation holds promise for enhancing technical communication and bolstering video-based medical education, potentially addressing the global shortage of specialized surgeons.

1) The GoPro camera offers stable vision and does not require an assistant for operation.

2) A digital camera provides images of higher quality and better anatomical detail.

3) Combining the two could result in a highly efficient and innovative method.

4) Trainees provided positive feedback on the educational impact of the videos.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Innovation often occurs when knowledge from different disciplines converges and new ideas emerge or merge to foster progress [ 1 ]. Technological advancements have introduced innovations and tools that have entered head and neck surgical practice, ranging from the operating microscope and robotic, imaging-based navigation to computer-assisted design and perfusion monitoring technologies, providing precision care and better patient prognoses [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. The combination of video recording and streaming with head and neck reconstructive surgery enables recording the surgeon’s view, allowing others to see exactly what the surgeon observes and does. Video recording technology can also be beneficial in various areas, such as technical communication, research, case data backup, and clinical education. As the saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words,” but video holds more convincing power than pictures alone. In the field of head and neck surgery, medical students and junior surgical trainees often do not acquire the full range of surgical skills during their operating room clerkships [ 5 ]. Simultaneously, the global shortage and uneven distribution of the surgical workforce are gaining recognition, with low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) in dire need of skilled surgeons [ 6 ]. There is significant demand for surgical videos in surgical education and surgeon training, especially as COVID-19 ravaged the world, affecting many residents’ clinical practice schedules to varying degrees [ 7 , 8 ]. Consequently, teaching surgical skills has become more challenging.

Digital video capture during surgical procedures is an essential technology in modern-day surgical education [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. The advent of fifth-generation mobile technology (5G) has facilitated the distribution of video formats, making it as effortless as sharing text and picture formats in the past, no longer constrained by mobile devices or network bandwidth. Recording surgeries in video format is employed across various domains, such as open surgery, microsurgery, laryngoscopy, and laparoscopy, yielding excellent outcomes regarding video quality and educational purposes [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Its benefits include 1) assisting medical students in their training, 2) enhancing comprehension of the surgical procedure and the patient’s clinical condition, 3) visualizing crucial routine manual operations, such as flap harvesting, 4) aiding in the preservation of legal evidence, and 5) providing a more precise anatomical description of body regions [ 18 ]. These critical aspects are challenging to convey effectively through descriptions, even with the support of photographs and other media.

The high construction costs associated with a dedicated medical recording system in the operating room can be prohibitive for some hospitals and medical institutions in LMICs and developed countries. Fortunately, due to the rapid advancement of technological innovation in recent years, personal digital video technologies have become more affordable and offer good image quality. Previous studies have also demonstrated that these technologies when applied to surgical video recording, can yield positive results [ 19 , 20 ]. However, few studies have compared different types of camera systems for surgical recordings.

Our study compared the GoPro (Hero 8 Black), a low-cost commercially available action camera, with two higher-priced commercial digital cameras (Canon EOS R5 and EOS 850D). We preliminarily explored other types of surgical video recording (Figure S1), as flap harvesting is a crucial operation in head and neck reconstructive surgery with significant teaching values. Our research focused on comparing the video recording outcomes of these two camera systems during flap harvesting procedures. This study aimed to identify a straightforward, high-quality approach to recording surgical videos at a low economic cost in the operating room, thereby contributing to enhanced patient care.

Materials and methods

The recordings were taken in the Department of Oral & Maxillofacial—Head Neck Oncology at the Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, from November to December 2021. A total of six operations were prospectively recorded. All patients signed informed consent forms before surgery, and the recordings did not involve any parts of the patients’ bodies outside the operative areas.

GoPro is a brand of action camera that can be attached to the body with simple accessories, enabling hands-free recording and first-person perspectives, especially in extreme sports. The GoPro HERO 8 Black (GoPro Inc, San Mateo, CA), used in this study, is currently a widely recognized product. This camera is exceptionally compact and portable, measuring 62*33.7*44.6 mm and weighing 450 g. The GoPro 8 supports stabilized 4 K video recording at 30 or 60 frames per second (fps) and slow-motion 1080P video at 240 fps. It is equipped with the HyperSmooth system, which stabilizes the video image without the need for external stabilizers, even when the surgeon wearing the device is moving. It can also connect to a smart device via a wireless network during filming to monitor the shot or even broadcast live using the GoPro Quik app. The fixed focus setting on this device maintains consistent focus, regardless of whether the subject gets closer or moves further away within a certain distance.

