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September 8, 2021

Explaining How Research Works

We’ve heard “follow the science” a lot during the pandemic. But it seems science has taken us on a long and winding road filled with twists and turns, even changing directions at times. That’s led some people to feel they can’t trust science. But when what we know changes, it often means science is working.

Explaining the scientific process may be one way that science communicators can help maintain public trust in science. Placing research in the bigger context of its field and where it fits into the scientific process can help people better understand and interpret new findings as they emerge. A single study usually uncovers only a piece of a larger puzzle.

Questions about how the world works are often investigated on many different levels. For example, scientists can look at the different atoms in a molecule, cells in a tissue, or how different tissues or systems affect each other. Researchers often must choose one or a finite number of ways to investigate a question. It can take many different studies using different approaches to start piecing the whole picture together.

Sometimes it might seem like research results contradict each other. But often, studies are just looking at different aspects of the same problem. Researchers can also investigate a question using different techniques or timeframes. That may lead them to arrive at different conclusions from the same data.

Using the data available at the time of their study, scientists develop different explanations, or models. New information may mean that a novel model needs to be developed to account for it. The models that prevail are those that can withstand the test of time and incorporate new information. Science is a constantly evolving and self-correcting process.

Scientists gain more confidence about a model through the scientific process. They replicate each other’s work. They present at conferences. And papers undergo peer review, in which experts in the field review the work before it can be published in scientific journals. This helps ensure that the study is up to current scientific standards and maintains a level of integrity. Peer reviewers may find problems with the experiments or think different experiments are needed to justify the conclusions. They might even offer new ways to interpret the data.

It’s important for science communicators to consider which stage a study is at in the scientific process when deciding whether to cover it. Some studies are posted on preprint servers for other scientists to start weighing in on and haven’t yet been fully vetted. Results that haven't yet been subjected to scientific scrutiny should be reported on with care and context to avoid confusion or frustration from readers.

We’ve developed a one-page guide, "How Research Works: Understanding the Process of Science" to help communicators put the process of science into perspective. We hope it can serve as a useful resource to help explain why science changes—and why it’s important to expect that change. Please take a look and share your thoughts with us by sending an email to  [email protected].

Below are some additional resources:

• Discoveries in Basic Science: A Perfectly Imperfect Process
• When Clinical Research Is in the News
• What is Basic Science and Why is it Important?
• ​ What is a Research Organism?
• What Are Clinical Trials and Studies?
• Basic Research – Digital Media Kit
• Decoding Science: How Does Science Know What It Knows? (NAS)
• Can Science Help People Make Decisions ? (NAS)

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What is Research? – Purpose of Research

• By DiscoverPhDs
• September 10, 2020

The purpose of research is to enhance society by advancing knowledge through the development of scientific theories, concepts and ideas. A research purpose is met through forming hypotheses, collecting data, analysing results, forming conclusions, implementing findings into real-life applications and forming new research questions.

What is Research

Simply put, research is the process of discovering new knowledge. This knowledge can be either the development of new concepts or the advancement of existing knowledge and theories, leading to a new understanding that was not previously known.

As a more formal definition of research, the following has been extracted from the Code of Federal Regulations :

While research can be carried out by anyone and in any field, most research is usually done to broaden knowledge in the physical, biological, and social worlds. This can range from learning why certain materials behave the way they do, to asking why certain people are more resilient than others when faced with the same challenges.

The use of ‘systematic investigation’ in the formal definition represents how research is normally conducted – a hypothesis is formed, appropriate research methods are designed, data is collected and analysed, and research results are summarised into one or more ‘research conclusions’. These research conclusions are then shared with the rest of the scientific community to add to the existing knowledge and serve as evidence to form additional questions that can be investigated. It is this cyclical process that enables scientific research to make continuous progress over the years; the true purpose of research.

What is the Purpose of Research

From weather forecasts to the discovery of antibiotics, researchers are constantly trying to find new ways to understand the world and how things work – with the ultimate goal of improving our lives.

