group projects in education

Center for Teaching

Group work: using cooperative learning groups effectively.

Many instructors from disciplines across the university use group work to enhance their students’ learning. Whether the goal is to increase student understanding of content, to build particular transferable skills, or some combination of the two, instructors often turn to small group work to capitalize on the benefits of peer-to-peer instruction. This type of group work is formally termed cooperative learning, and is defined as the instructional use of small groups to promote students working together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson, et al., 2008).

Cooperative learning is characterized by positive interdependence, where students perceive that better performance by individuals produces better performance by the entire group (Johnson, et al., 2014). It can be formal or informal, but often involves specific instructor intervention to maximize student interaction and learning. It is infinitely adaptable, working in small and large classes and across disciplines, and can be one of the most effective teaching approaches available to college instructors.

What can it look like?

What’s the theoretical underpinning, is there evidence that it works.

• What are approaches that can help make it effective?

Informal cooperative learning groups In informal cooperative learning, small, temporary, ad-hoc groups of two to four students work together for brief periods in a class, typically up to one class period, to answer questions or respond to prompts posed by the instructor.

Additional examples of ways to structure informal group work

Think-pair-share

The instructor asks a discussion question. Students are instructed to think or write about an answer to the question before turning to a peer to discuss their responses. Groups then share their responses with the class.

Peer Instruction

This modification of the think-pair-share involves personal responses devices (e.g. clickers). The question posted is typically a conceptually based multiple-choice question. Students think about their answer and vote on a response before turning to a neighbor to discuss. Students can change their answers after discussion, and “sharing” is accomplished by the instructor revealing the graph of student response and using this as a stimulus for large class discussion. This approach is particularly well-adapted for large classes.

In this approach, groups of students work in a team of four to become experts on one segment of new material, while other “expert teams” in the class work on other segments of new material. The class then rearranges, forming new groups that have one member from each expert team. The members of the new team then take turns teaching each other the material on which they are experts.

Formal cooperative learning groups

In formal cooperative learning students work together for one or more class periods to complete a joint task or assignment (Johnson et al., 2014). There are several features that can help these groups work well:

• The instructor defines the learning objectives for the activity and assigns students to groups.
• The groups are typically heterogeneous, with particular attention to the skills that are needed for success in the task.
• Within the groups, students may be assigned specific roles, with the instructor communicating the criteria for success and the types of social skills that will be needed.
• Importantly, the instructor continues to play an active role during the groups’ work, monitoring the work and evaluating group and individual performance.
• Instructors also encourage groups to reflect on their interactions to identify potential improvements for future group work.

This video shows an example of formal cooperative learning groups in David Matthes’ class at the University of Minnesota:

There are many more specific types of group work that fall under the general descriptions given here, including team-based learning , problem-based learning , and process-oriented guided inquiry learning .

The use of cooperative learning groups in instruction is based on the principle of constructivism, with particular attention to the contribution that social interaction can make. In essence, constructivism rests on the idea that individuals learn through building their own knowledge, connecting new ideas and experiences to existing knowledge and experiences to form new or enhanced understanding (Bransford, et al., 1999). The consideration of the role that groups can play in this process is based in social interdependence theory, which grew out of Kurt Koffka’s and Kurt Lewin’s identification of groups as dynamic entities that could exhibit varied interdependence among members, with group members motivated to achieve common goals. Morton Deutsch conceptualized varied types of interdependence, with positive correlation among group members’ goal achievements promoting cooperation.

Lev Vygotsky extended this work by examining the relationship between cognitive processes and social activities, developing the sociocultural theory of development. The sociocultural theory of development suggests that learning takes place when students solve problems beyond their current developmental level with the support of their instructor or their peers. Thus both the idea of a zone of proximal development, supported by positive group interdependence, is the basis of cooperative learning (Davidson and Major, 2014; Johnson, et al., 2014).

Cooperative learning follows this idea as groups work together to learn or solve a problem, with each individual responsible for understanding all aspects. The small groups are essential to this process because students are able to both be heard and to hear their peers, while in a traditional classroom setting students may spend more time listening to what the instructor says.

Cooperative learning uses both goal interdependence and resource interdependence to ensure interaction and communication among group members. Changing the role of the instructor from lecturing to facilitating the groups helps foster this social environment for students to learn through interaction.

David Johnson, Roger Johnson, and Karl Smith performed a meta-analysis of 168 studies comparing cooperative learning to competitive learning and individualistic learning in college students (Johnson et al., 2006). They found that cooperative learning produced greater academic achievement than both competitive learning and individualistic learning across the studies, exhibiting a mean weighted effect size of 0.54 when comparing cooperation and competition and 0.51 when comparing cooperation and individualistic learning. In essence, these results indicate that cooperative learning increases student academic performance by approximately one-half of a standard deviation when compared to non-cooperative learning models, an effect that is considered moderate. Importantly, the academic achievement measures were defined in each study, and ranged from lower-level cognitive tasks (e.g., knowledge acquisition and retention) to higher level cognitive activity (e.g., creative problem solving), and from verbal tasks to mathematical tasks to procedural tasks. The meta-analysis also showed substantial effects on other metrics, including self-esteem and positive attitudes about learning. George Kuh and colleagues also conclude that cooperative group learning promotes student engagement and academic performance (Kuh et al., 2007).

Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) confirmed these results in their meta-analysis of 39 studies in university STEM classrooms. They found that students who participated in various types of small-group learning, ranging from extended formal interactions to brief informal interactions, had greater academic achievement, exhibited more favorable attitudes towards learning, and had increased persistence through STEM courses than students who did not participate in STEM small-group learning.

The box below summarizes three individual studies examining the effects of cooperative learning groups.

What are approaches that can help make group work effective?

Preparation

Articulate your goals for the group work, including both the academic objectives you want the students to achieve and the social skills you want them to develop.

Determine the group conformation that will help meet your goals.

• In informal group learning, groups often form ad hoc from near neighbors in a class.
• In formal group learning, it is helpful for the instructor to form groups that are heterogeneous with regard to particular skills or abilities relevant to group tasks. For example, groups may be heterogeneous with regard to academic skill in the discipline or with regard to other skills related to the group task (e.g., design capabilities, programming skills, writing skills, organizational skills) (Johnson et al, 2006).
• Groups from 2-6 are generally recommended, with groups that consist of three members exhibiting the best performance in some problem-solving tasks (Johnson et al., 2006; Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992).
• To avoid common problems in group work, such as dominance by a single student or conflict avoidance, it can be useful to assign roles to group members (e.g., manager, skeptic, educator, conciliator) and to rotate them on a regular basis (Heller and Hollabaugh, 1992). Assigning these roles is not necessary in well-functioning groups, but can be useful for students who are unfamiliar with or unskilled at group work.

Choose an assessment method that will promote positive group interdependence as well as individual accountability.

• In team-based learning, two approaches promote positive interdependence and individual accountability. First, students take an individual readiness assessment test, and then immediately take the same test again as a group. Their grade is a composite of the two scores. Second, students complete a group project together, and receive a group score on the project. They also, however, distribute points among their group partners, allowing student assessment of members’ contributions to contribute to the final score.
• Heller and Hollabaugh (1992) describe an approach in which they incorporated group problem-solving into a class. Students regularly solved problems in small groups, turning in a single solution. In addition, tests were structured such that 25% of the points derived from a group problem, where only those individuals who attended the group problem-solving sessions could participate in the group test problem.  This approach can help prevent the “free rider” problem that can plague group work.
• The University of New South Wales describes a variety of ways to assess group work , ranging from shared group grades, to grades that are averages of individual grades, to strictly individual grades, to a combination of these. They also suggest ways to assess not only the product of the group work but also the process.  Again, having a portion of a grade that derives from individual contribution helps combat the free rider problem.

Helping groups get started

Explain the group’s task, including your goals for their academic achievement and social interaction.

Explain how the task involves both positive interdependence and individual accountability, and how you will be assessing each.

Assign group roles or give groups prompts to help them articulate effective ways for interaction. The University of New South Wales provides a valuable set of tools to help groups establish good practices when first meeting. The site also provides some exercises for building group dynamics; these may be particularly valuable for groups that will be working on larger projects.

Monitoring group work

Regularly observe group interactions and progress , either by circulating during group work, collecting in-process documents, or both. When you observe problems, intervene to help students move forward on the task and work together effectively. The University of New South Wales provides handouts that instructors can use to promote effective group interactions, such as a handout to help students listen reflectively or give constructive feedback , or to help groups identify particular problems that they may be encountering.

Assessing and reflecting

In addition to providing feedback on group and individual performance (link to preparation section above), it is also useful to provide a structure for groups to reflect on what worked well in their group and what could be improved. Graham Gibbs (1994) suggests using the checklists shown below.

The University of New South Wales provides other reflective activities that may help students identify effective group practices and avoid ineffective practices in future cooperative learning experiences.

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school . Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Bruffee, K. A. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Cabrera, A. F., Crissman, J. L., Bernal, E. M., Nora, A., Terenzini, P. T., & Pascarella, E. T. (2002). Collaborative learning: Its impact on college students’ development and diversity. Journal of College Student Development, 43 (1), 20-34.

Davidson, N., & Major, C. H. (2014). Boundary crossing: Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, and problem-based learning. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 7-55.

Dees, R. L. (1991). The role of cooperative leaning in increasing problem-solving ability in a college remedial course. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 22 (5), 409-21.

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7 (1).

Heller, P., and Hollabaugh, M. (1992) Teaching problem solving through cooperative grouping. Part 2: Designing problems and structuring groups. American Journal of Physics 60, 637-644.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2006). Active learning: Cooperation in the university classroom (3 rd edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Holubec, E.J. (2008). Cooperation in the classroom (8 th edition). Edina, MN: Interaction.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R.T., and Smith, K.A. (2014). Cooperative learning: Improving university instruction by basing practice on validated theory. Journl on Excellence in College Teaching 25, 85-118.

Jones, D. J., & Brickner, D. (1996). Implementation of cooperative learning in a large-enrollment basic mechanics course. American Society for Engineering Education Annual Conference Proceedings.

Kuh, G.D., Kinzie, J., Buckley, J., Bridges, B., and Hayek, J.C. (2007). Piecing together the student success puzzle: Research, propositions, and recommendations (ASHE Higher Education Report, No. 32). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Love, A. G., Dietrich, A., Fitzgerald, J., & Gordon, D. (2014). Integrating collaborative learning inside and outside the classroom. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25 (3&4), 177-196.

Smith, M. E., Hinckley, C. C., & Volk, G. L. (1991). Cooperative learning in the undergraduate laboratory. Journal of Chemical Education 68 (5), 413-415.

Springer, L., Stanne, M. E., & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 96 (1), 21-51.

Uribe, D., Klein, J. D., & Sullivan, H. (2003). The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving ill-defined problems. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51 (1), 5-19.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Eberly Center

Teaching excellence & educational innovation, using group projects effectively.

If structured well, group projects can promote important intellectual and social skills and help to prepare students for a work world in which teamwork and collaboration are increasingly the norm. This section provides advice for faculty employing group projects. We examine the following questions:

• What are the benefits of group work?
• What are the challenges of group work, and how can I address them?
• What are best practices for designing group projects?
• How can I compose groups?
• How can I monitor groups?
• How can I assess group work?
• Sample group project tools

This site supplements our 1-on-1 teaching consultations. CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

Ideas for Great Group Work

Many students, particularly if they are new to college, don’t like group assignments and projects. They might say they “work better by themselves” and be wary of irresponsible members of their group dragging down their grade. Or they may feel group projects take too much time and slow down the progression of the class. This blog post by a student— 5 Reasons I Hate Group Projects —might sound familiar to many faculty assigning in-class group work and longer-term projects in their courses.

We all recognize that learning how to work effectively in groups is an essential skill that will be used by students in practically every career in the private sector or academia. But, with the hesitancy of students towards group work and how it might impact their grade, how do we make group in-class work, assignments, or long-term projects beneficial and even exciting to students?

The methods and ideas in this post have been compiled from Duke faculty who we have consulted with as part of our work in Learning Innovation or have participated in one of our programs. Also included are ideas from colleagues at other universities with whom we have talked at conferences and other venues about group work practices in their own classrooms.

Have clear goals and purpose

Students want to know why they are being assigned certain kinds of work – how it fits into the larger goals of the class and the overall assessment of their performance in the course. Make sure you explain your goals for assigning in-class group work or projects in the course. You may wish to share:

• Information on the importance of developing skills in group work and how this benefits the students in the topics presented in the course.
• Examples of how this type of group work will be used in the discipline outside of the classroom.
• How the assignment or project benefits from multiple perspectives or dividing the work among more than one person.

Some faculty give students the option to come to a consensus on the specifics of how group work will count in the course, within certain parameters. This can help students feel they have some control over their own learning process and and can put less emphasis on grades and more on the importance of learning the skills of working in groups.

Choose the right assignment

Some in-class activities, short assignments or projects are not suitable for working in groups. To ensure student success, choose the right class activity or assignment for groups.

• Would the workload of the project or activity require more than one person to finish it properly?
• Is this something where multiple perspectives create a greater whole?
• Does this draw on knowledge and skills that are spread out among the students?
• Will the group process used in the activity or project give students a tangible benefit to learning in and engagement with the course?

Help students learn the skills of working in groups

Students in your course may have never been asked to work in groups before. If they have worked in groups in previous courses, they may have had bad experiences that color their reaction to group work in your course. They may have never had the resources and support to make group assignments and projects a compelling experience.

One of the most important things you can do as an instructor is to consider all of the skills that go into working in groups and to design your activities and assignments with an eye towards developing those skills.

In a group assignment, students may be asked to break down a project into steps, plan strategy, organize their time, and coordinate efforts in the context of a group of people they may have never met before.

Consider these ideas to help your students learn group work skills in your course.

• Give a short survey to your class about their previous work in groups to gauge areas where they might need help: ask about what they liked best and least about group work, dynamics of groups they have worked in, time management, communication skills or other areas important in the assignment you are designing.
• Allow time in class for students in groups to get to know each other. This can be a simple as brief introductions, an in-class active learning activity or the drafting of a team charter.
• Based on the activity you are designing and the skills that would be involved in working as a group, assemble some links to web resources that students can draw on for more information, such as sites that explain how to delegate and share responsibilities, conflict resolution, or planning a project and time management. You can also address these issues in class with the students.
• Have a plan for clarifying questions or possible problems that may emerge with an assignment or project.   Are there ways you can ask questions or get draft material to spot areas where students are having difficulty understanding the assignment or having difficulty with group dynamics that might impact the work later?

Designing the assignment or project

The actual design of the class activity or project can help the students transition into group work processes and gain confidence with the skills involved in group dynamics.   When designing your assignment, consider these ideas.

• Break the assignment down into steps or stages to help students become familiar with the process of planning the project as a group.
• Suggest roles for participants in each group to encourage building expertise and expertise and to illustrate ways to divide responsibility for the work.
• Use interim drafts for longer projects to help students manage their time and goals and spot early problems with group projects.
• Limit their resources (such as giving them material to work with or certain subsets of information) to encourage more close cooperation.
• Encourage diversity in groups to spread experience and skill levels and to get students to work with colleagues in the course who they may not know.

Promote individual responsibility

Students always worry about how the performance of other students in a group project might impact their grade. A way to allay those fears is to build individual responsibility into both the course grade and the logistics of group work.

• Build “slack days” into the course. Allow a prearranged number of days when individuals can step away from group work to focus on other classes or campus events. Individual students claim “slack days” in advance, informing both the members of their group and the instructor. Encourage students to work out how the group members will deal with conflicting dates if more than one student in a group wants to claim the same dates.
• Combine a group grade with an individual grade for independent write-ups, journal entries, and reflections.
• Have students assess their fellow group members. Teammates is an online application that can automate this process.
• If you are having students assume roles in group class activities and projects, have them change roles in different parts of the class or project so that one student isn’t “stuck” doing one task for the group.

Gather feedback

To improve your group class activities and assignments, gather reflective feedback from students on what is and isn’t working. You can also share good feedback with future classes to help them understand the value of the activities they’re working on in groups.

• For in-class activities, have students jot down thoughts at the end of class on a notecard for you to review.
• At the end of a larger project, or at key points when you have them submit drafts, ask the students for an “assignment wrapper”—a short reflection on the assignment or short answers to a series of questions.

Further resources

Information for faculty

Best practices for designing group projects (Eberly Center, Carnegie Mellon)

Building Teamwork Process Skills in Students (Shannon Ciston, UC Berkeley)

Working with Student Teams   (Bart Pursel, Penn State)

Barkley, E.F., Cross, K.P., and Major, C.H. (2005). Collaborative learning techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Thompson, L.L. (2004). Making the team: A guide for managers. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.

Information for students

10 tips for working effectively in groups (Vancouver Island University Learning Matters)

Teamwork skills: being an effective group member (University of Waterloo Centre for Teaching Excellence)

5 ways to survive a group project in college (HBCU Lifestyle)

Group project tips for online courses (Drexel Online)

Group Writing (Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill)

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Many students have had little experience working in groups in an academic setting. While there are many excellent books and articles describing group processes, this guide is intended to be short and simply written for students who are working in groups, but who may not be very interested in too much detail. It also provides teachers (and students) with tips on assigning group projects, ways to organize groups, and what to do when the process goes awry.

Some reasons to ask students to work in groups

Asking students to work in small groups allows students to learn interactively. Small groups are good for:

• generating a broad array of possible alternative points of view or solutions to a problem
• giving students a chance to work on a project that is too large or complex for an individual
• allowing students with different backgrounds to bring their special knowledge, experience, or skills to a project, and to explain their orientation to others
• giving students a chance to teach each other
• giving students a structured experience so they can practice skills applicable to professional situations

Some benefits of working in groups (even for short periods of time in class)

• Students who have difficulty talking in class may speak in a small group.
• More students, overall, have a chance to participate in class.
• Talking in groups can help overcome the anonymity and passivity of a large class or a class meeting in a poorly designed room.
• Students who expect to participate actively prepare better for class.