Generally, the term “digital camera” may also refer to the camera systems integrated into smartphones (such as an iPhone). However, surgical videos require precise documentation of operations on delicate anatomical structures, and our previous pilot study found that the images captured by smartphones (iPhone X) did not meet the requirements for teaching or technical communication. Therefore, the “digital camera” referenced in this article pertains specifically to professional digital cameras. We utilized two relatively recent models on the market, the EOS R5, Canon’s flagship product, and the EOS 850D, its entry-level counterpart.

A total of six operations were prospectively studied, involving three surgeons, seven circulating nurses, and ten surgical residents.

The surgeon wore the GoPro 8 camera attached to a unique headband (Fig.  1 ), with no additional loupes or head-mounted lighting systems to physically interfere with the camera. An iPad, connected to the GoPro and equipped with the GoPro Quik app, served as a viewfinder and remote control for recording the six operations.

The surgeon with the head-mounted camera in place to record the surgery

The digital cameras were mounted on an external tripod for recording and were set to manual mode with manual focus. The first three recordings observed that the surgical team members occasionally obscured the surgical area. Therefore, the tripod setup was modified in the subsequent three recordings, drawing on previous studies’ methods to attain a better field of view (FOV) (Fig. 2 ) [ 21 ]. The sixth surgery was recorded using an EOS 850D, while the others were documented with an EOS R5.

Post-assembly view of the modified tripod

Characterization of videos

Data for this study were extracted from the recorded videos and their subsequent editing process. Selected variables were entered into a Microsoft Excel database. The evaluated variables included: 1) the total recording time for each device during all surgeries; 2) the duration of all surgical procedures; 3) the duration of unavailable video (including obscured surgical areas, inaccurate focus, and overexposure) and their percentage of the entire surgical procedure; and 4) the file size of the original videos.

Educational impact analysis

To assess the quality of the recorded surgical videos and their applicability in teaching, we designed a questionnaire to gather opinions from three surgeons and nine resident physicians (students) on the edited videos. The surgeons’ questionnaire primarily assessed whether the videos clearly conveyed the surgeon’s operational concepts and specific details. Trainees were queried whether they could clearly view the procedures and derive educational benefits from it.

To further analyze the educational impact of the surgical videos, we established an Expert Review Panel (ERP) comprising five experts with over ten years of experience in clinical surgery and medical student education. We also created an assessment table for evaluating surgical education video (Table  1 ). The ERP reviewed six edited surgical videos and evaluated their instructional quality, clarity, stability, and effectiveness in conveying surgical techniques. Subsequently, the table was completed to categorize the overall quality of each video.

It took approximately 10 min to prepare the video equipment before surgery, including setting up the tripod, determining the recording settings, and adjusting the camera’s position. All surgeons reported that the head-mounted recording device did not interfere with the operation. The operations involved different types of flap harvesting, including ilium flap harvesting ( n  = 3), fibula flap harvesting ( n  = 1), anterolateral thigh flap harvesting ( n  = 1), and forearm flap harvesting ( n  = 1). The average duration of the operations was one and a half hours. Six surgical procedures were recorded simultaneously using both the GoPro and digital cameras. The characteristics of each surgical video are shown in Table  2 . The technical details of the two types of cameras used in the study (GoPro HERO 8 Black, EOS R5, and EOS 850D) are summarized in Table  3 . A video of the sample can be found in the Supplementary Video.

Video settings

While filming surgeries, we consulted previous studies for camera settings. Graves et al. conducted research using a GoPro camera in the operating room [ 20 ]. They selected an earlier type—the GoPro HERO 3 + Black—and concluded that with a narrow FOV, automatic white balance, 1080P resolution, and 48 fps, one could achieve high-quality, low-cost video recordings of surgical procedures. In our study, we initially tried a 1080P resolution with a narrow field and obtained relatively good results (Fig. 3 A). However, a 1080P resolution HD video consists of two million pixels (1920 × 1080), whereas a 4 K (Ultra HD) video comprises over eight million pixels (3840 × 2160). Thus, 4 K video produces a sharper image with four times the resolution of 1080P. Given that the GoPro does not support narrow-field shooting at 4 K resolution, we discovered that setting it to a “linear” FOV with 4 K resolution provided more precise and crisper imagery (Fig. 3 B). In most of our recordings, we used 4 K resolution and a frame rate of 30 fps for both the GoPro and digital cameras.