The purpose of research is therefore to find out what is known, what is not and what we can develop further. In this way, scientists can develop new theories, ideas and products that shape our society and our everyday lives.

Although research can take many forms, there are three main purposes of research:

• Exploratory: Exploratory research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not yet been clearly defined. Exploration research therefore aims to gain a better understanding of the exact nature of the problem and not to provide a conclusive answer to the problem itself. This enables us to conduct more in-depth research later on.
• Descriptive: Descriptive research expands knowledge of a research problem or phenomenon by describing it according to its characteristics and population. Descriptive research focuses on the ‘how’ and ‘what’, but not on the ‘why’.
• Explanatory: Explanatory research, also referred to as casual research, is conducted to determine how variables interact, i.e. to identify cause-and-effect relationships. Explanatory research deals with the ‘why’ of research questions and is therefore often based on experiments.

Characteristics of Research

There are 8 core characteristics that all research projects should have. These are:

• Empirical  – based on proven scientific methods derived from real-life observations and experiments.
• Logical  – follows sequential procedures based on valid principles.
• Cyclic  – research begins with a question and ends with a question, i.e. research should lead to a new line of questioning.
• Controlled  – vigorous measures put into place to keep all variables constant, except those under investigation.
• Hypothesis-based  – the research design generates data that sufficiently meets the research objectives and can prove or disprove the hypothesis. It makes the research study repeatable and gives credibility to the results.
• Analytical  – data is generated, recorded and analysed using proven techniques to ensure high accuracy and repeatability while minimising potential errors and anomalies.
• Objective  – sound judgement is used by the researcher to ensure that the research findings are valid.
• Statistical treatment  – statistical treatment is used to transform the available data into something more meaningful from which knowledge can be gained.

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Types of Research

Research can be divided into two main types: basic research (also known as pure research) and applied research.

Basic Research

Basic research, also known as pure research, is an original investigation into the reasons behind a process, phenomenon or particular event. It focuses on generating knowledge around existing basic principles.

Basic research is generally considered ‘non-commercial research’ because it does not focus on solving practical problems, and has no immediate benefit or ways it can be applied.

While basic research may not have direct applications, it usually provides new insights that can later be used in applied research.

Applied Research

Applied research investigates well-known theories and principles in order to enhance knowledge around a practical aim. Because of this, applied research focuses on solving real-life problems by deriving knowledge which has an immediate application.

Methods of Research

Research methods for data collection fall into one of two categories: inductive methods or deductive methods.

Inductive research methods focus on the analysis of an observation and are usually associated with qualitative research. Deductive research methods focus on the verification of an observation and are typically associated with quantitative research.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a method that enables non-numerical data collection through open-ended methods such as interviews, case studies and focus groups .

It enables researchers to collect data on personal experiences, feelings or behaviours, as well as the reasons behind them. Because of this, qualitative research is often used in fields such as social science, psychology and philosophy and other areas where it is useful to know the connection between what has occurred and why it has occurred.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a method that collects and analyses numerical data through statistical analysis.

It allows us to quantify variables, uncover relationships, and make generalisations across a larger population. As a result, quantitative research is often used in the natural and physical sciences such as engineering, biology, chemistry, physics, computer science, finance, and medical research, etc.

What does Research Involve?

Research often follows a systematic approach known as a Scientific Method, which is carried out using an hourglass model.

A research project first starts with a problem statement, or rather, the research purpose for engaging in the study. This can take the form of the ‘ scope of the study ’ or ‘ aims and objectives ’ of your research topic.

Subsequently, a literature review is carried out and a hypothesis is formed. The researcher then creates a research methodology and collects the data.

The data is then analysed using various statistical methods and the null hypothesis is either accepted or rejected.

In both cases, the study and its conclusion are officially written up as a report or research paper, and the researcher may also recommend lines of further questioning. The report or research paper is then shared with the wider research community, and the cycle begins all over again.

