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by Gordon Harvey

Students often do their best and hardest thinking, and feel the greatest sense of mastery and growth, in their writing. Courses and assignments should be planned with this in mind. Three principles are paramount:

1. Name what you want and imagine students doing it

However free students are to range and explore in a paper, the general kind of paper you’re inviting has common components, operations, and criteria of success, and you should make these explicit. Having satisfied yourself, as you should, that what you’re asking is doable, with dignity, by writers just learning the material, try to anticipate in your prompt or discussions of the assignment the following queries:

• What is the purpose of this? How am I going beyond what we have done, or applying it in a new area, or practicing a key academic skill or kind of work?
• To what audience should I imagine myself writing?
• What is the main task or tasks, in a nutshell? What does that key word (e.g., analyze, significance of, critique, explore, interesting, support) really mean in this context or this field?
• What will be most challenging in this and what qualities will most distinguish a good paper? Where should I put my energy? (Lists of possible questions for students to answer in a paper are often not sufficiently prioritized to be helpful.)
• What misconceptions might I have about what I’m to do? (How is this like or unlike other papers I may have written?) Are there too-easy approaches I might take or likely pitfalls? An ambitious goal or standard that I might think I’m expected to meet but am not?
• What form will evidence take in my paper (e.g., block quotations? paraphrase? graphs or charts?) How should I cite it? Should I use/cite material from lecture or section?
• Are there some broad options for structure, emphasis, or approach that I’ll likely be choosing among?
• How should I get started on this? What would be a helpful (or unhelpful) way to take notes, gather data, discover a question or idea? Should I do research? 

2. Take time in class to prepare students to succeed at the paper

Resist the impulse to think of class meetings as time for “content” and of writing as work done outside class. Your students won’t have mastered the art of paper writing (if such a mastery is possible) and won’t know the particular disciplinary expectations or moves relevant to the material at hand. Take time in class to show them: 

• discuss the assignment in class when you give it, so students can see that you take it seriously, so they can ask questions about it, so they can have it in mind during subsequent class discussions;
• introduce the analytic vocabulary of your assignment into class discussions, and take opportunities to note relevant moves made in discussion or good paper topics that arise;
• have students practice key tasks in class discussions, or in informal writing they do in before or after discussions;
• show examples of writing that illustrates components and criteria of the assignment and that inspires (class readings can sometimes serve as illustrations of a writing principle; so can short excerpts of writing—e.g., a sampling of introductions; and so can bad writing—e.g., a list of problematic thesis statements);
• the topics of originality and plagiarism (what the temptations might be, how to avoid risks) should at some point be addressed directly. 

3. Build in process

Ideas develop over time, in a process of posing and revising and getting feedback and revising some more. Assignments should allow for this process in the following ways:

• smaller assignments should prepare for larger ones later;
• students should do some thinking and writing before they write a draft and get a response to it (even if only a response to a proposal or thesis statement sent by email, or described in class);
• for larger papers, students should write and get response (using the skills vocabulary of the assignment) to a draft—at least an “oral draft” (condensed for delivery to the class);
• if possible, meet with students individually about their writing: nothing inspires them more than feeling that you care about their work and development;
• let students reflect on their own writing, in brief cover letters attached to drafts and revisions (these may also ask students to perform certain checks on what they have written, before submitting);
• have clear and firm policies about late work that nonetheless allow for exception if students talk to you in advance.
• Pedagogy Workshops
• Responding to Student Writing
• Commenting Efficiently
• Vocabulary for Discussing Student Writing
• Guides to Teaching Writing
• HarvardWrites Instructor Toolkit
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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Essay Writing

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The Modes of Discourse—Exposition, Description, Narration, Argumentation (EDNA)—are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these approaches and students’ need to understand and produce them.

This resource begins with a general description of essay writing and moves to a discussion of common essay genres students may encounter across the curriculum. The four genres of essays (description, narration, exposition, and argumentation) are common paper assignments you may encounter in your writing classes. Although these genres, also known as the modes of discourse, have been criticized by some composition scholars, the Purdue OWL recognizes the wide spread use of these genres and students’ need to understand and produce these types of essays. We hope these resources will help.

The essay is a commonly assigned form of writing that every student will encounter while in academia. Therefore, it is wise for the student to become capable and comfortable with this type of writing early on in her training.

Essays can be a rewarding and challenging type of writing and are often assigned either to be done in class, which requires previous planning and practice (and a bit of creativity) on the part of the student, or as homework, which likewise demands a certain amount of preparation. Many poorly crafted essays have been produced on account of a lack of preparation and confidence. However, students can avoid the discomfort often associated with essay writing by understanding some common genres.

Before delving into its various genres, let’s begin with a basic definition of the essay.

What is an essay?

Though the word essay has come to be understood as a type of writing in Modern English, its origins provide us with some useful insights. The word comes into the English language through the French influence on Middle English; tracing it back further, we find that the French form of the word comes from the Latin verb exigere , which means "to examine, test, or (literally) to drive out." Through the excavation of this ancient word, we are able to unearth the essence of the academic essay: to encourage students to test or examine their ideas concerning a particular topic.

Essays are shorter pieces of writing that often require the student to hone a number of skills such as close reading, analysis, comparison and contrast, persuasion, conciseness, clarity, and exposition. As is evidenced by this list of attributes, there is much to be gained by the student who strives to succeed at essay writing.

The purpose of an essay is to encourage students to develop ideas and concepts in their writing with the direction of little more than their own thoughts (it may be helpful to view the essay as the converse of a research paper). Therefore, essays are (by nature) concise and require clarity in purpose and direction. This means that there is no room for the student’s thoughts to wander or stray from his or her purpose; the writing must be deliberate and interesting.

This handout should help students become familiar and comfortable with the process of essay composition through the introduction of some common essay genres.

This handout includes a brief introduction to the following genres of essay writing:

• Expository essays
• Descriptive essays
• Narrative essays
• Argumentative (Persuasive) essays

The Essay: History and Definition

Attempts at Defining Slippery Literary Form

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

"One damned thing after another" is how Aldous Huxley described the essay: "a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything."

As definitions go, Huxley's is no more or less exact than Francis Bacon's "dispersed meditations," Samuel Johnson's "loose sally of the mind" or Edward Hoagland's "greased pig."

Since Montaigne adopted the term "essay" in the 16th century to describe his "attempts" at self-portrayal in prose , this slippery form has resisted any sort of precise, universal definition. But that won't an attempt to define the term in this brief article.

In the broadest sense, the term "essay" can refer to just about any short piece of nonfiction  -- an editorial, feature story, critical study, even an excerpt from a book. However, literary definitions of a genre are usually a bit fussier.

One way to start is to draw a distinction between articles , which are read primarily for the information they contain, and essays, in which the pleasure of reading takes precedence over the information in the text . Although handy, this loose division points chiefly to kinds of reading rather than to kinds of texts. So here are some other ways that the essay might be defined.

Standard definitions often stress the loose structure or apparent shapelessness of the essay. Johnson, for example, called the essay "an irregular, indigested piece, not a regular and orderly performance."

True, the writings of several well-known essayists ( William Hazlitt and Ralph Waldo Emerson , for instance, after the fashion of Montaigne) can be recognized by the casual nature of their explorations -- or "ramblings." But that's not to say that anything goes. Each of these essayists follows certain organizing principles of his own.

Oddly enough, critics haven't paid much attention to the principles of design actually employed by successful essayists. These principles are rarely formal patterns of organization , that is, the "modes of exposition" found in many composition textbooks. Instead, they might be described as patterns of thought -- progressions of a mind working out an idea.

Unfortunately, the customary divisions of the essay into opposing types --  formal and informal, impersonal and familiar  -- are also troublesome. Consider this suspiciously neat dividing line drawn by Michele Richman:

Post-Montaigne, the essay split into two distinct modalities: One remained informal, personal, intimate, relaxed, conversational and often humorous; the other, dogmatic, impersonal, systematic and expository .

The terms used here to qualify the term "essay" are convenient as a kind of critical shorthand, but they're imprecise at best and potentially contradictory. Informal can describe either the shape or the tone of the work -- or both. Personal refers to the stance of the essayist, conversational to the language of the piece, and expository to its content and aim. When the writings of particular essayists are studied carefully, Richman's "distinct modalities" grow increasingly vague.