Image quality comparison of video screenshots with the magnification of 500% obtained from ( A ) 1080P narrow field and ( B ) 4K linear field. C When set to automatic metering, the intraoperative area was overexposed, and ( D ) the area was normally exposed after locked exposure. E In automatic servo focusing mode, the focal plane is not in the area but in the operator’s hand. F Manual focus keeps the focus on the area, even if the operator’s hand is covered

Light metering involves determining the necessary exposure based on environmental conditions, which can be manually adjusted by the photographer with different exposure settings or automatically by the camera’s program. The light environment of the operating room is complex, as the surgical field illuminated by a shadowless lamp is typically brighter than the surrounding area. When recording the surgical area with a digital camera that permits manual operation, it is recommended to use a smaller aperture (an opening that allows light to reach a lens) to reduce light intake and increase the depth of field (DOF), which is the range within which objects appear sharp. Although the GoPro was set to automatic metering mode due to the difficulty of manual operation, its FOV shifted with the surgeon’s head movements. As bright lights continually focused on the surgical area, rapid changes in the FOV easily caused overexposure in the operating area (Fig.  3 C). This issue was later addressed by locking the exposure before recording (Fig.  3 D).

The first recorded video revealed that the digital camera’s automatic servo focusing caused instability in the focal plane within the operational area due to various instruments and the surgeon’s hands in the surgical field (Fig.  3 E). This issue was addressed by manually focusing and locking the focal plane before recording (Fig.  3 F). However, when the position changed during the procedure, an assistant without surgical hand disinfection was required to adjust the camera promptly.

Quality of videos

The image quality of videos from three cameras was sufficient for depicting static and moving objects. However, the operating room is a unique environment where multiple factors influence the cameras’ effectiveness. These factors include the distance from the operating area, obstruction by surgical team members [ 22 ], the lens’s FOV, light overexposure, and reflection from metal instruments.

To more clearly compare the video quality of the three devices across six different head and neck reconstructive procedures, we extracted images from the video files of all devices and assessed their clarity at magnifications of 100% and 300%. Fig.  4 A-C show 100% images alongside detailed 300% magnified images captured from videos recorded by the GoPro8, EOS 850D, and EOS R5, respectively. All three devices provided precise and reliable output under various circumstances and lighting conditions.

A 100% image from uncompressed file video of GoPro8, compared with magnified 300% video image in detail. B 100% image from uncompressed file video of EOS 850D, compared with magnified 300% video image in detail. C 100% image from uncompressed file video of EOS R5, compared with magnified 300% video image in detail

Positioning in the operative room

Digital cameras capture high-definition images during surgery with accurate focus. However, there were instances when the lens was obscured by the bodies of surgical team members or instruments, missing critical moments. As shown in Table  2 , videos recorded with a digital camera placed on an unmodified tripod had a higher rate of unavailable video duration, primarily due to obscuration. The tripod was modified to position the camera’s FOV more perpendicular to the surgical area. Consequently, the average duration of unusable video recorded by the digital camera using the modified tripod was 11.3%, a significant decrease from the 37.55% average without modification.

Figure 5 depicts the positioning of the modified tripod, head-mounted camera, and surgical field used for the recording.

The position used for the recording with the surgical field and surgeon. A Ilium flap harvesting with digital camera. B Ilium flap harvesting with GoPro

Field of view

In the recordings of Anterolateral thigh flap harvesting, Ilium flap harvesting 2, and Fibula flap harvesting surgeries, the use of the GoPro resulted in a lower duration of unavailable video (1.9%, 2.5%, and 2.0%, respectively) compared to digital cameras (29.5%, 14.7%, and 5.5%), even with the tripod modified for the latter two recordings. This outcome is primarily because the surgeon’s hand often blocked the digital camera, positioned for a third-person perspective. In contrast, the GoPro, attached to the surgeon’s head, offered a viewpoint closer to the surgeon’s own eyes, thereby capturing a better visual field. The surgeon’s perspective is arguably the most advantageous, as corroborated by many previous studies that placed the camera on the surgeon’s forehead for procedural recording [ 13 , 20 , 23 ]. Rafael et al. reported that the head camera position was well-received by volunteers [ 24 ]. Though we obtained valuable images this way, there were limitations. The angle from the eye to the target point varies with the surgical techniques. Digital cameras can easily shift focus by adjusting the tripod’s position and angle to maintain the view of the surgical area; however, the GoPro’s FOV and focus are fixed upon installation, allowing horizontal adjustments, occasionally resulting in the surgical area going out of frame. Nevertheless, the GoPro’s wide FOV in both “wide” and “linear” modes generally ensures that the area remains within the shot without continuous monitoring.