Although these steps outline the overall research process, keep in mind that research projects are highly dynamic and are therefore considered an iterative process with continued refinements and not a series of fixed stages.

This post explains the difference between the journal paper status of In Review and Under Review.

The unit of analysis refers to the main parameter that you’re investigating in your research project or study.

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Academic conferences are expensive and it can be tough finding the funds to go; this naturally leads to the question of are academic conferences worth it?

Daisy’s a year and half into her PhD at the University of Surrey. Her research project is based around the control of electron spin state in InSb quantum wells using quantum point contacts.

Christian is a PhD student at the University of Leeds. His research project investigatores the role of the molecular clock in sympathetic preganglionic neurons.

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Why Do We Research?

If you are reading this post, you are likely involved in  research. Unsurprisingly, I am too.  Yes, I’ve spent my fair share of long nights on the A floor of Firestone, reviewing sources and tightening up arguments. This week, I’m embarking on a new history research paper about the evolution of Native American spirituality from the 1830s to the 1890s, which I anticipate will take a fair amount of time. Reflecting on the work I have ahead got me thinking, why am I doing this in the first place? In fact, why do any of us research?

This question can really be broken into two parts: “What do we hope to achieve from our research?” and “What motivates us to conduct our research?” We think about the first question often, because in the academy, we have to justify what we’re doing to our professors, to funding boards, etc.  And in lots of research, one’s answer to the first question informs their answer to the second. Certain biologist friends of mine, for instance, study lab rat carcasses in the hopes of better understanding tumors, with the inspiring goal of curing cancer. In cases such as this, the aim of a project is to arrive at something with a concrete application so marvelous that it motivates the researcher to come to the lab each morning.

Similarly, in the social sciences, the motivating goal of research is societal optimization. Economists strive to understand how we as individuals, firms, and nations can most efficiently allocate our scarce resources to make the most of this precious life. Psychologists and sociologists analyze human motivations and behaviors, so that we can understand how we function and organize our lives accordingly. And, many political scientists and public policy researchers study our laws and systems of government with an eye toward tackling problems and implementing concrete solutions. Again, the noble aims of such research provide the motivation necessary to conduct it.

But what about research in the humanities? This realm of inquiry does not seem to concern itself with the material or technological advancement of humanity–the ‘goal’ is less tangible. This brings us back to the second overall question posed at the beginning of this post: w hat motivates us to conduct humanities research? 

Research can be goal-oriented, as discussed previously, or grounded in the process. Humanities research is often the latter: we hope to gain a personal appreciation for the immense value and power of ideas. The notion of truth- seeking , a common justification for more theoretical research, implies the high value of the truth being sought —after all, we wouldn’t spend long hours in the library “seeking the truth” if we didn’t think it’d be worth it in the end.

Regardless of our end goal (or lack thereof), rewards are built into the research process.  Before we can research, we must learn about our subject area. In the case of my history paper, I received background information on Native American life in the 1800s through lectures from various historians.  Grappling with their ideas, a vital part of my research, has been both a challenge and a reward. Indeed, as I learned while researching for this article, new findings in psychology suggest that learning  makes humans happier . So, next time you’re dreading working on a research paper, try to remember that you’ll learn something, which will make you happier!

Finally, in addition to making us happier or providing us with a personal sense of meaning, research also expresses something about who we are as a scholarly community. Research is a collective enterprise, and thus everything we do as researchers exists in the context of our fellow researchers–who are often attached to universities. As participants in the university system, we are at the forefront a collaborative, decentralized experiment in personal freedom of thought and action dating back to the 13 th century . This is just as true in the humanities as it is in the hard or social sciences, as we have a shared desire to bring the best ideas of humankind to light. And I think that’s pretty cool.