But as fuzzy as these terms might be, the qualities of shape and personality, form and voice, are clearly integral to an understanding of the essay as an artful literary kind. 

Many of the terms used to characterize the essay -- personal, familiar, intimate, subjective, friendly, conversational -- represent efforts to identify the genre's most powerful organizing force: the rhetorical voice or projected character (or persona ) of the essayist.

In his study of Charles Lamb , Fred Randel observes that the "principal declared allegiance" of the essay is to "the experience of the essayistic voice." Similarly, British author Virginia Woolf has described this textual quality of personality or voice as "the essayist's most proper but most dangerous and delicate tool."

Similarly, at the beginning of "Walden, "  Henry David Thoreau reminds the reader that "it is ... always the first person that is speaking." Whether expressed directly or not, there's always an "I" in the essay -- a voice shaping the text and fashioning a role for the reader.

Fictional Qualities

The terms "voice" and "persona" are often used interchangeably to suggest the rhetorical nature of the essayist himself on the page. At times an author may consciously strike a pose or play a role. He can, as E.B. White confirms in his preface to "The Essays," "be any sort of person, according to his mood or his subject matter." 

In "What I Think, What I Am," essayist Edward Hoagland points out that "the artful 'I' of an essay can be as chameleon as any narrator in fiction." Similar considerations of voice and persona lead Carl H. Klaus to conclude that the essay is "profoundly fictive":

It seems to convey the sense of human presence that is indisputably related to its author's deepest sense of self, but that is also a complex illusion of that self -- an enactment of it as if it were both in the process of thought and in the process of sharing the outcome of that thought with others.

But to acknowledge the fictional qualities of the essay isn't to deny its special status as nonfiction.

Reader's Role

A basic aspect of the relationship between a writer (or a writer's persona) and a reader (the implied audience ) is the presumption that what the essayist says is literally true. The difference between a short story, say, and an autobiographical essay  lies less in the narrative structure or the nature of the material than in the narrator's implied contract with the reader about the kind of truth being offered.

Under the terms of this contract, the essayist presents experience as it actually occurred -- as it occurred, that is, in the version by the essayist. The narrator of an essay, the editor George Dillon says, "attempts to convince the reader that its model of experience of the world is valid." 

In other words, the reader of an essay is called on to join in the making of meaning. And it's up to the reader to decide whether to play along. Viewed in this way, the drama of an essay might lie in the conflict between the conceptions of self and world that the reader brings to a text and the conceptions that the essayist tries to arouse.

At Last, a Definition—of Sorts

With these thoughts in mind, the essay might be defined as a short work of nonfiction, often artfully disordered and highly polished, in which an authorial voice invites an implied reader to accept as authentic a certain textual mode of experience.

Sure. But it's still a greased pig.

Sometimes the best way to learn exactly what an essay is -- is to read some great ones. You'll find more than 300 of them in this collection of  Classic British and American Essays and Speeches .

• What Are the Different Types and Characteristics of Essays?
• Rhetorical Analysis Definition and Examples
• What Is a Personal Essay (Personal Statement)?
• The Writer's Voice in Literature and Rhetoric
• Point of View in Grammar and Composition
• What Is Expository Writing?
• The Difference Between an Article and an Essay
• What Is Tone In Writing?
• How to Write a Narrative Essay or Speech
• What is a Familiar Essay in Composition?
• Writers on Writing: The Art of Paragraphing
• Topical Organization Essay
• What Does "Persona" Mean?
• Mood in Composition and Literature
• Compose a Narrative Essay or Personal Statement

Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, design – the visual language that shapes our world.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

Design refers to much more than how something looks or works: Design is a powerful tool of communication that empowers writers, graphic designers, and product developers to reach their target audience at a viscera, visual level. Good design makes information easier to understand, more engaging, and more memorable. It creates emotional connections, influences perceptions, and shapes decisions. If your design is unappealing or confusing, you've lost your chance at engaging your audience in the 8 seconds they're willing to give attention to your work. The essay below defines design based on research and scholarship, explores the importance of design in our contemporary information ecology, and serves as an introduction to design resources @ Writing Commons.

What is Design?

Design , most conventionally, refers to how something looks or works . For instance, by any measure, the Apple iPhone is well designed: the colors it displays are brilliant; it fits in your pocket; it’s easy to use as a camera, a recording device, or phone; and it provides easy access to friends, music, and the internet.

Yet, design may refer to more than whether or not a text or product looks good or accomplishes its aims . For instance, d esign may also be defined as

• a social construct
• a form of visual language , a mode of human communication
• a signifier of identity and community
• a subject of study, an academic discipline, a catechism regarding usr, an interpretative framework , based on principles of design .

Related Concepts: Composition ; Composing Processes ; Design Thinking ; Gestalt ; Information Architecture ; Information Design ; Semiotics

Definitions of Design

1. design refers to how a text, application, or product looks or works.

“ Design is a fun word. Some people think design means how it looks. But of course, if you dig deeper, it’s really how it works.”  Steve Jobs

Design refers to the aesthetics and functionality of a text , application, or product—concepts often encapsulated under the banner of “look and feel.”

Aesthetics (Look): 

This dimension of design involves the visual, tactile, and sometimes auditory elements of a product or system. It encompasses attributes such as color , shape , texture , typography , and layout . In terms of a digital application, for example, the choice of icons , the color scheme , typography , and the overall user interface (UI) fall under aesthetic considerations. These elements contribute to the overall visual appeal and user experience.

Functionality (Works): 

This refers to the operational aspect of a design. It involves how well the product, application, or system serves its intended purpose. The functionality of a design is often evaluated based on its efficiency, effectiveness, and ease of use. In the case of a digital application, it would include aspects like navigation flow, load times, responsiveness, and overall usability.

In essence, the balance between aesthetics and functionality is key in design. A design that excels in both dimensions creates an engaging, user-friendly, and effective product or system. This outlook is crucial in fields like product design, web design, graphic design, and user experience (UX) design, among others.

For writers, d esign largely concerns

• the use of data visualizations and other elements of design and visual language
• the page design & scannability of a text .

2. Design is a Social, Historical Construct

Design, a social and historical construct, stands at the intersection of art, culture, history, and technology. It serves as a mirror to our collective intellect, reflecting our beliefs, history, and advancements. Each culture, each epoch has its unique interpretation and manifestation of design, thus weaving a rich, multifaceted tapestry of human creativity and evolution.

Art and Culture

Art and cultural norms seep deep into the core of design, infusing it with distinctive colors and patterns. Take, for example, the traditional Mexican design. Its bright geometric patterns symbolize the nation’s vibrant culture and rich historical narratives. It’s a testament to the cultural sensibilities that pervade design.

But look closer, and you see a paradox: despite periods of hardship and scarcity, Mexican people devoted resources to create opulent gold temples and intricate religious artifacts for the Catholic Church. This underscores design’s role as a reflection of cultural priorities and beliefs, sometimes extending beyond immediate practical needs.

Design reflects the dialogues , epistemologies , and circumstances of particular cultures and specific time periods. Consider, e.g., in the heart of the desert, the ancient Egyptians designed pyramids and temples that continue to astound us millennia later. These structures, built with an extraordinary precision that baffles modern engineers, stand as a testament to the design sensibilities of a civilization that existed over 4,000 years ago. Their hieroglyphic scripts and symbolic art formed a design language that communicated spiritual beliefs and pharaonic authority.

Fast forward to the Victorian era, characterized by its industrial growth and prosperity, and you see a markedly different design narrative. The Victorian designs embraced opulence and ornamentation, with an emphasis on detailing and a penchant for grandeur. This was reflected in their architecture, fashion, and even their typography.

In stark contrast, the 21st century has been marked by a shift towards minimalism in design. Embodying the mantra ‘less is more,’ modern design trends advocate simplicity and functionality. From the sleek lines of contemporary architecture to the user-friendly design of digital interfaces, the present-day design ethos emphasizes usability and clarity .

