alexander the great last speech

But for the purpose of making you understand when you take yourselves off, what kind of men you have been to us who have conferred such benefits upon you. In the first place, as is reasonable, I shall begin my speech from my father Philip. For he found you vagabonds and destitute of means, most of you clad in hides, feeding a few sheep up the mountain sides, for the protection of which you had to fight with small success against Illyrians, Triballians, and the border Thracians.

Instead of the hides he gave you cloaks to wear, and from the mountains he led you down into the plains, and made you capable of fighting the neighboring barbarians, so that you were no longer compelled to preserve yourselves by trusting rather to the inaccessible strongholds than to your own valor. He made you colonists of cities, which he adorned with useful laws and customs; and from being slaves and subjects, he made you rulers over those very barbarians by whom you yourselves, as well as your property, were previously liable to be carried off or ravaged.

He also added the greater part of Thrace to Macedonia, and by seizing the most conveniently situated places on the sea-coast, he spread abundance over the land from commerce, and made the working of the mines a secure employment. He made you rulers over the Thessalians, of whom you had formerly been in mortal fear; and by humbling the nation of the Phocians, he rendered the avenue into Greece broad and easy for you, instead of being narrow and difficult.

The Athenians and Thebans, who were always lying in wait to attack Macedonia, he humbled to such a degree, I also then rendering him my personal aid in the campaign, that instead of paying tribute to the former and being vassals to the latter, those states in their turn procure security to themselves by our assistance. He penetrated into the Peloponnese, and after regulating its affairs, was publicly declared commander-in-chief of all the rest of Greece in the expedition against the Persian, adding this glory not more to himself than to the commonwealth of the Macedonians.

These were the advantages which accrued to you from my father Philip; great indeed if looked at by themselves, but small if compared with those you have obtained from me. For though I inherited from my father only a few gold and silver goblets, and there were not even sixty talents in the treasury, and though I found myself charged with a debt of 500 talents owing by Philip, and I was obliged myself to borrow 800 talents in addition to these, I started from the country which could not decently support you, and forthwith laid open to you the passage of the Hellespont, though at that time the Persians held the sovereignty of the sea.

Having overpowered the satraps of Darius with my cavalry, I added to your empire the whole of Ionia, the whole of Aeolis, both Phrygias and Lydia, and I took Miletus by siege. All the other places I gained by voluntary surrender, and I granted you the privilege of appropriating the wealth found in them. The riches of Egypt and Cyrene, which I acquired without fighting a battle, have come to you. Coele-Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia are your property. Babylon, Bactra, and Susa are yours.

The wealth of the Lydians, the treasures of the Persians, and the riches of the Indians are yours; and so is the External Sea. You are viceroys, you are generals, you are captains. What then have I reserved to myself after all these labors, except this purple robe and this diadem? I have appropriated nothing myself, nor can any one point out my treasures, except these possessions of yours or the things which I am guarding on your behalf. Individually, however, I have no motive to guard them, since I feed on the same fare as you do, and I take only the same amount of sleep.

Nay, I do not think that my fare is as good as that of those among you who live luxuriously; and I know that I often sit up at night to watch for you, that you may be able to sleep.

But some one may say, that while you endured toil and fatigue, I have acquired these things as your leader without myself sharing the toil and fatigue. But who is there of you who knows that he has endured greater toil for me than I have for him? Come now, whoever of you has wounds, let him strip and show them, and I will show mine in turn; for there is no part of my body, in front at any rate, remaining free from wounds; nor is there any kind of weapon used either for close combat or for hurling at the enemy, the traces of which I do not bear on my person.

For I have been wounded with the sword in close fight, I have been shot with arrows, and I have been struck with missiles projected from engines of war; and though oftentimes I have been hit with stones and bolts of wood for the sake of your lives, your glory, and your wealth, I am still leading you as conquerors over all the land and sea, all rivers, mountains, and plains. I have celebrated your weddings with my own, and the children of many of you will be akin to my children.

Moreover I have liquidated of all those who had incurred them, without inquiring too closely for what purpose they were contracted, though you received such high pay, and carry off so much booty whenever there is booty to be got after a siege. Most of you have golden crowns, the eternal memorials of your valor and of the honor you receive from me. Whoever has been killed has met with a glorious end and has been honored with a splendid burial.

Brazen statues of most of the slain have been erected at home, and their parents are held in honor) being released from all public service and from taxation. But no one of you has ever been killed in flight under my leadership. And now I was intending to send back those of you who are unfit for service, objects of envy to those at home; but since you all wish to depart, depart all of you!