Based on the images extracted from the videos, the digital camera can achieve a more detailed view of the surgical area with its zoom capabilities compared to the GoPro’s wider FOV. Although the GoPro’s images reveal clear anatomical structures upon magnification, they are not as sharp as those from the digital camera. This limitation, however, had unexpected benefits, as it could record the surgeon’s hand movements between the patient’s tissues and the instruments, providing insights into surgical hand positioning and instrument ergonomics that are crucial for training but often overlooked [ 23 ]. Experienced surgeons efficiently organize their workspace, holding instruments currently in use while preparing others for subsequent steps. On-site trainees, focusing primarily on the operative site, may miss these subtle ergonomic maneuvers. When used in education, surgical recordings simultaneously displaying the operative site and hand positioning can offer learners vital insights previously unnoticed [ 25 ].

Connectivity

All three devices possess the capability for wireless connectivity via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth systems. Video captured by these devices can be streamed in real-time to nearby mobile devices or monitors and can even be broadcast online. This feature forms the foundation for remote tele-proctoring and education purposes in surgery, a method proven to be innovative for enhancing surgical education in high-resource settings [ 26 ]. Fig.  6 illustrates the connectivity scheme, which includes a wireless link between the cameras and mobile devices through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth, facilitating further dissemination by these devices.

The camera can be connected to a mobile phone or laptop via Wi-Fi or Bluetooth or even broadcast live via the Internet for more purposes

In addition, the GoPro device itself comes equipped with a Livestream function in full 1080P HD mode. However, the video quality of the Webcast is not as high as the recordings due to limitations imposed by wireless connection speeds and bandwidth. The "choppy" nature of the video presentation during streaming can be mitigated by using a direct cable for live broadcasts, allowing direct streaming onto a monitor for local presentation or broader live broadcasts, and offering a quality superior to Wi-Fi or Bluetooth options. The downside is the cumbersome nature of the required cables.

Editing of video

Benefiting from the high resolution of 4K video, high definition is maintained even after the original video clip is magnified. Structural details are well-preserved, and the clarity of the operation remains evident in the magnified version, which can be further saved or shared. GoPro Quik, an application developed by the GoPro company, facilitates customized video editing. It can be used to edit original clips shot by the GoPro camera, re-adjust the field of interest, and conveniently export the video in the appropriate format. High-resolution video has its pros and cons. The extensive data involved makes storing and editing raw video files challenging. Future technologies should enable surgeons to ensure real-time recording of the area of interest, allowing for more manageable data acquisition without the need for zooming or cropping post-capture.

Videos for education

The results of the questionnaire were as follows. In the surgeons’ group, 100% ( n  = 3) confirmed that the videos well represented the details of their operations. In the students’ group, 66.7% of respondents ( n  = 6) rated the image quality with GoPro as excellent, and 33.3% ( n  = 3) found it fine, while for the digital camera, 88.9% of respondents ( n  = 8) rated it as excellent and 11.1% ( n  = 1) as fine (Fig.  7 ). All respondents ( n  = 9) positively affirmed that they could learn professional skills from the videos. In the evaluation conducted by the Expert Review Panel, of the six videos, four were considered suitable for clinical teaching applications, one was also suitable but required a better replacement, and one was deemed unsuitable for clinical teaching applications. However, these results must be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size.

Trainees reported satisfaction degrees from surgical videos, according to whether they can see the procedure clearly and learn from it—comparison of GoPro versus digital camera

With the increasing demand for technical communication, medical teaching, surgical procedure recording, and so on, surgical video has become a popular multimedia mode. It is a powerful medium that can enhance patient safety in several ways: education, real-time consultation, research, process improvement, and workflow coordination [ 27 ]. Operation videos can be transmitted through the internet in real-time, providing a platform for communication and cooperation between hospitals. Experienced surgeons can assess trainees’ surgical competency in an unbiased fashion through the trainees’ intraoperative video [ 28 ]. Experienced individual surgeons hope to share their professional knowledge and skills through surgical videos and achieve the purpose of self-publicity. Regarding privacy protection, Turnbull et al. emphasized that video documentation has significant ethical and legal considerations as it contains personal information and infringes on patients’ privacy [ 29 ]. The patient’s privacy should be carefully considered to avoid potential ethical and legal conflicts brought about by filming operations.

