a biography on albert einstein

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Albert Einstein

By: History.com Editors

Updated: May 16, 2019 | Original: October 27, 2009

The German-born physicist Albert Einstein developed the first of his groundbreaking theories while working as a clerk in the Swiss patent office in Bern. After making his name with four scientific articles published in 1905, he went on to win worldwide fame for his general theory of relativity and a Nobel Prize in 1921 for his explanation of the phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. An outspoken pacifist who was publicly identified with the Zionist movement, Einstein emigrated from Germany to the United States when the Nazis took power before World War II. He lived and worked in Princeton, New Jersey, for the remainder of his life.

Einstein’s Early Life (1879-1904)

Born on March 14, 1879, in the southern German city of Ulm, Albert Einstein grew up in a middle-class Jewish family in Munich. As a child, Einstein became fascinated by music (he played the violin), mathematics and science. He dropped out of school in 1894 and moved to Switzerland, where he resumed his schooling and later gained admission to the Swiss Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich. In 1896, he renounced his German citizenship, and remained officially stateless before becoming a Swiss citizen in 1901.

Did you know? Almost immediately after Albert Einstein learned of the atomic bomb's use in Japan, he became an advocate for nuclear disarmament. He formed the Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists and backed Manhattan Project scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer in his opposition to the hydrogen bomb.

While at Zurich Polytechnic, Einstein fell in love with his fellow student Mileva Maric, but his parents opposed the match and he lacked the money to marry. The couple had an illegitimate daughter, Lieserl, born in early 1902, of whom little is known. After finding a position as a clerk at the Swiss patent office in Bern, Einstein married Maric in 1903; they would have two more children, Hans Albert (born 1904) and Eduard (born 1910).

Einstein’s Miracle Year (1905)

While working at the patent office, Einstein did some of the most creative work of his life, producing no fewer than four groundbreaking articles in 1905 alone. In the first paper, he applied the quantum theory (developed by German physicist Max Planck) to light in order to explain the phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect, by which a material will emit electrically charged particles when hit by light. The second article contained Einstein’s experimental proof of the existence of atoms, which he got by analyzing the phenomenon of Brownian motion, in which tiny particles were suspended in water.

In the third and most famous article, titled “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” Einstein confronted the apparent contradiction between two principal theories of physics: Isaac Newton’s concepts of absolute space and time and James Clerk Maxwell’s idea that the speed of light was a constant. To do this, Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity, which held that the laws of physics are the same even for objects moving in different inertial frames (i.e. at constant speeds relative to each other), and that the speed of light is a constant in all inertial frames. A fourth paper concerned the fundamental relationship between mass and energy, concepts viewed previously as completely separate. Einstein’s famous equation E = mc2 (where “c” was the constant speed of light) expressed this relationship.

From Zurich to Berlin (1906-1932)

Einstein continued working at the patent office until 1909, when he finally found a full-time academic post at the University of Zurich. In 1913, he arrived at the University of Berlin, where he was made director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. The move coincided with the beginning of Einstein’s romantic relationship with a cousin of his, Elsa Lowenthal, whom he would eventually marry after divorcing Mileva. In 1915, Einstein published the general theory of relativity, which he considered his masterwork. This theory found that gravity, as well as motion, can affect time and space. According to Einstein’s equivalence principle–which held that gravity’s pull in one direction is equivalent to an acceleration of speed in the opposite direction–if light is bent by acceleration, it must also be bent by gravity. In 1919, two expeditions sent to perform experiments during a solar eclipse found that light rays from distant stars were deflected or bent by the gravity of the sun in just the way Einstein had predicted.

The general theory of relativity was the first major theory of gravity since Newton’s, more than 250 years before, and the results made a tremendous splash worldwide, with the London Times proclaiming a “Revolution in Science” and a “New Theory of the Universe.” Einstein began touring the world, speaking in front of crowds of thousands in the United States, Britain, France and Japan. In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize for his work on the photoelectric effect, as his work on relativity remained controversial at the time. Einstein soon began building on his theories to form a new science of cosmology, which held that the universe was dynamic instead of static, and was capable of expanding and contracting.

Einstein Moves to the United States (1933-39)

A longtime pacifist and a Jew, Einstein became the target of hostility in Weimar Germany, where many citizens were suffering plummeting economic fortunes in the aftermath of defeat in the Great War. In December 1932, a month before Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany, Einstein made the decision to emigrate to the United States, where he took a position at the newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey . He would never again enter the country of his birth.

By the time Einstein’s wife Elsa died in 1936, he had been involved for more than a decade with his efforts to find a unified field theory, which would incorporate all the laws of the universe, and those of physics, into a single framework. In the process, Einstein became increasingly isolated from many of his colleagues, who were focused mainly on the quantum theory and its implications, rather than on relativity.

Einstein’s Later Life (1939-1955)

In the late 1930s, Einstein’s theories, including his equation E=mc2, helped form the basis of the development of the atomic bomb. In 1939, at the urging of the Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, Einstein wrote to President Franklin D. Roosevelt advising him to approve funding for the development of uranium before Germany could gain the upper hand. Einstein, who became a U.S. citizen in 1940 but retained his Swiss citizenship, was never asked to participate in the resulting Manhattan Project , as the U.S. government suspected his socialist and pacifist views. In 1952, Einstein declined an offer extended by David Ben-Gurion, Israel’s premier, to become president of Israel .

Throughout the last years of his life, Einstein continued his quest for a unified field theory. Though he published an article on the theory in Scientific American in 1950, it remained unfinished when he died, of an aortic aneurysm, five years later. In the decades following his death, Einstein’s reputation and stature in the world of physics only grew, as physicists began to unravel the mystery of the so-called “strong force” (the missing piece of his unified field theory) and space satellites further verified the principles of his cosmology.

HISTORY Vault: Secrets of Einstein's Brain

Originally stolen by the doctor trusted to perform his autopsy, scientists over the decades have examined the brain of Albert Einstein to try and determine what made this seemingly normal man tick.

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Biography Online

Albert Einstein Biography

Einstein is also well known as an original free-thinker, speaking on a range of humanitarian and global issues. After contributing to the theoretical development of nuclear physics and encouraging F.D. Roosevelt to start the Manhattan Project, he later spoke out against the use of nuclear weapons.

Born in Germany to Jewish parents, Einstein settled in Switzerland and then, after Hitler’s rise to power, the United States. Einstein was a truly global man and one of the undisputed genius’ of the Twentieth Century.

Early life Albert Einstein

Einstein was born 14 March 1879, in Ulm the German Empire. His parents were working-class (salesman/engineer) and non-observant Jews. Aged 15, the family moved to Milan, Italy, where his father hoped Albert would become a mechanical engineer. However, despite Einstein’s intellect and thirst for knowledge, his early academic reports suggested anything but a glittering career in academia. His teachers found him dim and slow to learn. Part of the problem was that Albert expressed no interest in learning languages and the learning by rote that was popular at the time.

“School failed me, and I failed the school. It bored me. The teachers behaved like Feldwebel (sergeants). I wanted to learn what I wanted to know, but they wanted me to learn for the exam.” Einstein and the Poet (1983)

At the age of 12, Einstein picked up a book on geometry and read it cover to cover. – He would later refer to it as his ‘holy booklet’. He became fascinated by maths and taught himself – becoming acquainted with the great scientific discoveries of the age.

Albert Einstein with wife Elsa

Despite Albert’s independent learning, he languished at school. Eventually, he was asked to leave by the authorities because his indifference was setting a bad example to other students.

He applied for admission to the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. His first attempt was a failure because he failed exams in botany, zoology and languages. However, he passed the next year and in 1900 became a Swiss citizen.

At college, he met a fellow student Mileva Maric, and after a long friendship, they married in 1903; they had two sons before divorcing several years later.

In 1896 Einstein renounced his German citizenship to avoid military conscription. For five years he was stateless, before successfully applying for Swiss citizenship in 1901. After graduating from Zurich college, he attempted to gain a teaching post but none was forthcoming; instead, he gained a job in the Swiss Patent Office.

While working at the Patent Office, Einstein continued his own scientific discoveries and began radical experiments to consider the nature of light and space.

Einstein in 1921

He published his first scientific paper in 1900, and by 1905 had completed his PhD entitled “ A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions . In addition to working on his PhD, Einstein also worked feverishly on other papers. In 1905, he published four pivotal scientific works, which would revolutionise modern physics. 1905 would later be referred to as his ‘ annus mirabilis .’