We all have our own private reasons for researching, too. As a student of history interested in public service, I hope to learn from the mistakes of the past by studying the intricacies of their causes and effects. The United States’ policies towards Native Americans in the 1800s were, in general, morally abhorrent–so studying them is actually a useful exercise in learning how not  to conduct public policy. I encourage my fellow Princeton students to devote some time to thinking about the “big picture” of their research, also keeping in mind what we’re participating in as a social movement and why it matters. After all, the grades we receive on our research papers will soon fade from our memories—but these feelings of purpose, meaning, and connection to the academic tradition will be with us forever.

–Shanon FitzGerald, Social Sciences Correspondent

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2.1 Why Is Research Important?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Explain how scientific research addresses questions about behavior
• Discuss how scientific research guides public policy
• Appreciate how scientific research can be important in making personal decisions

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession ( Figure 2.2 ). It is through systematic scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical : It is grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing.

While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy? Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.

Use of Research Information

Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the explosion in our use of technology has led researchers to question whether this ultimately helps or hinders us. The use and implementation of technology in educational settings has become widespread over the last few decades. Researchers are coming to different conclusions regarding the use of technology. To illustrate this point, a study investigating a smartphone app targeting surgery residents (graduate students in surgery training) found that the use of this app can increase student engagement and raise test scores (Shaw & Tan, 2015). Conversely, another study found that the use of technology in undergraduate student populations had negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills (Massimini & Peterson, 2009). Until sufficient amounts of research have been conducted, there will be no clear consensus on the effects that technology has on a student's acquisition of knowledge, study skills, and mental health.

In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism. When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the claim? This is especially important when we consider how much information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw attention to their perspectives.

We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us because decisions based on this information have significant consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding early intervention programs. These programs are designed to help children who come from low-income backgrounds, have special needs, or face other disadvantages. These programs may involve providing a wide variety of services to maximize the children's development and position them for optimal levels of success in school and later in life (Blann, 2005). While such programs sound appealing, you would want to be sure that they also proved effective before investing additional money in these programs. Fortunately, psychologists and other scientists have conducted vast amounts of research on such programs and, in general, the programs are found to be effective (Neil & Christensen, 2009; Peters-Scheffer, Didden, Korzilius, & Sturmey, 2011). While not all programs are equally effective, and the short-term effects of many such programs are more pronounced, there is reason to believe that many of these programs produce long-term benefits for participants (Barnett, 2011). If you are committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, you would want to look at research. Which programs are most effective? What characteristics of these programs make them effective? Which programs promote the best outcomes? After examining the research, you would be best equipped to make decisions about which programs to fund.

Link to Learning

Watch this video about early childhood program effectiveness to learn how scientists evaluate effectiveness and how best to invest money into programs that are most effective.

Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine that your sister, Maria, expresses concern about her two-year-old child, Umberto. Umberto does not speak as much or as clearly as the other children in his daycare or others in the family. Umberto's pediatrician undertakes some screening and recommends an evaluation by a speech pathologist, but does not refer Maria to any other specialists. Maria is concerned that Umberto's speech delays are signs of a developmental disorder, but Umberto's pediatrician does not; she sees indications of differences in Umberto's jaw and facial muscles. Hearing this, you do some internet searches, but you are overwhelmed by the breadth of information and the wide array of sources. You see blog posts, top-ten lists, advertisements from healthcare providers, and recommendations from several advocacy organizations. Why are there so many sites? Which are based in research, and which are not?

In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

NOTABLE RESEARCHERS

Psychological research has a long history involving important figures from diverse backgrounds. While the introductory chapter discussed several researchers who made significant contributions to the discipline, there are many more individuals who deserve attention in considering how psychology has advanced as a science through their work ( Figure 2.3 ). For instance, Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology. Her research focused on animal behavior and cognition (Margaret Floy Washburn, PhD, n.d.). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a preeminent first-generation American psychologist who opposed the behaviorist movement, conducted significant research into memory, and established one of the earliest experimental psychology labs in the United States (Mary Whiton Calkins, n.d.).