3. Design is a Form of Visual Language

Design refers to much more than how something looks or works. Design, at its core, is a sophisticated form of visual language . More than just aesthetically pleasing arrangements of elements, it holds the power to communicate, provoke thought, and stir emotions.

This communication occurs at a fundamental, prelinguistic level–as a form of felt sense . While conventional languages use words and syntax to convey meaning, design communicates through a rich vocabulary of visual elements: lines, shapes, colors, spaces, and typography. These elements are arranged using principles like alignment, balance, and contrast to create a cohesive visual message.

When the audience interacts with a design, they are not just passively observing. They are actively ‘reading’ these visual elements and interpreting them. This interpretation often happens instinctively, tapping into our innate human capacity for visual perception. We are, as a species, highly attuned to visual information. Our brains are wired to recognize patterns, discern contrasts, and respond to visual stimuli.

Audiences read the design of a text or product just as they read words and sentences . Yet rather than words or sentences , they read design elements : They trace the line on the page or screen. They note the images, colors , shapes , contrast , spaces , and typography of the copy . They consider the alignment , balance , proximity , repetition of symbols. And then they interpret these symbolic elements to mean something. Their interpretation may be experienced as a form of felt sense of gestalt . In other words, they engage in acts of communication .

4. Design May Function as a Signifier of Identity and Community

In business, companies spend small fortunes defining their brand. They aim to distinguish their products and services. Thus, it’s fairly commonplace for business and nonprofit organizations to have style guidelines.

Typically style guidelines

• call for standard written English
• call for a professional writing style
• call for a particular citation style
• define logo, color, and photo-usage guidelines.

5. Design May Refer to a Curriculum, a Catechism, a Subject of Study

Design is an extraordinarily broad field, a convergence point where disciplines such as arts, engineering, sciences, and humanities intersect and engage in a dynamic discourse . Its interdisciplinary nature stems from the fact that design problems often require diverse perspectives and multi-faceted solutions. Hence, design isn’t just about aesthetics or usability; it’s about crafting solutions that reconcile functionality, sustainability, social impact, and user experience.

In academic settings, design manifests as a robust field of study, encompassing a broad spectrum of topics, including

• accommodation s(how designs cater to different user needs)
• aesthetics (the principles that guide visual harmony and appeal)
• information architecture (how information is organized and structured in a design),
• information design (how information is presented)
• usability (how user-friendly a design is).

Communities of Practice: Shaping the Design Landscape

Alongside academia, communities of practice contribute significantly to the evolution of design as a field. These communities, composed of practitioners and scholars, engage in rigorous scholarship and empirical research. Their primary objective is to enhance clarity in communication and improve design outcomes.

These communities continually shape the design landscape through the development of conventions and best practices. They respond dynamically to technological advancements and societal shifts, adapting design practices to better fit new paradigms. This iterative process of exploration, adaptation, and refinement is what keeps design relevant and effective in a rapidly changing world.

Through this ongoing conversation of humankind and the ever-evolving technological landscape, design continues to evolve, offering innovative solutions to both old and new problems. This is a testament to design’s versatile nature and its inherent capacity to adapt, innovate, and inspire.

Related Concepts

Writers, designers, and usability experts design texts and products by composing with design elements (e.g., Color – Color Theory ; Line ; Shape ; Space ; Typography ). Additionally, they consult their knowledge of design principles — (e.g., alignment ; balance ; color ; Contrast ; Emphasis ; Gestalt, Gestalt Theory ; Proximity ; Repetition ) in order to inform their compositions.

Recommended Books on Design

• Cooper, A., Reimann, R., Cronin, D., & Noessel, C. (2014). About face: The essentials of interaction design (4th ed.). Wiley.
• Krug, S. (2013). Don’t make me think, revisited: A common sense approach to web usability (3rd ed.). New Riders.
• Norman, D. (2013). The design of everyday things: Revised and expanded edition . Basic Books.
• Williams, R. (2014). Non-designer’s design book (4th ed.). Peachpit Press.

Why does design matter?

In 2023, we’re living in a world where attention spans are shrinking, digital content is proliferating, and consumer expectations are escalating. The average person spent around 6 hours and 42 minutes online every day, and this time is scattered across various platforms – social media, news sites, video streaming, online shopping, and much more. The explosion of digital content means people are inundated with information, choices, and distractions, making it harder than ever to stand out. In this context, excellent design isn’t just nice to have – it’s a necessary tool for survival. It’s a way to respect your audience’s time, to reward their attention, and to rise above the noise.

Related Articles:

Data Visualization - Information Visualization - The Art of Visualizing Meaning For Better Decision-Making

Design Principles - The Big Design Principles You Need to Know to Create Compelling Messages

Elements of Art - How to Leverage the Power of Art to Make Visually Compelling Documents

Elements of design – master the fundamentals of visual composition.

Page Design - How to Design Messages for Maximum Impact

Universal design principles - how to design for everyone.

Usability - How to Research & Improve Usability

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Review research and theory on the information visualization. Unlock the power of data visualization to make complex data accessible and engaging. Learn the art and science of transforming numbers into...

• Joseph M. Moxley

Principles of design refer to the discourse conventions, artistic traditions, and theories that inform the design of messages, products, and services.  P.A.R.C. refers to the four primary design principles (proximity,...

The Elements of Art (also known as The Elements of Design) refers to color, form, line, shape, space, texture, and value. Working as a gestalt that communicates with audiences at...

Page design refers to the strategic placement of information on a page or digital screen: Good page design can help you hook your readers’ curiosity and improve readability. Good page...

Universal design focuses on all potential users’ needs, abilities, and limitations. Rather than target a narrow user/customer segment, universal design values inclusivity: designers practicing universal design aim to make their...

Usability refers to the ease with which audiences can accurately interpret your message, understand your purpose, and navigate your information architecture. Whether you’re writing an essay, a research paper, or...

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Jarrett Fuller

An essay on design.

All the lights are off, save for the one on my desk. It casts a stark diagonal line separating the light and the dark across the keyboard where I type these words. I just put two ice cubes in a small glass and poured some Bulliet whiskey. I take a sip and sit down under the light.

There is a common phrase that goes writing about music is like dancing about architecture . I think Theloneous Monk said it. Or was it Elvis Costello? No one seems to really know for sure. Whoever it was, I think they meant that using one medium to discuss another medium never works—you can’t talk about one thing through another. The work must speak for itself. But it feels fitting to be writing this essay on design because I’ve started to see design and writing as the same thing—both of them are a way of forming ideas and giving ideas form. In fact, the Dutch word for designer is vormgever which translates literally to “form giver”.

I’m writing an essay on design but the more letters that appear before this blinking cursor, the more convinced I am that I don’t even know what design is anymore. I feel like it used to be easier to define. I remember when I was in high school and I discovered design and knew immediately that that is what I would do the rest of my life. I remember the first time I opened up Photoshop and the way my world changed after that. I remember my first college assignment—the first time I had to design something for a grade—and the feeling it gave me. I think back to these moments in search of clues, trying to find a definition for this thing called design .

The problem is the more I look for answers, the more questions arise. The more I try to narrow down a definition for design, the bigger it seems to get. I used to describe design by its parts—color, shape, form, typography—it was visual. Then I described it by the end result—a poster, a book, a website, a business card. You can define design both by its components and its finished product yet neither seem big enough to encapsulate everything design is.

It was in one of my first college classes that I heard that designers were problem solvers. I liked the sound of that—the idea that we find solutions for our clients’ needs—but it has somehow always felt to limiting and vague to me. Most professions involve problem solving. what makes that unique to designers? Designers like to use this definition to separate us from fine artists. We use it to say that we’re concerned with more than aesthetics but then we organize exhibitions of our work and pour over galleries and blogs displaying work completely removed from the context for which it was created. We try to have it both ways; we want to be a problem solver and an artist and end up being neither.

The melting ice is starting to water down the whiskey. I take another sip, feeling it move down my throat, and I realize I’ve been interested in design for almost a decade now. When I was just starting out—like many designers in my generation, I’d imagine—I wanted to make album covers. Some of my earliest work were covers and posters for my friends who were in bands. For a while, I wanted to art direct a magazine before realizing all the excitement was in websites. I had a brief interest in designing iPhone apps.