Einstein’s work started to gain recognition, and he was given a post at the University of Zurich (1909) and, in 1911, was offered the post of full-professor at the Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague (which was then part of Austria-Hungary Empire). He took Austrian-Hungary citizenship to accept the job. In 1914, he returned to Germany and was appointed a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics. (1914–1932)

Albert Einstein’s Scientific Contributions

Quantum Theory

Einstein suggested that light doesn’t just travel as waves but as electric currents. This photoelectric effect could force metals to release a tiny stream of particles known as ‘quanta’. From this Quantum Theory, other inventors were able to develop devices such as television and movies. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

Special Theory of Relativity

This theory was written in a simple style with no footnotes or academic references. The core of his theory of relativity is that:

“Movement can only be detected and measured as relative movement; the change of position of one body in respect to another.”

Thus there is no fixed absolute standard of comparison for judging the motion of the earth or plants. It was revolutionary because previously people had thought time and distance are absolutes. But, Einstein proved this not to be true.

He also said that if electrons travelled at close to the speed of light, their weight would increase.

This lead to Einstein’s famous equation:

Where E = energy m = mass and c = speed of light.

General Theory of Relativity 1916

Working from a basis of special relativity. Einstein sought to express all physical laws using equations based on mathematical equations.

He devoted the last period of his life trying to formulate a final unified field theory which included a rational explanation for electromagnetism. However, he was to be frustrated in searching for this final breakthrough theory.

Solar eclipse of 1919

In 1911, Einstein predicted the sun’s gravity would bend the light of another star. He based this on his new general theory of relativity. On 29 May 1919, during a solar eclipse, British astronomer and physicist Sir Arthur Eddington was able to confirm Einstein’s prediction. The news was published in newspapers around the world, and it made Einstein internationally known as a leading physicist. It was also symbolic of international co-operation between British and German scientists after the horrors of the First World War.

In the 1920s, Einstein travelled around the world – including the UK, US, Japan, Palestine and other countries. Einstein gave lectures to packed audiences and became an internationally recognised figure for his work on physics, but also his wider observations on world affairs.

Bohr-Einstein debates

During the 1920s, other scientists started developing the work of Einstein and coming to different conclusions on Quantum Physics. In 1925 and 1926, Einstein took part in debates with Max Born about the nature of relativity and quantum physics. Although the two disagreed on physics, they shared a mutual admiration.

As a German Jew, Einstein was threatened by the rise of the Nazi party. In 1933, when the Nazi’s seized power, they confiscated Einstein’s property, and later started burning his books. Einstein, then in England, took an offer to go to Princeton University in the US. He later wrote that he never had strong opinions about race and nationality but saw himself as a citizen of the world.

“I do not believe in race as such. Race is a fraud. All modern people are the conglomeration of so many ethnic mixtures that no pure race remains.”

Once in the US, Einstein dedicated himself to a strict discipline of academic study. He would spend no time on maintaining his dress and image. He considered these things ‘inessential’ and meant less time for his research. Einstein was notoriously absent-minded. In his youth, he once left his suitcase at a friends house. His friend’s parents told Einstein’s parents: “ That young man will never amount to anything, because he can’t remember anything.”

Although a bit of a loner, and happy in his own company, he had a good sense of humour. On January 3, 1943, Einstein received a letter from a girl who was having difficulties with mathematics in her studies. Einstein consoled her when he wrote in reply to her letter

“Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics. I can assure you that mine are still greater.”

Einstein professed belief in a God “Who reveals himself in the harmony of all being”. But, he followed no established religion. His view of God sought to establish a harmony between science and religion.

“Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.”

– Einstein, Science and Religion (1941)

Politics of Einstein

Einstein described himself as a Zionist Socialist. He did support the state of Israel but became concerned about the narrow nationalism of the new state. In 1952, he was offered the position as President of Israel, but he declined saying he had:

“neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings.” … “I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it.”

Einstein receiving US citizenship.

Albert Einstein was involved in many civil rights movements such as the American campaign to end lynching. He joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and  considered racism, America’s worst disease. But he also spoke highly of the meritocracy in American society and the value of being able to speak freely.

On the outbreak of war in 1939, Einstein wrote to President Roosevelt about the prospect of Germany developing an atomic bomb. He warned Roosevelt that the Germans were working on a bomb with a devastating potential. Roosevelt headed his advice and started the Manhattan project to develop the US atom bomb. But, after the war ended, Einstein reverted to his pacifist views. Einstein said after the war.

“Had I known that the Germans would not succeed in producing an atomic bomb, I would not have lifted a finger.” (Newsweek, 10 March 1947)

In the post-war McCarthyite era, Einstein was scrutinised closely for potential Communist links. He wrote an article in favour of socialism, “Why Socialism” (1949) He criticised Capitalism and suggested a democratic socialist alternative. He was also a strong critic of the arms race. Einstein remarked:

“I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!”

Rabindranath Tagore and Einstein

Einstein was feted as a scientist, but he was a polymath with interests in many fields. In particular, he loved music. He wrote that if he had not been a scientist, he would have been a musician. Einstein played the violin to a high standard.

“I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music… I get most joy in life out of music.”

Einstein died in 1955, at his request his brain and vital organs were removed for scientific study.

Citation: Pettinger, Tejvan . “ Biography of Albert Einstein ”, Oxford, www.biographyonline.net 23 Feb. 2008. Updated 2nd March 2017.

Albert Einstein – His Life and Universe

Albert Einstein – His Life at Amazon

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19 Comments

Albert E is awesome! Thanks for this website!!

• January 11, 2019 3:00 PM

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• January 10, 2019 4:11 PM

very inspiring

• December 23, 2018 8:06 PM

Wow it is good

• December 08, 2018 10:14 AM

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• November 15, 2018 7:03 PM
• By Madalyn Silva

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• November 02, 2018 3:37 PM
• By Ankit Gupta

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• October 17, 2018 4:39 PM
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• October 12, 2018 4:25 PM
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Albert Einstein: Biography, facts and impact on science

A brief biography of Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955), the scientist whose theories changed the way we think about the universe.

• Einstein's birthday and education

Einstein's wives and children

How einstein changed physics.

• Later years and death

Gravitational waves and relativity

Additional resources.

Albert Einstein was a German-American physicist and probably the most well-known scientist of the 20th century. He is famous for his theory of relativity , a pillar of modern physics that describes the dynamics of light and extremely massive entities, as well as his work in quantum mechanics , which focuses on the subatomic realm. 

Albert Einstein's birthday and education

Einstein was born in Ulm, in the German state of Württemberg, on March 14, 1879, according to a biography from the Nobel Prize organization . His family moved to Munich six weeks later, and in 1885, when he was 6 years old, he began attending Petersschule, a Catholic elementary school.

Contrary to popular belief, Einstein was a good student. "Yesterday Albert received his grades, he was again number one, and his report card was brilliant," his mother once wrote to her sister, according to a German website dedicated to Einstein's legacy. But when he later switched to the Luitpold grammar school, young Einstein chafed under the school's authoritarian attitude, and his teacher once said of him, "never will he get anywhere."

In 1896, at age 17, Einstein entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich to be trained as a teacher in physics and mathematics. A few years later, he gained his diploma and acquired Swiss citizenship but was unable to find a teaching post. So he accepted a position as a technical assistant in the Swiss patent office. 

Related: 10 discoveries that prove Einstein was right about the universe — and 1 that proves him wrong

Einstein married Mileva Maric, his longtime love and former student, in 1903. A year prior, they had a child out of wedlock, who was discovered by scholars only in the 1980s, when private letters revealed her existence. The daughter, called Lieserl in the letters, may have been mentally challenged and either died young or was adopted when she was a year old. Einstein had two other children with Maric, Hans Albert and Eduard, born in 1904 and 1910, respectively.

Einstein divorced Maric in 1919 and soon married his cousin Elsa Löwenthal, with whom he had been in a relationship since 1912.

Einstein obtained his doctorate in physics in 1905 — a year that's often known as his annus mirabilis ("year of miracles" in Latin), according to the Library of Congress . That year, he published four groundbreaking papers of significant importance in physics.

The first incorporated the idea that light could come in discrete particles called photons. This theory describes the photoelectric effect , the concept that underpins modern solar power. The second explained Brownian motion, or the random motion of particles or molecules. Einstein looked at the case of a dust mote moving randomly on the surface of water and suggested that water is made up of tiny, vibrating molecules that kick the dust back and forth. 

The final two papers outlined his theory of special relativity, which showed how observers moving at different speeds would agree about the speed of light, which was a constant. These papers also introduced the equation E = mc^2, showing the equivalence between mass and energy. That finding is perhaps the most widely known aspect of Einstein's work. (In this infamous equation, E stands for energy, m represents mass and c is the constant speed of light).