Pros and cons of two camera systems

The introduction of video technology into surgical procedures is becoming more common, and high-resolution camera technology has been integrated into surgical instrumentation for laparoscopic and minimally invasive procedures [ 30 ]. Although technology continuously evolves, leading to the adoption of many new technologies in intraoperative video recording, there are still limitations in devices for capturing open surgery. Due to economic conditions and space constraints, operating rooms are not routinely equipped with video recording equipment, making personal recording equipment a more viable solution. This study compared two technologies (GoPro and digital camera) used for intraoperative video capture in open surgeries and summarized their advantages and disadvantages (Table 4 ).

GoPro cameras are designed for extreme sports, featuring high resolution, high frame rates, small image sensors, and a lack of complete manual control. They are light and portable enough to be worn on a surgeon’s head, providing an image that approximates the natural field of vision without hindering the operation. Simultaneously, their built-in stabilizer function ensures the output image remains stable and visible. Being waterproof, they can be soaked in povidone-iodine for disinfection, facilitating hand-held shooting [ 31 ]. Existing studies confirm that this disinfection method does not compromise asepsis [ 32 ]. The built-in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth allow for remote monitoring and real-time transmission of intraoperative video. The affordability of GoPro enables doctors wanting to record surgeries to do so cost-effectively, making them accessible to surgeons from LMICs. However, the downsides are clear: users in the operating room are more likely to obtain a narrower FOV aimed at the surgical area, but the GoPro, as an action camera, is designed to capture as comprehensive a panoramic view as possible. Due to the absence of manual controls, it does not adapt well to frequent brightness changes caused by bright overhead operating room lights. Additionally, the battery capacity of the GoPro lasts approximately 60 min and may shut down if its body temperature reaches an upper limit during prolonged sessions. For extened recording times, spare batteries are necessary, and consideration of the device temperature is essential.

Digital cameras, due to their optimal optical performance and excellent zoom capabilities, can capture specific areas of interest in high quality. They are typically more durable and are generally equipped with larger image sensors, better adapting to unfavorable lighting conditions. Their robust maneuverability makes them suitable for the complex operating room environment. Digital cameras were not widely used for surgical video recording due to their high cost. However, this study shows that even inexpensive digital cameras, such as the EOS 850D, can produce adequate surgical videos. The picture quality is not significantly different from the much pricier EOS R5 when using the same 4 K 30 fps model. Of course, more expensive cameras like the EOS R5, which supports 8 K quality video, allow for a better representation of delicate anatomy.

Nevertheless, these cameras’ drawback is that they always require supports like tripods or rocker arms for steady recording. The positioning, height, and relationship with the surgical team determine the final video quality. Furthermore, an additional assistant is needed to adjust camera positions and video settings to maintain the appropriate shooting angle during the procedure. This camera operator might need to direct the surgeon to stop and start at different points throughout the surgery, potentially interfering with the surgical team. The risk of breaking sterility should also be considered when introducing an extra individual into the operating room. This cumbersome and time-consuming shooting method does not lend itself to daily, routine intraoperative videotaping.

Using either a GoPro or a digital camera is a commendable choice. According to our research, the GoPro is a highly efficient option that is better suited for personal recording and can be operated easily without an assistant. Digital cameras, though requiring additional assistance, deliver higher output quality. If the two are innovatively combined, images from different fields of vision can be captured to produce rich, comprehensive, and high-quality videos.

Application of surgical video in education and other aspects

Surgical video holds broad application prospects in medical teaching, technical communication, patient safety, workflow coordination, case data backup, research, real-time consulting, and skill improvement. With the advancement of communication facilities, real-time video recording during surgery presents extensive development prospects akin to digital twin technology [ 33 , 34 ]. Mentoring through this medium can enhance quality and patient safety throughout a medical student’s career. Future developments may involve coaching sessions or honing non-technical skills, such as optimizing teamwork in the operating room to elevate patient care.

Medical students’ journey to becoming surgeons critically requires specific technical feedback while developing foundational skills during their internships. Despite the importance of targeted feedback, medical students often endure inconsistent, fragmented, and stressful experiences in the operating room [ 5 ]. Compounding these challenges, a study on oral and maxillofacial surgery trainees in the United States revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the scheduling of non-urgent and elective operations [ 35 ]. With approximately 2.28 million more skilled medical professionals needed to meet the global demand for surgical procedures [ 6 ], training a substantial cohort of future surgeons is a pressing, worldwide challenge.