Caveat: If you ask students to work in groups, be clear about your purpose, and communicate it to them. Students who fear that group work is a potential waste of valuable time may benefit from considering the reasons and benefits above.

Large projects over a period of time

Faculty asking students to work in groups over a long period of time can do a few things to make it easy for the students to work:

• The biggest student complaint about group work is that it takes a lot of time and planning. Let students know about the project at the beginning of the term, so they can plan their time.
• At the outset, provide group guidelines and your expectations.
• Monitor the groups periodically to make sure they are functioning effectively.
• If the project is to be completed outside of class, it can be difficult to find common times to meet and to find a room. Some faculty members provide in-class time for groups to meet. Others help students find rooms to meet in.

Forming the group

• Forming the group. Should students form their own groups or should they be assigned? Most people prefer to choose whom they work with. However, many students say they welcome both kinds of group experiences, appreciating the value of hearing the perspective of another discipline, or another background.
• Size. Appropriate group size depends on the nature of the project.  If the group is small and one person drops out, can the remaining people do the work? If the group is large, will more time be spent on organizing themselves and trying to make decisions than on productive work?
• Resources for students. Provide a complete class list, with current email addresses. (Students like having this anyway so they can work together even if group projects are not assigned.)
• Students that don't fit. You might anticipate your response to the one or two exceptions of a person who really has difficulty in the group. After trying various remedies, is there an out—can this person join another group? work on an independent project?

Organizing the work

Unless part of the goal is to give people experience in the process of goal-setting, assigning tasks, and so forth, the group will be able to work more efficiently if they are provided with some of the following:

• Clear goals. Why are they working together? What are they expected to accomplish?
• Ways to break down the task into smaller units
• Ways to allocate responsibility for different aspects of the work
• Ways to allocate organizational responsibility
• A sample time line with suggested check points for stages of work to be completed

Caveat: Setting up effective small group assignments can take a lot of faculty time and organization.

Getting Started

• Groups work best if people know each others' names and a bit of their background and experience, especially those parts that are related to the task at hand. Take time to introduce yourselves.
• Be sure to include everyone when considering ideas about how to proceed as a group. Some may never have participated in a small group in an academic setting. Others may have ideas about what works well. Allow time for people to express their inexperience and hesitations as well as their experience with group projects.
• Most groups select a leader early on, especially if the work is a long-term project. Other options for leadership in long-term projects include taking turns for different works or different phases of the work.
• Everyone needs to discuss and clarify the goals of the group's work. Go around the group and hear everyone's ideas (before discussing them) or encourage divergent thinking by brainstorming. If you miss this step, trouble may develop part way through the project. Even though time is scarce and you may have a big project ahead of you, groups may take some time to settle in to work. If you anticipate this, you may not be too impatient with the time it takes to get started.

Organizing the Work

• Break up big jobs into smaller pieces. Allocate responsibility for different parts of the group project to different individuals or teams. Do not forget to account for assembling pieces into final form.
• Develop a timeline, including who will do what, in what format, by when. Include time at the end for assembling pieces into final form. (This may take longer than you anticipate.) At the end of each meeting, individuals should review what work they expect to complete by the following session.

Understanding and Managing Group Processes

• Groups work best if everyone has a chance to make strong contributions to the discussion at meetings and to the work of the group project.
• At the beginning of each meeting, decide what you expect to have accomplished by the end of the meeting.
• Someone (probably not the leader) should write all ideas, as they are suggested, on the board, a collaborative document, or on large sheets of paper. Designate a recorder of the group's decisions. Allocate responsibility for group process (especially if you do not have a fixed leader) such as a time manager for meetings and someone who periodically says that it is time to see how things are going (see below).
• What leadership structure does the group want? One designated leader? rotating leaders? separately assigned roles?
• Are any more ground rules needed, such as starting meetings on time, kinds of interruptions allowed, and so forth?
• Is everyone contributing to discussions? Can discussions be managed differently so all can participate? Are people listening to each other and allowing for different kinds of contributions?
• Are all members accomplishing the work expected of them? Is there anything group members can do to help those experiencing difficulty?
• Are there disagreements or difficulties within the group that need to be addressed? (Is someone dominating? Is someone left out?)
• Is outside help needed to solve any problems?
• Is everyone enjoying the work?

Including Everyone and Their Ideas

Groups work best if everyone is included and everyone has a chance to contribute ideas. The group's task may seem overwhelming to some people, and they may have no idea how to go about accomplishing it. To others, the direction the project should take may seem obvious. The job of the group is to break down the work into chunks, and to allow everyone to contribute. The direction that seems obvious to some may turn out not to be so obvious after all. In any event, it will surely be improved as a result of some creative modification.

Encouraging Ideas

The goal is to produce as many ideas as possible in a short time without evaluating them. All ideas are carefully listened to but not commented on and are usually written on the board or large sheets of paper so everyone can see them, and so they don't get forgotten or lost. Take turns by going around the group—hear from everyone, one by one.

One specific method is to generate ideas through brainstorming. People mention ideas in any order (without others' commenting, disagreeing or asking too many questions). The advantage of brainstorming is that ideas do not become closely associated with the individuals who suggested them. This process encourages creative thinking, if it is not rushed and if all ideas are written down (and therefore, for the time-being, accepted). A disadvantage: when ideas are suggested quickly, it is more difficult for shy participants or for those who are not speaking their native language. One approach is to begin by brainstorming and then go around the group in a more structured way asking each person to add to the list.

Examples of what to say:

• Why don't we take a minute or two for each of us to present our views?
• Let's get all our ideas out before evaluating them. We'll clarify them before we organize or evaluate them.
• We'll discuss all these ideas after we hear what everyone thinks.
• You don't have to agree with her, but let her finish.
• Let's spend a few more minutes to see if there are any possibilities we haven't thought of, no matter how unlikely they seem.

Group Leadership

• The leader is responsible for seeing that the work is organized so that it will get done. The leader is also responsible for understanding and managing group interactions so that the atmosphere is positive.
• The leader must encourage everyone's contributions with an eye to accomplishing the work. To do this, the leader must observe how the group's process is working. (Is the group moving too quickly, leaving some people behind? Is it time to shift the focus to another aspect of the task?)
• The leader must encourage group interactions and maintain a positive atmosphere. To do this the leader must observe the way people are participating as well as be aware of feelings communicated non-verbally. (Are individuals' contributions listened to and appreciated by others? Are people arguing with other people, rather than disagreeing with their ideas? Are some people withdrawn or annoyed?)
• The leader must anticipate what information, materials or other resources the group needs as it works.
• The leader is responsible for beginning and ending on time. The leader must also organize practical support, such as the room, chalk, markers, food, breaks.

(Note: In addition to all this, the leader must take part in thc discussion and participate otherwise as a group member. At these times, the leader must be careful to step aside from the role of leader and signal participation as an equal, not a dominant voice.)

Concerns of Individuals That May Affect Their Participation

• How do I fit in? Will others listen to me? Am I the only one who doesn't know everyone else? How can I work with people with such different backgrounds and expericnce?
• Who will make the decisions? How much influence can I have?
• What do I have to offer to the group? Does everyone know more than I do? Does anyone know anything, or will I have to do most of the work myself?

Characteristics of a Group that is Performing Effectively

• All members have a chance to express themselves and to influence the group's decisions. All contributions are listened to carefully, and strong points acknowledged. Everyone realizes that the job could not be done without the cooperation and contribution of everyone else.
• Differences are dealt with directly with the person or people involved. The group identifies all disagreements, hears everyone's views and tries to come to an agreement that makes sense to everyone. Even when a group decision is not liked by someone, that person will follow through on it with the group.
• The group encourages everyone to take responsibility, and hard work is recognized. When things are not going well, everyone makes an effort to help each other. There is a shared sense of pride and accomplishment.

Focusing on a Direction

After a large number of ideas have been generated and listed (e.g. on the board), the group can categorize and examine them. Then the group should agree on a process for choosing from among the ideas. Advantages and disadvantages of different plans can be listed and then voted on. Some possibilities can be eliminated through a straw vote (each group member could have 2 or 3 votes). Or all group members could vote for their first, second, and third choices. Alternatively, criteria for a successful plan can be listed, and different alternatives can be voted on based on the criteria, one by one.

Categorizing and evaluating ideas

• We have about 20 ideas here. Can we sort them into a few general categories?
• When we evaluate each others' ideas, can we mention some positive aspects before expressing concerns?
• Could you give us an example of what you mean?
• Who has dealt with this kind of problem before?
• What are the pluses of that approach? The minuses?
• We have two basic choices. Let's brainstorm. First let's look at the advantages of the first choice, then the disadvantages.
• Let's try ranking these ideas in priority order. The group should try to come to an agreement that makes sense to everyone.

Making a decision

After everyone's views are heard and all points of agreement and disagreement are identified, the group should try to arrive at an agreement that makes sense to everyone.

• There seems to be some agreement here. Is there anyone who couldn't live with solution #2?
• Are there any objections to going that way?
• You still seem to have worries about this solution. Is there anything that could be added or taken away to make it more acceptable? We're doing fine. We've agreed on a great deal. Let's stay with this and see if we can work this last issue through.
• It looks as if there are still some major points of disagreement. Can we go back and define what those issues are and work on them rather than forcing a decision now.

How People Function in Groups

If a group is functioning well, work is getting done and constructive group processes are creating a positive atmosphere. In good groups the individuals may contribute differently at different times. They cooperate and human relationships are respected. This may happen automatically or individuals, at different times, can make it their job to maintain the atmospbere and human aspects of the group.

Roles That Contribute to the Work

Initiating —taking the initiative, at any time; for example, convening the group, suggesting procedures, changing direction, providing new energy and ideas. (How about if we.... What would happen if... ?)

Seeking information or opinions —requesting facts, preferences, suggestions and ideas. (Could you say a little more about... Would you say this is a more workable idea than that?)

Giving information or opinions —providing facts, data, information from research or experience. (ln my experience I have seen... May I tell you what I found out about...? )

Questioning —stepping back from what is happening and challenging the group or asking other specific questions about the task. (Are we assuming that... ? Would the consequence of this be... ?)

Clarifying —interpreting ideas or suggestions, clearing up confusions, defining terms or asking others to clarify. This role can relate different contributions from different people, and link up ideas that seem unconnected. (lt seems that you are saying... Doesn't this relate to what [name] was saying earlier?)

Summarizing —putting contributions into a pattern, while adding no new information. This role is important if a group gets stuck. Some groups officially appoint a summarizer for this potentially powerful and influential role. (If we take all these pieces and put them together... Here's what I think we have agreed upon so far... Here are our areas of disagreement...)

Roles That Contribute to the Atmosphere

Supporting —remembering others' remarks, being encouraging and responsive to others. Creating a warm, encouraging atmosphere, and making people feel they belong helps the group handle stresses and strains. People can gesture, smile, and make eye-contact without saying a word. Some silence can be supportive for people who are not native speakers of English by allowing them a chance to get into discussion. (I understand what you are getting at...As [name] was just saying...)

Observing —noticing the dynamics of the group and commenting. Asking if others agree or if they see things differently can be an effective way to identify problems as they arise. (We seem to be stuck... Maybe we are done for now, we are all worn out... As I see it, what happened just a minute ago.. Do you agree?)

Mediating —recognizing disagreements and figuring out what is behind the differences. When people focus on real differences, that may lead to striking a balance or devising ways to accommodate different values, views, and approaches. (I think the two of you are coming at this from completely different points of view... Wait a minute. This is how [name/ sees the problem. Can you see why she may see it differently?)

Reconciling —reconciling disagreements. Emphasizing shared views among members can reduce tension. (The goal of these two strategies is the same, only the means are different… Is there anything that these positions have in common?)

Compromising —yielding a position or modifying opinions. This can help move the group forward. (Everyone else seems to agree on this, so I'll go along with... I think if I give in on this, we could reach a decision.)

Making a personal comment —occasional personal comments, especially as they relate to the work. Statements about one's life are often discouraged in professional settings; this may be a mistake since personal comments can strengthen a group by making people feel human with a lot in common.

Humor —funny remarks or good-natured comments. Humor, if it is genuinely good-natured and not cutting, can be very effective in relieving tension or dealing with participants who dominate or put down others. Humor can be used constructively to make the work more acceptable by providing a welcome break from concentration. It may also bring people closer together, and make the work more fun.

All the positive roles turn the group into an energetic, productive enterprise. People who have not reflected on these roles may misunderstand the motives and actions of people working in a group. If someone other than the leader initiates ideas, some may view it as an attempt to take power from the leader. Asking questions may similarly be seen as defying authority or slowing down the work of the group. Personal anecdotes may be thought of as trivializing the discussion. Leaders who understand the importance of these many roles can allow and encourage them as positive contributions to group dynamics. Roles that contribute to the work give the group a sense of direction and achievement. Roles contributing to the human atmosphere give the group a sense of cooperation and goodwill.

Some Common Problems (and Some Solutions)

Floundering —While people are still figuring out the work and their role in the group, the group may experience false starts and circular discussions, and decisions may be postponed.

• Here's my understanding of what we are trying to accomplish... Do we all agree?
• What would help us move forward: data? resources?
• Let's take a few minutes to hear everyone's suggestions about how this process might work better and what we should do next.

Dominating or reluctant participants —Some people might take more than their share of the discussion by talking too often, asserting superiority, telling lengthy stories, or not letting others finish. Sometimes humor can be used to discourage people from dominating. Others may rarely speak because they have difficulty getting in the conversation. Sometimes looking at people who don't speak can be a non-verbal way to include them. Asking quiet participants for their thoughts outside the group may lead to their participation within the group.

• How would we state the general problem? Could we leave out the details for a moment? Could we structure this part of the discussion by taking turns and hearing what everyone has to say?
• Let's check in with each other about how the process is working: Is everyone contributing to discussions? Can discussions be managed differently so we can all participate? Are we all listening to each other?

Digressions and tangents —Too many interesting side stories can be obstacles to group progress. It may be time to take another look at the agenda and assign time estimates to items. Try to summarize where the discussion was before the digression. Or, consider whether there is something making the topic easy to avoid.

• Can we go back to where we were a few minutes ago and see what we were trying to do ?
• Is there something about the topic itself that makes it difficult to stick to?

Getting Stuck —Too little progress can get a group down. It may be time for a short break or a change in focus. However, occasionally when a group feels that it is not making progress, a solution emerges if people simply stay with the issue.

• What are the things that are helping us solve this problem? What's preventing us from solving this problem?
• I understand that some of you doubt whether anything new will happen if we work on this problem. Are we willing to give it a try for the next fifteen minutes?

Rush to work —Usually one person in the group is less patient and more action-oriented than the others. This person may reach a decision more quickly than the others and then pressure the group to move on before others are ready.

• Are we all ready-to make a decision on this?
• What needs to be done before we can move ahead?
• Let's go around and see where everyone stands on this.

Feuds —Occasionally a conflict (having nothing to do with the subject of the group) carries over into the group and impedes its work. It may be that feuding parties will not be able to focus until the viewpoint of each is heard. Then they must be encouraged to lay the issue aside.

• So, what you are saying is... And what you are saying is... How is that related to the work here?
• If we continue too long on this, we won't be able to get our work done. Can we agree on a time limit and then go on?

For more information...

James Lang, " Why Students Hate Group Projects (and How to Change That) ," The Chronicle of Higher Education (17 June 2022).

Hodges, Linda C. " Contemporary Issues in Group Learning in Undergraduate Science Classrooms: A Perspective from Student Engagement ,"  CBE—Life Sciences Education  17.2 (2018): es3.

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University of Bridgeport News

7 Strategies for Taking Group Projects by Storm

It’s day one of the new semester, and you see it…staring ominously from the syllabus, it lurks in eager waiting…haunting unlit corners of your lecture hall, the beast inches closer every class until one day, it strikes — sinking its teeth in. No silver tokens or wooden stakes will save you now. It’s time for mandatory group projects.

For even the most scholarly students, the mere suggestion of a group project can send shivers down the spine. These projects plague the mind with many questions. What if I get stuck with someone who does nothing? Will communication break down into a chaotic mess of emojis? And, sometimes, above all else, why do I have to do this?

So, fellow Purple Knights, let’s turn that stress into success — equip yourself with these 7 strategies to help you make the most of group assignments.

1. Acknowledge your anxiety and self-assess

Let’s take a moment to commemorate the ghosts of group projects past. Remember that paper from history class? The one on the American Revolution? Your whole team was supposed to write it, yet your group dedicated more time to scrolling through TikTok than typing. Oh, and how about that PowerPoint presentation for your accounting class? You know, the one nobody pulled their weight on, shaving a few precious points off your final grade?

Although you should never begin a group project with the attitude that failure is inevitable, being honest with yourself about any anxiety you feel helps repurpose the stress of past projects into lessons with future applicability.

So, when you see a group assignment on your syllabus, don’t panic. Instead, ask yourself a few questions, such as:

• What were some issues I encountered during previous group projects?
• How could these issues have been avoided or addressed?
• Did I give the project my all and contribute to the best of my ability?
• What did I learn about the subject I was studying?
• What did I learn about working with a group?
• More specifically, what did I learn about how I work with others?

If this self-assessment only serves to raise more questions, consider talking to your instructor or visiting the Academic Success Center . Expressing your concern about group work, and consulting with supportive and experienced professionals, can help you kickstart your collaboration with confidence.

2. Assemble your A-Team

Now that your head is in the game, it’s time to assemble the A-Team! Whether your group is self-selected or pre-assigned, first things first — for a cohesive collaboration, every teammate must cooperate.

Think of it like building a boat. Each crewmate takes on a different, albeit pivotal, role to ensure the ship will stay afloat. While some people lay floor plans and foundations, others gather materials, create sails, or complete safety assessments. Although every team member has their own purview, everyone must cooperate to achieve a common goal. If one person drops the ball, the vessel might not be seaworthy. The same goes for your group project — without joint effort, your crew may flounder in the face of challenges.

To take the helm, create team roles with the project’s guidelines in mind. Weigh the academic expectations with the skills and strengths of your teammates. Does one partner have a head for facts and figures? Group Researcher , reporting for duty! How about the group member with an eye for design? PowerPoint Coordinator may be the perfect fit!