In 1915, Einstein published four papers outlining his theory of general relativity, which updated Isaac Newton's laws of gravity by explaining that the force of gravity arose because massive objects warp the fabric of space-time. The theory was validated in 1919, when British astronomer Arthur Eddington observed stars at the edge of the sun during a solar eclipse and was able to show that their light was bent by the sun's gravitational well, causing shifts in their perceived positions.

Related: 8 Ways you can see Einstein's theory of relativity in real life

In 1921, he won the Nobel Prize in physics for his work on the photoelectric effect, though the committee members also mentioned his "services to Theoretical Physics" when presenting their award. The decision to give Einstein the award was controversial because the brilliant physicist was a Jew and a pacifist. Anti-Semitism was on the rise and relativity was not yet seen as a proven theory, according to an article from The Guardian .

Einstein was a professor at the University of Berlin for a time but fled Germany with Löwenthal in 1933, during the rise of Adolf Hitler. He renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States to become a professor of theoretical physics at Princeton, becoming a U.S. citizen in 1940.

During this era, other researchers were creating a revolution by reformulating the rules of the smallest known entities in existence. The laws of quantum mechanics had been worked out by a group led by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr , and Einstein was intimately involved with their efforts.

Bohr and Einstein famously clashed over quantum mechanics. Bohr and his cohorts proposed that quantum particles behaved according to probabilistic laws, which Einstein found unacceptable, quipping that " God does not play dice with the universe ." Bohr's views eventually came to dominate much of contemporary thinking about quantum mechanics.

Einstein's later years and death

After he retired in 1945, Einstein spent most of his later years trying to unify gravity with electromagnetism in what's known as a unified field theory . Einstein died of a burst blood vessel near his heart on April 18, 1955, never unifying these forces.

Einstein's body was cremated and his ashes were spread in an undisclosed location, according to the American Museum of Natural History . But a doctor performed an unauthorized craniotomy before this and removed and saved Einstein's brain. 

The brain has been the subject of many tests over the decades, which suggested that it had extra folding in the gray matter, the site of conscious thinking. In particular, there were more folds in the frontal lobes, which have been tied to abstract thought and planning. However, drawing any conclusions about intelligence based on a single specimen is problematic. 

Related: Where is Einstein's brain?

In addition to his incredible legacy regarding relativity and quantum mechanics, Einstein conducted lesser-known research into a refrigeration method that required no motors, moving parts or coolant. He was also a tireless anti-war advocate, helping found the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , an organization dedicated to warning the public about the dangers of nuclear weapons . 

Einstein's theories concerning relativity have so far held up spectacularly as a predictive models. Astronomers have found that, as the legendary physicist anticipated, the light of distant objects is lensed by massive, closer entities, a phenomenon known as gravitational lensing, which has helped our understanding of the universe's evolution. The James Webb Space Telescope , launched in Dec. 2021, has utilized gravitational lensing on numerous occasions to detect light emitted near the dawn of time , dating to just a few hundred million years after the Big Bang.

In 2016, the Advanced Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory also announced the first-ever direct detection of gravitational waves , created when massive neutron stars and black holes merge and generate ripples in the fabric of space-time. Further research published in 2023 found that the entire universe may be rippling with a faint "gravitational wave background," emitted by ancient, colliding black holes.

Find answers to frequently asked questions about Albert Einstein on the Nobel Prize website. Flip through digitized versions of Einstein's published and unpublished manuscripts at Einstein Archives Online. Learn about The Einstein Memorial at the National Academy of Sciences building in Washington, D.C. 

This article was last updated on March 11, 2024 by Live Science editor Brandon Specktor to include new information about how Einstein's theories have been validated by modern experiments.

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Adam Mann is a freelance journalist with over a decade of experience, specializing in astronomy and physics stories. He has a bachelor's degree in astrophysics from UC Berkeley. His work has appeared in the New Yorker, New York Times, National Geographic, Wall Street Journal, Wired, Nature, Science, and many other places. He lives in Oakland, California, where he enjoys riding his bike. 

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• Problematic Thinker His brain was eclpsed by other body parts concerning women. His wife worked to support him through school, forfeiting her own education until later, then he repaid her by having an affair with his much younger cousin and divorcing the wife. Quite an honorable little guy. Reply

Problematic Thinker said: His brain was eclpsed by other body parts concerning women. His wife worked to support him through school, forfeiting her own education until later, then he repaid her by having an affair with his much younger cousin and divorcing the wife. Quite an honorable little guy.

admin said: So much more than funny hair. Albert Einstein: The Life of a Brilliant Physicist : Read more

• William Madden Albert Einstein was never, ever a "professor of physics" at Princeton University. At the time, Princeton, like most Ivy League universities, was highly anti-Semitic and either forbad the hiring of Jewish faculty or enforced a quota on their number. Einstein accepted a position at the newly established Institute For Advanced Study, headquartered in the the town of Princeton but legally and operationally distinct from the university. At the time, this was not known to be a particularly elite appointment, the Institute having no track record whatsoever. Its ability to attract many of the finest minds in their fields quickly changed that perception. (Nevertheless, Richard Feynman, years later, was highly critical of its cloistered atmosphere and, in science at least, its disconnection with the experimental side of the constituent disciplines. ) The Institute is a purely postdoctoral entity, granting no degrees and offering no classes (apart from ad hoc seminars). In the ensuing years, some faculty at the Institute have established collaborative relationships with faculty and postdoctoral fellows at Princeton University, including Einstein with Nathan Rosen (who later moved from the university to the Institute). However, the Institute remains to this day entirely independent of Princeton University. Reply

William Madden said: Albert Einstein was never, ever a "professor of physics" at Princeton University. At the time, Princeton, like most Ivy League universities, was highly anti-Semitic and either forbad the hiring of Jewish faculty or enforced a quota on their number. Einstein accepted a position at the newly established Institute For Advanced Study, headquartered in the the town of Princeton but legally and operationally distinct from the university. At the time, this was not known to be a particularly elite appointment, the Institute having no track record whatsoever. Its ability to attract many of the finest minds in their fields quickly changed that perception. (Nevertheless, Richard Feynman, years later, was highly critical of its cloistered atmosphere and, in science at least, its disconnection with the experimental side of the constituent disciplines. ) The Institute is a purely postdoctoral entity, granting no degrees and offering no classes (apart from ad hoc seminars). In the ensuing years, some faculty at the Institute have established collaborative relationships with faculty and postdoctoral fellows at Princeton University, including Einstein with Nathan Rosen (who later moved from the university to the Institute). However, the Institute remains to this day entirely independent of Princeton University.

• James DeMeo Einstein's theory of relativity was negated by the positive ether-drift experiments that both preceded and followed his earliest works. Michelson-Morely got a 5 to 7.5 kps ether-drift, Dayton Miller got 11.2 kps, and in more recent years Munera got an 18 kps ether wind detection. Each progressively higher value was at higher altitudes, indicating an altitude-velocity dependency, which affirmed a material, entrainable and dynamic ether. Einstein knew these experimental detections would destroy both his general and special relativity theories, and wrote in June 1921, to Robert Millikan: "I believe that I have really found the relationship between gravitation and electricity, assuming that the Miller experiments are based on a fundamental error. Otherwise, the whole relativity theory collapses like a house of cards" In July 1925, Einstein wrote to Edwin Slosson: "My opinion about Miller's experiments is the following ... Should the positive result be confirmed, then the special theory of relativity and with it the general theory of relativity, in its current form, would be invalid. Experimentum summus judex." Miller's ether-drift work was carried out over many years, using a far more sensitive apparatus than M-M, including high atop Mount Wilson. The Mt.Wilson experiments ran over four seasonal epochs, detecting variations in net ether-wind velocity, and overall proving that space is not empty, and light-speed is variable according to direction, and in accordance with the velocity of the emitter and receiver. Experimentum summus judex? In spite of a slap-jack amateurish effort to "prove" Miller's work was due to thermal artifacts -- an unethical effort supported by Einstein in the year before he died -- Miller's findings, and those of other ether-drift experimenters (there are many) who got positive results stand unchallenged. By ignoring such empirical results, the discipline of astrophysics has run itself into a metaphysical cul-de-sac, and today uses brute force firings of professors, dismissals of students and censorship to maintain its assertions of an increasingly complicated and bizarre universe. A prime example is how Halton Arp's findings challenging redshifts as distance indicators was systematically ignored, censored, and he then being forbidden additional telescope time. He was forced to move to Germany to sustain an academic post. There are other examples, many, who didn't have Arp's good reputation prior to making his heresy, and who suffered far worse. Einstein's "space time gravity warps", the "big bang", "black holes", and other bizarre metaphysical fantasies of modern astrophysics will eventually go the way of the Ptolemaic astrologer's epicycles. A good introduction to these facts of science history is found in the book "The Dynamic Ether of Cosmic Space: Correcting a Major Error in Modern Science". https://www.amazon.com/Dynamic-Ether-Cosmic-Space-Correcting/dp/0997405716 Reply