Go back and report at home that your king Alexander, the conqueror of the Persians, Medes, Bactrians, and Sacians; the man who has subjugated the Uxians, Arachotians, and Drangians; who has also acquired the rule of the Parthians, Chorasmians, and Hyrcanians, as far as the Caspian Sea; who has marched over the Caucasus, through the Caspian Gates; who has crossed the rivers Oxus and Tanais, and the Indus besides, which has never been crossed by any one else except Dionysus; who has also crossed the Hydaspes, Acesines, and Hydraotes, and who would have crossed the Hyphasis, if you had not shrunk back with alarm; who has penetrated into the Great Sea by both the mouths of the Indus; who has marched through the desert of Gadrosia, where no one ever before marched with an army; who on his route acquired possession of Carmania and the land of the Oritians, in addition to his other conquests, his fleet having in the meantime already sailed round the coast of the sea which extends from India to Persia - report that when you returned to Susa you deserted him and went away, handing him over to the protection of conquered foreigners.

Perhaps this report of yours will be both glorious to you in the eyes of men and devout I ween in the eyes of the gods. Depart!  

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The three final wishes of alexander the great.

Alexander was a great Greek king. As a military commander, he was undefeated and the most successful throughout history. On his way home from conquering many countries, he came down with an illness. At that moment, his captured territories, powerful army, sharp swords, and wealth all had no meaning to him. He realised that death would soon arrive and he would be unable to return to his homeland. He told his officers: “I will soon leave this world. I have three final wishes. You need to carry out what I tell you.” His generals, in tears, agreed.

The Three Wishes

• The best doctors should carry my body.
• All the wealth he had accumulated (money, gold, precious stones) should be scattered along the procession to the cemetery; and
• his body should be covered in a shroud with only his hands visible, swinging in the wind, palms up, carrying dust.

One of his generals who was surprised by these unusual requests asked Alexander to explain. Here is what Alexander the Great had to say:

• I want the best doctors to carry my coffin to demonstrate that, in the face of death, even the best doctors in the world have no power to heal.
• I want the road to be covered with my treasure so that everybody sees that material wealth acquired on earth, stays on earth.
• I want my hands to swing in the wind, so that people understand that we come to this world empty handed and we leave this world empty handed after the most precious treasure of all is exhausted, and that is TIME.

TIME is our most precious treasure because it is LIMITED. We can produce more wealth, but we cannot produce more time. When we give someone our time, we actually give a portion of our life that we will never take back. Our time is our life.

Which power do you truly seek? That which involves you with the snarling dogs of the world? Or the power of peaceful tranquillity which draws people to you? Which love do you really wish for? The phantom love of wealth and riches or ego and its control of others? Or the infinite power of the heart? Do you wish to succeed by competing against the lines drawn by others? Or do you wish to blaze forth in the creative expression of your own eternal genius? Do you wish to conquer the world and gain only ashes? Or the enduring powers of self-conquest and of one who has served? Do you wish to create and live in fear of the ghosts of past and future? Or to dwell in the city of clarity of the moment?

If you seek conquest, seek first the power of self conquest. Then seek that power which is service to others. Seek the power to benefit and comfort the many. For only such a power will be remembered. And even if you yourself do not gain from this power, be sure that generations of people to come will benefit from it, and you will be truly blessed.

Wish for, strive for, the true powers of tranquillity, love, inner genius, service and clarity of each moment.

May you have plenty of TIME.

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 2.

• Philip of Macedon unifies Greece
• Alexander the Great takes power
• Alexander the Great conquers Persia
• Diadochi and the Hellenistic Period

Alexander the Great

• Alexander the Great was famous for his military power and is a legendary figure in history.
• Much of what we know about Alexander the Great is unreliable and steeped in myth; a lot of these mythologies were used by Alexander’s successors.

A history steeped in myth

The rise of an empire, alexander’s reign, want to join the conversation.

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The Greatest Speech in History? Alexander the Great & The Opis Mutiny

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Alexander the Great's achievements make him one of the most exceptional figures in history. He ascended to the throne of the small Greek kingdom of Macedonia at the age of just 20 in 336 BC. In the span of twelve years before his death, he established Macedonian overlordship on Greece, vanquished the mighty Persian Empire, and led his army into modern-day Afghanistan and the Indian frontier.

During his campaign, Alexander faced a mutiny by his Macedonian soldiers at the Babylonian city Opis. They were unhappy about his decision to send some of them back home while appearing to favor his new Asian subjects and adopting their customs. According to Roman historian Arrian's "The Anabasis," Alexander responded ruthlessly by dealing with the leaders before making a speech to his army in which he berated his troops for their disloyalty. Some say it is one of the greatest speeches in history.

Top image: Ancient Greek general Alexander the Great. Source:  Andrew Zimmerman / Adobe Stock.

By  Joanna Gillan

More romantic hokum.