Scenario snapshot

You and your best friend want to be in the same group for an English presentation. They’re a stand-up pal and astute problem-solver, but they often slack off on assignments. Let’s turn procrastination into collaboration. How can you help establish a healthy group dynamic without boxing out your bestie? 

3. Planning is power

Collaborating on an assignment isn’t as simple as casting roles for each group member. You will also need a plan of attack outlining what must be done (and when).

During your initial group meeting, roll up your sleeves to brainstorm ideas and generate timelines for the different components of your project. To keep all the most vital information in an accessible location, utilize project management tools like Google Docs or Trello — providing a clear, shared resource teammates can refer to when working independently.

What would you do?

It’s been two weeks, and one of your group mates still hasn’t opened the shared document outlining their role and the project schedule. They were attentive when your team first met to discuss the presentation, but you’re concerned the assignment has fallen from their radar. How can you address your concerns?

At University of Bridgeport, your personal and professional success is our priority. Learn more about our comprehensive support services today!  

4. keep up communication.

Determining guidelines for group check-ins is essential to success. Whether you’re meeting in person or virtually, it’s critical to establish when, where, and how your team will update one another.

You may even consider setting parameters for your group pow-wows. How long should each check-in last? Should one teammate have the floor during each meeting, or will everyone provide updates? Agreeing on these expectations can facilitate smooth sailing ahead.

Your four-person biology group includes a pair of close friends. Each time your team meets to discuss the project, the duo brings little to the table, filling most of the hour with fits of giggly gossip.

The last group check-in was the biggest bust yet — extending an hour longer than the agreed-upon time due to constant distractions and derailments. The following afternoon, your third partner privately messaged you, expressing the same frustrations you’re feeling. How can you and your partner constructively address this issue with your other teammates?

5. Be fair and flexible…

When collaborating with classmates, it’s crucial to remember that   is difficult. With academic, personal, and professional demands competing for space, everybody has more than one ball in the air. If someone on your team needs an extension for their part of an assignment, show grace and understanding — most people are doing their best to meet all the expectations tossed their way, and a little leniency can go a long way.

6. …but remember to set boundaries

Flexibility may be paramount, but have you ever flexed too far? If you’re always happy to go with the flow, your willingness to bend could cause your group to break. If you and your teammates are always cleaning up after one partner, burnout will ensue — potentially leading to an underwhelming final project.

If you have a teammate who isn’t pulling their weight, it’s time to set boundaries and reiterate your group’s agreed-upon expectations. If you’re uncomfortable breaching the topic, consult with your professor. Even if they expect you to start the conversation on your own, they can offer support and strategies for addressing conflicts in your group. Moreover, communicating these concerns keeps your instructor in the loop about your team’s progress.

Last month, you were randomly assigned to group for your nursing project. You were pleasantly surprised by how well it was going — at least, at first. Over the past few weeks, one of your partners has missed every meeting due to a personal problem. While they didn’t disclose the specifics, they’ve missed three deadlines and have been completely incommunicado.

With the deadline quickly approaching, you and your other teammates are starting to sweat. What could you do to help your team overcome this challenge?

7. Celebrate success

Group projects are full of peaks and valleys alike. When you hit “submit” and the game is over, take some time to acknowledge your dedicated team. Collaborative assignments can present an invaluable opportunity to connect with classmates, learn from each other, and create something truly impressive.

While the anxiety of an impending group project can be overwhelming, don’t let it overshadow the fact that these ventures can be rewarding and, dare we say, enjoyable experiences. Furthermore, in our increasingly interconnected world, nurturing your collaborative aptitude provides you with a career-ready skill — sought after by employers across all industries.

At University of Bridgeport, #UBelong. Begin your UB journey today — learn more about becoming a Purple Knight !

How to Get Students Excited About Group Work

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W hen I first introduced a team project in my undergraduate biochemistry course in 2018, I was excited to have my students work together and learn from each other. It was the middle of the term; I had already introduced the course’s core concepts in lectures before putting students in teams of four and asking them to design an experiment to diagnose a metabolic condition. The students had five weeks to complete the project and present it to the rest of the class.

Everything seemed to go well based on student performance. But to my utter disappointment, when I asked students at the end of the term for feedback about the project, I learned they hated it.

Surprisingly, it wasn’t the project itself they disliked. It was having to do it in teams. When I assigned the group project, my focus was solely on the content and what students would learn from it. I assumed that since students must have worked in teams since high school, they would know how to navigate the human aspect of working with others. That wasn’t the case.

While we expect students to carry out high-stakes team projects in higher education, we often don’t explicitly teach them how to work effectively in a team. So I researched how to make working in groups a better experience for my students and developed a short teamwork program that I incorporated into my course the following year.

Here are seven improvements I made to my course to provide a better group-project experience for students.

1. Build teams thoughtfully

Whether you allow students to pick their own teams or assign the teams yourself depends on the context of your course. Three distinct styles exist: groups in which students know nothing about each other, groups in which they are partnered based on similar interests or ability, and groups in which they know a lot about each other already. All of these are valid methods and can lead to successful teams.

Whichever method you use, make it clear to students why you chose it. Is it because you want diversity within the teams ? You want to have equal distribution of skills? You think students are mature enough to select their own partners? Whatever the reason, they will value transparency in your decision-making.

“I assumed that since students must have worked in teams since high school, they would know how to navigate the human aspect of working with others. That wasn’t the case.”

I have tried many methods, but the one that worked best for my students and for me has been sorting students based on their previous performance in the class. Instead of mixing high, low, and middle achievers, I grouped them separately. This is not a common method, but I have found that it allows high achievers to try new things and low achievers to take on more responsibility for their own learning. Students are often surprised by how capable they are by the end, and I always make sure to provide support to all teams as needed.

2. Encourage bonding and sow trust early

Put students into their teams at the start of the term, even if they aren’t starting the project for a few weeks. That way, you can provide them with time and activities to get to know each other, to bond and build relationships. Create a set of tasks that will allow everyone to participate irrespective of their abilities and knowledge in your subject. It is better if the tasks are fun or silly, so students don’t feel judged.

Provide class time to do these bonding activities; this helps students get comfortable with each other and learn about each other, ensuring a certain level of trust between them by the time the project begins. See the image below for an example of a task I do with my students. I give each group 40 spaghetti sticks, tape, and marshmallows and challenge them to build the tallest structure possible.

Students in my biochemistry class build structures with spaghetti sticks, tape, and marshmallows.

In addition to bonding activities, I also provide teams with opportunities leading up to the project to learn from and teach each other. I give students small quizzes to complete on their own, and then again with their groups. Students can discuss the answers, debate why an answer might be incorrect, make decisions together, and get immediate feedback on their performance.

3. Prepare groups to face conflict

Conflict within teams is inevitable, but students tend to avoid it as much as possible and get stressed when it arises. Often, this is because they don’t know how to deal with it. A week after teams have formed in my classes, I run a conflict-resolution workshop. Each group is given a potential conflict that could arise during the term, and they must explore how they would deal with it (see the sidebar for an example exercise). The groups share each conflict and possible solutions with the wider class. Instructors can add to their strategies if they think the students have missed important aspects. Then, if conflict does happen during the semester, students are prepped with solutions they can implement.

EXAMPLE CONFLICT EXERCISE

Here is an example of a scenario I might propose in my conflict-resolution workshop:

One of your teammates has missed two consecutive group meetings and they always have an excuse for not coming. They also seem to ignore messages in the team chat and don’t reply for days. The group is stressed, as they are not sure if this student will complete the assigned tasks. What should the team do?

Since introducing this activity, I have only had to step in to deal with one or two conflicts out of nearly 50 groups per year—and those groups tried other strategies before reaching out for help.

4. Check in with students frequently

One of the biggest struggles for students is time management, so a primary goal of this teamwork program is to teach them its importance—especially when working in groups. A practical way to do this is through regular check ins.

I check in with my students regularly throughout the term to ensure they are meeting consistently and meeting project milestones on schedule. I want to identify any problems as the project progresses, rather than after they’ve made a submission.

Here are a few ways you can do this:

Use interactive polls during class sessions to ask students where in the project they’re at—whether they’ve started or completed certain steps, for example. This gives you an idea of whether any groups might be falling behind.

Talk to students directly when you see them in class; this can make them feel more accountable. Use check ins to remind students of where they should be in the project and provide them opportunities to seek help for any issues or conflicts.

Build draft submission into the project steps. This is a great way to get students started on tasks and make improvements as they go. I provide general feedback to the whole class based on these drafts. You can also have students provide feedback to each other.

5. Provide space for student reflection

Throughout the project, I want students to reflect on the value of teamwork and what they each bring to the table. Every week, I get them to write short reflections answering targeted questions. Here are some examples:

What is your general attitude toward teamwork?

Do you participate in group discussions willingly?

What role do you play in the team?

What is something you learned from your team members you wouldn’t have learned otherwise?

“If student reflections indicate they are struggling with a part of the project, I provide specific guidance and support to the whole class, either during lecture or in online announcements.”

I use these questions to increase students’ self-awareness, which leads to strengthened relationships within teams as well. Some students find the emotional aspects of reflection challenging, and some feel frustrated when there are no immediate actions they can take to address concerns. However, as the instructor, I learn a lot about the students’ experiences and can also implement changes to the course to improve them. For example, if student reflections indicate they are struggling with a part of the project, I provide specific guidance and support to the whole class, either during lecture or in online announcements.

6. Evaluate group functionality at key points

The evaluation of individual and team contributions is an important component of group projects. I evaluate students at two stages of the project timeline (the halfway point and the end) using the same anonymous, online evaluation form . The form has a reflection section accompanied by statements on communication, leadership, accountability, trust, and conflict resolution. Students are asked to rate their own contributions and those of their teammates.

The midpoint evaluation gives students a chance to see their strengths and weaknesses and have time to adjust for the remainder of the project. Constructive feedback can increase self-awareness and motivate students to grow and develop the skills needed to be good team members. It also gives me insight into which students might be struggling or not contributing so I can reach out to help.

7. Strive for improvement with each iteration

This whole program came to be because of my reflections after that first unsuccessful group project. It’s important for you to reflect at the end of the term on how the project process went, too. Think about what worked well and what didn’t and how you can make improvements for the following year. It is important to do this immediately after, while things are still fresh in your mind.

One of the changes I incorporated into my course after reflection was to dedicate a lecture in the first week to introducing the group project and allowing students to ask questions. Previously, I asked students to read the project instructions on their own time, but some students didn’t and others were unclear about expectations.

Introducing the project during the live lecture allowed students to see the full picture of the project and ask questions to clarify things. It also gave me the opportunity to provide tips for group work, such as establishing group roles, setting actionable goals, and running meetings effectively.

Making students feel like part of a community of learners

Since the introduction of this program in 2019, over 96 percent of my students have agreed that they feel like part of a learning community in the course; 56 percent strongly agreed. Over time, more students have mentioned that they found themselves liking biochemistry more than they thought they would when signing up for the class. This course has also had the highest rating within my school for the past five years.

A good team project requires patience, dedication, and commitment by both you and your students. You don’t need to incorporate all these components. Pick and choose the ones you think would have the most impact in your classroom and see the change in attitude toward working in groups.

Nirmani Wijenayake is an education-focused senior lecturer from the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. With over 10 years of experience in higher education, she has taught and coordinated large undergraduate courses in biochemistry and cell biology. She won the UNSW Vice Chancellor’s teaching award for outstanding contribution to student learning in 2020 and is a senior fellow of the UK’s higher education academy.

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• Online Learning
• Effective Online Group Projects

The Key to Effective Online Group Projects: Strategies and Solutions

WVU Online | Wednesday, March 20, 2024

In today's digital classrooms, group work remains as important as ever. However, collaborating effectively in a virtual environment presents unique challenges. In this article, we'll explore strategies that can help you thrive in online group work, giving you the tools and techniques needed to set you up for success.

Setting Up The Online Group Project

When you are preparing for an online group project, planning the logistics of the project is essential to making it a success. Here, we'll dive into challenges that groups may encounter, offering practical recommendations to navigate them effectively.

Understand the Group Dynamics

Take the time to understand each team member's skill sets, schedules, time zones, meeting preferences, and learning style preferences. This understanding will help in allocating tasks efficiently and accommodating everyone's needs. Online students often juggle multiple responsibilities such as jobs and family commitments, so flexibility and clear communication are key to managing busy schedules effectively.

Choosing the Right Communication Tools

Selecting appropriate communication tools is crucial for seamless collaboration. If the professor hasn't specified a platform, the team should collectively decide on tools that suit their needs. Whether it's Slack for real-time messaging, Zoom for video conferencing, or Google Drive for document sharing, ensure that the chosen tools align with the group's workflow, technical abilities, and preferences.

In an online setting, navigating group projects is just one of the many challenges that students face. Understanding these challenges can help teams understand each other and work together more effectively toward their common goals.

Create Standards for the Team

Let's lay down some ground rules to keep your online team project running smoothly. This phase is key for setting expectations and roles within the group, so everyone can start on the same page and be prepared to tackle the project together.

Establish Roles and Responsibilities

Once the team has gotten to know each other, take some time to assess each team member's strengths and skills. Assign roles accordingly—a leader, a coordinator, a researcher, etc. Clarifying these roles upfront helps ensure everyone knows their responsibilities and can contribute effectively.

Build Trust and Rapport

Building trust is essential for effective teamwork. Create a supportive environment where everyone feels valued and respected. Encourage open communication, active listening, and inclusivity. When team members trust each other, collaboration becomes much more seamless.

Determine How and When You’ll Communicate

Clear and consistent communication is key in any collaborative effort, especially in an online setting. Decide on the best methods for staying in touch—whether it's through regular meetings, group chats, or shared documents. Establishing your communication channels early and keeping up with regular check-ins and updates can ensure everyone stays informed and connected throughout the project.

Treat the Project Like a Job

It's important for all team members to take the project seriously. Set deadlines, prioritize tasks, and hold yourselves accountable. Approach it with the dedication and professionalism you would apply to a job. By doing so, you'll set a high standard for the project and maximize your chances of success. These standards and expectations will help lay the groundwork for a productive and collaborative online project.

Managing The Work and Overcoming Challenges

As you dive deeper into your online group project, it's essential to stay organized and prepared to tackle any challenges that may arise. This section focuses on strategies for managing the workload effectively and overcoming obstacles that often come with online collaboration.

Tips for Organizing Work and Delegating Tasks

When it comes to organizing work, it's crucial to distribute tasks among team members so you can divide and conquer. Utilize everyone’s individual strengths and expertise to maximize efficiency and quality. This step isn't just about getting the job done—it's about fostering a sense of ownership and teamwork within the group.

Keeping the Team on Track

Managing deadlines and tracking progress is essential for project success. Using project management tools and strategies can help keep the team organized and accountable. Whether it's using task boards, setting milestones, or scheduling regular check-ins, maintaining momentum is key to achieving your goals.

Navigating Conflicts

Conflict is inevitable in any group setting, but it's how we handle it that matters. To address and resolve conflicts constructively within online groups, encourage open communication, practice respect for one another, and focus on finding mutually beneficial solutions. By addressing conflicts head-on, the team can maintain harmony and focus on the task at hand.

Dealing with Absentee Group Members

Dealing with absent teammates can be tough, but it's all about finding solutions together. Start by reaching out to the missing member, checking in to see if everything's okay and reminding them of their role in the group. If the problem persists, have an open chat with the team to brainstorm ideas on how to address it and how to ensure the missing person’s work is completed.

Teachers can also help by giving groups the power to deal with absenteeism through peer evaluations or the option to remove non-participating members with approval. By working together and keeping communication active, we can make sure the work is equally distributed and the project stays on track.

Establishing Healthy Boundaries

In the digital realm, it's easy for work to bleed into personal time, leading to burnout and resentment. Discuss the importance of setting healthy boundaries within the group, such as establishing norms around response times and respecting each other's schedules. By prioritizing self-care and respect, the team can maintain a positive and sustainable working environment.

Explore Online Learning Options at WVU Online

By understanding the importance of clear communication, defining roles, conflict resolution, and accountability, you've laid a solid foundation for success in online group work.

Whether you're interested in a degree to boost your career, level up your skills, or pursue the passion you've always wanted to study, WVU Online is here to help you reach your goals. Offering a variety of degree programs and certifications, WVU Online provides a supportive environment where you can thrive and grow.

Ready to learn more? Explore our online degree and certification options at WVU Online or connect with an Academic Coach to get more information about our available opportunities. Let’s turn your academic dreams into a reality—one online class at a time!

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Call us, write us, or fill out the request information form. Whichever communication style you prefer, there will be someone from WVU Online on the other end waiting to help.

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Group work as an incentive for learning – students’ experiences of group work

Group work is used as a means for learning at all levels in educational systems. There is strong scientific support for the benefits of having students learning and working in groups. Nevertheless, studies about what occurs in groups during group work and which factors actually influence the students’ ability to learn is still lacking. Similarly, the question of why some group work is successful and other group work results in the opposite is still unsolved. The aim of this article is to add to the current level of knowledge and understandings regarding the essence behind successful group work in higher education. This research is focused on the students’ experiences of group work and learning in groups, which is an almost non-existing aspect of research on group work prior to the beginning of the 21st century. A primary aim is to give university students a voice in the matter by elucidating the students’ positive and negative points of view and how the students assess learning when working in groups. Furthermore, the students’ explanations of why some group work ends up being a positive experience resulting in successful learning, while in other cases, the result is the reverse, are of interest. Data were collected through a study-specific questionnaire, with multiple choice and open-ended questions. The questionnaires were distributed to students in different study programs at two universities in Sweden. The present result is based on a reanalysis and qualitative analysis formed a key part of the study. The results indicate that most of the students’ experiences involved group work that facilitated learning, especially in the area of academic knowledge. Three important prerequisites (learning, study-social function, and organization) for group work that served as an effective pedagogy and as an incentive for learning were identified and discussed. All three abstractions facilitate or hamper students’ learning, as well as impact their experiences with group work.