In addition to traditional book learning and clinical practice, watching surgical videos can help medical students acquire technical details related to surgical operations more precisely, and some critical but fleeting points can be repeated during video playback. Video-based interventions to enhance surgical skills are gaining attention for their educational applications and related research [ 12 ]. The use of video technology in teaching is relatively common in other fields, including sports. In head and neck surgery, some advantages of utilizing high-quality surgical recordings as educational tools are as follows: 1) They provide clear, sharp images that depict fine anatomical structure; 2) Learning through videos offers a more intuitive experience, as viewing surgery footage from a first-person perspective affords residents a more immersive sensation, encouraging them to conceptualize the surgery from the surgeon’s viewpoint; 3) Video recordings of resident physicians’ operations facilitate the assessment of their skill levels, paving the way for enhanced performance; 4) Essential intraoperative findings can be documented and elucidated; 5) The zoom feature enables close-up, detailed recording of surgical procedures and anatomical nuances.

Leveraging the Wi-Fi and Bluetooth capabilities of recording devices, real-time videos can be streamed to mobile phones or laptops or even broadcast live over the internet for tele-proctoring. This emerging technology allows instructors to provide real-time guidance and technical support through audio and video interactions from various geographical locations. This method effectively circumvents the additional logistical costs, time constraints, and challenges posed by distance that are inherent when instructors physically travel to the field [ 36 ]. McCullough et al. [ 26 ] previously explored the feasibility of wearable recording technology in expanding the reach and availability of specialized surgical training in LMICs, using Mozambique as a case study. Their research suggests that this educational model connects surgeons globally and fosters advanced mentoring in regions where surgical trainees have limited opportunities.

Limitations

The findings of this study must be considered within the context of certain limitations. The research was single-centered with a limited number of surgeons involved, and only a single brand of digital camera was selected, which may lead to a lack of diversity and overlook ergonomic differences between types of surgeries and the subtle imaging details between different camera manufacturers. The assessment of the impact of video on teaching also had a small sample size, so potential biases in questionnaire feedback should be considered. Furthermore, there is a persistent need for objective and repeatable metrics to conclusively demonstrate the efficacy of camera technology in clinical education, continuous performance improvement, and quality enhancement initiatives.

Considering that the primary aim of this study was to compare and recommend a high-quality approach for recording surgical videos, future research will focus on conducting multi-centered studies with larger sample sizes and emphasis on the diversity of surgical specialties and camera brands. It is also essential to assess its application more effectively in a learning experience in surgical education, not only in head and neck surgery but also in other surgical areas. Future studies will improve the evaluation of skill levels through practical techniques and written exams, study learning curves in relation to surgical timing, analyze cost-effectiveness, and gather evaluations from the trainer’s perspective.

The field of head and neck surgery has consistently welcomed innovation, embracing the introduction of new techniques into surgical practice. There is a substantial demand and room for development in the domain of open surgical recordings. Surgical video recording serves the purpose of technical communication and accomplishes the objective of medical education through real-time connectivity, addressing the current global shortage of specialized surgeons. The two systems examined in this study, the GoPro and the digital camera, each have distinct features and advantages. The GoPro, an affordable and physician-independent solution, offers a stable and continuous view of the surgical area, though it lacks a medical-specific design and a zoom function. On the other hand, despite requiring periodic repositioning and potentially distracting the surgical team, the digital camera delivers superior visibility of anatomical details and higher image quality.

Availability of data and materials

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its supplementary materials.

Suchyta M, Mardini S. Innovations and future directions in head and neck microsurgical reconstruction. Clin Plast Surg. 2017;44(2):325–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cps.2016.11.009 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Tarsitano A, Battaglia S, Ciocca L, Scotti R, Cipriani R, Marchetti C. Surgical reconstruction of maxillary defects using a computer-assisted design/computer-assisted manufacturing-produced titanium mesh supporting a free flap. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2016;44(9):1320–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcms.2016.07.013 .

Rana M, Essig H, Eckardt AM, et al. Advances and innovations in computer-assisted head and neck oncologic surgery. J Craniofac Surg. 2012;23(1):272–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0b013e318241bac7 .

Poon H, Li C, Gao W, Ren H, Lim CM. Evolution of robotic systems for transoral head and neck surgery. Oral Oncol. 2018;87:82–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oraloncology.2018.10.020 .

Alameddine MB, Englesbe MJ, Waits SA. A video-based coaching intervention to improve surgical skill in fourth-year medical students. J Surg Educ. 2018;75(6):1475–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2018.04.003 .