We don’t know—can’t know—what Alexander or anyone else said before the age of mechanical or electronic recordings. Tradition be damned; I say this is made up nonsense.

Like Shakespeare, just out of some writer’s mind? 

But on Alexander, the man, how much do we really know?  They say he died young, early 30’s.  But how?  Complications of surgery to relieve his Gordian Knot, ...which his men knew, had to be untangled/reconciled the age-old way: slowly, with diligence, and righteous intent?  

Nobody gets paid to tell the truth.

Joanna Gillan is a Co-Owner, Editor and Writer of Ancient Origins. 

Joanna completed a Bachelor of Science (Psychology) degree in Australia and published research in the field of Educational Psychology. She has a rich and varied career, ranging from teaching... Read More

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Classical Education , Classical Studies , Famous Men of Virtue , Greek

The lasting courage of alexander the great.

In the autumn of 324 BC, Alexander stood up and looked at the faces of his Macadonian army. He had seen these faces many times before. Seven years earlier before the battle of Gaugamela, Alexander saw in the faces of these same men a fierce love and a resolute spirit that led to a decisive victory for his army against the Persian king. But on this crisp autumn day in the year 324, Alexander did not see those same warmhearted expressions; instead he saw the fomenting glances of mutiny. 

In just under 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the shape of the known world. When he toppled the Persian Empire, he brought Greek language and culture into the East, which culminated in the establishment of Greek cities all throughout the western world.

But what was the source of his greatness? This question reveals a heated debate among the Greco-Roman philosophers: Did Alexander achieve greatness because he was virtuous, or because he was fortunate? Did Tyche, the goddess of fortune and destiny, bestow greatness upon Alexander, or did Alexander, by nature of his virtue, secure for himself the heights of glory? Although Tyche might try to claim Alexander as her chief masterpiece, Plutarch observed that a proper philosopher must acknowledge the many virtues of Alexander himself, especially the greatest of his virtues: courage. For it was courage, more than wisdom, justice, or temperance, that turned a young Macedonian prince into Alexander the Great, King of the Greeks and King of Asia. 

The story of Alexander the Great comes from our classical studies course, Famous Men of Greece , a collection of stories gathered from the annals of history and myth; it’s perfect for any student or teacher of classical history from 5th -7th grade. 

Before Alexander was a king, he was a student. When Alexander turned 13, Philip sent his son to learn from Aristotle. Under this capable tutor, Alexander learned about medicine, philosophy, morals, logic, and art. Above all, he learned to love the works of Homer and in particular the Iliad . Through the influence of this ancient Greek story, the young Alexander came to idealize the mighty Achilles, the perfect embodiment of a courageous warrior-king. Unsurprisingly, then, Alexander adored this hero, and the life of Achilles became a paradigm for Alexander.

In May of the year 334 BC, Alexander arrived at the banks of the Granicus river, where he would confront the Persian army for the first time. The Macadonian nobleman had declared Alexander king just two years earlier at the age of 20, but having just crossed into Asia, he was eager to test the Persian resolve. As he approached the Granicus, he saw the impressive Persian horde on the adjacent bank. Although his second in command recommended that he delay the attack and make camp, Alexander saw a unique opportunity to strike a crippling blow to the Persian Empire early in his campaign. But more importantly, unlike his seasoned generals, Alexander had the courage to take advantage of this opportunity. 

When Alexander ordered his Macadonians to cross the river, he led the charge with his elite Companion Cavalry, called the hetairoi (ἑταῖροι). Alexander plunged headlong into the vanguard of the Persian army. This daring act of courage caused the Persian center to collapse, and provided the Macadonian infantry enough time to cross the river and envelop the Persian forces. Alexander was a military genius, but it was his courage that won the battle.

This bravery won the loyalty and affection of his men, but this virtue was a double edged sword. As one Roman historian explained, “He demanded that his men should enter battle bravely” because he himself “set an example to the rest in valour” ( History of Alexander 4.6). Alexander’s men repeatedly took great casualties when they accompanied him into battle, so perhaps at times the courage of Alexander descended into reckless disregard for the men that loved him. At these times, vice was confused with virtue, and Alexander’s men often paid the price. 

However, Alexander also bore the wounds and scars of his courageous accomplishments. When Alexander spoke to his troops before the Battle of Gaugamela (Γαυγάμηλα), it was sa id that he didn’t even need words because “so many scars spoke up for him–as so many ornaments to his body” ( History of Alexander 4.6). Plutarch said the wounds of Alexander were practical evidence of his courage: the gash on his head from a scimitar at the Granicus (I.7-8); the arrow wound on his ankle at the siege of Gaza (I.10-11); the dislocated shoulder; another arrow through the shin at Maracanda; and many more (I.7-11). Alexander would call on these scars as witnesses in his defense: Fortune had not made him great, courage had won for him an empire. 