INTRODUCTION

Group work is used as a means for learning at all levels in most educational systems, from compulsory education to higher education. The overarching purpose of group work in educational practice is to serve as an incentive for learning. For example, it is believed that the students involved in the group activity should “learn something.” This prerequisite has influenced previous research to predominantly focus on how to increase efficiency in group work and how to understand why some group work turns out favorably and other group work sessions result in the opposite. The review of previous research shows that in the 20th century, there has been an increase in research about students’ cooperation in the classroom ( Lou et al., 1996 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2010 , 2011 ). This increasing interest can be traced back to the fact that both researchers and teachers have become aware of the positive effects that collaboration might have on students’ ability to learn. The main concern in the research area has been on how interaction and cooperation among students influence learning and problem solving in groups ( Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ).

Two approaches concerning learning in group are of interest, namely cooperative learning and collaborative learning . There seems to be a certain amount of confusion concerning how these concepts are to be interpreted and used, as well as what they actually signify. Often the conceptions are used synonymously even though there are some differentiations. Cooperative group work is usually considered as a comprehensive umbrella concept for several modes of student active working modes ( Johnson and Johnson, 1975 ; Webb and Palincsar, 1996 ), whereas collaboration is a more of an exclusive concept and may be included in the much wider concept cooperation ( Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ). Cooperative learning may describe group work without any interaction between the students (i.e., the student may just be sitting next to each other; Bennet and Dunne, 1992 ; Galton and Williamson, 1992 ), while collaborative learning always includes interaction, collaboration, and utilization of the group’s competences ( Bennet and Dunne, 1992 ; Galton and Williamson, 1992 ; Webb and Palincsar, 1996 ).

At the present time, there is strong scientific support for the benefits of students learning and working in groups. In addition, the research shows that collaborative work promotes both academic achievement and collaborative abilities ( Johnson and Johnson, 2004 ; Baines et al., 2007 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2010 , 2011 ). According to Gillies and Boyle (2011) , the benefits are consistent irrespective of age (pre-school to college) and/or curriculum. When working interactively with others, students learn to inquire, share ideas, clarify differences, problem-solve, and construct new understandings. Gillies (2003a , b ) also stresses that students working together are more motivated to achieve than they would be when working individually. Thus, group work might serve as an incentive for learning, in terms of both academic knowledge and interpersonal skills. Nevertheless, studies about what occur in groups during group work and which factors actually influence the students’ ability to learn is still lacking in the literature, especially when it comes to addressing the students’ points of view, with some exceptions ( Cantwell and Andrews, 2002 ; Underwood, 2003 ; Peterson and Miller, 2004 ; Hansen, 2006 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ). Similarly, the question of why some group work turns out successfully and other work results in the opposite is still unsolved. In this article, we hope to contribute some new pieces of information concerning the why some group work results in positive experiences and learning, while others result in the opposite.

GROUP WORK IN EDUCATION

Group work is frequently used in higher education as a pedagogical mode in the classroom, and it is viewed as equivalent to any other pedagogical practice (i.e., whole class lesson or individual work). Without considering the pros and cons of group work, a non-reflective choice of pedagogical mode might end up resulting in less desirable consequences. A reflective choice, on the other hand, might result in positive experiences and enhanced learning ( Galton et al., 2009 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2011 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ).

GROUP WORK AS OBJECTIVE OR MEANS

Group work might serve different purposes. As mentioned above, the overall purpose of the group work in education is that the students who participate in group work “learn something.” Learning can be in terms of academic knowledge or “group knowledge.” Group knowledge refers to learning to work in groups ( Kutnick and Beredondini, 2009 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2010 , 2011 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ). Affiliation, fellowship, and welfare might be of equal importance as academic knowledge, or they may even be prerequisites for learning. Thus, the group and the group work serve more functions than just than “just” being a pedagogical mode. Hence, before group work is implemented, it is important to consider the purpose the group assignment will have as the objective, the means, or both.

From a learning perspective, group work might function as both an objective (i.e., learning collaborative abilities) and as the means (i.e., a base for academic achievement) or both ( Gillies, 2003a , b ; Johnson and Johnson, 2004 ; Baines et al., 2007 ). If the purpose of the group work is to serve as an objective, the group’s function is to promote students’ development of group work abilities, such as social training and interpersonal skills. If, on the other hand, group work is used as a means to acquire academic knowledge, the group and the collaboration in the group become a base for students’ knowledge acquisition ( Gillies, 2003a , b ; Johnson and Johnson, 2004 ; Baines et al., 2007 ). The group contributes to the acquisition of knowledge and stimulates learning, thus promoting academic performance. Naturally, group work can be considered to be a learning environment, where group work is used both as an objective and as the means. One example of this concept is in the case of tutorial groups in problem-based learning. Both functions are important and might complement and/or even promote each other. Albeit used for different purposes, both approaches might serve as an incentive for learning, emphasizing different aspect knowledge, and learning in a group within an educational setting.

WORKING IN A GROUP OR AS A GROUP

Even if group work is often defined as “pupils working together as a group or a team,” ( Blatchford et al., 2003 , p. 155), it is important to bear in mind that group work is not just one activity, but several activities with different conditions ( Hammar Chiriac, 2008 , 2010 ). This implies that group work may change characteristics several times during a group work session and/or during a group’s lifetime, thus suggesting that certain working modes may be better suited for different parts of a group’s work and vice versa ( Hammar Chiriac, 2008 , 2010 ). It is also important to differentiate between how the work is accomplished in the group, whether by working in a group or working as a group.

From a group work perspective, there are two primary ways of discussing cooperation in groups: working in a group (cooperation) or working as a group (collaboration; Underwood, 2003 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ). Situations where students are sitting together in a group but working individually on separate parts of a group assignment are referred to as working in a group . This is not an uncommon situation within an educational setting ( Gillies and Boyle, 2011 ). Cooperation between students might occur, but it is not necessary to accomplish the group’s task. At the end of the task, the students put their separate contributions together into a joint product ( Galton and Williamson, 1992 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2010 , 2011a ). While no cooperative activities are mandatory while working in a group, cooperative learning may occur. However, the benefits in this case are an effect of social facilitation ( Zajonc, 1980 ; Baron, 1986 ; Uziel, 2007 ) and are not caused by cooperation. In this situation, social facilitation alludes to the enhanced motivational effect that the presence of other students have on individual student’s performance.

Working as a group, on the other hand, causes learning benefits from collaboration with other group members. Working as a group is often referred to as “real group work” or “meaningful group work,” and denotes group work in which students utilizes the group members’ skills and work together to achieve a common goal. Moreover, working as a group presupposes collaboration, and that all group members will be involved in and working on a common task to produce a joint outcome ( Bennet and Dunne, 1992 ; Galton and Williamson, 1992 ; Webb and Palincsar, 1996 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ). Working as a group is characterized by common effort, the utilization of the group’s competence, and the presence of problem solving and reflection. According to Granström (2006) , working as a group is a more uncommon activity in an educational setting. Both approaches might be useful in different parts of group work, depending on the purpose of the group work and type of task assigned to the group ( Hammar Chiriac, 2008 ). Working in a group might lead to cooperative learning, while working as group might facilitate collaborative learning. While there are differences between the real meanings of the concepts, the terms are frequently used interchangeably ( Webb and Palincsar, 1996 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ).

PREVIOUS RESEARCH OF STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCES

As mentioned above, there are a limited number of studies concerning the participants’ perspectives on group work. Teachers often have to rely upon spontaneous viewpoints and indications about and students’ experiences of group work in the form of completed course evaluations. However, there are some exceptions ( Cantwell and Andrews, 2002 ; Underwood, 2003 ; Peterson and Miller, 2004 ; Hansen, 2006 ; Hammar Chiriac and Einarsson, 2007 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ). To put this study in a context and provide a rationale for the present research, a selection of studies focusing on pupils’ and/or students’ experiences and conceptions of group work will be briefly discussed below. The pupils’ and/or students inside knowledge group work may present information relevant in all levels of educational systems.

Hansen (2006) conducted a small study with 34 participating students at a business faculty, focusing on the participants’ experiences of group work. In the study different aspects of students’ positive experiences of group work were identified. For example, it was found to be necessary that all group members take part and make an effort to take part in the group work, clear goals are set for the work, role differentiation exists among members, the task has some level of relevance, and there is clear leadership. Even though Hansen’s (2006) study was conducted in higher education, these findings may be relevant in other levels in educational systems.

To gain more knowledge and understand about the essence behind high-quality group work, Hammar Chiriac and Einarsson (2007) turned their focus toward students’ experiences and conceptions of group work in higher education. A primary aim was to give university students a voice in the matter by elucidating their students’ points of view and how the students assess working in groups. Do the students’ appreciate group projects or do they find it boring and even as a waste of time? Would some students prefer to work individually, or even in “the other group?” The study was a part of a larger research project on group work in education and only a small part of the data corpus was analyzed. Different critical aspects were identified as important incitements for whether the group work turned out to be a success or a failure. The students’ positive, as well as negative, experiences of group work include both task-related (e.g., learning, group composition, participants’ contribution, time) and socio-emotional (e.g., affiliation, conflict, group climate) aspects of group work. The students described their own group, as well as other groups, in a realistic way and did not believe that the grass was greener in the other group. The same data corpus is used in this article (see under Section The Previous Analysis). According to Underwood (2003) and Peterson and Miller (2004) , the students’ enthusiasm for group work is affected by type of task, as well as the group’s members. One problem that recurred frequently concerned students who did not contribute to the group work, also known as so-called free-riders ( Hammar Chiriac and Hempel, 2013 ). Students are, in general, reluctant to punish free-riders and antipathy toward working in groups is often associated with a previous experience of having free-riders in the group ( Peterson and Miller, 2004 ). To accomplish a favorable attitude toward group work, the advantages of collaborative activities as a means for learning must be elucidated. Furthermore, students must be granted a guarantee that free-riders will not bring the group in an unfavorable light. The free-riders, on the other hand, must be encouraged to participate in the common project.

Hammar Chiriac and Granström (2012) were also interested in students’ experiences and conceptions of high-quality and low-quality group work in school and how students aged 13–16 describe good and bad group work? Hammar Chiriac and Granström (2012) show that the students seem to have a clear conception of what constitutes group work and what does not. According to the students, genuine group work is characterized by collaboration on an assignment given by the teacher. They describe group work as working together with their classmates on a common task. The students are also fully aware that successful group work calls for members with appropriate skills that are focused on the task and for all members take part in the common work. Furthermore, the results disclose what students consider being important requisites for successful versus more futile group work. The students’ inside knowledge about classroom activities ended up in a taxonomy of crucial conditions for high-quality group work. The six conditions were: (a) organization of group work conditions, (b) mode of working in groups, (c) tasks given in group work, (d) reporting group work, (e) assessment of group work, and (f) the role of the teacher in group work. The most essential condition for the students seemed to be group composition and the participants’ responsibilities and contributions. According to the students, a well-organized group consists of approximately three members, which allows the group to not be too heterogeneous. Members should be allotted a reasonable amount of time and be provided with an environment that is not too noisy. Hence, all six aspects are related to the role of the teacher’s leadership since the first five points concern the framework and prerequisites created by the teacher.

Näslund (2013) summarized students’ and researchers’ joint knowledge based on experience and research on in the context of shared perspective for group work. As a result, Näslund noticed a joint apprehension concerning what constitutes “an ideal group work.” Näslund (2013) highlighted the fact that both students and researchers emphasized for ideal group work to occur, the following conditions were important to have: (a) the group work is carried out in supportive context, (b) cooperation occurs, (c) the group work is well-structured, (d) students come prepared and act as working members during the meetings, and (e) group members show respect for each other.

From this brief exposition of a selection of research focusing on students’ views on group work, it is obvious that more systematic studies or documentations on students’ conceptions and experiences of group work within higher education are relevant and desired. The present study, which is a reanalysis of a corpus of data addressing the students’ perspective of group, is a step in that direction.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The overarching knowledge interest of this study is to enhance the body of knowledge regarding group work in higher education. The aim of this article is to add knowledge and understanding of what the essence behind successful group work in higher education is by focusing on the students’ experiences and conceptions of group work and learning in groups , an almost non-existing aspect of research on group work until the beginning of the 21st century. A primary aim is to give university students a voice in the matter by elucidating the students’ positive and negative points of view and how the students assess learning when working in groups. Furthermore, the students’ explanations of why some group work results in positive experiences and learning, while in other cases, the result is the opposite, are of interest.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To capture university students’ experiences and conceptions of group work, an inductive qualitative approach, which emphasizes content and meaning rather than quantification, was used ( Breakwell et al., 2006 ; Bryman, 2012 ). The empirical data were collected through a study-specific, semi-structured questionnaire and a qualitative content analysis was performed ( Mayring, 2000 ; Graneheim and Lundman, 2003 ; Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ).

PARTICIPANTS

All participating students attended traditional university programs where group work was a central and frequently used pedagogical method in the educational design. In addition, the participants’ programs allowed the students to be allocated to the same groups for a longer period of time, in some cases during a whole semester. University programs using specific pedagogical approaches, such as problem-based learning or case method, were not included in this study.

The participants consisted of a total of 210 students, 172 female and 38 male, from two universities in two different cities (approximately division: 75 and 25%). The students came from six different populations in four university programs: (a) The Psychologist Program/Master of Science in Psychology, (b) The Human Resource Management and Work Sciences Program, (c) Social Work Program, and (d) The Bachelor’s Programs in Biology. The informants were studying in their first through eighth terms, but the majority had previous experiences from working in other group settings. Only 2% of the students had just started their first term when the study was conducted, while the vast majority (96%) was participating in university studies in their second to sixth semester.

The teacher most frequently arranged the group composition and only a few students stated that they have had any influence on the group formation. There were, with a few exceptions, between 6 and 10 groups in each of the programs included in this study. The groups consisted of between four to eight members and the differences in sizes were almost proportionally distributed among the research group. The groups were foremost heterogeneous concerning gender, but irrespective of group size, there seems to have been a bias toward more women than men in most of the groups. When there was an underrepresented sex in the group, the minority mostly included two students of the same gender. More than 50% of the students answered that in this particularly group, they worked solely with new group members, i.e., students they had not worked with in previous group work during the program.

To collect data about students’ experiences and conceptions of group work, a study-specific, semi-structured questionnaire was constructed. The questionnaire approached the students’ experiences regarding the specific group work they were working in at the time of the data collection (spring 2006), not their experiences of group work in general. The questionnaire contained a total of 18 questions, including both multiple choice and open-ended questions. The multiple choice questions concerned background variables and information about the present group. The seven open-ended questions were designed to gather data about the students’ experiences and perceptions of group work in higher education. The questionnaires were distributed to the different populations of students (some populations studied at the same program) at two universities in Sweden. During the time the questionnaires were completed, the researcher or an assistant was present to answer possible questions. In all, 210 students answered the questionnaire.

The previous analysis

As described above (Section Previous Research of Students’ Experiences) a previous analysis based on the same data corpus revealed that most of the students included in the study found group work to be an enjoyable and stimulating working method ( Hammar Chiriac and Einarsson, 2007 ). The data were analyzed using a qualitative content analysis based on three different research questions. There were two main criticisms of the previous study presented from other researchers. The criticism conveyed applied mostly to the question of whether we could assemble these groups into a joint research group and second to the fact that the results were mostly descriptive. To counter this criticism and to elaborate on the analysis, a further analysis was conducted.

The present analysis

The present analysis (or reanalysis) was conducted by using an inductive qualitative content analysis based on three open-ended research questions:

(1) In what ways does group work contribute to your learning?

(2) What positive experiences have you had while working in your present group?

(3) What negative experiences have you had while working in your present group?

Each question corresponds to one aspect of the research’s objective, but together, they might support and enrich each other and unravel new information based on the students’ experiences and conceptions of group work. Research question 1, listed above, was not included in the first analysis and is being investigated for the first time in this study, while the other two questions are being reanalyzed. An inductive, qualitative content analysis is applicable when the aim of the research is a description of the meaning or of a phenomenon in conceptual form ( Mayring, 2000 ; Graneheim and Lundman, 2003 ; Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ).

The analysis was carried out over several steps, following the basic principles of an inductive, qualitative content analysis ( Mayring, 2000 ; Graneheim and Lundman, 2003 ; Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ). The steps included three phases: preparation, organizing, and reporting ( Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ). Each question was treated as a unit of analysis and was thus analyzed separately. In the preparation phase, the researcher tried to make sense of the data by becoming familiar with the data corpus. In the current study, this included transcription and thorough reading of the answers. An open coding system composed of marginal notes and headings began the second phase, which included organizing the data. This second phase, in turn, included open coding, creating categories, and abstraction. The notes and the headings from the open coding were transferred to coding sheets and then grouped into categories. Categories were formed through the interpretation of the codes that described the same meaning or phenomenon. Finally, an abstraction process began, where a general description of the grouped categories formed an abstraction (see Table ​ Table1 1 ). An abstraction was denominated using the content-characteristic words for this paper: learning, study-social function, and organization . The third phase, reporting , addressed the presentation of the process of analysis and the results.

Examples from the organization phase of the coding process.

The final aim of this study is to present the phenomenon studied in a model or conceptual map of the categories ( Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ). In following these procedures, we aim to expand our understanding of the existing work and to counter the second part of the criticisms, which included criticisms stating that the results were mostly descriptive in nature. To counter the criticisms regarding the question of whether we could assemble these groups into a joint research group, the qualitative abstraction that emerged from the qualitative content analysis was compared to background information by using SPSS. Three background variables were used: gender, cities, and programs.

ETHICS AND QUALITY

The ethical principles provided by the British Psychology Society have formed a guideline [ British Psychology Society (BPS), 2006 ] for the present study. The ethical principles, which emphasize the concern for participants’ interest, have been applied throughout the study [ American Psychological Association (APA), 2002 ; British Psychology Society (BPS), 2004 ; Barett, 2007 ]. To facilitate trustworthiness, a thorough description of the analysis process has been presented ( Graneheim and Lundman, 2003 ; Elo and Kyngäs, 2007 ). Translated citations are also included to increase trustworthiness.