Meara JG, Leather AJM, Hagander L, et al. Global surgery 2030: evidence and solutions for achieving health, welfare, and economic development. Lancet. 2015;386(9993):569–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(15)60160-x .

Huntley RE, Ludwig DC, Dillon JK. Early effects of COVID-19 on oral and maxillofacial surgery residency training-results from a national survey. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2020;78(8):1257–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2020.05.026 .

Shah JP. The impact of COVID-19 on head and neck surgery, education, and training. Head Neck. 2020;42(6):1344–7. https://doi.org/10.1002/hed.26188 .

Augestad KM, Lindsetmo RO. Overcoming distance: video-conferencing as a clinical and educational tool among surgeons. World J Surg. 2009;33(7):1356–65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00268-009-0036-0 .

Hu YY, Mazer LM, Yule SJ, et al. Complementing operating room teaching with video-based coaching. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(4):318–25. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2016.4619 .

Augestad KM, Butt K, Ignjatovic D, Keller DS, Kiran R. Video-based coaching in surgical education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Surg Endosc. 2020;34(2):521–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00464-019-07265-0 .

Greenberg CC, Dombrowski J, Dimick JB. Video-based surgical coaching: an emerging approach to performance improvement. JAMA Surg. 2016;151(3):282–3. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamasurg.2015.4442 .

Bizzotto N, Sandri A, Lavini F, Dall’Oca C, Regis D. Video in operating room: GoPro HERO3 camera on surgeon’s head to film operations–a test. Surg Innov. 2014;21(3):338–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/1553350613513514 .

Matsumoto S, Sekine K, Yamazaki M, et al. Digital video recording in trauma surgery using commercially available equipment. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2013;21:27. https://doi.org/10.1186/1757-7241-21-27 .

Knight H, Gajendragadkar P, Bokhari A. Wearable technology: using Google Glass as a teaching tool. BMJ Case Rep. 2015;2015:bcr2014208768. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2014-208768 .

Liao CH, Ooyang CH, Chen CC, et al. Video coaching improving contemporary technical and nontechnical ability in laparoscopic education. J Surg Educ. 2020;77(3):652–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2019.11.012 .

Volz S, Stevens TP, Dadiz R. A randomized controlled trial: does coaching using video during direct laryngoscopy improve residents’ success in neonatal intubations? J Perinatol. 2018;38(8):1074–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41372-018-0134-7 .

Giusto G, Caramello V, Comino F, Gandini M. The surgeon’s view: comparison of two digital video recording systems in veterinary surgery. J Vet Med Educ. 2015;42(2):161–5. https://doi.org/10.3138/jvme.0814-088R1 .

Silberthau KR, Chao TN, Newman JG. Innovating surgical education using video in the otolaryngology operating room. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2020;146(4):321–2. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoto.2019.4862 .

Graves SN, Shenaq DS, Langerman AJ, Song DH. Video capture of plastic surgery procedures using the GoPro HERO 3+. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2015;3(2):e312. https://doi.org/10.1097/gox.0000000000000242 .

Kapi E. Surgeon-manipulated live surgery video recording apparatuses: personal experience and review of literature. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2017;41(3):738–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00266-017-0826-y .

Kajita H, Takatsume Y, Shimizu T, Saito H, Kishi K. Overhead multiview camera system for recording open surgery. Plastic and reconstructive surgery Global open. 2020;8(4):e2765. https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000002765 .

Warrian KJ, Ashenhurst M, Gooi A, Gooi P. A novel combination point-of-view (POV) action camera recording to capture the surgical field and instrument ergonomics in oculoplastic surgery. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2015;31(4):321–2. https://doi.org/10.1097/iop.0000000000000465 .

Chaves RO, de Oliveira PAV, Rocha LC, et al. An innovative streaming video system with a point-of-view head camera transmission of surgeries to smartphones and tablets: an educational utility. Surg Innov. 2017;24(5):462–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/1553350617715162 .

Wentzell D, Dort J, Gooi A, Gooi P, Warrian K. Surgeon and assistant point of view simultaneous video recording. Studies in health technology and informatics. 2019;257:489–93.

Google Scholar  

McCullough MC, Kulber L, Sammons P, Santos P, Kulber DA. Google glass for remote surgical tele-proctoring in low- and middle-income countries: a feasibility study from Mozambique. Plastic and reconstructive surgery Global open. 2018;6(12):e1999. https://doi.org/10.1097/GOX.0000000000001999 .