In school, I used my projects to explore things I was interested in. I designed a magazine about craftsmanship, made a logo for a fictitious Woody Allen museum, and after watching a documentary on factory farming, I made a series of posters on genetically modified foods. After I started listening to jazz, I designed a book about five jazz legends and deep into watching Lost , I made an annual report for the Dharma Initiative.

My interests and my “design style”—whatever that means—has changed a lot in those ten years and in looking back, I can better see that design was never the end. The one thing that hasn’t changed is that design has always been a way to explore my other interests—a vessel I can fill with whatever has my attention and help me better understand it. At the time, I thought the goal was to produce a book or a logo or an annual report but now, leaning back in my chair taking another sip of whiskey, I can see that those were just the byproducts—the result. Design wasn’t the end, it was simply the beginning. The design wasn’t found in its components or in the artifact but in the process—design became a form of inquiry .

If design is not the end, then design must be in the process, in the discovery. “The word building contains the double reality,” writes Stewart Brand in his book How Buildings Learn , “It means both the action of the verb build and that which is built —both verb and noun, both the action and the result...a building is always building and rebuilding.” The same is true of design—it can be both the the verb and the noun, the process and the result.

What, then, is a marker of good design? I start reflecting on process, on the verb design —instead of critiquing design on objects, products, or results, I am now forced to look at ways of thinking, approaches, and philosophies. I start looking through the books of my favorite designers and pour over the work that has shaped me and I find that good design reflexive—it provides an insight into its own creation, letting the viewer know how it was made. In writing about film, Rob Giampietro defined reflexivity as :

The degree to which the film is about its own making, to which it foregrounds its own construction, to which it deals with filmic qualities like nonlinear time, voyerism / observation, movement through space, montage, etc.

What does this look like for graphic design? How do we invite the viewer into our process and highlight its construction? Andrew Blauvelt, in his essay Towards a Critical Autonamy writes:

Graphic design, precisely because it is an instrumental form of communication, cannot divorce itself from the world. Rather graphic design must be seen as a discipline capable of generating meaning on its own terms without undue reliance on commissions, prescriptive social functions, or specific media or styles. Such actions should demonstrate self-awareness and self-reflexivity; a capacity to manipulate the system of design for ends other than those imposed on the field from without and to question those conventions formed from within.

He writes that design that is reflexive allows it to exist in the world while also challenging the notice of design itself. I’m reminded of the famous Roger Ebert quote, again using film as a definition for reflexivity: “A movie is not what it is about, it's how it is about it.” I think the same is true of design. Perhaps that means that regardless of the brief and the subject, design can be a way to explore the interests of the designer and in doing so, provide a look into its own making. Design as problem solving means that we follow a set of patterns and processes to find the one solution but a design that is reflexive sets out to discover those patterns and processes, creating multiple solutions.

By designing reflexively, the designer is not invisible; her point of view and her process are on display embedded within the work. In revealing its making, the designer invites the viewer into the process, revealing how we got there, and then, where it could go. Brian Eno said:

An important aspect of design is the degree to which the object involves you in its own completion. Some work invites you into itself by not offering a finished, glossy, one-reading-only surface. This is what makes old buildings interesting to me. I think that humans have a taste for things that not only show that they have been through a process of evolution, but which also show they are still a part of one. They are not dead yet.

Maybe that’s what I’m doing with this essay, too. I’m giving you an insight into its writing. Hello. Nice to see you. I pick up my glass for another sip.

Leonardo da Vinci supposedly said that “art is never finished, only abandoned.” I guess the same is true for design: a website is never finished, only launched. A poster is never finished, only printed. The process continues forever.

And maybe, then, an essay is never finished, only published. I don’t know if I’m done here. I take the last sip of my whiskey from my glass and I click the button on the screen in front of me that says POST.

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Architecture Essays 101: How to be an effective writer

• Updated: October 25, 2023

The world of architecture stands at a fascinating crossroads of creativity and academia. As architects cultivate ideas to shape the physical world around us, we are also tasked with articulating these concepts through words.

Architecture essays, thus, serves as a bridge between the visual and the textual, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of architectural ideas and their implications.

The ability to articulate thoughts, analyses, and observations on design and theory is as crucial as creating the designs themselves. An architectural essay is not just about presenting information but about conveying an understanding of spaces, structures, and the stories they tell.

Whether you’re delving into the nuances of a specific architectural movement , analyzing the design of a historic monument, or predicting the future of sustainable design, the written word becomes a powerful tool to express intricate ideas.

This guide provides a comprehensive roadmap for crafting insightful architectural essays, ensuring that your perspectives on this multifaceted discipline are communicated effectively and engagingly.

Understanding the Unique Nature of Architecture Essay s

Architecture sits on a unique line between the aesthetic and the analytical, where designs are appreciated not only for their aesthetic appeal but also for their functionality and historical relevance.

An architecture essay isn’t just a manifestation of this intricate blend; it’s a testament to it. Aspiring architects or students of architecture must grasp the singular characteristics of this type of essay to truly succeed.

Embracing Creativity

When one imagines essays, the mind typically conjures up dense blocks of text. However, an architecture essay allows, and even demands, a flair of creativity.

Visual representations, be it in the form of diagrams , sketches , or photographs , aren’t just supplementary; they can form the core of your argument.

For instance, if you’re discussing the evolution of skyscraper designs , a chronological array of sketches can provide an insightful, immediate overview that words might struggle to convey.

Recognizing and capitalizing on this visual component can elevate the impact of your essay.

Theoretical Foundations

Yet, relying solely on creative illustrations won’t suffice. The foundation of every solid architecture essay is a strong understanding of architectural theories, principles , and historical contexts. Whether you’re analyzing the gothic cathedrals of Europe or the minimalist homes of Japan, delving deep into the why and how of their designs is crucial.

How did the social, economic, and technological conditions of the time influence these structures?

…How do they compare with contemporary designs?

Theoretical exploration provides depth to your essay, grounding your observations and opinions in recognized knowledge and pre-existing debates.

Furthermore, case studies play an essential role in these essays.

Instead of making sweeping statements, anchor your points in specific examples. Discussing the sustainability features of a particular building or the ergonomic design of another offers tangible evidence to support your arguments.

Blending the Two

The magic of an architecture essay lies in seamlessly weaving the creative with the theoretical.

While you showcase a building’s design through visuals, delve into its history, purpose, and societal implications with your words. This blend not only offers a holistic understanding of architectural marvels but also caters to a broad audience, ensuring your essay is both engaging and enlightening.

In conclusion, understanding the unique blend of design elements and theoretical discussion in an architecture essay sets the foundation for an impactful piece.

It’s about striking a balance between showing and telling, between the artist’s sketches and the academic’s observations. With this understanding, you’re better equipped to venture into the exciting world of architectural essay writing.

Choosing the Right Topic

Architectural essays stand apart in their blend of technical knowledge, aesthetic sense, and historical context. The topic you choose not only sets the tone for your essay but can also significantly affect the enthusiasm and rigor with which you approach the writing.

Here’s a comprehensive guide to selecting the right topic for your architecture essay:

Find your Golden Nugget:

• Personal Resonance: Your topic should excite you. Think about the architectural designs, movements, or theories that have made an impact on you. Perhaps it’s a specific building you’ve always admired or an architectural trend you’ve noticed emerging in your city.
• Uncharted Territory: Exploring less-known or under-discussed areas can give you a unique perspective and make your essay stand out. Instead of writing another essay on Roman architecture, consider focusing on the influence of Roman architecture on contemporary design or even on a specific region.

Researching Broadly:

• Diversify Your Sources: From books and academic journals to documentaries and interviews, use varied materials to spark ideas. Often, an unrelated article can lead to a unique essay topic.
• Current Trends and Issues: Look at contemporary architecture magazines , websites , and blogs to gauge what’s relevant and debated in today’s architectural world. It might inspire you to contribute to the discussion or even challenge some prevailing ideas.