As described above, the analysis resulted in three abstraction emerging: learning, study-social function , and organization . Each abstraction includes both a positive variant (i.e., facilitating learning, study-social function, and/or organization) as well as a negative alternative (i.e., hampering learning, study-social function, and/or organization). The results will be presented in three different sections, with each section corresponding to one abstraction. However, we would like to call attention to the fact that one fifth (20%, including missing value 8%) of the students included in this study did not perceive and/or mention any negative experiences at all in their present group. From a general point of view, there is no difference with respect to gender or city regarding the distribution of positive and negative experiences concerning the abstractions, neither concerning different programs nor the distribution of negative experiences (all p > 0.05). In contrast, there is a difference between the various programs and the distribution of positive experiences (χ 2 = 14.474; df: 6; p < 0.025). The students from the social work program display a higher amount of positive experiences in connection with a study-social function and organizing in comparison with the other programs.

The majority of the students (97%) responded that working in group somehow facilitated learning, academic knowledge, collaborative abilities or both. They learned more or different things when working in groups than they would have if working alone. By discussing and questioning each other’s points of view and listening to their fellow students’ contributions, thus obtaining different perspectives, the participants experienced an enhanced academic learning, compared to working alone. “I learn much more by working in groups than working individually. I obtain more through interaction with the other group members.” Academic knowledge is not the only type of knowledge learned through group work. In addition to academic knowledge, students also gain advanced knowledge about how groups work, how the students function as individual members of groups and how other members behave and work in groups. Some of the respondents also argued that group work in group courses strengthen the combination between empirical and theoretical learning, thus learning about groups by working in groups. “Through practical knowledge demonstrate several of the phenomena we read about in theory (group psychology and sociology).”

The results show no difference when considering either gender or city. However, when comparing the four programs included in the study and the types of learning, a difference occurs (χ 2 = 14.474; df: 6; p < 0.025). A division into two parts seems to generate the difference. On the one hand, the students from the Bachelor’s Program in Biology and the students from the Human Resource Management and Work Sciences Program emphasize academic knowledge. On the other hand, students from the Psychologist Program/Master of Science in Psychology and Social Work Program more often mentioned learning collaborative abilities single handed, as well as a combination of academic knowledge and group learning.

Even though the participants did not expressly report that group work hampered learning, they often mentioned that they perceived group work as being ineffective due to loss of focus and the presence of conflicts, thereby hampering conceivable learning. One respondent stated, “that you sometimes are out of focus in the discussion and get side-tracked instead of considering the task.” Another offered the following perspective: “Occasionally, it is too little task related and feels unnecessary sometimes. Individual work is, in certain situations, preferable.” Group work might be perceived as ineffective and time consuming considering long working periods with tedious discussions. One participant stated, “The time aspect, everything is time consuming.” The absence or presence of conflicts in the group affects students’ experiences, and conflicts not handled may influence learning in a negative way. The students perceived that it was difficult to come to an agreement and experience those conflicts and the need to compromise hampered individual learning. Accordingly, the absence of conflicts seemed to be an important incitement for learning. However, fear of conflicts can lead to reduced learning and cause negative experiences, but to a considerably lesser extent than does the presence of actual conflicts. “A great fear of conflicts sometimes raises an oppressive atmosphere.” “Fear of conflicts leads to much not made known.”

A STUDY-SOCIAL FUNCTION

Group work also has an important study - social function according to the students. They describe their membership in groups as an important aspect of affiliation. In general, the total number of students at a program is approximately 60–80 or more. In contexts with a large population of students, the smaller group gives the participants an opportunity to feel affiliated with the group and to each other. “Feels safe to have a certain group to prepare oneself together with before, for instance, an upcoming seminar.” The group gives the individual student a platform of belonging, which might serve as an important arena for learning ( facilitate ) and finding friends to spend leisure time with. Many of the participants also reported feeling a positive atmosphere in the group, which is important for the satisfaction of being in the group together with the fellow students.

To be a member of a group may also serve as a function of relief, both academically and socially, for the individual student. The participants reported that many of the tasks assigned by the university teachers are difficult to handle on their own. “The others explain to me. We help one another.” However, the students reported that they helped and supported each other, even if the task did not demand cooperation. “As a student, you get more active. You help one another to extract the groups’ common knowledge. Forward info if somebody is missing.” Being a member of a group also affects students’ motivation to study. They prepare themselves by reading texts and other material before the next group session. Group work may also have positive effects on achievement. Students’ total amount of time and effort on their work may also increase. Through group work, the participants also get confirmation of who they are and what their capacities are.

Being a member of a group also has its downside, which often has to do with the group climate and/or group processes, both of which have multiple and complex features. Many students reported that both the group climate and group processes might be the source of negative conceptions of the group and hamper learning. “Process losses.” The respondents described negative conceptions based on the feeling of not having enough time to get to know each other in the group or being in situations where no cooperation occurred. Other students referred to the fact that the group’s life is too long, which may lead to group members not only wearing each other out, but also having a negative effect on each other’s mood. “Influenced by each other’s mood.” Examples of negative experiences are process losses in general, including insufficient communication, unclear roles, and problems with one group member. As mentioned above, the students from the Social Work Program display a higher number of positive experiences in connection with a study-social function and organizing in comparison with students from the other programs.

ORGANIZATION

O rganization concerns the structure of group work and includes different aspects, all describing group work from different angles. The aspects are relevant no matter how the participants perceive the group work, whether as positive or negative. Unlike the other two abstractions (learning and study-social function), organization includes the same aspects no matter what the experiences are, namely group composition , group structure , way of working and contributions.

Whether the group is composed in a homogeneous or heterogeneous way seems to be experienced in both a positive and negative sense. A well-thought-out group composition , including both group size and mix of members, is essential. A just large-enough group for the task, consisting of a population of members that is not too heterogeneous, facilitates a joyful experience and learning. A homogeneous mix of members might be perceived as positive, as the students feel that they have similar life situations, opinions, and skills, thereby causing positive conditions for collaboration within the group. Conversely, in a group with a heterogeneous mix, different members contribute with different knowledge and/or prior experiences, which can be used in the group for collective and collaborative learning. “Good group composition, distribution of age groups that leads to fruitful discussions.”

An additional facilitating prerequisite is that the group develops adequate ways of working together, which includes a well-organized group structure . Well-working groups are characterized as having developed adequate ways of working together, while groups that work less well together lack a developed way of cooperation. “Well-organized working group with clear and distinct rules and structure.” Preparation and attendance for group work are aspects mentioned as facilitating (and hampering) incitements. Group work in educational settings sometimes entails that you, as a student, are forced to read and learn within a certain period of time that is beyond your control. Some participants find the pressure positive, hence “increase the pressure to read chapters in time.” The members’ contribution to the group is also a central factor for the students’ apprehension of how the group works. This is, in short, about how much each member ought to contribute to the group and to the work. Groups considered to be well-working are ones where all members contribute to the group’s work, but the content of the contribution may vary according to the single member’s qualifications. “We work well together (most of us). Everybody participates in different ways and seems committed.” “Good, everybody participates the same amount. We complement each other well.”

The same prerequisites can lead to the reverse result, i.e., hampering learning and stirring up negative experiences. If the group members are too identical (a homogeneous group composition ), it might lead to a lack of opinions, which several participants perceived as being negative. “That we do not get a male perspective about the subject. We are all girls, at the age of 20, which also means that we have pretty much the same experiences that may be seen as both positive and negative. The negative is the lack of opinion.” If the group is considered to be too small, students seems to find it troublesome, as the relationships are few, but there are also few people who are available to handle the workload allotted to the group. Nevertheless, a group that is too large could also lead to negative experiences. “It is far too large a group.”

A lack of group structure might lead to a lower degree of satisfaction with the group’s way of working . A commonly expressed point of view seen in the students’ answers involved the occurrences of when all members did not attend the meetings (absence). In these cases, it was also viewed that the work in the group often was characterized as unstructured. “Sometimes a bit unclear structures, some students have difficulties with coming in time.” Not attending or coming unprepared or badly prepared to the group work is other aspect that is commented on. “Low degree of fellowship, punctuality is a problem, an insecure group.” Some students find it frustrating to prepare for a certain time decided that is beyond their control. “A necessity to read certain chapters within a specific period of time is never stimulating.”

One characteristic of groups that are not working well is that contribution varies among the members. In group work, students with different levels of ambition are assembled, which may result in different levels of interest and commitment, as well as differences in the willingness to take on responsibilities or part of the workload of the group’s work. Some members are active and do much of the work, while others barely contribute at all. “Some don’t do anything while others pull the heaviest burden. Two out of three prepare before the meeting, the rest think that they are able to read during the group work and do not supply the group with anything else other than delays and frustration.” A common answer seen in the questionnaires that concerns negative experiences of group work as they relate to contribution is: “Everybody does not contribute just as much.” or “There is always someone who just glides along and doesn’t take part.”

SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS

The results are summarized in a model illustrating the relationship between abstractions (i.e., learning, study-social function, and organization) and result (i.e., enhanced or reduced learning), as well as positive or negative experiences (see Figure ​ Figure1 1 ).

A model illustrating the relationship between abstractions and result .

The figure shows that all three abstractions may facilitate or hamper learning as well as the experiences of group work. To piece together, the difficult and extensive jigsaw puzzle concerning why some group work result in positive experiences and learning, while in other cases the result is the reverse is still not solved. In this article, we propose that the prerequisites learning, study-social function, and organization influence learning and experiences of working in group, thus, providing additional pieces of information to the jigsaw puzzle ( Figure ​ Figure2 2 ).

Pieces of jigsaw puzzle influence learning and experiences .

The current study focuses on university students’ experiences and conceptions of group work and learning in groups. A primary aim was to give university students a voice in the matter by elucidating the students’ positive and negative points of view, as well as how the students’ assess learning when working in groups. The analysis resulted in the emergence of three different abstractions: learning, study-social function, and organizations. Each abstraction also included a positive and a negative variant. In other words, all three abstractions either facilitated or hampered university students’ learning, as well as their experiences of group work.

LEARNING IN GROUP WORK

The result shows that the majority of the students (97%) experience that working in group facilitated learning, either academic knowledge, collaborative abilities or both, accordingly confirming previous research ( Johnson and Johnson, 2004 ; Baines et al., 2007 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2010 , 2011 ). According to the students, they learn more or different things when working in groups compared with working individually. Academic knowledge was not the only type of knowledge learned through group work. In addition to academic knowledge, students also gained advanced knowledge about how groups work, how the students function as individual members of groups and how other members behave and work in groups. Some of the respondents also argued that group work might strengthen the combination between empirical and theoretical learning, thus the students were learning about groups by working in groups. This implies that group work, from a learning perspective, serves several functions for the students ( Kutnick and Beredondini, 2009 ; Gillies and Boyle, 2010 , 2011 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ). Group work also seems to have an important study-social function for the university students, hence confirming that group work serves more functions than just being a pedagogical mode.

Affiliation, fellowship, and welfare seem to be highly important, and may even be essential prerequisites for learning. Accordingly, group work functions as both as an objective (i.e., learning collaborative abilities), and as the means (i.e., a base for academic achievement), or both, for the students ( Gillies, 2003a , b ; Johnson and Johnson, 2004 ; Baines et al., 2007 ). Moreover, the students from the Bachelor’s Program in Biology and the students from the Program for Human Resources seem to use group work more as means for obtaining academic knowledge. In contrast, students from the Psychologist Program/Master of Science in Psychology and Social Work Program more often mentioned learning collaborative abilities alone, as well as a combination of academic knowledge and group learning, thus using group work as an objective, as a means, or as a combination of both. One interpretation might be that the type of task assigned to the students differs in various programs. This can be valid both concerning the purpose of group work (group work as objective or as the means), but also arrangement (working in a group or as a group; Underwood, 2003 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ). Another possible explanation might be that the main emphasis in the Bachelor’s Program in Biology and the Program for Human Resources is on product and academic knowledge, while in the Psychologist Program/Master of Science in Psychology and Social Work Program, the process is more articulated and demanded. However, this is only speculation and further research is needed.

Even though the participants did not explicitly state that group work hampered learning, they mentioned that they perceived group work to be ineffective due to the loss of focus and/or the presence of conflicts with other group members, thereby hampering conceivable learning. This may also be an effect of the purpose or arrangement of the group work ( Cantwell and Andrews, 2002 ; Underwood, 2003 ; Peterson and Miller, 2004 ; Hansen, 2006 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ; Hammar Chiriac and Hempel, 2013 ).

EXPERIENCES OF GROUP WORK

The results revealed that several aspects of group work are important incentives for learning. In addition, this study revealed students’ experiences of group work (i.e., facilitating or hampering positive/negative experiences), which is in line with the previous studies on students’ experiences of working in groups ( Cantwell and Andrews, 2002 ; Underwood, 2003 ; Peterson and Miller, 2004 ; Hansen, 2006 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ; Hammar Chiriac and Hempel, 2013 ). Group composition, group structure, ways of working, and participants’ contributions are aspects put forward by the university students as either facilitating or hampering the positive experience of group work ( Underwood, 2003 ; Peterson and Miller, 2004 ; Hansen, 2006 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ; Hammar Chiriac and Hempel, 2013 ).

Several of the aspects bear reference to whether the group members work in a group or as a group ( Underwood, 2003 ; Hammar Chiriac and Granström, 2012 ). Working as a group is characterized by common effort, utilization of the group’s competence, and includes problem solving and reflection. All group members are involved in and working on a common task to produce a joint outcome ( Bennet and Dunne, 1992 ; Galton and Williamson, 1992 ; Webb and Palincsar, 1996 ; Hammar Chiriac, 2011a , b ). According to the results, not all groups are working as a group but rather working in a group, which, according to Granström (2006) , is common in an educational setting.

Due to problems with group composition, members’ contributions, and group structure, including rules and ways of cooperation, some students end up with negative experiences of group work. Additionally, the university students allude to the fact that a well-functioning supportive study-social context is an essential prerequisite not only for positive experiences of group work, but also for learning ( Hammar Chiriac and Hempel, 2013 ). Both working in a group and working as group might be useful in different parts of the group work ( Hammar Chiriac, 2008 ) and cause learning. Hence working in a group causes cooperative learning based on social facilitation ( Zajonc, 1980 ; Baron, 1986 ; Uziel, 2007 ) while working as group causes learning benefits through collaboration with other group members. Although both approaches might cause positive or negative experiences, a conceivable interpretation is that working as a group has a greater potential to enhance positive experiences. The findings suggest a need for further research to fully understand why some group work causes positive experiences and other instances of group work cause negative experiences.

The findings in the current study develop the findings from Hammar Chiriac and Einarsson (2007) . First, it shows that it is possible to assemble all groups in to a joint research group (see below). Second, a thorough reanalysis, using an inductive qualitative content analysis, resulted in the emergence of three different abstractions: learning, study-social function, and organizations as either facilitating or hampering learning, and experiences.

METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS

There are some limitations in the current study and most of them have to do with the construction of the study-specific, semi-structured questionnaire. First, the questions do not discriminate between (a) the type of group work, (b) the purpose with the group work, (c) the structure of the group work (i.e., extent and/or time); or (d) ways of working in the group (i.e., cooperation or collaboration). Second, the design of the questionnaire does not facilitate comparison between the populations included in the group. The questionnaire treated group work as one activity and did not acknowledge that group work can serve different functions and include various activities ( Hammar Chiriac, 2008 ). This simplification of the phenomena group work causes criticism concerning whether or not it is possible to assemble these populations into a joint research group. An elaborated description of the analysis process and the comparison to three background variables has been used to counter this criticism. The thin results from the comparison, indicate that based on the question used in the study-specific questionnaire, it is possible to assemble the results into a corpus of joint results.

CONCLUSION/CONCLUDING REMARKS

The results indicate that most of the students’ experienced that group work facilitated learning, especially concerning academic knowledge. Three important prerequisites (learning, study-social function, and organization) for group work that serve as an effective pedagogy and as an incentive for learning were identified and discussed. All three abstractions either facilitated or hampered university students’ learning, as well as their experiences of group work. By listening to the university students’ voices and elucidating their experiences and conceptions, we have been able to add new knowledge and understanding of what the essence is behind successful group work in higher education. Furthermore, the students’ explanations of why some group work results in positive experiences and learning, while in other cases, the result is the opposite, can be of use for further development of group work as a pedagogical practice.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges Ph.D. Faculty Program Director, Charlotta Einarsson, for her contribution to the design of this study and contribution to early stages of the data analysis and manuscript.

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• Our Mission

PBL for Pre-K Through Second Grade

Very young students can benefit from project-based learning, as these detailed steps for a project conducted by preschool students demonstrate.

Observation, exploration, and discovery are three main skills that young children (kindergarten to second grade) generally develop when they interact with their surroundings. Some children prefer to take time to observe the environment before moving around to explore, while others choose to immediately start actively discovering the wonders within the environment. Nurturing an environment that ignites curiosity and facilitates exploration, therefore, is paramount.

Early-years educators who work with children 2 to 7 years old play a pivotal role in laying the foundation for lifelong learning by creating spaces where children can freely explore their diverse interests and learn how to expand explorations and inquiries into meaningful in-depth projects. 

In this post, I share a project I developed for a pre-K class with 3-year-olds that offers clear examples of each step and process feature. The project began when a boy became fascinated by the sound that came out of a bottle when he blew into it. He shared his findings with his peers, and the Sounds Exploration project began.  

Creating an Environment for Exploration

The environments where young children interact become learning spaces and serve as educators, generating dialogue between children and/or between each child and the environment, developing processes of inquiry, reflection, observation, and active listening. What should these spaces be like? 

Versatility: Design flexible learning environments that allow spontaneous exploration and discovery in different areas and disciplines. Incorporate adaptable learning materials to accommodate diverse interests and activities. Equip your classroom with a rich variety of resources, including books, art supplies, natural materials, and sensory experiences. Allow children to access natural open spaces that offer enough room for free exploration.  