James DeMeo said: Einstein's theory of relativity was negated by the positive ether-drift experiments that both preceded and followed his earliest works. Michelson-Morely got a 5 to 7.5 kps ether-drift, Dayton Miller got 11.2 kps, and in more recent years Munera got an 18 kps ether wind detection. Each progressively higher value was at higher altitudes, indicating an altitude-velocity dependency, which affirmed a material, entrainable and dynamic ether. Einstein knew these experimental detections would destroy both his general and special relativity theories, and wrote in June 1921, to Robert Millikan: "I believe that I have really found the relationship between gravitation and electricity, assuming that the Miller experiments are based on a fundamental error. Otherwise, the whole relativity theory collapses like a house of cards" In July 1925, Einstein wrote to Edwin Slosson: "My opinion about Miller's experiments is the following ... Should the positive result be confirmed, then the special theory of relativity and with it the general theory of relativity, in its current form, would be invalid. Experimentum summus judex." Miller's ether-drift work was carried out over many years, using a far more sensitive apparatus than M-M, including high atop Mount Wilson. The Mt.Wilson experiments ran over four seasonal epochs, detecting variations in net ether-wind velocity, and overall proving that space is not empty, and light-speed is variable according to direction, and in accordance with the velocity of the emitter and receiver. Experimentum summus judex? In spite of a slap-jack amateurish effort to "prove" Miller's work was due to thermal artifacts -- an unethical effort supported by Einstein in the year before he died -- Miller's findings, and those of other ether-drift experimenters (there are many) who got positive results stand unchallenged. By ignoring such empirical results, the discipline of astrophysics has run itself into a metaphysical cul-de-sac, and today uses brute force firings of professors, dismissals of students and censorship to maintain its assertions of an increasingly complicated and bizarre universe. A prime example is how Halton Arp's findings challenging redshifts as distance indicators was systematically ignored, censored, and he then being forbidden additional telescope time. He was forced to move to Germany to sustain an academic post. There are other examples, many, who didn't have Arp's good reputation prior to making his heresy, and who suffered far worse. Einstein's "space time gravity warps", the "big bang", "black holes", and other bizarre metaphysical fantasies of modern astrophysics will eventually go the way of the Ptolemaic astrologer's epicycles. A good introduction to these facts of science history is found in the book "The Dynamic Ether of Cosmic Space: Correcting a Major Error in Modern Science". https://www.amazon.com/Dynamic-Ether-Cosmic-Space-Correcting/dp/0997405716

Mario Sanchez said: Thanks, for these irrelevant informations that are nothing important to understand the matter.

Pifou said: Feminist zealots in despair fellows. They think that there is always someone smarter that is being exploited while the other one steals all the glory. Do not worry about them here they are just dumb as bricks. They have been trying to push this story about Einstein for the last 40 years while themselves cant even make a good sandwich

• Mario Sanchez Who is really this participant adopting these names? (Shwinger_Feinmann) Reply
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Albert Einstein: His life, theories and impact on science

Where would science be without Albert Einstein?

• Early years

Career highlights

Einstein's remarkable brain, einstein's scientific legacy.

• Astronomical legacy

Additional resources

Albert Einstein is often cited as one of the most influential scientists of the 20th century. His work continues to help astronomers study everything from gravitational waves to Mercury 's orbit. 

The scientist's equation that helped explain special relativity – E = mc^2 – is famous even among those who don't understand its underlying physics. Einstein is also known for his theory of general relativity (an explanation of gravity ), and the photoelectric effect (which explains the behavior of electrons under certain circumstances); his work on the latter earned him a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

Einstein also tried in vain to unify all the forces of the universe in a single theory, or a theory of everything, which he was still working on at the time of his death.

Related: What is the Theory of Everything?

Einstein's early years

Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany, a town that today has a population of just more than 120,000. There is a small commemorative plaque where his house used to stand (it was destroyed during World War II). The family moved to Munich shortly after his birth, according to the Nobel Prize website , and later to Italy when his father faced problems with running his own business. Einstein's father, Hermann, ran an electrochemical factory and his mother Pauline took care of Albert and his younger sister, Maria.

— What is wormhole theory?

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— Albert Einstein: Before and after relativity

Einstein would write in his memoirs that  two "wonders"  deeply affected his early years, according to Hans-Josef Küpper, an Albert Einstein scholar. Young Einstein encountered his first wonder — a compass — at age 5: He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with unseen forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry, which he worshipped, calling it his "holy geometry book."

Contrary to popular belief, young Albert was a good student, according to an online archive . He  excelled in physics and mathematics , but was a more "moderate" pupil in other subjects, Küpper wrote on his website. However, Einstein rebelled against the authoritarian attitude of some of his teachers and dropped out of school at 16. He later took an entrance exam for the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, and while his performances in physics and math were excellent, his marks in other areas were subpar, and he did not pass the exam. The aspiring physicist took additional courses to close the gap in his knowledge and was admitted to the Swiss Polytechnic in 1896. In 1901 he received his diploma to teach physics and mathematics. 

However, Einstein could not find a teaching position, and began work in a Bern patent office in 1901, according to his Nobel Prize biography . It was while there that, in between analyzing patent applications, he developed his work in special relativity and other areas of physics that later made him famous.

Einstein married Mileva Maric, a longtime love of his from Zurich, in 1903. Their children, Hans Albert and Eduard, were born in 1904 and 1910. (The fate of a child born to them in 1902 before their marriage, Lieserl, is unknown.) Einstein divorced Maric in 1919 and soon after married Elsa Löwenthal. Löwenthal died in 1933.

Einstein's career sent him to multiple countries. He earned his doctorate from the University of Zurich in 1905 and subsequently took on professor positions in Zurich (1909), Prague (1911) and Zurich again (1912). Next, he moved to Berlin to become director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and a professor at the University of Berlin (1914). He also became a German citizen. 

A major validation of Einstein's work came in 1919, when Sir Arthur Eddington, secretary of the Royal Astronomical Society, led an expedition to Africa that measured the position of stars during a total solar eclipse . The group found that the position of stars was shifted due to the bending of light around the sun . (In 2008, a BBC/HBO production dramatized the story in " Einstein and Eddington .") 

Einstein remained in Germany until 1933 when dictator Adolf Hitler rose to power. The physicist then renounced his German citizenship and moved to the United States to become a professor of theoretical physics at Princeton. He became a U.S. citizen in 1940 and retired in 1945.

Einstein remained active in the physics community throughout his later years. In 1939, he famously penned a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt warning that uranium could be used for an atomic bomb. 

Late in Einstein's life, he engaged in a series of private debates with physicist  Niels Bohr  about the validity of quantum theory . Bohr's theories held the day, and Einstein later incorporated quantum theory into his own calculations. 

Einstein's death

Einstein died of an aortic aneurysm on April 18, 1955. A blood vessel burst near his heart, according to the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH) . When asked if he wanted to have surgery, Einstein refused. "I want to go when I want to go," he said. "It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."

Einstein's body — most of it, anyway — was cremated; his ashes were spread in an undisclosed location, according to the AMNH. However, a doctor at Princeton Hospital, Thomas Harvey, had controversially performed an autopsy, and removed Einstein's brain and eyeballs, according to the BBC .

Harvey sliced hundreds of thin sections of brain tissue to place on microscope slides and  snapped 14 photos  of the brain from several angles. He took the brain tissue, slides and images with him when he moved to Wichita, Kansas, where he was a medical supervisor in a biological testing lab.

Over the next 30 years, Harvey sent a few slides to other researchers who requested them, but kept the rest of the brain in two glass jars, sometimes in a cider box under a beer cooler. The story of Einstein's brain was largely forgotten until 1985, when Harvey and his colleagues published their study results in the journal Experimental Neurology .

Harvey failed a competency exam in 1988, and his medical license was revoked, Blitz wrote. Harvey eventually donated the brain to Princeton Hospital, where the brain's journey had begun. Harvey died in 2007. Pieces of Einstein's brain are now at the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, Live Science reported .

Harvey's 1985 study authors reported that Einstein's brain had a higher number of glial cells (those that support and insulate the nervous system) per neurons (nerve cells) than other brains they examined. They concluded that it might indicate the neurons had a higher metabolic need — in other words, Einstein's brain cells needed and used more energy, which could have been why he had such advanced thinking abilities and conceptual skills.