Connecting with Design Projects:

• Personal Projects: If you’ve been involved in a design project, whether at school or professionally, consider exploring themes or challenges you encountered. This adds personal anecdotes and insights which enrich the essay.
• Case Studies: Instead of going broad, consider going deep. Dive into a single building or architect’s work. Analyzing one subject in-depth can offer nuanced perspectives and help demonstrate your analytical skills.

Feasibility of Research:

• Availability of Resources: While choosing an obscure topic can make your essay unique, ensure you have enough resources or primary research opportunities to support your arguments.
• Scope: The topic should be neither too broad nor too narrow. It should allow for in-depth exploration within the word limit of the essay. For instance, “Modern Architecture” is too broad, but “The Influence of Bauhaus on Modern Apartment Design in Berlin between 1950-1970” is more focused.

Finding the right topic is a journey, and sometimes it requires a few wrong turns before you hit the right path. Stay curious, be patient, and remember that the best topics are those that marry your personal passion with academic rigor. Your enthusiasm will shine through in your writing, making the essay engaging and impactful.

Organizational Tools and Systems for an Effective Architecture Essay

Writing an essay on architecture is a blend of creative expression and meticulous research. As you delve deep into topics, theories, and case studies, it becomes imperative to keep your resources organized and accessible.

This section introduces you to a set of tools and systems tailored for architectural essay writing.

Using Digital Aids

• Notion: This versatile tool provides a workspace that integrates note-taking, database creation, and task management. For an architecture essay, you can create separate pages for your outline, research, and drafts. The use of templates can streamline the writing process and help in maintaining a structured approach.
• MyBib: Citing resources is a crucial part of essay writing. MyBib acts as a lifesaver by generating citations in various styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) and organizing them for easy access. Make sure to cross-check and ensure accuracy.
• Evernote: This tool allows you to clip web pages, articles, or images that inspire or contribute to your essay. You can annotate, highlight, and categorize your findings in different notebooks.

Systematic Research

• Organizing Findings: Develop a system where each finding, whether it’s a quote, image, or data point, has its source attached. Use color-coding or tags to denote different topics or relevance levels.
• Note Galleries: Convert your key points into visual cards. This technique can be especially helpful in architectural essays, where visual concepts may be central to your argument.
• Sorting by Source Type: Separate your research into categories like academic journals, books, articles, and interviews. This will make it easier when referencing or looking for a particular kind of information.

Strategies for Effective Literature Review

• Skimming vs. In-depth Reading: Not every source needs a detailed read. Learn to differentiate between foundational texts that require in-depth understanding and those where skimming for key ideas is sufficient.
• Note-making Techniques: Adopt methods like the Cornell Note-taking System, mind mapping, or bullet journaling, depending on what suits your thought process best. These methods help in breaking down complex ideas into manageable chunks.
• Staying Updated: The world of architecture is evolving. Ensure you’re not missing any recent papers, articles, or developments related to your topic. Setting up Google Scholar alerts or RSS feeds can be beneficial.

Organizing your research and using tools efficiently will not only streamline your writing process but will also enhance the quality of your essay. As you progress, you’ll discover what techniques and tools work best for you.

The key is to maintain consistency and always be open to trying out new methods to improve your workflow and efficiency.

Writing Techniques and Tips for an Architecture Essay

An architecture essay, while deeply rooted in academic rigor, is also a canvas for innovative ideas, design critiques, and a reflection of the architectural zeitgeist. Here’s a deep dive into techniques and tips that can elevate your essay from merely informative to truly compelling.

Learning from Others

• Read Before You Write: Before diving into your own writing, spend some time exploring essays written by others. Understand the flow, the structure, the narrative techniques, and how they tie their thoughts cohesively.
• Inspirational Sources: Journals, academic papers, architecture magazines, and opinion pieces offer a wealth of writing styles. Notice how varied perspectives bring life to similar topics.

Using Jargon Judiciously

• Maintain Clarity: While it’s tempting to use specialized terminology extensively, remember your essay should be accessible to a broader audience. Use technical terms when necessary, but ensure they’re explained or inferred.
• Balancing Act: Maintain a balance between academic writing and creative expression. Let the jargon complement your narrative rather than overshadowing your message.

Avoiding Common Pitfalls

• Plagiarism – The Silent Offender: Always give credit where credit is due. Even if you feel you’ve paraphrased sufficiently, ensure your sources are adequately referenced. Utilize plagiarism check tools to ensure originality.
• Stay Focused: It’s easy to get lost in the vast world of architecture. Ensure your writing stays on topic, refraining from veering too far from your central theme.
• Conciseness: While detailed elaboration can be insightful, verbosity can drown your main points. Be succinct where necessary.

Craft a Compelling Introduction and Conclusion

• First Impressions: Your introduction should provide context, state the purpose of your essay, and capture the reader’s interest. Think of it as the blueprint of a building – it should give an idea of what to expect.
• Tying it All Together: Your conclusion should summarize your main points, reflect on the implications of your findings, and perhaps even propose further areas of study or exploration.

Use Active Voice

• Direct and Dynamic: Active voice makes your writing sound more direct and lively. Instead of writing, “The design was critiqued by several architects,” try “Several architects critiqued the design.”

Personalize your Narrative

• Your Unique Voice: Architecture, at its core, is about human experiences and spaces. Infuse your writing with personal observations, experiences, or reflections where relevant. This personal touch can make your essay stand out.

Revise, Revise, Revise

• The First Draft is Rarely the Final: Writing is a process. Once you’ve penned down your initial thoughts, revisit them. Refine the flow, enhance clarity, and ensure your argument is both cogent and captivating.

Remember, an architecture essay is both a testament to your academic understanding and a reflection of your perspective on architectural phenomena. Treat it as a synthesis of research, observation, creativity, and structured argumentation, and you’ll craft an essay that resonates.

Incorporating Sources Seamlessly

In architectural essays, as with most academic endeavors, sources form the backbone of your assertions and claims. They lend credibility to your arguments and showcase your understanding of the topic at hand. But it’s not just about listing references.

It’s about weaving them into your essay so seamlessly that your reader not only comprehends your point but also recognizes the strong foundation on which your arguments stand. Here’s how you can incorporate sources effectively:

Effective Quotation:

• Blend with the Narrative: Direct quotations should feel like a natural extension of your writing. For instance, instead of abruptly inserting a quote, use lead-ins like, “As architect Jane Smith argues, ‘…'”
• Use Sparingly: While direct quotes can validate a point, over-relying on them can overshadow your voice. Use them to emphasize pivotal points and always ensure you contextualize their significance.
• Adapting Quotes: Occasionally, for the sake of flow, you might need to change a word or phrase in a quote. If you do, denote changes with square brackets, e.g., “[The building] stands as a testament to modern design.”

Referencing Techniques:

• Parenthetical Citations: Most academic essays utilize parenthetical (or in-text) citations, where a brief reference (usually the author’s surname and the publication year) is provided within the text itself.
• Footnotes and Endnotes: Some referencing styles prefer notes, which can provide additional context or information without interrupting the flow of the essay.
• Consistency is Key: Stick to one referencing style throughout your essay, whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago, or any other format.

Using Notes Effectively:

• Annotate as You Go: When reading, jot down insights or connections you make in the margins or in your note-taking app. This will help you incorporate sources in a way that feels relevant and organic.
• Maintain a Bibliography: Keeping a running list of all the sources you encounter will make the final citation process smoother. With tools like Zotero or MyBib, you can auto-generate and manage bibliographies with ease.
• Critical Analysis over Summary: While it’s vital to understand and convey the main points of a source, it’s equally crucial to critique, interpret, or discuss its relevance in the context of your essay.

Remember, the objective of referencing isn’t just to show that you’ve done the reading or to avoid accusations of plagiarism. It’s about building on the work of others to create your unique narrative and perspective.

Always strive for a balance, where your voice remains at the forefront, but is consistently and credibly supported by your sources.

Designing Your Essay

Architecture is an intricate tapestry of creativity, precision, and innovation. Just as a building’s design can make or break its appeal, the visual presentation of your essay plays a pivotal role in how it’s received.

Below are steps and strategies to ensure your architecture essay isn’t just a treatise of words but also a feast for the eyes.