In the example of the Sounds Exploration project, the teacher offered different materials and contexts for the learners to make and identify sounds, both outside and indoors. In the open air, the teacher helped learners focus on sounds by inviting them to close their eyes and name the sounds they could hear. This takes some time and guidance to help learners to listen beyond the sounds in the foreground and pay attention to those in the background. The learners were then made aware of the sounds they made by walking on different surfaces—like pebbles, grass, and mud—and the sounds they made with sticks or by hitting the water. Outdoors contexts are full of discovery possibilities. 

Indoors, the children used materials such as plastic tops, foil, plastic, cellophane, construction paper, and cardboard to make sounds. Wood blocks, musical instruments, and toys (cars, trucks, dolls, balls, construction blocks) are also an option, as are the different surfaces (floor, carpets, tables) in the classroom. 

In both environments, the children had guidance to help them discover more about the sounds they produced. This connects with the next point.

Curiosity: Encourage a culture of inquiry by posing open-ended questions, stimulating wonder, and inviting children to explore topics of interest. Offer provocations and invitations to learning that spark curiosity and prompt further investigation. 

Collaboration: Facilitate opportunities for children to explore together, interact, learn from one another, and question their findings. 

Interacting with children during exploration periods

The most successful interactions a teacher can carry out in the period of inquiry are those that don’t have a single answer but allow for different responses. The children’s answers will likely be the result of the connections they make with themselves, their previous knowledge, their interaction with their peers, and the context in which they’re interacting.

As a consequence, the teacher has an opportunity to develop and model an attitude of listening and of inquiry into the children’s responses and the construction of their learning. 

For example, related to the Sounds project, the teacher might ask the following questions: 

• “How do you do it? Can you teach me?”
• “This sound... what does it remind you of?” 
• ”What other sounds can we make?”
•  ”What causes sound to be produced?”
•  ”What can we use this sound for?”

Engage in active observation: Observe children closely as they play: as they interact with each other, the decisions they make, and how they choose to communicate their feelings, emotions, thoughts. Pay attention to their interests, preferences, and inquiries.

Listen actively: Listen to the children’s conversations when you ask open-ended questions to stimulate their thinking and foster reflection and critical thinking. Encourage them to communicate their ideas and their thoughts, share observations, and voice their desire to know. 

Let the children express freely: Let them show you their willingness to deepen their knowledge. Follow their interests and curiosity, allowing them to guide the direction of their exploration. Facilitate support and resources based on their inquiries, empowering them to build knowledge and take ownership of their learning journey.

Provide research tools: Offer the children access to age-appropriate tools and materials, including books, digital resources, and hands-on experiences. Support them in navigating these resources independently, fostering self-directed learning skills.

Facilitate tools to document their findings: Provide materials and resources for learners to document their discoveries in various ways: different art forms, notes, oral dialogues, audio/video recordings. 

Transferring exploration into research projects

Children’s active exploration, properly documented, will generate a lot of information and, in turn, will create the possibility of continuing work on a specific project.

In the example of the Sounds Exploration project, the learners were invited to use the sounds they had collected, identified, and documented to make a Sound Story from a well-known story they usually read in class and enjoyed. The guiding question was this: How can the learners in this class turn [the name of the story] into a sound story?

Assist project planning: Guide children in planning and organizing their research project, and deconstruct the process into manageable steps. Help them create research questions, collect information, and develop a short-term plan of action. 

Analyze the data collected: Facilitate understanding of the findings and guide the children to become aware of which subject area they’re willing to learn more about. 

Ignite Intrinsic motivation: Provide steps for the learners to become aware of  what they already know about the specific topic in that subject area and what more they want to know, and guide them in finding where they can collect the information they’re looking for. 

Foster reflection: Promote reflection throughout the research process. Provide opportunities for children to share their findings with peers and reflect on their learning experiences and strategies.

Research projects enable teachers to empower children to make choices and decisions about their learning journey when they have a range of options and opportunities to explore their interests authentically. In addition, research projects foster collaboration and peer learning by encouraging children to work together and share what they’ve learned. 

It’s important to recognize and celebrate children’s achievements and contributions throughout the research process. Create opportunities for them to showcase their work, share their findings with others, and receive feedback and praise .

In essence, by creating an environment that nurtures exploration, supporting children during their inquiries, and empowering them to take on leadership roles in their learning, early years educators can lay the groundwork for a lifetime of curiosity, discovery, and success.

Group work in higher education

Make it work for you..

In healthcare, you need not look long or hard to see teamwork in action. Many hospital units run like well-oiled machines under the attention of interprofessional patient care teams (physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, physical therapists, dieticians, social workers, and others) who meet regularly to discuss, plan, and implement patient care. This approach takes advantage of individual team member skills and abilities to support productivity and meet individualized care goals.   

Within higher education, group or team projects facilitate academic knowledge and provide opportunities for students to build cooperation and collaboration skills. According to Riebe and colleagues, employers want universities to do more to prepare students to work in environments that require collaboration.   

Class assignments, the use of appropriate tools (such as wikis, discussion boards, Zoom, Skype) and group-building exercises can help students create and complete successful collaborative projects. What little literature available on the topic of group work suggests that, in most cases, the group process benefits from allowing students to choose who they want to work with. Of course, at the beginning of a semester or class when students might not yet know each other, faculty should assign group projects to give everyone time to settle in and build connections.

Benefits of group work   

Collaborative learning and working toward a common goal effectively transfers nursing knowledge and reinforces skills important to both group and individual work. Complex tasks can be broken down into smaller, more manageable parts, which individual members can then tackle. Group members can refine, discuss, and explain difficult-to-understand concepts. Students can practice presentations and receive feedback for refinement and adaptation. Members can challenge one another’s assumptions, and develop stronger and more confident communication skills.   

According to Dionne and colleagues, teamwork and group projects also help students develop skills specific to their collaborative efforts. In a group situation, students frequently solve more complex problems than they would on their own, which provides them with additional learning opportunities. Within groups, students may take on leadership roles, delegating and shouldering responsibilities. Group work also presents a forum for sharing different perspectives. When approached with an open mind, this opportunity can foster personal growth and pool knowledge and skills.  

Members of the group will need to hold one another accountable to timelines and for assigned work. The group provides a social support system in which individuals can develop new approaches to resolving differences and difficulties while expanding critical thinking skills. The benefits of group work can be significant for students, but not all students have meaningful teamwork and collaboration in mind when they join a group. (See Overcoming group work hurdles. )   

Steps for group success   

Whether in school or on the job, learning how to master group interactions can help ensure project success.   

Start your group project on a positive note. If possible, get to know one another. Whether face-to-face or online, make the time to meet and break the ice. If you’re all in the same area, try to hold this meeting in person. If not, use an online video platform, such as Zoom, Skype, or Microsoft Teams.   

Identify a group Leader. Designate someone as a group leader who can oversee the whole project and help motivate group members to complete their goals. The group leader should project a positive energy and a willingness to listen. These attributes, along with clarity, consistency, and honesty in communication—all necessary in a group leader—build trust. This person tracks group progress toward the end goal and updates the group on achieve­ment along the way. This complex role can make or break relationships within the group. The group leader also can act as a liaison with course faculty, communicating issues and asking questions.   

Ideally, someone will volunteer for this position. If more than one person volunteers, hold a vote. If nobody volunteers, consider volunteering yourself. This prime opportunity enables you to apply your leadership skills and serves you well in your nursing career. Other roles that may aid the group include a scribe (note-taker and consolidator of shared documents), facilitator (brainstorming and problem solving), and liaison (if the group leader doesn’t serve in this role, requests assistance from or contacts external sources).  

Expectations must be clear and transparent to all group members. Establish group goals early in the process. Decide as  a group who will complete which task and create a timeline for each. To avoid misunderstandings, each group member must acknowledge expectations (roles, rules, responsibilities, timelines, and decisions).   

Be honest. Every group member must be honest about their ability to complete assigned tasks. Ideally, each member receives a task that matches their skills and strengths. Any member who doesn’t feel capable of completing a task should speak up rather than put the team at risk of not meeting goals or missing deadlines.  

Stick to deadlines. Each task set by the team should have a realistic timeline that ultimately allows the group to complete the project as assigned. Consider setting mini-deadlines throughout the project to keep the group on task.   

Meet regularly. Frequent in-person and online check-ins with group members facilitate accountability and encourage members to complete individual tasks. They also provide the rest of the team with an opportunity to offer help or re-direction as needed. In virtual classrooms, students can connect and meet using discussion boards, wikis, emails, and other platforms.  

Practice respect. Whether face-to-face or online and whether you agree or disagree with a point of view, show your fellow team members respect. Communicating via email or chat can be challenging because you can’t see facial expressions or hear voice tone and inflection. If you must meet remotely, try to use an online video platform.  

Celebrate. When your project is complete, recognize everyone for a job well done. Reflect on what went well during the experience and what might benefit from improvement. Taking time to look back will help you plan for your next group project, which may be right around the corner.    

Make groups work     

Group work helps students apply knowledge, develop problem-solving ability, and improve communication and critical thinking skills to implement on the job. However, putting individuals together for group work doesn’t make them a team. Teamwork requires effort, placing the right members in the right roles, and following essential rules for success. You may approach group work with a negative attitude because of unpleasant past experiences. However, when you follow a few simple rules, you can make group work work for you.    

Debra A. Hrelic is the RN-BSN program academic coordinator at the University of North Carolina Wilmington. 

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• Open access
• Published: 19 April 2024

‘We get to learn as we move’: effects and feasibility of lesson-integrated physical activity in a Swedish primary school

• Robert Larsson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1965-7147 1 ,
• Eva Ljung 2 ,
• Sara Josefsson 2 &
• Thomas Ljung 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1087 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Physical activity (PA) promotes health in adults as well as children. At the same time, a large proportion of children do not meet the recommendations for PA, and more school-based efforts to increase PA are needed. This study investigates the effectiveness and feasibility of lesson-integrated PA in a Swedish primary school.

We evaluate a new method called ‘Physical Activity and Lesson in Combination’ (abbreviated FALK in Swedish) using a mixed methods approach; a quasi-experimental study followed by qualitative interviews. Two schools participated in the study, one constituting the intervention group (I-school, n  = 83) and the other the control group (C-school, n  = 81). In addition to regular physical education, the I-school had three 30-minute FALK lessons each week. A total of 164 students aged 7–9 years wore pedometers for a whole week, four times over two semesters, and the number of steps per day (SPD) and the proportion of students with < 10,000 SPD were compared. Statistical differences between the schools were tested with ANOVA, Chi2, t-tests, and ANCOVA. Interviews with students ( n  = 17), parents ( n  = 9) and teachers ( n  = 9) were conducted and analysed using qualitative content analysis.

The results show that FALK led to the I-school getting more SPD and fewer students with < 10,000 SPD. Also, FALK was experienced as a positive, clear, and flexible method, simultaneously encouraging PA and learning. Challenges experienced concerned the teachers’ work situation, time, finding suitable learning activities, outdoor school environment changes, and extreme weather conditions.

Conclusions

This study indicates that FALK has the desired effects on PA and is a feasible method of integrating PA into theoretical teaching. We conclude that FALK is worth testing at more schools, given that implementation and sustainment of FALK considers both general enablers and barriers, as well as context-specific factors at the individual school.

Peer Review reports

In recent years, there has been a stream of reports and surveys showing that children and young people have limited physical activity (PA) [ 1 , 2 ]. For example, a Swedish study shows that only 43 per cent of adolescent boys and 23 per cent of girls of the same age meet the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendations of engaging in at least 60 minutes of PA a day of moderate to vigorous intensity [ 3 ]. Physical inactivity is a well-known risk factor for ill health and disease; at the same time, there is strong scientific evidence for PA and its health-promoting and preventing effects among children and adolescents [ 4 , 5 ]. Additionally, previous research shows that PA can have positive effects on cognitive abilities and academic achievements [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

As children spend a lot of time in school, it is an important health-promoting arena and a supportive environment for developing both positive health-related behaviours and learning [ 9 ]. The school is also important for health equity given that physical inactivity is more common among families and children where the parents have lower education and socioeconomic status [ 3 , 10 ].

Previous research shows that school-based health interventions focusing on PA can have beneficial effects on physical and mental health among children and adolescents [ 3 , 11 ]. Some research has focused on increasing PA during physical education lessons [ 12 ]. At the same time, it does not seem to be enough to increase PA during physical education lessons; school children also need to increase PA outside physical education lessons to increase their total level of PA.

Both internationally and in Sweden, various projects and studies have explored new ways to increase PA before , during and after school. A well-known Swedish example is the Bunkeflo project, which aimed to increase the daily PA among school children [ 13 ]. Other initiatives deal with lesson-integrated PA (also called movement integration), which incorporates PA, at any intensity level, within normal classroom education and in other school subjects than physical education [ 14 ]. Among these initiatives, there is a wide range of activities including active lessons and active breaks [ 14 , 15 ]. Research shows that active lessons can have positive effects on both PA and academic achievement [ 8 , 16 ]. However, there are also challenges with implementing active lessons and lesson-integrated PA in primary schools. One challenge is the limited time for physical education in the curriculum, and conducting PA within other lessons can create tensions as lesson-integrated PA can be perceived as stealing valuable time from teaching the subject. Previous research shows several enablers and barriers when lesson-integrated PA is implemented in primary schools. In a systematic review by Michael et al. [ 17 ], teachers’ motivation and self-confidence together with organisational support, time and resources are crucial factors. However, there is a need for further research about what effects can be expected under real-world circumstances (effectiveness) and how lesson-integrated PA works in practice. The latter involves the need for in-depth knowledge about the feasibility and implementation of lesson-integrated PA [ 18 ].

The present study investigates the effects and experiences of a new method integrating PA into theoretical teaching. The method is called ‘Physical Activity and Lesson in Combination’ (abbreviated FALK in Swedish; hereafter we use the Swedish abbreviation) [ 19 , 20 ]. FALK is intended to encourage students to be physically active, and to practice pulse-raising activities during theoretical teaching in all subjects. The overall goal of FALK is to develop a pragmatic method for increased total PA among students. Thereby, the FALK method follows calls for pragmatic approaches in public health research, meaning interventions focusing on issues and information relevant to decision-making and action-taking, and balancing results relevant to stakeholders without abandoning scientific rigour [ 21 ]. Consequently, the study aims to investigate the effectiveness and feasibility of lesson-integrated PA in a primary school. The following research questions are explored:

To what extent does lesson-integrated PA affect the students’ total PA?

How are enablers and barriers experienced by students, parents and teachers when conducting lesson-integrated PA?

What improvements regarding lesson-integrated PA do students, parents and teachers identify?

A mixed methods approach was used to investigate the effects of FALK and the experiences of lesson-integrated PA. More specifically, the study used an explanatory sequential mixed methods design [ 22 ] in which a quasi-experimental study of PA effects was followed by qualitative interviews, focusing on experiences of FALK under real-world conditions in a primary school setting.

Intervention characteristics and research setting

The goal of FALK was to develop a pragmatic method that increases student’s total level of PA by integrating PA in ordinary lessons, thereby achieving lesson-integrated PA (i.e. FALK lessons; see Additional file 1 ). The intervention used a quasi-experimental design with students in the intervention school completing three FALK lessons for 30 minutes a week, in addition to regular physical education lessons (two 40 minute lessons per week). Students from another primary school served as a control group and participated in regular physical education (two 40 minute lessons per week). PA was the primary outcome measure of the intervention and was objectively measured using pedometers.

In the present study, the FALK intervention was conducted with students in grades 1 to 3 (7–9 years old) at a municipal primary school located in a small community outside a medium-sized city in Sweden. The intervention took place during the academic year, in the autumn of 2020 and spring of 2021. Before the FALK intervention began the principal gave her approval and support. Two teachers (SJ and EL), who had participated in a pilot study, informed all teachers at both the intervention and control school (I-school and C-school) about FALK, and at the I-school, a total of twelve teachers conducted FALK lessons. Several FALK lessons, and related work materials, had already been prepared from the pilot study. Thereafter, more FALK lessons and work materials were developed, in preparation for the start of FALK at the intervention school. The FALK study was approved by the Swedish Ethical Review Authority in Stockholm (dnr 2020 − 00922).

Participants

In the quasi-experimental study, students from two primary schools were recruited (7–9 years old) and with one school’s students participating in the FALK intervention (i.e. intervention group, I-school) and the other school’s students acting as the control group (C-school). A total of 164 students participated (see Table  1 ).

The I-school and C-school are located a few kilometres apart in a rural community outside the city. The two schools showed no major differences in terms of lesson content, outdoor school environment or student living conditions. The same principal is responsible for both schools, the teachers at the two schools have common planning of the educational content and the students at both schools engage in the same kind of leisure activities both during warm and cold seasons. Therefore, we consider the risk of selection bias to be small. In more detail, the groups at the C-school and I-school participated in the FALK study as follows:

C-school (control group)

Regular physical education lessons twice a week for 40 minutes, plus the possibility of voluntary or organised recreational activities with physical movement.

I-school (intervention group)

In addition to regular physical education lessons, and the possibility of voluntary or organised recreational activities with physical movement, three FALK lessons of 30 minutes each were carried out continuously every week over two semesters (i.e. one academic year). Class teachers, leisure leaders and/or physical education teachers organised and carried out the FALK lessons based on the curriculum for each grade and the student’s knowledge levels and maturity.

The qualitative interview study involved three groups of participants: students, parents (guardians), and teachers. Purposeful sampling was used to select the participants based on their experience of FALK [ 23 ]. In practice, the sampling was made by selecting students who had participated in FALK lessons, parents of students participating in FALK lessons, and teachers responsible for conducting FALK lessons.

Data collection

The quantitative data collection was conducted using a pedometer (Yamax LS2000/SW200). Students and parents were instructed on how to use the pedometer. All readings and documentation of pedometer data were carried out by staff at the I-school and C-school. The pedometers were worn by students at both schools during all waking hours for seven consecutive days on four measurement occasions:

Sep-20 (week 37) immediately before the start of the intervention (baseline measurement).

Nov-20 (week 46) at the end of the autumn term.

Feb-21 (week 6) at the beginning of the spring term.

May-21 (week 18) at the end of the intervention.