However, other researchers have pointed out a few problems with that study, according to Eric H. Chudler , a neuroscientist at the University of Washington. First, for example, the other brains used in the study were all younger than Einstein's brain. Second, the "experimental group" had only one subject — Einstein. Additional studies are needed to see if these anatomical differences are found in other people. And third, only a small part of Einstein's brain was studied.

Another study, published in 1996 in the journal Neuroscience Letters , found that Einstein's brain weighed only 1,230 grams, which is less than the average adult male brain (about 1,400 g). Also, the scientist's cerebral cortex was thinner than that of five control brains, but the density of neurons was higher.

A study published in 2012 in the journal Brain revealed that Einstein's brain had extra folding in the gray matter , the site of conscious thinking. In particular, the frontal lobes, regions tied to abstract thought and planning, had unusually elaborate folding.

Einstein's legacy in physics is significant. Here are some of the key scientific principles that he pioneered:

Theory of special relativity : Einstein showed that physical laws are identical for all observers, as long as they are not under acceleration. However, the speed of light in a vacuum is always the same, no matter at what speed the observer is traveling. This work led to his realization that space and time are linked to what we now call space-time . So, an event seen by one observer may also be seen at a different time by another observer. 

Theory of general relativity : This was a reformulation of the law of gravity. In the 1600s, Newton formulated three laws of motion, among them, outlining how gravity works between two bodies. The force between them depends on how massive each object is, and how far apart the objects are. Einstein determined that when thinking about space-time, a massive object causes a distortion in space-time (like putting a heavy ball on a trampoline). Gravity is exerted when other objects fall into the "well" created by the distortion in space-time, like a marble rolling towards a large ball. General relativity passed a major test in 2019 in an experiment involving a supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way .

Photoelectric effect : Einstein's work in 1905 proposed that light should be thought of as a stream of particles (photons) instead of just a single wave, as was commonly thought at the time. His work helped decipher curious results scientists were previously unable to explain. 

Unified field theory : Einstein spent much of his later years trying to merge the fields of electromagnetism and gravity. He was unsuccessful but may have been ahead of his time. Other physicists are still working on this problem.

Einstein's astronomical legacy

There are many applications of Einstein's work, but here are some of the most notable ones in astronomy :

Gravitational waves : In 2016, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) detected space-time ripples — otherwise known as gravitational waves— that occurred after black holes collided about 1.4 billion light-years from Earth . LIGO also made an initial detection of gravitational waves in 2015, a century after Einstein predicted these ripples existed. The waves are a facet of Einstein's theory of general relativity.

Mercury's orbit : Mercury is a small planet orbiting close to a very massive object relative to its size — the sun. Its orbit could not be understood until general relativity showed that the curvature of space-time is affecting Mercury's motions and changing its orbit. There is a small chance that over billions of years, Mercury could be ejected from our solar system due to these changes (with an even smaller chance that it could collide with Earth).

Gravitational lensing : This is a phenomenon by which a massive object (like a galaxy cluster or a black hole) bends light around it. Astronomers looking at that region through a telescope can then see objects directly behind the massive object, due to the light being bent. A famous example of this is Einstein's Cross, a quasar in the constellation Pegasus : A galaxy roughly 400 million light-years away bends the light of the quasar so that it appears four times around the galaxy.

Black holes : In April 2019, the Event Horizon telescope showed the first-ever images of a black hole . The photos again confirmed several facets of general relativity, including not only that black holes exist, but also that they have a circular event horizon — a point at which nothing can escape, not even light.

To find the answers to frequently asked questions about Albert Einstein , visit The Nobel Prize website. Additionally, you can learn about The Einstein Memorial at the National Academy of Sciences building in Washington, D.C.  

Bibliography

"Einstein: The Life and Times". American Journal of Physics (1973). https://aapt.scitation.org/doi/abs/10.1119/1

"On the brain of a scientist: Albert Einstein". Experimental Neurology (1985). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3979509/

"The fascinating life and theory of Albert Einstein". Mih, W. C. Nova Publishers (2000).   https://books.google.co.uk/books

"Alterations in cortical thickness and neuronal density in the frontal cortex of Albert Einstein". Neuroscience Letters (1996). https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8805120/

"The cerebral cortex of Albert Einstein: a description and preliminary analysis of unpublished photographs". Brain, Volume 136, Issue 4 (2012). https://academic.oup.com/brain/article/136/4/1304/356614?login=true

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The Life and Work of Albert Einstein

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Born on March 14, 1879, Albert Einstein is one of the world's most famous scientists. He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to the field of theoretical physics. 

Albert Einstein's Early Work

In 1901, Albert Einstein received his diploma as a teacher of physics and mathematics. Unable to find a teaching position, he went to work for the Swiss Patent Office. He obtained his doctoral degree in 1905, the same year he published four significant papers, introducing the concepts of special relativity and the photon theory of light .

Albert Einstein and the Scientific Revolution

Albert Einstein's work in 1905 shook the world of physics. In his explanation of the photoelectric effect he introduced the photon theory of light . In his paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," he introduced the concepts of special relativity .

Einstein spent the rest of his life and career dealing with the consequences of these concepts, both by developing general relativity and by questioning the field of quantum physics on the principle that it was "spooky action at a distance."

In addition, another of his 1905 papers focused on an explanation of Brownian motion, observed when particles seem to randomly move when suspended in a liquid or gas. His use of statistical methods implicitly assumed that the liquid or gas was composed of smaller particles, and thus provided evidence in support of the modern form of atomism. Prior to this, though the concept was sometimes useful, most scientists viewed these atoms as merely hypothetical mathematical constructs rather than actual physical objects.

Albert Einstein Moves to America

In 1933, Albert Einstein renounced his German citizenship and moved to America, where he took a post at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, as a Professor of Theoretical Physics. He gained American citizenship in 1940.

He was offered the first presidency of Israel, but he declined it, though he did help found the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Misconceptions About Albert Einstein

The rumor began circulating even while Albert Einstein was alive that he had failed mathematics courses as a child. While it is true that Einstein began to talk late - at about age 4 according to his own accounts - he never failed in mathematics, nor did he do poorly in school in general. He did fairly well in his mathematics courses throughout his education and briefly considered becoming a mathematician. He recognized early on that his gift was not in pure mathematics, a fact he lamented throughout his career as he sought out more accomplished mathematicians to assist in the formal descriptions of his theories.

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5 Fascinating Facts About Albert Einstein

Let's take a closer look at the life of this incredible genius:

Einstein was a late talker

His parents worried that there was something wrong with him early on and even had him examined by doctors. He didn't really start using words until after he was two years old, but even after he started speaking, he often took unnatural pauses. No one knew in these very early years that they had a genius on their hands. In fact, many biographies on Einstein include the family maid's opinion of young Einstein. She thought he was "a dope." While he was slow with language, Einstein showed early sparks of interest in science. A gift of a compass from his father when he was five years old led to a lifetime fascination with magnetic fields.

READ MORE: What Was Albert Einstein's IQ?

Einstein wasn't a big fan of school

Despite some claims, he actually did well in his classes, especially math and science. Einstein, however, didn't like the way he was taught. He later remarked that "It is almost a miracle that modern teaching methods have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiosity of inquiry; for what this delicate little plant needs more than anything, besides stimulation, is freedom," according to an article on the American Institute of Physics website .

Some of his most important learning was done outside of class. His uncle, Jakob Einstein, introduced him to algebra. A young Jewish medical student, Max Talmud, also served as an advisor of sorts. Talmud visited the Einstein home for dinner weekly for a time and brought books for young Einstein to read. These influential texts included People's Books on Natural Science and philosophical works by Immanuel Kant and David Hume.

Einstein had a lifelong passion for music

At the age of 6, he took up the violin at his mother's request. Einstein was quickly won over by classical music, especially the works of Wolfgang Mozart . According to Jürgen Neffe's Einstein: A Biography , Einstein once said that "Mozart's music is so pure and beautiful that I see it as a reflection of the inner beauty of the universe."

Over the years, Einstein became quite a skilled musician. A 17-year-old Einstein earned praise from his rendition of a Beethoven sonata he played for an exam at school. The evaluator stated that he "shone in a deeply felt performance," according to Physics World magazine. For the rest of his life, music would be a source of joy for the famous scientist.

Einstein had a daughter, but no one really knows what happened to her

He became involved with fellow student Mileva Marić and she gave birth to a daughter in 1902. The child was named Lieserl. Einstein and Mileva were unwed and living apart at the time of the child's birth. When they were reunited later, Mileva did not have the baby with her. There has been much speculation about Lieserl's fate over the years, from her being raised by relatives or put up for adoption or dying young from illness. But no one knows for certain what became of Lieserl. Einstein and Mileva later married and had two sons, Hans Albert and Eduard, before divorcing in 1919.