Visual Aesthetics: More Than Just Words

• Whitespace and Balance: Much like in architecture, the empty spaces in your essay—the margins, line spacing, and breaks between paragraphs—matter. Whitespace can make your essay appear more organized and readable.
• Fonts and Typography: Choose a font that is both legible and evocative of your essay’s tone. A serif font like Times New Roman may offer a traditional, academic feel, while sans-serif fonts like Arial or Calibri lend a modern touch. However, always adhere to submission guidelines if provided.
• Use of Imagery: If allowed, incorporating relevant images, charts, or diagrams can enhance understanding and add a visual flair to your essay. Make sure to caption them properly and ensure they’re of high resolution.

Relevance to Topic: Visuals That Complement Content

• Thematic Design: Ensure any design elements—be they color schemes, borders, or footers—tie back to your essay’s topic or the architectural theme you’re discussing.
• Visual Examples: If you’re discussing a specific architectural movement or an iconic building, consider incorporating relevant images, sketches, or blueprints to give readers a visual point of reference.

Examples of Unique Design Ideas

• Sidebars and Callouts: Much like how modern buildings might feature a unique design element that stands out, sidebars or callouts can be used to highlight crucial points, quotes, or tangential information.
• Integrated Infographics: For essays discussing data, trends, or historical timelines, infographics can be an innovative way to present information. They synthesize complex data into digestible visual formats.
• Annotations: If you’re critiquing or discussing a specific image, annotations can be helpful. They allow you to pinpoint and elaborate on specific elements within the image directly.

Consistency is Key

• Maintain a Theme: Just as in architectural design, maintaining a consistent visual theme throughout your essay creates harmony and cohesion. This could be in the form of consistent font usage, header designs, or color schemes.
• Captions and References: Any visual aid, be it a photograph, illustration, or chart, should be captioned consistently and sourced correctly to avoid plagiarism.

In the realm of architectural essays, the saying “ form follows function ” is equally valid. Your design choices should not just be aesthetic adornments but should serve to enhance understanding, readability, and engagement.

By taking the time to thoughtfully design your essay, you are not only showcasing your architectural insights but also your keen eye for design, thereby leaving a lasting impression on your readers.

Finalizing Your Essay

Finalizing an architecture essay is a task that demands a meticulous approach. The difference between an average essay and an outstanding one often lies in the refinement process. Here, we explore the steps to ensure that your essay is in its best possible form before submission.

Proofreading:

• Grammar and Syntax Checks: Always use tools like Grammarly or Microsoft Word’s spellchecker, but remember, they aren’t infallible. After an initial electronic check, read the essay aloud. This can help in catching awkward phrasing and any overlooked errors.
• Consistency in Language and Style: Ensure that you maintain a uniform style and tone throughout. If you begin with UK English, for instance, stick with it till the end.
• Flow and Coherence: The essay should have a logical progression. Each paragraph should lead seamlessly into the next, with clear transitions.

Feedback Loop:

• Peer Reviews: Having classmates or colleagues read your essay can provide fresh perspectives. They might catch unclear sections or points of potential expansion that you might have missed.
• Expert Feedback: If possible, seek feedback from instructors or professionals in the field. Their insights can greatly enhance the quality of your content.
• Acting on Feedback: Merely receiving feedback isn’t enough. Be prepared to make revisions, even if it means letting go of sections you’re fond of, for the overall improvement of the essay.

Aligning with University Requirements:

• Formatting: Adhere strictly to the specified format. Whether it’s APA, Chicago, or MLA, make sure your citations, font, spacing, and margins are in line with the guidelines.
• Word Count: Most institutions will have a stipulated word count. Ensure you’re within the limit. If you’re over, refine your content; if you’re under, see if there are essential points you might have missed.
• Supplementary Materials: For architecture essays, you might need to attach diagrams, sketches, or photographs. Ensure these are clear, relevant, and properly labeled.
• Referencing: Properly cite all your sources. Any claim or statement that isn’t common knowledge needs to be attributed to its source. Also, ensure that your bibliography or reference list is comprehensive and formatted correctly.

Final Read-through:

• After making all the changes, set your essay aside for a day or two, if time permits. Come back with fresh eyes and do one last read-through. This distance can often help you catch any remaining issues.

Finalizing your architecture essay is as vital as the initial stages of research and drafting. The care you take in refining and polishing your work reflects your commitment to excellence. When you’ve gone through these finalization steps, you can submit your essay confidently, knowing you’ve given it your best shot.

To Sum Up…

Writing an architecture essay is a unique challenge that requires a balance of creativity, critical thinking, and academic rigor. The process demands not just a deep understanding of architectural theories and case studies but also an ability to express these complex ideas clearly and compellingly.

Throughout this article, we have explored various facets of crafting an excellent architecture essay, from choosing a resonant topic and conducting thorough research to employing effective writing techniques and incorporating sources seamlessly.

The visual aspect of an architecture essay cannot be overlooked. As architects blend functionality with aesthetics in their designs, so too must students intertwine informative content with visual appeal in their essays. This is an opportunity to showcase not only your understanding of the subject matter but also your creativity and attention to detail.

Remember, a well-designed essay speaks volumes about your passion for architecture and your dedication to the discipline.

As we wrap up this guide, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of meticulous proofreading and seeking feedback. These final steps are vital in ensuring that your essay is free from errors and that your arguments are coherent and compelling.

Engaging in a feedback loop with peers, mentors, or advisors can provide valuable insights and help to refine your work further.

Additionally, always ensure that your essay aligns with the specific requirements set forth by your university or institution. Pay attention to details like font styles, referencing methods, and formatting guidelines.

These elements, while seemingly minor, play a significant role in creating a polished and professional final product.

Keep practicing, keep learning, and remember that each essay is a stepping stone toward mastering the art of architectural writing.

FAQs about Architecture Essays

Do architecture students have to write essays.

Yes, architecture students often have to write essays as part of their academic curriculum. While architecture is a field that heavily involves visual and practical skills, essays and written assignments play a crucial role in helping students develop their critical thinking, research, and analytical skills.

While hands-on design work and practical projects are integral parts of an architectural education, essays play a crucial role in developing the theoretical, analytical, and communication skills necessary for success in the field.

By writing essays, architecture students learn to think critically, research effectively, and communicate their ideas clearly, laying a strong foundation for their future careers.

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Design of Design, The: Essays from a Computer Scientist 1st Edition

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The author tracks the evolution of the design process, treats collaborative and distributed design, and illuminates what makes a truly great designer. He examines the nuts and bolts of design processes, including budget constraints of many kinds, aesthetics, design empiricism, and tools, and grounds this discussion in his own real-world examples—case studies ranging from home construction to IBM's Operating System/360. Throughout, Brooks reveals keys to success that every designer, design project manager, and design researcher should know.

• ISBN-10 0201362988
• ISBN-13 978-0201362985
• Edition 1st
• Publisher Addison-Wesley Professional
• Publication date March 22, 2010
• Language English
• Dimensions 1.1 x 6.1 x 9.1 inches
• Print length 448 pages
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From the back cover.

Making Sense of Design

Effective design is at the heart of everything from software development to engineering to architecture. But what do we really know about the design process? What leads to effective, elegant designs? The Design of Design addresses these questions.

These new essays by Fred Brooks contain extraordinary insights for designers in every discipline. Brooks pinpoints constants inherent in all design projects and uncovers processes and patterns likely to lead to excellence. Drawing on conversations with dozens of exceptional designers, as well as his own experiences in several design domains, Brooks observes that bold design decisions lead to better outcomes.

The author tracks the evolution of the design process, treats collaborative and distributed design, and illuminates what makes a truly great designer. He examines the nuts and bolts of design processes, including budget constraints of many kinds, aesthetics, design empiricism, and tools, and grounds this discussion in his own real-world examples―case studies ranging from home construction to IBM's Operating System/360. Throughout, Brooks reveals keys to success that every designer, design project manager, and design researcher should know.

About the Author

Frederick P. Brooks, Jr. , is Kenan Professor of Computer Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He is the recipient of the National Medal of Technology, for his work on IBM’s Operating System/360, and the A. M. Turing Award, for his “landmark contributions to computer architecture, operating systems, and software engineering.” He is the author of the best-selling book The Mythical Man-Month, Anniversary Edition (Addison-Wesley, 1995).