Qualitative data were collected by semi-structured interviews [ 24 ], and in total, 17 students (nine girls and eight boys representing grades 1 to 3), nine parents (five women and four men), and nine teachers (eight women and one man) were interviewed. All interviews were individual, face-to-face, and conducted using an interview guide with open-ended questions. The interview questions were straightforward and focused on what had worked well, less well, and what could be improved in FALK. The interviews were conducted by two of the authors (EL and SJ) and were documented by taking notes. For interviews with students, written informed consent was obtained from parents (guardians) and verbal consent was obtained for interviews with parents and teachers. All interviews were conducted after the intervention (i.e. May-June 2021).

In the study design phase, sample size and power were calculated. Based on a previously conducted pilot study (2018, unpublished), the approximate mean number of steps per day (SPD) was expected to be 11,000 and the standard deviation 3,000. Clinically relevant differences/changes were estimated to be 1,500 SPD (equivalent to, approximately, a one-kilometre walk). Sample size calculations showed that with a statistical power of 80% and α = 0.05, 63 students per group were required.

The statistical analysis began with calculating an average value for the number of SPD for each student. Calculations were conducted for weekdays (Monday morning to Friday afternoon), weekend days (Friday afternoon to Monday morning) and all seven days of the week (total PA of the week). An analysis of variance, specifically a mixed between-within-subjects ANOVA, was conducted to examine differences in total PA (measured as the average number of SPD for the entire week) between schools over time. Independent t-tests were then carried out on each of the four measurement occasions to examine the difference in SPD average values between the I-school and C-school on weekdays, weekends, and for all seven days in the current measurement week. A one-way between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted to adjust for the (non-significant) baseline difference in SPD. Finally, we examined the percentage of students at each school who did not achieve 10,000 SPD per day on average for the entire week at each measurement time. These results are presented in cross tables, for all students and girls and boys separately. Differences in these proportions were analysed with the Chi2 test on each of the four measurement occasions. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS Statistics version 26.

The interview data were analysed using qualitative content analysis [ 25 ]. We started the analysis by reading the interview notes to familiarise ourselves with the data, and thereafter we started the open coding by searching for keywords, phrases, and meaningful sentences. In the open coding process, initial codes were identified and sorted into potential subcategories, which were later collapsed into broader generic categories. After this process, subcategories and categories were reviewed and further refined. The interview material was first analysed inductively and separately for the three interview groups (i.e. students, parents, and teachers) and then brought together to form a holistic picture. All authors were involved in the final stages of the analysis, and the results were discussed to ensure credibility.

First, the quantitative results are presented, followed by the qualitative results. All results are interpreted and discussed in the discussion section.

Quantitative results

Differences in PA between the I-school and the C-school are reported here first as SPD, then as the proportion of students with fewer than 10,000 SPD. The analysis of variance showed no significant interaction between measurement time and school, Wilk’s Lambda = 0.93, F(3.83) = 2.06, p  = 0.11, partial eta squared = 0.07. There was a significant main effect of measurement occasion, Wilk’s Lambda = 0.57, F(3.83) = 20.50, p  < 0.01, partial eta squared = 0.43. There was also a significant main effect of school, F(1.85) = 4.64, p  < 0.05, partial eta squared = 0.05. This indicates that FALK contributes to increased total PA. The students included in the analysis of variance and their SPD at each measurement point are presented in Table  2 .

On weekdays, there was no statistically significant difference in mean SPD at the baseline measurement (i.e. immediately before the intervention), but when the FALK lessons were ongoing (measurements 2 to 4), the I-school had more SPD than the C-school. On weekends, the I-school had more SPD than the C-school at all four measurements, a difference that was statistically significant at measurements 3 and 4. For total PA (‘whole week’), there was no statistically significant difference between the I-school and C-school students at the first measurement, but at the three subsequent measurement weeks, the I-school had more SPD than the C-school (see Table  3 ; Fig.  1 ).

Average number of SPD for students at I-school and C-school at each measurement occasion for weekdays, weekend days and the whole week (SD shown in Table  3 )

At the first measurement (M1 Whole week, before the start of the intervention), the I-school had an average of 886 more SPDs than the C-school. Although this difference was not statistically significant, one could argue for using statistical methods to adjust for differences between the groups in baseline values. A one-way between-groups analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted. After adjusting for the difference in pre-intervention SPDs between the groups at M1, there was no longer a statistically significant difference between the groups at M2 ( p  = 0.08) but the statistically significant differences remained at M3 and M4 ( p  < 0,01).

Moreover, girls had fewer SPD on average than boys (Table  4 ). There was also a higher proportion of girls, compared to boys, who did not reach 10,000 SPD (Table  5 ). A large proportion of students fell below 10,000 SPD. Before the intervention, the proportion was similar in both schools. During the weeks of measurement when FALK lessons were taking place, the I-school had significantly fewer students with less than 10,000 SPD (Table  5 ).

Qualitative results

In the analysis, three descriptive categories were created. The categories focus on the students’, parents’, and teachers’ experiences with FALK illustrated with quotes.

A new way of working meets students, parents, and teachers

Students, parents, and teachers express positivity about the new way of working that FALK entails. The students experience FALK as rewarding: “We get to learn a lot of things at the same time as we move” (student, grade 2). Also, students enjoy the fun aspects and appreciate participating in developing PA exercises. Like the students, parents support FALK for combining movement and learning, expressing a need for increased student movement during school days.

Teachers perceive FALK as clear, flexible, and enhancing the joy of movement and learning. Teachers emphasise that FALK does not need to be complicated, but instead FALK is seen as a flexible method that can be varied based on subject, class size, weather, and season. Also, teachers value that FALK lessons are explicitly integrated into schedules, emphasizing their compulsory nature akin to other subjects.

A positive effect of FALK emphasised by all involved is the calming influence on the classroom after the FALK lesson. Both students and parents say it is positive for students to reduce excess energy, and the teachers emphasise the students’ enhanced educational focus in subsequent lessons.

“I think they [the students] are calmer after an outdoor lesson. We have good lessons afterwards in the classroom.” Teacher.

The students talk about challenges in FALK with inattentive classmates creating anxiety when the teacher gives instructions and FALK lessons being less enjoyable when they perceive the learning activities as too difficult. A few teachers also find FALK too ‘controlled’ and struggle with the integration of pulse-raising activities with subject teaching, such as finding the right balance between PA and relevant learning activities.

“To combine this [traditional lesson] with the fact that it has to be physical activity with increased heart rate… This has become a bit too artificial for me to achieve.” Teacher.

Teachers can also face challenges in fostering motivation, commitment, and calm during FALK briefings. Despite these challenges, the teachers note that achieving student motivation and calmness during lessons are universal and not exclusive to FALK teaching.

Parents see improved information dissemination as desirable; they wish to know more about FALK and are curious about the results. Parents find FALK inspiring and advocate sharing information with other classes and schools in the municipality.

A new way of working meets the school and the teacher’s working day

The new way of working that FALK entails influences how the teachers work. Teachers express that FALK foster innovative thinking on combining PA and teaching. FALK encourages collaboration, allowing teachers to share work material, draw inspiration, and create new material together.

“We have taken turns to make different materials, and it has been rewarding to get new ideas from another colleague.” Teacher.

Collaboration is also encouraged by two teachers facilitating FALK lessons. For example, tasks can be divided between the teachers, simplifying student reporting of assignments, and making it easier to support students.

A challenge teachers describe is FALK lesson planning, requiring time to adopt the ‘FALK mindset’ and creating work materials for lessons. Also, it can be challenging to introduce substitutes in the FALK way of working if regular teaching staff is absent.

While FALK enhances collaboration, teachers working alone with FALK lessons ask for more cooperation and collegial support. Some teachers suggest better informing on FALK in the teaching team before implementation and call for improved structuring and organisation of work material by grade and subject.

The influence of the surrounding school environment

Changes in the surrounding school environment and weather conditions affects FALK implementation. According to students and teachers, a schoolyard rebuilding has occasionally made FALK lessons challenging, with the schoolyard temporarily reduced and having other students in the schoolyard. This posed difficulties for students to concentrate on the FALK lesson due to distractions in the schoolyard.

“It was tough in the fall when there were several students who couldn’t focus due to various reasons and it made it difficult to be out with many distractions. The rebuilding of the schoolyard has made the work somewhat difficult”. Teacher.

Concerning the external school environment, teachers suggest a dedicated pre-lesson gathering spot where students can meet before FALK lessons, like the football field or a nearby wooded area. Heavy rain and cold winter days sometimes pose challenges in carrying out FALK lessons as planned. Teachers have on occasions been forced to rethink, leading to indoor PA activities like active breaks as part of regular lessons. Students also express less enjoyment in FALK lessons during wet and cold conditions.

In this study, we investigate the effects of FALK and how students, parents and teachers have experienced its feasibility at a municipal primary school. As far as we know, our study is the first Swedish study exploring lesson-integrated PA in primary schools, and one of just a few European studies investigating movement integration (MI) interventions in a primary school setting using a researcher-teacher collaboration approach [ 15 ].

It is recommended that children and adolescents 6–17 years of age should be physically active for at least 60 minutes every day [ 4 ]. This equates to just over 10,000 SPD, slightly more for boys than girls [ 26 ]. To detect students who are most likely to fall short of the recommendations, this study used an average value of 10,000 SPD for both girls and boys as the upper limit for insufficient PA.

The reason for measuring the number of steps on seven consecutive days (i.e. also on weekends although the FALK lessons were conducted during school hours on weekdays) is that we wanted to measure children’s total PA during the whole week. This is in line with the ActivityStat Hypothesis [ 27 ], which states that if you increase your PA in one area (e.g., during school hours), you will compensatively decrease your PA in another area (e.g., during the weekend) to maintain a stable level of total PA (or energy consumption). Therefore, we wanted to know whether increasing PA at school would lead to less PA during the weekend (which would be undesirable).

One might think it is a given that the total PA level will increase if school-based interventions to increase PA are implemented. However, it must be remembered that a small ‘dose’ of increased PA during the school day is still a relatively limited fraction of the total time available to be physically active, or inactive, which again relates to the the ActivityStat Hypothesis [ 27 ]. Previous research shows that the majority of MI interventions have a PA dose of 10–20 minutes per day [ 15 ], and while interventions can have positive impacts on total PA, there is also variability and uncertainties in results [ 8 , 16 ]. With this said, the quantitative results show that FALK increased the proportion of students exceeding 10,000 SPD. We see this result as an indication that FALK has a positive and significant effect on PA among students who, for various reasons, are at risk of falling short of the recommended PA level [ 4 ]. The ambition of FALK is not for students to become athletes, but rather for the students ‘most in need’ to move enough to reach a minimum level of PA from a health perspective.

It has been shown that school children move less on weekends compared to school days [ 3 , 28 ], which is consistent with our results. This further underlines the importance of the school as a health-promoting setting enabling PA for all students, making the school setting especially important for those students most in need of increased PA.

Not surprisingly our results show that outdoor temperature appears to impact the SPD among the students. Compared to the first measurement (week 37), the average SPD at both schools decreased at the second and third measurements (week 46 and week 6 respectively) and then increased at the final measurement (week 18). However, there was a large difference between schools in terms of seasonal variation in the proportion of students with less than 10,000 SPD. At the C-school, this proportion increased sharply in late autumn (measurement 2) and winter (measurement 3), while the change in the I-school was comparatively small.

The quantitative results demonstrate significant differences in average SPD between the two schools at the measurements when FALK is ongoing at the I-school, which we believe helps to provide a clearer picture of the effects of FALK. The difference between our two schools in SPD for the ‘whole week’ increases with the duration of the FALK intervention, and we believe that comparison at measurement 4 is the most interesting, as students at the I-school had conducted FALK lessons for almost two full semesters. At the fourth measurement, the difference between the schools was 2,495 SPD and adjusted for baseline values (i.e. the difference of 886 SPD at measurement 1), the difference at measurement 4 is 1,609 SPD. One might think that a difference in total PA of just over 1,600 SPD on average is not very impressive, but the change contributed by FALK seems to have occurred mainly in students with less than 10,000 SPD, which means it can improve health among students most in need.

Several studies have shown that girls are less physically active than boys [ 2 , 3 , 10 ], and we found the same pattern in our study. The FALK intervention did not close the gender gap in total PA, but we did see a step in the closing direction as there was a significant reduction in the proportion of girls at the I-school who did not reach 10,000 SPD. The latter, to some extent, contradicts previous studies suggesting that school-based interventions increase PA and produce the desired results for boys, but not to the same extent for girls [ 29 , 30 ].

Moreover, the qualitative results are well in line with previous research on enablers and barriers in the implementation of lesson-integrated PA in primary schools [ 17 ]. FALK is perceived as a clear and flexible method by teachers, and positive perceptions and ease of implementation of the new method are among the enablers in previous studies [ 17 ]. The results that teachers consider FALK as a clear and flexible method is important as one goal of FALK is to provide a pragmatic method for the integration of PA and learning. Another important result is that FALK contributes to the students being calmer in the classroom after FALK lessons. This creates a learning environment that, most likely, is more beneficial for student learning. However, how FALK influences the learning environment and learning is a question for future research.

The qualitative results also reveal challenges (barriers) mostly linked to the teachers’ work situation, working time and practical challenges in combining PA and teaching. Time constraints and competing demands to meet the curriculum are highlighted in previous research [ 17 , 31 , 32 ]. In our study, competing demands are not so prominent, but a few teachers perceive FALK as ‘controlling’ because pulse-raising PA needs to be combined with theoretical teaching. This kind of challenge could possibly be solved with the help of other teachers finding suitable FALK lessons for the subject concerned. However, the teachers’ work situation needs to be considered when deciding to implement FALK in schools. As with any organisational change, it is important to have a dialogue and involve those affected by the change, which in the long run paves the way for successful implementation [ 33 ].

The qualitative results also point towards possible improvements in FALK, with the teachers emphasising the need for even more consensus on the method and better coordination of work materials. Improvements involve better communication in the teaching team and organising work materials more clearly by subject and grade. We believe these improvements are ‘low-hanging fruits’ and are relatively easy to improve. Furthermore, the need for improvements will most likely emerge when FALK is tested on a larger scale in more schools with varying preconditions.

Finally, we want to discuss FALK in relation to the school leader role and sustainability. Leadership, organisational support, and resources are factors commonly reported on in implementation research [ 34 ], as well as research on implementation of school-based health interventions [ 35 , 36 ] and successful implementation of lesson-integrated PA [ 17 ]. Even though the school leader’s role was not evident in our results, it was fundamental for setting up our researcher-teacher collaboration and for providing resources and thereby creating good conditions for staff to put FALK into practice. As indicated in previous research, attitudes among school leaders are crucial for implementing health-promoting initiatives in schools in general [ 37 ], as well as for providing resources and creating structures and processes for lesson-integrated PA to be sustainable over time [ 14 , 15 ]. Sustainability is an urgent research task in school-based health interventions, and this also applies to FALK to become part of organisational routines in schools and result in long-lasting effects on the children’s total PA levels [ 35 , 38 ].

Strengths and limitations

We consider the mixed methods approach a strength of the study as the explanatory sequential design contributes to a more in-depth understanding of the effectiveness and implementation of the FALK intervention. Below, we discuss the strengths and limitations of the included quantitative and qualitative approaches.

The study was conducted on a limited number of students and with only two primary schools involved. The relatively small size of the study and the fact that schools in Sweden have varying preconditions means that the generalisability of the study is somewhat limited. Another limitation of the study could be the quasi-experimental design, i.e. individual students were not randomised to the intervention group or the control group. For obvious reasons, it is difficult to randomise students when the groups are located in different schools. The fact that the intervention and control groups were in different schools can also be considered a strength of the study because the groups did not affect each other (i.e. there was no ‘spillover effect’).

Different methods can be used to objectively measure PA. Pedometers measure the number of steps while accelerometers measure changes in the speed of movement. The advantages of pedometers used in the present study are that participants can monitor their own activity progress, and pedometers are suitable for use in interventions. On the other hand, a disadvantage of the ‘number of steps’ measure is that it does not tell us anything about intensity, but pedometers can still be used to measure an individual’s total PA over time. An advantage of the accelerometer is that in addition to total PA, it also shows intensity, duration, and frequency. A disadvantage of the accelerometer is its price. Both pedometers and accelerometers are insensitive to activities such as swimming, cycling and arm movements. Nevertheless, both devices can provide a good picture of total PA [ 39 , 40 ].

It is common practice to report the results of intervention studies, such as the evaluation of a new drug or a manual-based programme, with a detailed description of the methods so that other researchers can repeat (replicate) the study. The FALK method has to be adapted to the different conditions in different schools and is therefore difficult to describe in detail, using a step-by-step approach. The core of FALK is to integrate PA into theoretical, compulsory lessons. In addition to the influence of the level of knowledge and maturity of the students, the implementation of FALK is also influenced by the individual school’s staffing resources, the availability of outdoor activities, the composition of the student group, the group dynamics, the preferences of students and teachers, and the current weather conditions.

The FALK lessons in the present study are designed for students in grades 1–3, i.e. children aged 7–9 years (see Additional file 1 ). For other age groups, the content of the lessons needs to be adapted. The proportion of students with insufficient PA increases in higher grades [ 3 ], which motivates the development of school-based methods that increase PA also in older students.

A strength of the interview study is that it explores enablers and barriers of lesson-integrated PA from three perspectives. The interviews with students, parents and teachers contribute to a more nuanced and credible picture of the implementation process [ 23 ], and it is a strength that the voices of students are heard because they are the ones participating in the FALK lessons.

A limitation is that the study only reflects experiences from one medium-sized municipal primary school in Sweden. At the same time, the study’s results can be transferable to similar methods (interventions) within primary schools given that contextual conditions are considered [ 18 , 23 ]. Finally, a limitation is the short and non-recorded interviews. A consequence of this approach is that it provides a more limited interview material compared to audio-recorded interviews, which can affect the depth of the qualitative analysis. Another risk is bias, with notetaking being influenced by the researcher’s preunderstanding and interpretations. We have handled this risk by having interviews and research questions covering both enablers and barriers with FALK, as well as being several authors involved in both taking notes and the analysis. However, the difficulty of capturing all the details when taking notes should be taken into account. Considering that the interview questions were straightforward (what was good, less good and suggestions for improvement) and did not touch on sensitive issues, we still deemed it sufficient and pragmatic to document the interviews through notes. A recent review shows that rapid (interview) methods, despite their limitations, can be an alternative to traditional qualitative methods [ 41 ].