But on this cold autumn day in 324 BC, Alexander’s men were mutinous. After 13 years of conquest and victory, Alexander’s army was defiant and traitorous. Once again, Alexander required courage to stand up to his army.  History records the brave, almost audacious, speech Alexander gave to his men:

“I defeated in a cavalry engagement the satraps of Darius and annexed to your rule the whole of Ionia and Aeolis, both Phrygias and Lydia, and took Miletus by storm. All the rest came over to our side spontaneously, and I made them yours for you to enjoy. All the wealth of Egypt and Cyrene, which I won without a fight, are now yours, Coele Syria (Κοίλη Συρία), Palestine and Mesopotamia are your possession, Babylonia and Bactria and Elam belong to you, you own the wealth of Lydia, the treasures of Persia, the riches of India, and the outer ocean.” In short, Alexander had conquered the world and given it to his people. He continued, “You are satraps, you are generals, you are captains. As for me, what do I have left from all these labors? Merely this purple cloak and a diadem.”

When Alexander finished, he went back to his tent. His men, moved by his courage and reminded of their love for him, pleaded with Alexander for forgiveness. Alexander’s courage had once again saved his army. 

One year later, Alexander died from an unknown illness before he had the opportunity to continue his conquests. And perhaps the obscurity of his death should only further turn our attention to the virtues of Alexander’s life and the courage that made him great. The life of Alexander illustrates a central classical virtue: courage. Courage compelled him to advance when others retreated. Courage drove him to act when others could not or would not for fear of failure. In other words, the life of Alexander demonstrates the near limitless potential of a courageous life. As Christians, Thomas Aqui nas reminds us that courage is not only reserved for battlefield aggression. Rather, courage is an internal disposition of the soul that compels one to act with bravery and endurance. Through this Christian lens, Alexander becomes a model of courageous activity and a warning about excesses of reckless behavior.

J. Shane Saxon

Shane Saxon is the director of trademark schools and wholesale distribution at Memoria Press. He has a Bachelor of English, a Master of Divinity, and a Master of Theology in Old Testament.

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Tiny, 1800-year-old portrait of Alexander the Great found in Denmark

Evrim Yazgin

Evrim Yazgin has a Bachelor of Science majoring in mathematical physics and a Master of Science in physics, both from the University of Melbourne.

“I nearly fell out of my chair,” says Danish archaeologist Freerk Oldenburger referring to the moment he realised he was looking at a small bronze portrait of Alexander the Great found in Denmark.

Oldenburger added in his comments to Live Science that the piece “has the typical attributes of Alexander the Great, such as his distinct wavy hair and ram horns.”

It was unearthed by metal detectors Finn Ibsen and Lars Danielsen who were conducting survey work in a field outside Ringsted, a city on the island of Zealand, 50km southwest of Denmark’s capital Copenhagen.

The bronze fitting, known as a bracket, was given to Museum West Zealand where Oldenburger works. It’s about 2.7 centimetres in diameter and made of a bronze alloy.

The mini portrait dates to about 200 CE. This places it at roughly the same time as the Roman emperor Caracalla who ruled from 198 to 217 CE.

“We know that he was completely obsessed with Alexander the Great and was interested and inspired by him, since he was the greatest conqueror of that time,” Oldenburger explains.

Ancient Saudi ‘lava tubes’ inhabited thousands of years ago uncovered

Caracalla often “dressed with the same style and believed he was Alexander the Great reincarnated,” Oldenburger adds. “Caracalla is also the only emperor of his time to be depicted with a shield containing a portrait of Alexander the Great.”

While the Roman empire at the time did not extend as far north as Denmark , trade and commerce between Romans and the north and east was common .

During Caracalla’s reign a large battle took place between Germanic armies on the Danish Jutland at Illerup Ådal. Excavations have revealed many of the shields used in the clash were adorned with portraits of warriors, according to a Museum West Zealand statement .

Despite being nearly 2,000km from his birthplace in Macedonia, one such portrait is of Alexander the Great. The newly discovered bracket is almost identical.

“But this one is a little more coarse and is made of cast bronze and not gilded silver,” Oldenburger says. “The bronze alloy also contains a high lead content and was made using an alloy often found in [Roman] bronze statuettes. It’s possible that a statuette was melted down to make this portrait.”

Alexander the Great is considered the ultimate military commander of antiquity. His empire stretched from Greece to India. He was born in 356 BCE and was assassinated in Babylon at the age of 32.

“This is a unique find in Scandinavia with connections to one of the most famous personalities in world history,” Oldenburger says.

Originally published by Cosmos as Tiny, 1800-year-old portrait of Alexander the Great found in Denmark

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