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (March 22, 2010)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 448 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0201362988
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0201362985
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.34 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 1.1 x 6.1 x 9.1 inches
• #334 in Computer Systems Analysis & Design (Books)
• #2,403 in Software Design, Testing & Engineering (Books)
• #2,912 in Computer Software (Books)

About the author

Frederick p. brooks, jr..

Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., is Kenan Professor of Computer Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. He was an architect of the IBM Stretch and Harvest computers. He was Corporate Project Manager for the System/360, including development of the System/360 computer family hardware and the decision to switch computer byte size from 6 to 8 bits. He then managed the initial development of the Operating System/360 software suite: operating system, 16 compilers, communications, and utilities.

He founded the UNC Department of Computer Science in 1964 and chaired it for 20 years. His research there has been in computer architecture, software engineering, and interactive 3-D computer graphics (protein visualization graphics and "virtual reality"). His best-known books are The Mythical Man-Month (1975, 1995); Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution (with G.A. Blaauw, 1997); and The Design of Design (2010).

Dr. Brooks has received the National Medal of Technology, the A.M. Turing award of the ACM, the Bower Award and Prize of the Franklin Institute, the John von Neumann Medal of the IEEE, and others. He is a member of the U.S. National Academies of Engineering and of Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Royal Academy of Engineering (U.K.) and of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

He became a Christian at age 31 and has taught an adult Sunday school class for 35 years. He chaired the Executive Committee for the 1973 Research Triangle Billy Graham Crusade. He and Mrs. Nancy Greenwood Brooks are faculty advisors to a graduate student chapter of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. They have three children and nine grandchildren.

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Book description

Making Sense of Design

Effective design is at the heart of everything from software development to engineering to architecture. But what do we really know about the design process? What leads to effective, elegant designs? The Design of Design addresses these questions.

These new essays by Fred Brooks contain extraordinary insights for designers in every discipline. Brooks pinpoints constants inherent in all design projects and uncovers processes and patterns likely to lead to excellence. Drawing on conversations with dozens of exceptional designers, as well as his own experiences in several design domains, Brooks observes that bold design decisions lead to better outcomes.

The author tracks the evolution of the design process, treats collaborative and distributed design, and illuminates what makes a truly great designer. He examines the nuts and bolts of design processes, including budget constraints of many kinds, aesthetics, design empiricism, and tools, and grounds this discussion in his own real-world examples—case studies ranging from home construction to IBM’s Operating System/360. Throughout, Brooks reveals keys to success that every designer, design project manager, and design researcher should know.

Table of contents

• Copyright Page
• About the Author
• 1. The Design Question
• 2. How Engineers Think of Design—The Rational Model
• 3. What’s Wrong with This Model?
• 4. Requirements, Sin, and Contracts
• 5. What Are Better Design Process Models?
• 6. Collaboration in Design
• 7. Telecollaboration
• 8. Rationalism versus Empiricism in Design
• 9. User Models—Better Wrong than Vague
• 10. Inches, Ounces, Bits, Dollars—The Budgeted Resource
• 11. Constraints Are Friends
• 12. Esthetics and Style in Technical Design
• 13. Exemplars in Design
• 14. How Expert Designers Go Wrong
• 15. The Divorce of Design
• 16. Representing Designs’ Trajectories and Rationales
• 17. A Computer Scientist’s Dream System for Designing Houses—Mind to Machine
• 18. A Computer Scientist’s Dream System for Designing Houses—Machine to Mind
• 19. Great Designs Come from Great Designers
• 20. Where Do Great Designers Come From?
• 21. Case Study: Beach House “View/360”
• 22. Case Study: House Wing Addition
• 23. Case Study: Kitchen Remodeling
• 24. Case Study: System/360 Architecture
• 25. Case Study: IBM Operating System/360
• 26. Case Study: Book Design of Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution
• 27. Case Study: A Joint Computer Center Organization: Triangle Universities Computation Center
• 28. Recommended Reading
• Acknowledgments
• Bibliography
• People Index
• Subject Index

Product information

• Title: The Design of Design: Essays from a Computer Scientist
• Release date: March 2010
• Publisher(s): Addison-Wesley Professional
• ISBN: 9780201362985

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Apple Inc. Market Target

This essay about Apple Inc.’s market targeting strategy explores how the tech giant effectively identifies and caters to diverse consumer segments worldwide. By leveraging comprehensive market research and understanding consumer behavior, Apple tailors its products and marketing efforts to meet the specific needs and desires of its target audience. Through targeting tech enthusiasts, affluent consumers, and younger demographics, Apple cultivates strong brand loyalty and drives sustained growth in the competitive tech industry. With a focus on innovation, premium branding, and targeted marketing, Apple continues to solidify its position as a global leader in technology and design.

How it works

Apple Inc., a tech titan renowned for its innovative products and sleek design aesthetics, has established itself as a dominant force in the global market. Central to its success is a meticulously crafted market targeting strategy that resonates with diverse consumer segments worldwide.

At the heart of Apple’s market targeting approach lies a deep understanding of consumer behavior and preferences. By leveraging comprehensive market research and data analytics, Apple identifies key demographic, psychographic, and behavioral segments to tailor its products and marketing efforts effectively.

This targeted approach enables Apple to develop products that meet the specific needs and desires of its intended audience, fostering strong brand loyalty and driving sustained growth.

One of Apple’s key market segments comprises tech-savvy individuals who value cutting-edge technology and seamless integration across devices. For this segment, Apple offers a range of high-performance products, including the iPhone, iPad, and Mac, equipped with advanced features and intuitive user interfaces. By consistently delivering superior quality and innovation, Apple cultivates a loyal customer base within this segment, driving repeat purchases and fostering a culture of brand advocacy.

In addition to tech enthusiasts, Apple strategically targets affluent consumers seeking premium products that signify status and exclusivity. Through its upscale retail stores and premium pricing strategy, Apple creates an aspirational brand image that resonates with luxury-seeking consumers. By positioning its products as symbols of sophistication and prestige, Apple effectively taps into this lucrative market segment, driving robust sales and enhancing brand equity.

Furthermore, Apple recognizes the importance of catering to the needs of different age groups, including millennials and Generation Z, who represent a significant portion of its customer base. With a focus on creativity, innovation, and self-expression, Apple designs products and marketing campaigns that appeal to the unique preferences and lifestyles of younger consumers. From engaging social media campaigns to collaborations with popular influencers and artists, Apple cultivates a sense of community and belonging among younger demographics, fostering brand affinity and driving sales.

In conclusion, Apple Inc.’s market targeting strategy serves as a cornerstone of its success in the highly competitive tech industry. By understanding the diverse needs and preferences of its target audience, Apple effectively positions its products as must-have essentials, luxury indulgences, and symbols of self-expression. Through relentless innovation, premium branding, and targeted marketing efforts, Apple continues to captivate consumers worldwide, solidifying its status as a global leader in technology and design.

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Why Taiwan Was So Prepared for a Powerful Earthquake

Decades of learning from disasters, tightening building codes and increasing public awareness may have helped its people better weather strong quakes.

Search-and-rescue teams recover a body from a leaning building in Hualien, Taiwan. Thanks to improvements in building codes after past earthquakes, many structures withstood Wednesday’s quake. Credit...

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By Chris Buckley ,  Meaghan Tobin and Siyi Zhao

Photographs by Lam Yik Fei

Chris Buckley reported from the city of Hualien, Meaghan Tobin from Taipei, in Taiwan.

• April 4, 2024

When the largest earthquake in Taiwan in half a century struck off its east coast, the buildings in the closest city, Hualien, swayed and rocked. As more than 300 aftershocks rocked the island over the next 24 hours to Thursday morning, the buildings shook again and again.

But for the most part, they stood.

Even the two buildings that suffered the most damage remained largely intact, allowing residents to climb to safety out the windows of upper stories. One of them, the rounded, red brick Uranus Building, which leaned precariously after its first floors collapsed, was mostly drawing curious onlookers.