Future research and practical implications

We have four suggestions for future research in addition to investigating the sustainability of FALK. First, we suggest investigating FALK effectiveness in older age groups and under varying circumstances, meaning schools located in both high and low socioeconomic areas. This is important as we know from previous research that a student’s PA follows a social gradient, with students from high-income areas having higher levels of PA [ 3 , 10 ]. Second, to explore the effectiveness of FALK for students with special needs, and to study the implementation of FALK in special needs education and what kind of adaptations are needed. Third, although FALK is not a manual-based method, the balance between fidelity and adaptation in varying school contexts needs further study [ 42 ]. Fourth, to explore how FALK influences the learning environment in the schools and how FALK influences the student’s learning.

Under the right circumstances, the practical implication of FALK is that it is a method worth trying. FALK does not require extensive financial investment, extra facilities, extra school staff or lessons outside the regular schedule. However, what is needed is the courage to think ‘outside the box’ in teaching– implying that teaching can take place in other ways than sitting indoors in a classroom. Also needed are acceptance among teaching staff, and support from the school leader.

We conclude that FALK is a useful and feasible method for integrating PA into theoretical teaching. FALK effectively increases the average number of SPD and reduces the number of students not reaching the recommended level of PA. Moreover, FALK is experienced as a positive, clear, and flexible method encouraging PA and concurrent learning. FALK also contributes to professional development, collegial learning, and collaboration among teachers. Challenges experienced concern the teachers’ work situation, time, finding suitable learning activities, outdoor school environment changes, and extreme weather conditions. Suggested improvements in FALK include consensus on the way of working among teachers, and better organisation of work materials. The results taken together, we conclude that FALK is worth testing at more schools, given that implementation and sustainment of FALK considers both general enablers and barriers, as well as context-specific factors at the individual school.

Data availability

The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Swedish abbreviation for ‘Physical Activity and Lesson in Combination’

• Movement integration
• Physical activity

Steps per day

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank all students, parents and teachers participating in the study. Special thanks to Karin Wäckelgård Nordin, Principal at both the intervention and the control school, for making the study possible.

This research was funded by Folksam Research Foundation. The research funder had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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TL, EL, and SJ conceptualised, designed, and collected the data of the study. The formal analysis was performed by TL and RL, with EL and SJ providing reviewing comments on the quantitative and qualitative results. The first draft of the manuscript was written by RL and TL. All authors read, reviewed, and approved the final manuscript.

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The first author (RL) is a senior lecturer in public health sciences with experience in health promotion, implementation, evaluation, and qualitative research. The second (EL) and third (SJ) authors are teachers working in a primary school in Borlänge municipality, Sweden. EL is a registered teacher with over 38 years of experience in teaching physical education and health. SJ is also a registered teacher with 16 years of teaching experience and with an interest in PA. The fourth author (TL) is a licensed physician by profession and an associate professor and senior lecturer in public health sciences with extensive experience in teaching and research on lifestyle factors, especially PA, and health.

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Larsson, R., Ljung, E., Josefsson, S. et al. ‘We get to learn as we move’: effects and feasibility of lesson-integrated physical activity in a Swedish primary school. BMC Public Health 24 , 1087 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18509-7

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Critical Minerals in Africa: Strengthening Security, Supporting Development, and Reducing Conflict amid Geopolitical Competition

USIP Senior Study Group Final Report

Tuesday, April 9, 2024 / By: USIP Senior Study Group on Critical Minerals in Africa

Publication Type: Report

Executive Summary

The United States Institute of Peace convened a senior study group to explore the role Africa plays in the United States’ efforts to diversify US critical mineral supply chains and how new investment in partnerships with African countries could help drive economic development and strengthen peace and security on the African continent. Based on meetings and interviews with relevant technical, operational, and policy experts, the study group developed multiple recommendations for the United States to support mutually beneficial public and private partnerships with African nations. These partnerships could help diversify critical mineral supply chains; strengthen the rule of law, transparency, and environmental and labor standards around African critical minerals; and foster peace and stability through greater US commercial engagement.

Principal Findings

US economic and national security depends on a reliable supply of critical minerals that underlie an array of products and services important to ever-changing modern economies. Yet for many critical minerals (e.g., cobalt, graphite, and manganese), the United States is heavily dependent on imports. Especially concerning is that the United States is at or near 100 percent reliant on “foreign entities of concern”—mainly the People’s Republic of China—for key critical minerals.

Global demand for many critical minerals is growing rapidly. Accelerated demand forecasts are largely based on assumptions regarding a global transition to nonfuel-based energy sources, including high-end batteries for electric vehicles and power storage. However, critical minerals are also essential to powering all manner of consumer electronics, medical supplies, and high-performance metals and engines, including those used for defense and military applications. Consequently, regardless of how market and policy factors may change the trajectory of an energy transition, demand for key critical minerals is very likely to grow as economies worldwide increasingly electrify and modernize. To avoid being shorthanded and vulnerable to export controls and potential market manipulation by geopolitical competitors, it is imperative for the United States to diversify its critical minerals supply chains.

Africa can play an important role in strengthening US critical minerals supply chain security. The United States and allied countries already depend on many critical minerals that are sourced from African countries. But increasing supply is not a simple matter. The development of natural resources on the continent has had a checkered past, and critical minerals are no exception. Ventures of the Russian-led paramilitary Wagner Group in Mali, Sudan, and elsewhere are cases in a long history of predatory mining activities in Africa. Thus, it should not be assumed that the global rush for critical minerals will be beneficial to African development and security. Here, the United States, its allies, and the private sector can play a positive role—including by offering a better alternative to an approach to extracting Africa’s critical minerals common to Chinese companies, which too often has offered little local value and has resulted in corruption and human rights abuses, including child labor exploitation. US mining and related companies could be much more engaged, however, as they remain largely absent from the continent. 

While the Biden administration and Congress have stepped up efforts to support US companies in African markets—by de-risking and otherwise supporting investments—progress is relative, and there is no indication that China and other competitors are retreating. In fact, the list of economic competitors in Africa is growing, with Gulf States and others intensifying their interest in African critical minerals. If the United States wants to remain competitive on the global stage, it must step up its efforts to diversify US critical minerals supply chains, including in Africa.  

Priority Recommendations

The study group reviewed US policy initiatives and explored key challenges, issues, and opportunities associated with meeting US critical minerals objectives, primarily with a focus on further engaging Africa and challenging China’s dominance. The group’s overarching conclusion is that the US government should act with increased speed, focus, and decisiveness to support Africans in equitably and responsibly developing critical minerals. In doing so, it should engage African countries in mutually beneficial partnerships aimed at bringing peace, prosperity, and community stability to African citizens. Forging such partnerships will not be easy, but doing so could establish the United States and its allies as Africa’s preferred partners in supporting the continent’s critical minerals development. 

Following is a list of 13 broad policy recommendations and actions developed by the study group to further US-Africa partnerships on critical minerals development and supply chain diversification:

• Sharpen US-Africa policy with a focus on critical minerals. Given their importance to US economic and national security and African economic development, critical minerals merit being a top priority for US policy toward Africa. To execute this priority, the United States should design a comprehensive critical minerals strategy that aims to build mutually beneficial partnerships with Africans.
• Empower African civil society and the media. The United States could bolster the involvement of African civil society in its efforts to build transparency and accountability in the critical minerals sector, including by providing more support for US Agency for International Development (USAID) activities and other US government programs.
• Prioritize and leverage existing USAID programs to assist Africans with rule-of-law   and fiscal transparency efforts. The United States should enhance ongoing USAID efforts such as those supported through the Fiscal Transparency Innovation Fund. It could help African governments and civil society strengthen the rule of law, improve the business climate for responsible investors, and foster greater peace and community stability through better financial management of activities associated with critical minerals development.
• Tactically address Chinese mining in Africa. Although the United States is competing with China, using tactical nuance in investment decision-making could further US policy goals. Of course, all potential relationships with companies must be thoroughly vetted to ensure compliance with human rights, child labor, environmental, and other high standards and laws, but a tangential Chinese connection alone—particularly involving basic services or infrastructure—should not necessarily disqualify a US firm from receiving US government support.
• Prioritize prompt and full development of the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the United States, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Zambia. The US-DRC-Zambia MOU should be prioritized to fully realize its potential benefits. Transforming the memorandum into a productive partnership will require a significant US effort and dedicated resources. To be most successful, the MOU will also need the full engagement and guidance of the US private sector across the battery supply chain. Commercial diplomacy can play an important role in this effort.
• Strengthen the impact of the US International Development Finance Corporation (DFC). To make the most of its tools in the African critical minerals sector, the US government should sharpen the DFC’s impact by, for example, emphasizing strategic investments that will also meet developmental priorities and increase the corporation’s presence in Africa.
• Mobilize the private sector to strengthen African infrastructure. Although budget constraints and other factors limit the United States’ ability to improve African infrastructure, tools exist to mobilize private US resources. For example, the United States could better utilize the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment, DFC, Export-Import Bank, and US Trade and Development Agency to boost countries’ abilities to attract private infrastructure investment.
• Invest in commercial diplomacy. The US government should practice more vigorous commercial diplomacy with a keen eye toward building critical minerals partnerships in Africa. Increasing the physical presence of diplomatic and commercial officers in mining centers is of utmost importance. For example, the United States should reopen a consulate in the city of Lubumbashi in the DRC and better resource the US Commercial Service.
• Expand membership of the Minerals Security Partnership (MSP) to include African partners. The United States is involved in several multinational partnerships involving critical minerals, including the MSP. The MSP was established in 2022 to generate public and private investment in critical minerals production, processing, and recycling, with the ultimate goal of diversifying and securing critical minerals supply chains. Currently, no African countries are included in the MSP.
• Expand support for the Young African Leadership Initiative (YALI). The US Department of State and USAID should aggressively pursue increased private and public support for YALI—a highly competitive executive program for young Africans interested in leadership and entrepreneurial training. The program could enhance US-Africa critical minerals policy goals by better engaging US mining and engineering universities in exchange programs and the US diplomatic corps.
• Assist Africans in building technical capacity in the mining sector. The United States should partner with Africans to support local critical minerals processing. This could be done in part by helping to establish technical assistance and training centers and regional processing centers—all while being alert to counterproductive critical minerals export policies.
• Prioritize US national security interests in the context of US trade and investment policy. Policymakers should explore the extent to which US mining engagement efforts in Africa may be undercut by the Inflation Reduction Act, disincentivizing critical minerals investment and exports to the United States—exports US processing and manufacturing facilities will rely on for the foreseeable future.
• Support efforts to address artisanal mining challenges. The United States should support efforts to increase benefits for artisanal workers and limit harm from artisanal mining. Yet it should do so while recognizing that formalization and punitive measures can be counterproductive—inadvertently harming artisanal miners and their communities if not carefully managed. 

Global critical minerals markets are rapidly evolving, driven by new policies and technologies.

Africans often express a sense of urgency when discussing their major opportunity to tap natural resources and fuel positive development—as the critical minerals of today may not be critical tomorrow. Given this sense of urgency and the United States’ strong interest in furthering its engagement on the continent, the potential for critical minerals partnerships that work for both Americans and Africans is high. For these partnerships to be successful, though, much more work is needed.

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While some parts of the Afghan economy managed to stabilize in 2023, poverty continued to increase and now stands at 69 percent of the population. Kanni Wignaraja, director for Asia and the Pacific at the U.N. Development Programme, discusses UNDP’s efforts to build resilience in local markets and promote women-owned enterprises in Afghanistan; explores ways to navigate relations with the Taliban; and examines how the decline in international aid is affecting humanitarian efforts in the country.

Economics ;  Human Rights

Afghanistan’s Economy Once Again Nears the Precipice

Friday, November 17, 2023

By: Belquis Ahmadi ;   William Byrd, Ph.D. ;   Scott Worden

More than two years into Taliban rule, Afghanistan remains one of the poorest countries in the world with some of the highest humanitarian needs. The situation has shown some signs of stabilizing over the last year — but many Afghan households are still struggling to procure basic needs, and many women have been driven from the workforce altogether. Unfortunately, financial troubles loom ahead, and the already beleaguered Afghan economy is now projected to decline. Combined with population growth and the influx of thousands of Afghans forced to return from neighboring Pakistan, this is a recipe for increased humanitarian need over the longer term in the absence of major structural and political reforms.

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Critical Minerals in Africa

Often throughout Africa’s history, natural resource exploitation has brought devastating consequences. However, it’s clear that Africa’s critical minerals will be developed regardless of the risks. The question is: How will critical minerals be developed and to whose benefit?

Victor Mukhin

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Title : Active carbons as nanoporous materials for solving of environmental problems

However, up to now, the main carriers of catalytic additives have been mineral sorbents: silica gels, alumogels. This is obviously due to the fact that they consist of pure homogeneous components SiO2 and Al2O3, respectively. It is generally known that impurities, especially the ash elements, are catalytic poisons that reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. Therefore, carbon sorbents with 5-15% by weight of ash elements in their composition are not used in the above mentioned technologies. However, in such an important field as a gas-mask technique, carbon sorbents (active carbons) are carriers of catalytic additives, providing effective protection of a person against any types of potent poisonous substances (PPS). In ESPE “JSC "Neorganika" there has been developed the technology of unique ashless spherical carbon carrier-catalysts by the method of liquid forming of furfural copolymers with subsequent gas-vapor activation, brand PAC. Active carbons PAC have 100% qualitative characteristics of the three main properties of carbon sorbents: strength - 100%, the proportion of sorbing pores in the pore space – 100%, purity - 100% (ash content is close to zero). A particularly outstanding feature of active PAC carbons is their uniquely high mechanical compressive strength of 740 ± 40 MPa, which is 3-7 times larger than that of  such materials as granite, quartzite, electric coal, and is comparable to the value for cast iron - 400-1000 MPa. This allows the PAC to operate under severe conditions in moving and fluidized beds.  Obviously, it is time to actively develop catalysts based on PAC sorbents for oil refining, petrochemicals, gas processing and various technologies of organic synthesis.

Victor M. Mukhin was born in 1946 in the town of Orsk, Russia. In 1970 he graduated the Technological Institute in Leningrad. Victor M. Mukhin was directed to work to the scientific-industrial organization "Neorganika" (Elektrostal, Moscow region) where he is working during 47 years, at present as the head of the laboratory of carbon sorbents.     Victor M. Mukhin defended a Ph. D. thesis and a doctoral thesis at the Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia (in 1979 and 1997 accordingly). Professor of Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia. Scientific interests: production, investigation and application of active carbons, technological and ecological carbon-adsorptive processes, environmental protection, production of ecologically clean food.   

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Rosatom Starts Production of Rare-Earth Magnets for Wind Power Generation

TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom has started gradual localization of rare-earth magnets manufacturing for wind power plants generators. The first sets of magnets have been manufactured and shipped to the customer.

In total, the contract between Elemash Magnit LLC (an enterprise of TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom in Elektrostal, Moscow region) and Red Wind B.V. (a joint venture of NovaWind JSC and the Dutch company Lagerwey) foresees manufacturing and supply over 200 sets of magnets. One set is designed to produce one power generator.

“The project includes gradual localization of magnets manufacturing in Russia, decreasing dependence on imports. We consider production of magnets as a promising sector for TVEL’s metallurgical business development. In this regard, our company does have the relevant research and technological expertise for creation of Russia’s first large-scale full cycle production of permanent rare-earth magnets,” commented Natalia Nikipelova, President of TVEL JSC.

“NovaWind, as the nuclear industry integrator for wind power projects, not only made-up an efficient supply chain, but also contributed to the development of inter-divisional cooperation and new expertise of Rosatom enterprises. TVEL has mastered a unique technology for the production of magnets for wind turbine generators. These technologies will be undoubtedly in demand in other areas as well,” noted Alexander Korchagin, Director General of NovaWind JSC.

For reference:

TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom incorporates enterprises for the fabrication of nuclear fuel, conversion and enrichment of uranium, production of gas centrifuges, as well as research and design organizations. It is the only supplier of nuclear fuel for Russian nuclear power plants. TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom provides nuclear fuel for 73 power reactors in 13 countries worldwide, research reactors in eight countries, as well as transport reactors of the Russian nuclear fleet. Every sixth power reactor in the world operates on fuel manufactured by TVEL. www.tvel.ru

NovaWind JSC is a division of Rosatom; its primary objective is to consolidate the State Corporation's efforts in advanced segments and technological platforms of the electric power sector. The company was founded in 2017. NovaWind consolidates all of the Rosatom’s wind energy assets – from design and construction to power engineering and operation of wind farms.

Overall, by 2023, enterprises operating under the management of NovaWind JSC, will install 1 GW of wind farms. http://novawind.ru

Elemash Magnit LLC is a subsidiary of Kovrov Mechanical Plant (an enterprise of the TVEL Fuel Company of Rosatom) and its main supplier of magnets for production of gas centrifuges. The company also produces magnets for other industries, in particular, for the automotive

industry. The production facilities of Elemash Magnit LLC are located in the city of Elektrostal, Moscow Region, at the site of Elemash Machine-Building Plant (a nuclear fuel fabrication facility of TVEL Fuel Company).

Rosatom is a global actor on the world’s nuclear technology market. Its leading edge stems from a number of competitive strengths, one of which is assets and competences at hand in all nuclear segments. Rosatom incorporates companies from all stages of the technological chain, such as uranium mining and enrichment, nuclear fuel fabrication, equipment manufacture and engineering, operation of nuclear power plants, and management of spent nuclear fuel and nuclear waste. Nowadays, Rosatom brings together about 350 enterprises and organizations with the workforce above 250 K. https://rosatom.ru/en/

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