Not only was he a great scientist, but Einstein was also passionate about social issues

He had been a pacifist during World War I , but he became concerned at the rising anti-Semitism in Germany following the war. He began to speak out in favor of creating a homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine. Einstein visited the United States in the early 1920s to raise funds for what is now known as Hebrew University. In 1952, he was even invited to become the president of Israel, but he turned the job down.

Einstein also supported the civil rights movement in America. In the 1940s, he penned the essay "The Negro Question," which appeared in Pageant magazine. Einstein wrote that the racial divide in his new homeland (he became a U.S. citizen in 1940) deeply troubled him. "I can escape the feeling of complicity in it only by speaking out." A member of the NAACP, Einstein considered racism to be the "worst disease" in the country.

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Albert Einstein

• Occupation: Scientist and Inventor
• Born: March 14,1879 Ulm, in Germany
• Died: 18 April 1955 in Princeton, New Jersey
• Best known for: Theory of Relativity and E=mc2

• Albert experienced speech problems as a child. His parents were worried that he wasn't very smart!
• He failed his first try on his entrance exam for college (this gives us all hope!).
• He was offered the presidency of Israel .
• He auctioned off a hand written version of his Theory of Relativity in 1940 for 6 million dollars in order to help with the war effort.
• Albert had a sister named Maja.
• Listen to a recorded reading of this page:

Albert Einstein

Who is Albert Einstein?

Albert Einstein, born on March 14, 1879, in Germany, revolutionized physics with his theory of relativity and the equation 2 E = mc ². His seminal works include explaining the photoelectric effect, for which he won the Nobel Prize in 1921, and developing the theory of general relativity that describes gravity as the curvature of spacetime. Einstein’s legacy extends beyond science, impacting modern thought and ethics until his death on April 18, 1955, in Princeton, New Jersey.

Albert Einstein Childhood and Education

Early Years and Family Background Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire. His parents, Hermann Einstein and Pauline Koch, were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews. His father was an engineer and a salesman who later co-founded a company that manufactured electrical equipment. Einstein’s early exposure to science was minimal, but his family’s engineering background would later influence his interest in scientific and mathematical problems.

Schooling Challenges and Early Signs of Genius Einstein began his education at a Catholic elementary school in Munich. Despite popular myths, he was a top student from the start, excelling in subjects that interested him, particularly mathematics and physics, where he demonstrated advanced comprehension from a young age. However, his distaste for rote learning and authoritarian educational methods was pronounced. He attended the Luitpold Gymnasium (now the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he felt stifled by the school’s strict regimen, leading to conflicts with teachers and affecting his overall learning experience.

Move to Italy and Educational Reorientation In 1894, Einstein’s family moved to Milan, Italy, after their family business failed. Albert, left behind at first to continue his studies in Munich, soon felt so unhappy that he left the gymnasium and joined his family in Milan. This decision was pivotal, as it marked his first major step away from traditional education paths. Upon his arrival in Italy, he spent a year with his family, during which he began his self-education journey, reading widely in science and philosophy.

Swiss Education and Mileva Maric Einstein’s academic path took a significant turn when he applied to the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich in 1896. Although he excelled in the physics and mathematics sections, he failed other parts of the entrance exam and had to attend the Cantonal High School in Aarau, Switzerland, to complete his secondary education. This school’s progressive educational methods suited Einstein’s learning style, allowing him to flourish. After graduating, he re-entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in 1896, where he met Mileva Maric, a fellow physics student who would later become his first wife. His years at the Polytechnic were marked by a deepening of his interest in physics, and he developed a foundational understanding of the theories that would later inform his groundbreaking work.

Graduation and Early Career Einstein graduated in 1900 with a degree in physics. His academic career had been unconventional, marked by conflicts with educators but also by a profound and growing passion for physics and mathematics. His self-directed study habits and intellectual curiosity laid the groundwork for his future discoveries, which would revolutionize our understanding of the universe.

Albert Einstein First Innovation

Albert Einstein’s first significant innovation, which would later earn him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921, was his theoretical explanation of the photoelectric effect. This discovery was crucial as it provided one of the foundational pillars for quantum mechanics.

Background and the Phenomenon The photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon where light shined on a material’s surface can eject electrons from that material. By the late 19th century, it was observed experimentally, but it couldn’t be explained by classical physics, which treated light purely as a wave.

Einstein’s Contribution In 1905, a year famously referred to as Einstein’s “Annus Mirabilis” or miracle year, he published a paper titled “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light.” In this work, Einstein proposed that light could be considered as consisting of discrete quantized packets of energy, which he called “light quanta” (later known as photons). This was a revolutionary idea because it challenged the classical wave theory of light.

Theory and Implications Einstein suggested that the energy of these photons was directly proportional to the frequency of the light. This theory effectively explained why light below a certain threshold frequency, regardless of its intensity, fails to eject electrons. When the frequency of light is above this threshold, the photons have enough energy to overcome the binding energy of the electrons and release them from the material. This was a groundbreaking concept and a departure from the classical view, linking light’s energy not just to its intensity but to its frequency.

Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect was one of the earliest applications of quantum theory and led to significant developments in the field of quantum mechanics. It supported the idea that light behaves both as a particle and as a wave, embodying the principle of wave-particle duality which is central to quantum physics.

Legacy While not immediately accepted, Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect won increasing support as the field of quantum mechanics evolved. The concept of photons as quantized light packets became fundamental to later developments in physics and technology, influencing everything from the development of photoelectric cells to various applications in imaging and electronics.

This first innovation by Einstein not only solved a longstanding puzzle but also introduced a new way of thinking about light, paving the way for modern physics and technology. It showcased his ability to see beyond the accepted theories of the time and propose radical, yet profoundly correct, interpretations of physical phenomena.

Albert Einstein Innovations

Albert Einstein, one of the most prolific intellects in human history, made several groundbreaking contributions to the field of physics. His theories have shaped our understanding of the universe, influencing both the development of various technologies and the course of physics as a science. Here are some of his most significant innovations:

1. Special Theory of Relativity

In 1905, Einstein published his special theory of relativity, which introduced a new framework for all of physics by proposing that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers. He also postulated that the speed of light in a vacuum is the same no matter the speed at which an observer travels. This theory resulted in the famous equation 2 E = mc ², which shows that energy (E) and mass (m) are interchangeable; this has profound implications across various fields of physics.

2. General Theory of Relativity

In 1915, Einstein expanded on his ideas from the special theory of relativity with the general theory of relativity, which deals with gravitation as a property of the curvature of spacetime. This replaced the Newtonian law of universal gravitation by describing gravitational forces not as a mutual attraction between masses but as a bend in the space and time around massive objects. The theory has been confirmed by numerous experiments and observations, such as the bending of light by gravity and the precise orbit of planets.

3. Photoelectric Effect

Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect in 1905 proposed that light is made up of photons, and thus light can behave both as a wave and as a particle. This insight was critical to the quantum theory and led to the development of quantum mechanics. His work on the photoelectric effect won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

4. Brownian Motion

Also in his miracle year of 1905, Einstein explained the phenomenon of Brownian motion. By analyzing the irregular movement of particles suspended in a fluid, he provided empirical evidence supporting the atomic theory, which posited that all matter is made up of atoms. This was an important step for theoretical physics and chemistry, confirming the existence of atoms and molecules.

5. Bose-Einstein Condensate

In collaboration with Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, Einstein predicted a new state of matter, Bose-Einstein Condensate, in the early 1920s. This state occurs when particles known as bosons are cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero, resulting in them occupying the lowest quantum state possible, leading to unique quantum phenomena like superfluidity.

6. Einstein Coefficients

In the field of quantum mechanics, Einstein contributed to the understanding of the interaction between matter and radiation through his introduction of the Einstein coefficients (A and B coefficients) in 1916. These coefficients describe the probability of atoms emitting or absorbing photons and have applications in lasers and quantum optics.

7. Einstein’s Equations of Field

Einstein’s Field Equations, derived as part of his general theory of relativity in 1915, describe how matter and energy interact with the fabric of spacetime. These complex tensor equations provide the foundation for the study of cosmology and the understanding of phenomena such as black holes, gravitational waves, and the expansion of the universe. They are crucial for GPS technology, which relies on adjustments for time dilation effects as predicted by relativity.