The building is a reminder of how much Taiwan has prepared for disasters like the magnitude-7.4 earthquake that jolted the island on Wednesday. Perhaps because of improvements in building codes, greater public awareness and highly trained search-and-rescue operations — and, likely, a dose of good luck — the casualty figures were relatively low. By Thursday, 10 people had died and more than 1,000 others were injured. Several dozen were missing.

“Similar level earthquakes in other societies have killed far more people,” said Daniel Aldrich , a director of the Global Resilience Institute at Northeastern University. Of Taiwan, he added: “And most of these deaths, it seems, have come from rock slides and boulders, rather than building collapses.”

Across the island, rail traffic had resumed by Thursday, including trains to Hualien. Workers who had been stuck in a rock quarry were lifted out by helicopter. Roads were slowly being repaired. Hundreds of people were stranded at a hotel near a national park because of a blocked road, but they were visited by rescuers and medics.

On Thursday in Hualien city, the area around the Uranus Building was sealed off, while construction workers tried to prevent the leaning structure from toppling completely. First they placed three-legged concrete blocks that resembled giant Lego pieces in front of the building, and then they piled dirt and rocks on top of those blocks with excavators.

“We came to see for ourselves how serious it was, why it has tilted,” said Chang Mei-chu, 66, a retiree who rode a scooter with her husband Lai Yung-chi, 72, to the building on Thursday. Mr. Lai said he was a retired builder who used to install power and water pipes in buildings, and so he knew about building standards. The couple’s apartment, near Hualien’s train station, had not been badly damaged, he said.

“I wasn’t worried about our building, because I know they paid attention to earthquake resistance when building it. I watched them pour the cement to make sure,” Mr. Lai said. “There have been improvements. After each earthquake, they raise the standards some more.”

It was possible to walk for city blocks without seeing clear signs of the powerful earthquake. Many buildings remained intact, some of them old and weather-worn; others modern, multistory concrete-and-glass structures. Shops were open, selling coffee, ice cream and betel nuts. Next to the Uranus Building, a popular night market with food stalls offering fried seafood, dumplings and sweets was up and running by Thursday evening.

Earthquakes are unavoidable in Taiwan, which sits on multiple active faults. Decades of work learning from other disasters, implementing strict building codes and increasing public awareness have gone into helping its people weather frequent strong quakes.

Not far from the Uranus Building, for example, officials had inspected a building with cracked pillars and concluded that it was dangerous to stay in. Residents were given 15 minutes to dash inside and retrieve as many belongings as they could. Some ran out with computers, while others threw bags of clothes out of windows onto the street, which was also still littered with broken glass and cement fragments from the quake.

One of its residents, Chen Ching-ming, a preacher at a church next door, said he thought the building might be torn down. He was able to salvage a TV and some bedding, which now sat on the sidewalk, and was preparing to go back in for more. “I’ll lose a lot of valuable things — a fridge, a microwave, a washing machine,” he said. “All gone.”

Requirements for earthquake resistance have been built into Taiwan’s building codes since 1974. In the decades since, the writers of Taiwan’s building code also applied lessons learned from other major earthquakes around the world, including in Mexico and Los Angeles, to strengthen Taiwan’s code.

After more than 2,400 people were killed and at least 10,000 others injured during the Chi-Chi quake of 1999, thousands of buildings built before the quake were reviewed and reinforced. After another strong quake in 2018 in Hualien, the government ordered a new round of building inspections. Since then, multiple updates to the building code have been released.

“We have retrofitted more than 10,000 school buildings in the last 20 years,” said Chung-Che Chou, the director general of the National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering in Taipei.

The government had also helped reinforce private apartment buildings over the past six years by adding new steel braces and increasing column and beam sizes, Dr. Chou said. Not far from the buildings that partially collapsed in Hualien, some of the older buildings that had been retrofitted in this way survived Wednesday’s quake, he said.

The result of all this is that even Taiwan’s tallest skyscrapers can withstand regular seismic jolts. The capital city’s most iconic building, Taipei 101, once the tallest building in the world, was engineered to stand through typhoon winds and frequent quakes. Still, some experts say that more needs to be done to either strengthen or demolish structures that don’t meet standards, and such calls have grown louder in the wake of the latest earthquake.

Taiwan has another major reason to protect its infrastructure: It is home to the majority of production for the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, the world’s largest maker of advanced computer chips. The supply chain for electronics from smartphones to cars to fighter jets rests on the output of TSMC’s factories, which make these chips in facilities that cost billions of dollars to build.

The 1999 quake also prompted TSMC to take extra steps to insulate its factories from earthquake damage. The company made major structural adjustments and adopted new technologies like early warning systems. When another large quake struck the southern city of Kaohsiung in February 2016, TSMC’s two nearby factories survived without structural damage.

Taiwan has made strides in its response to disasters, experts say. In the first 24 hours after the quake, rescuers freed hundreds of people who were trapped in cars in between rockfalls on the highway and stranded on mountain ledges in rock quarries.

“After years of hard work on capacity building, the overall performance of the island has improved significantly,” said Bruce Wong, an emergency management consultant in Hong Kong. Taiwan’s rescue teams have come to specialize in complex efforts, he said, and it has also been able to tap the skills of trained volunteers.

Taiwan’s resilience also stems from a strong civil society that is involved in public preparedness for disasters.

Ou Chi-hu, a member of a group of Taiwanese military veterans, was helping distribute water and other supplies at a school that was serving as a shelter for displaced residents in Hualien. He said that people had learned from the 1999 earthquake how to be more prepared.

“They know to shelter in a corner of the room or somewhere else safer,” he said. Many residents also keep a bag of essentials next to their beds, and own fire extinguishers, he added.

Around him, a dozen or so other charities and groups were offering residents food, money, counseling and childcare. The Tzu Chi Foundation, a large Taiwanese Buddhist charity, provided tents for families to use inside the school hall so they could have more privacy. Huang Yu-chi, a disaster relief manager with the foundation, said nonprofits had learned from earlier disasters.

“Now we’re more systematic and have a better idea of disaster prevention,” Mr. Huang said.

Mike Ives contributed reporting from Seoul.

Chris Buckley , the chief China correspondent for The Times, reports on China and Taiwan from Taipei, focused on politics, social change and security and military issues. More about Chris Buckley

Meaghan Tobin is a technology correspondent for The Times based in Taipei, covering business and tech stories in Asia with a focus on China. More about Meaghan Tobin

Siyi Zhao is a reporter and researcher who covers news in mainland China for The Times in Seoul. More about Siyi Zhao

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Methodology

• What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

What Is a Research Design | Types, Guide & Examples

Published on June 7, 2021 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023 by Pritha Bhandari.

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research objectives and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research design.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities—start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

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Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types.

• Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships
• Descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analyzing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study—plants, animals, organizations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

• Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalize your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study , your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalize to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question .

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviors, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews .

Observation methods

Observational studies allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviors or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what kinds of data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected—for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

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As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are high in reliability and validity.

Operationalization

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalization means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in—for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced, while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method , you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample—by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method , it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method , how will you avoid research bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organizing and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymize and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well-organized will save time when it comes to analyzing it. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings (high replicability ).

On its own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyze the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarize your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarize your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analyzing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A research design is a strategy for answering your   research question . It defines your overall approach and determines how you will collect and analyze data.

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims, that you collect high-quality data, and that you use the right kind of analysis to answer your questions, utilizing credible sources . This allows you to draw valid , trustworthy conclusions.

Quantitative research designs can be divided into two main categories:

• Correlational and descriptive designs are used to investigate characteristics, averages, trends, and associations between variables.
• Experimental and quasi-experimental designs are used to test causal relationships .

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible. Common types of qualitative design include case study , ethnography , and grounded theory designs.

The priorities of a research design can vary depending on the field, but you usually have to specify:

• Your research questions and/or hypotheses
• Your overall approach (e.g., qualitative or quantitative )
• The type of design you’re using (e.g., a survey , experiment , or case study )
• Your data collection methods (e.g., questionnaires , observations)
• Your data collection procedures (e.g., operationalization , timing and data management)
• Your data analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests  or thematic analysis )

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

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