Xiao Y, Schimpff S, Mackenzie C, et al. Video technology to advance safety in the operating room and perioperative environment. Surg Innov. 2007;14(1):52–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1553350607299777 .

Berger AJ, Gaster RS, Lee GK. Development of an affordable system for personalized video-documented surgical skill analysis for surgical residency training. Ann Plast Surg. 2013;70(4):442–6. https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0b013e31827e513c .

Turnbull AM, Emsley ES. Video recording of ophthalmic surgery–ethical and legal considerations. Surv Ophthalmol. 2014;59(5):553–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.survophthal.2014.01.006 .

Rassweiler JJ, Teber D. Advances in laparoscopic surgery in urology. Nat Rev Urol. 2016;13(7):387–99. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2016.70 .

Navia A, Parada L, Urbina G, Vidal C, Morovic CG. Optimizing intraoral surgery video recording for residents’ training during the COVID-19 pandemic: Comparison of 3 point of views using a GoPro. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2021;74(5):1101–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjps.2020.10.068 .

Purnell CA, Alkureishi LWT, Koranda C, Patel PK. Use of a waterproof camera immersed in povidone-iodine to improve intraoperative photography. Plastic and reconstructive surgery. 2019;143(3):962–5. https://doi.org/10.1097/prs.0000000000005327 .

Ahmed H, Devoto L. The potential of a digital twin in surgery. Surg Innov. 2021;28(4):509–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1553350620975896 .

Laaki H, Miche Y, Tammi K. Prototyping a digital twin for real time remote control over mobile networks: application of remote surgery. IEEE Access. 2019;7:20325–36. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2019.2897018 .

Hope C, Reilly JJ, Griffiths G, Lund J, Humes D. The impact of COVID-19 on surgical training: a systematic review. Tech Coloproctol. 2021;25(5):505–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10151-020-02404-5 .

Ereso AQ, Garcia P, Tseng E, et al. Live transference of surgical subspecialty skills using telerobotic proctoring to remote general surgeons. J Am Coll Surg. 2010;211(3):400–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.05.014 .

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to the surgeons and students who participated in this study. Special thanks are also extended to Dr. Jun Jia and Dr. Kun Lv from the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery at the School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, for their assistance with the surgical cases.

This study was supported by Wuhan University Undergraduate Education Quality Improvement and Comprehensive Reform Project (1607–413200072), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Wuhan University, Clinical Medicine + X) (2042024YXB017), Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (2018M630883& 2019T120688), Hubei Province Chinese Medicine Research Project (ZY20230015), Natural Science Foundation of Hubei Province (2023AFB665), and Medical Young Talents Program of Hubei Province, and Wuhan Young Medical Talents Training Project to L.-L. Bu.

Author information

Xin-Yue Huang and Zhe Shao contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

State Key Laboratory of Oral & Maxillofacial Reconstruction and Regeneration, Key Laboratory of Oral Biomedicine Ministry of Education, Hubei Key Laboratory of Stomatology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

Xin-Yue Huang, Zhe Shao, Nian-Nian Zhong, Yuan-Hao Wen, Tian-Fu Wu, Bing Liu, Si-Rui Ma & Lin-Lin Bu

Department of Oral & Maxillofacial - Head Neck Oncology, School & Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China

Zhe Shao, Tian-Fu Wu, Bing Liu, Si-Rui Ma & Lin-Lin Bu

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

XYH: Methodology, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing. ZS: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft. NNZ: Methodology, Investigation, Writing—Review & Editing. YHW: Visualization, Writing—Review & Editing. TFW: Investigation, Writing—Review & Editing. BL: Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. SRM: Conceptualization, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision. LLB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—Review & Editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of this manuscript for publication. Each author agrees to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Si-Rui Ma or Lin-Lin Bu .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Stomatology of Wuhan University (Approval No. 2022B11), and followed the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical Association. Informed consent was obtained fom all subjects involved in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary material 1..

Supplementary Material 2.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Huang, XY., Shao, Z., Zhong, NN. et al. Comparative analysis of GoPro and digital cameras in head and neck flap harvesting surgery video documentation: an innovative and efficient method for surgical education. BMC Med Educ 24 , 531 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05510-2

Download citation

Received : 18 November 2023

Accepted : 02 May 2024

Published : 14 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05510-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Head and neck surgery
• Surgery video recording
• Video-based education
• Medical education

BMC Medical Education

ISSN: 1472-6920

• Submission enquiries: [email protected]
• General enquiries: [email protected]