8. Theory of Critical Opalescence

In 1910, Einstein developed a theory to explain the phenomenon of critical opalescence, observed when fluids approach critical temperatures where they undergo phase transitions, causing large fluctuations in density. This theory helped further the understanding of phase transitions in physics, an area of critical importance in materials science and engineering.

9. Capillary Action

In 1901, before his miracle year, Einstein’s first paper was on the capillary forces of a straw. This study involved the examination of the forces that cause liquids to rise or fall in a narrow tube, which is fundamental to understanding fluid dynamics in small dimensions.

10. Einstein Refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein also ventured into invention. Together with his former student Leo Szilard, he patented the Einstein-Szilard or Einstein refrigerator, an environmentally friendly, energy-efficient absorption refrigerator with no moving parts and which does not require electricity to operate. Though it never became commercially successful, the design showcased Einstein’s commitment to applying scientific principles in practical contexts.

11. Unified Field Theory

Later in his life, Einstein pursued a unified field theory, which aimed to describe all fundamental forces and the interactions between elementary particles in a single framework. Although he did not succeed in formulating a complete theory, his efforts stimulated ongoing research in unifying all the known forces—gravitational, electromagnetic, strong nuclear, and weak nuclear—into a single theoretical framework.

12. Stimulated Emission

In 1917, Einstein introduced the concept of stimulated emission, the process by which an incoming photon of a specific frequency can stimulate an excited atomic electron to drop to a lower energy level, causing the emission of an additional photon. This principle became the theoretical basis for the laser and other applications involving electromagnetic wave amplification.

Avogadro’s Number

Avogadro’s Number, denoted as NA ​, is a fundamental constant in chemistry and physics, quantifying the number of particles, typically atoms or molecules, in one mole of a substance. This number, approximately 6.022×10²³ particles per mole, bridges the microscopic world of atoms with the macroscopic world of materials that can be physically manipulated and observed. Named after the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, who hypothesized that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles, this concept is pivotal for the mole, a standard SI unit used extensively in chemical calculations.

The practical applications of Avogadro’s Number are vast, ranging from basic chemical stoichiometry in which it allows for the conversion between mass and number of particles, to advanced fields like nanotechnology where precise control over the number of atoms is crucial. It also plays a critical role in defining the kilogram, linking it to a fixed number of carbon-12 atoms, thereby providing a connection between macroscopic physical properties and atomic-scale measurements. Whether it’s in balancing chemical equations, manufacturing drugs, or synthesizing new materials, Avogadro’s Number is indispensable for ensuring accuracy and consistency in scientific research and industrial applications.

Quantum Theory of Light

The quantum theory of light posits that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons, challenging the classical wave-only theory of light. Pioneered by Max Planck and further developed by Albert Einstein, especially through his explanation of the photoelectric effect, this theory introduced the concept that light can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like behavior, depending on the experimental setup. This dual nature is a cornerstone of quantum mechanics and has profound implications for understanding light’s interaction with matter. The quantum theory of light not only explains phenomena like blackbody radiation and the stability of atomic orbits but also underpins modern technologies such as lasers and quantum computing, illustrating the fundamental nature of light at the smallest scales.

Wave-Particle Duality

Wave-particle duality is a fundamental concept in quantum mechanics that posits every particle or quantic entity may exhibit properties of both particles and waves. This duality was first conceptualized by Louis de Broglie in 1924, suggesting that particles such as electrons could exhibit wave-like behavior while light waves could demonstrate particle characteristics, as evidenced in phenomena like the photoelectric effect. This dual nature is profoundly demonstrated in experiments like the double-slit experiment, where particles like electrons show interference patterns typical of waves when not observed, but act like particles when observed. Wave-particle duality challenges classical intuitions about the nature of physical reality and remains a core element of quantum theory, influencing how scientists understand and interact with the fundamental constituents of the universe.

Albert Einstein’s Miracle Year: 1905

Albert Einstein’s “Annus Mirabilis,” or Miracle Year, refers to 1905, a period in which he published four groundbreaking papers while working as a technical assistant at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Each of these papers introduced concepts that would fundamentally reshape the fields of physics and our understanding of the universe. This remarkable year was pivotal not only for Einstein’s career but also for the whole of modern physics.

1. Photoelectric Effect

Einstein’s first paper, titled “On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light,” proposed that light could be described as discrete quantized packets of energy, which he called “light quanta” (later termed photons). This hypothesis explained the photoelectric effect, where light ejects electrons from metal surfaces. The implications of this paper laid the groundwork for quantum mechanics and led to Einstein receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.

2. Brownian Motion

The second paper, “On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat,” addressed the phenomenon of Brownian motion. Einstein showed that the random movement of particles suspended in a fluid could be accounted for by the molecular theory of heat, thus providing empirical evidence for the existence of atoms. This paper played a crucial role in the acceptance of atomic theory in chemistry and physics.

3. Special Theory of Relativity

Perhaps the most revolutionary of all was his paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies, which introduced the special theory of relativity. This theory fundamentally changed our understanding of time and space, stating that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial systems and that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant, regardless of the observer’s speed. This led to the famous equation 2 E = mc ², showing the equivalence of mass and energy.

4. Mass-Energy Equivalence

The fourth paper, “Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?”, was a short follow-up to his special relativity paper. In it, Einstein proposed the mass-energy equivalence formula 2 E = mc ², which suggests that mass can be converted into energy and vice versa. This concept has had profound implications for physics and led to the development of nuclear energy and technologies such as atomic bombs and nuclear reactors.

Legacy of the Miracle Year

The publications from Einstein’s Miracle Year are considered monumental because they introduced concepts that challenged and, in many cases, overturned long-standing theories about the physical world. The papers on the photoelectric effect and special relativity were especially transformative, providing the stepping stones for quantum mechanics and modern physics.

Einstein’s achievements during this year were made more remarkable by his lack of access to a major academic environment and his limited interaction with other physicists. His work was primarily theoretical, deriving from his profound insights and calculations rather than experimental data, which were provided later by other scientists.

Albert Einstein Awards and Honors

• Nobel Prize in Physics (1921) : Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, which was a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. This accolade underscored his significant contribution to theoretical physics.
• Max Planck Medal (1929) : Awarded by the German Physical Society, the Max Planck Medal recognized Einstein’s outstanding achievements in theoretical physics, particularly his contributions to the development of the theories of relativity.
• Copley Medal (1925) : This is one of the most prestigious awards granted by the Royal Society of London, given to Einstein for his contributions to theoretical physics and his development of the theory of relativity.
• Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (1926) : Einstein received this medal for his explanation of the perihelion precession of Mercury’s orbit, which was one of the earliest and most convincing proofs of his theory of general relativity.
• Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1921) : Einstein was elected a Foreign Member of this Academy, recognizing his international influence and contributions to science.
• Time Person of the Century (1999) : Although awarded posthumously, Einstein was named “Person of the Century” by Time magazine, highlighting his status not only as a preeminent scientist but also as one of the most influential figures in history.

In addition to these accolades, Einstein held numerous honorary doctorate degrees from universities around the world and was affiliated with several prestigious academies across the globe. These honors reflect the profound impact of his scientific discoveries, which have fundamentally shaped modern understanding of the universe.

Albert Einstein Death

Albert Einstein passed away on April 18, 1955, in Princeton, New Jersey, USA. He died at the age of 76 from an abdominal aortic aneurysm, a condition where the large blood vessel that supplies blood to the abdomen, pelvis, and legs becomes unusually large or balloons outward. Despite experiencing severe pain associated with the enlargement of his aorta, Einstein refused surgery, stating that he wanted to live his life naturally. He mentioned, “I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.” His decision reflected his personal views on life and death, choosing to accept his fate with dignity.

Upon his death, Einstein’s remains were cremated, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location, following his wishes. Notably, during the autopsy, the pathologist Thomas Stoltz Harvey removed Einstein’s brain without permission from his family, intending to preserve it for future research that might explain the roots of his genius. This led to significant controversy and ethical debates within the scientific community and beyond. Despite the unauthorized study of his brain, Einstein’s legacy continues to live on through his monumental contributions to science and his philosophical insights into humanity’s role in the universe.

What is Albert Einstein Famous for?

Albert Einstein is famous for developing the theory of relativity, the equation 2 E = mc ², and fundamentally changing our understanding of physics and the universe.

What did Albert Einstein study?

Albert Einstein studied mathematics and physics at the Swiss Federal Polytechnic School in Zurich, focusing on theoretical physics.

Why Albert Einstein is the greatest scientist?

Albert Einstein is considered the greatest scientist for revolutionizing physics with his theories of relativity, influencing both technology and our concept of the universe.

Name five major contributions of Albert Einstein?

• Theory of Special Relativity
• Theory of General Relativity
• Photoelectric Effect
• Mass-Energy Equivalence (2 E = mc ²)
• Explanation of Brownian Motion

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The Story of Albert Einstein: An Inspiring Biography for Young Readers (The Story of: Inspiring Biographies for Young Readers) Paperback – June 30, 2020

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• Independent reading —This Albert Einstein biography is broken down into short chapters and simple language so kids 6 to 9 can read and learn on their own.
• Critical thinking —Kids will learn the Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How of Albert's life, find definitions of new words, discussion questions, and more.
• A lasting legacy —See Albert progress from curious kid to famous scientist with a visual timeline!
• Reading age 6 - 8 years
• Part of series The Story Of: A Biography Series for New Readers
• Print length 70 pages
• Language English
• Grade level 1 - 2
• Lexile measure 860L
• Dimensions 5.83 x 0.2 x 8.27 inches
• Publisher Rockridge Press
• Publication date June 30, 2020
• ISBN-10 1646119711
• ISBN-13 978-1646119714
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Rockridge Press (June 30, 2020)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 70 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 1646119711
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-1646119714
• Reading age ‏ : ‎ 6 - 8 years
• Lexile measure ‏ : ‎ 860L
• Grade level ‏ : ‎ 1 - 2
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 4.5 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5.83 x 0.2 x 8.27 inches
• #27 in Children's Science Biographies (Books)
• #76 in Children's Intermediate Readers

About the author

Susan b. katz.

Susan B. Katz is an award-winning of over 60 children's books. She is a Spanish bilingual author, National Board Certified Teacher, educational consultant, and social media strategist. As a former bilingual educator of over 25 years, Susan incorporates props, puppets and multimedia into her presentations making them interactive and engaging. Susan has published books with Scholastic, Simon & Schuster, Penguin Random House, Capstone, Lerner, Bala Kids, and Little Bee. MEDITATION STATION won the International Book Award for Best Children's Mind/Body/Spirit title. THE STORY OF RUTH BADER GINSBURG hit #18 on Amazon overall and #9 among all kids books. ALL YEAR ROUND was named "Best New Book" by The Children's Book Review. She translated it into Spanish as Un Año Redondo. MY MAMA EARTH (Barefoot Books), won the Moonbeam Gold Award for Best Picture Book as well as being named "Top Green Toy" by Education.com. Her most recent book, GAUDI: ARCHITECT OF IMAGINATION got a Starred Review from School Library Journal. Susan is also the Founder and Executive Director of www.ConnectingAuthors.org, a national non-profit bringing children's book authors and illustrators into schools and libraries as role models of literacy and the arts. Ms. Katz served as the Strategic Partner Manager for Authors at Facebook. When she's not writing, Susan enjoys salsa dancing and spending time at the beach. She is also an avid wildlife photographer: www.behance.net/susanbkatz Her website is: www.susankatzbooks.com

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Two Books on Einstein and the World He Made

A lbert Einstein is one of the most written-about figures of the 20th century, and for good reason. His theories upended the system that physicists had used to describe the world since Newton. Along the way, he became a figure of public fascination—a true celebrity. Now two books further scrutinize different aspects of the man.

Samuel Graydon’s “Einstein in Time and Space” is not an exhaustive biography. Instead it presents 99 vignettes, most of them one to three pages long, that highlight key qualities of this complex person: the curious child, the rebellious student, the serial adulterer, the wily prankster, the loyal friend, the civil-rights defender, the intellect unsurpassed in his time. Mr. Graydon, the science editor at the Times Literary Supplement, has chosen his number of chapters in a playful homage to the atomic number of the element einsteinium.

Even if readers are familiar with these stories, Mr. Graydon’s approach often delivers a fresh take on episodes not strongly emphasized in other biographies. Here is Einstein the engineer patenting a unique refrigerator design and a hearing aid. There he is building a miniature cable car out of matchboxes for his young son Hans. “That was one of the nicest toys I had,” Hans later recalled.

As a correspondent, Einstein could be quite impish: “So, what are you up to, you frozen whale, you smoked, dried, canned piece of soul, or whatever else I would like to hurl at your head?” he once wrote to a friend. While starting his career in Bern, Switzerland, the young physicist formed a little club called the Olympia Academy with two friends to discuss science and philosophy. “Einstein, despite being the youngest,” writes Mr. Graydon, “was elected president, earning him the title ‘Albert Ritter von Steissbein’ (roughly, ‘Sir Albert, Knight of Backside’). A certificate was made up, featuring a drawing of a bust of Einstein beneath a string of sausages.”

Mr. Graydon’s stated goal is to point out “the inconsistencies inherent in a life, the inexplicable, incompatible, insane motivations that punctuate days and years.” The author notes how Einstein, a devoted pacifist, maintained a close friendship with the German chemist Fritz Haber, who pioneered the use of both chlorine and mustard gas during World War I. He observes that the deep thinker didn’t pass up the chance to party with the movie stars Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks when out in California.

The book also includes moments of quiet dignity, such as the story of the black contralto Marian Anderson, who had been invited in 1937 to give a concert at Princeton University but was denied a room at the local hotel due to her race. Einstein simply prepared a room for her at his home, an invitation that was extended from that day forward whenever she visited the town.

Mr. Graydon has woven from these separate strands a compelling and beautifully written narrative, though I have one caveat. In his acknowledgments, the author admits that he “lightly fictionalized” a few chapters about representative days at Einstein’s office. Given the wealth of material on hand, a summary of Einstein’s life hardly needs any false embellishments.

While “Einstein in Time and Space” primarily concentrates on Einstein’s personal experiences, Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn’s “The Einsteinian Revolution” delves deeply into his science. Mr. Gutfreund, the academic director of the Albert Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and Mr. Renn, the director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin, have written extensively on Einstein and with this book take on a particular challenge: “to dispel the popular myth that Albert Einstein, the unconventional scientific genius, instigated an overwhelming scientific revolution through pure thought alone.” They succeed in that goal, along the way providing an excellent overview of Einstein’s major discoveries, from his early work on quantum theory to general relativity, the new law of gravity that overturned Newton. It is a welcome addition to any collection of books on modern physics.

A true understanding of Einstein’s accomplishments, they write, demands a revision of the legendary concept of the “paradigm shift.” The notion was introduced in 1962 by the historian of science Thomas Kuhn, who argued that a scientific revolution suddenly replaces a previous system of knowledge with a new one unconnected to the past. But Messrs. Gutfreund and Renn prefer to view Einstein’s work as an evolutionary process, where the new system is built upon the scientific scaffolding already in place.

In the late 19th century, that scaffolding was constructed around three dominant areas of physics: mechanics, thermodynamics and electromagnetism. Troubling puzzles were beginning to arise at the intersections between these fields, and many scientists attempted to find solutions within their own isolated specialties. But Einstein—with his deep reading of the scientific literature and the philosophy of science, his constant dialogues with scientific friends, and his careful attention to new experimental discoveries—stood above those boundaries, enabling him to perceive an entirely new vista.

The authors provide a detailed examination of Einstein’s annus mirabilis in 1905, when he recognized that light can act like a particle as well as a wave; proved that atoms exist; linked matter with energy in that celebrated equation E=mc2; and, with the special theory of relativity, swept away the idea that we live in a fixed space governed by a universal clock.

Before these discoveries, the authors note, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz had developed a mathematical scheme to explain the behavior of charged particles moving through the ether—the medium that supposedly permeates physical space to allow light to travel. Lorentz’s equations foresaw many of the phenomena later explained by special relativity. But his physical interpretation, complicated and full of assumptions, was still rooted in classical physics. Einstein jettisoned this kludge by doing away with the ether, recognizing that space and time are not absolute and declaring that the speed of light is a constant whether a body is stationary or in motion.

Einstein didn’t arrive at this solution in a single eureka moment. It was the result of deep reflection over the years, influenced by such philosophers as David Hume, who questioned the causal relations between events; Ernst Mach, who objected to Newton’s idea of absolute space; and Henri Poincaré, who early on noted the possible relativity of time. Einstein stood upon the shoulders of giants to gain his new perspective.

While “The Einsteinian Revolution” is written for a general audience, a background in physics helps make certain sections more accessible. Yet the authors’ overall thesis is clear and convincing. “The substance of Einstein’s work was not new,” they stress, “but rather was the result of an accumulation of knowledge over centuries; it was his conceptual organization that was new.” Their book, along with Mr. Graydon’s “Einstein in Time and Space,” enhances our understanding of both a great scientist and an exemplary humanist.

Ms. Bartusiak is a professor emeritus at MIT and the author of “Einstein’s Unfinished Symphony.”