Francis Sumner (1895–1954) was the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology in 1920. His dissertation focused on issues related to psychoanalysis. Sumner also had research interests in racial bias and educational justice. Sumner was one of the founders of Howard University’s department of psychology, and because of his accomplishments, he is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Black Psychology.” Thirteen years later, Inez Beverly Prosser (1895–1934) became the first African American woman to receive a PhD in psychology. Prosser’s research highlighted issues related to education in segregated versus integrated schools, and ultimately, her work was very influential in the hallmark Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court ruling that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional (Ethnicity and Health in America Series: Featured Psychologists, n.d.).

Although the establishment of psychology’s scientific roots occurred first in Europe and the United States, it did not take much time until researchers from around the world began to establish their own laboratories and research programs. For example, some of the first experimental psychology laboratories in South America were founded by Horatio Piñero (1869–1919) at two institutions in Buenos Aires, Argentina (Godoy & Brussino, 2010). In India, Gunamudian David Boaz (1908–1965) and Narendra Nath Sen Gupta (1889–1944) established the first independent departments of psychology at the University of Madras and the University of Calcutta, respectively. These developments provided an opportunity for Indian researchers to make important contributions to the field (Gunamudian David Boaz, n.d.; Narendra Nath Sen Gupta, n.d.).

When the American Psychological Association (APA) was first founded in 1892, all of the members were White males (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.). However, by 1905, Mary Whiton Calkins was elected as the first female president of the APA, and by 1946, nearly one-quarter of American psychologists were female. Psychology became a popular degree option for students enrolled in the nation’s historically Black higher education institutions, increasing the number of Black Americans who went on to become psychologists. Given demographic shifts occurring in the United States and increased access to higher educational opportunities among historically underrepresented populations, there is reason to hope that the diversity of the field will increasingly match the larger population, and that the research contributions made by the psychologists of the future will better serve people of all backgrounds (Women and Minorities in Psychology, n.d.).

The Process of Scientific Research

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method . Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In deductive reasoning , ideas are tested in the real world; in inductive reasoning , real-world observations lead to new ideas ( Figure 2.4 ). These processes are inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive aspects.

In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this: All living things require energy to survive (this would be your hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes, however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to survive.

Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and inductive processes.

For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations. Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.

We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of ideas are they, exactly? A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.

A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests Figure 2.5 .

To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable , or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory chapter that Sigmund Freud had lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors ( Figure 2.6 ). However, a major criticism of Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this, Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, & Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

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A question universities need to answer: why do we research?

Philosopher, The University of Melbourne

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John Armstrong does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Fundamentally, there are two big motives for research.

On the on hand there is intellectual ambition: the desire to know and understand the word, to appreciate the best that has been said and thought on the topics that grip our imaginations.

In one of C.P. Snow ’s Cambridge novels there’s an elderly character who looks back on his early days working under the chemist and physicist, Ernest Rutherford . “We used to run to our laboratories” he says. They were running because of the immense excitement of the discoveries that were unfolding.

I used to look with an almost physical longing at books in the philosophy section of the library – desperate to get to grips with the glory of the ideas they contained.

Sometimes we call this “blue sky” or “fundamental” research. But, in a crucial way, what is at stake is the love and devotion brought to certain questions by (at present) a relatively small number of people.

Many more people would like to be involved in such work than we are, as a society, willing to pay for. I’ve lost count of the number of people who have told me that they would like to have a job in which they spent their time studying manuscripts or on archaeological digs or mapping the heavens or speculating on the ultimate nature of good and evil.

While, in fact, they work as public servants, lawyers, estate agents, school teachers, logistics managers, sales representatives and so on.

It may sound a bit crude to put it this way, but we should look at the issue for what it is: there is not enough demand for such research. That is, there are not enough sources of financial input to support these kinds of desired roles.

This raises the first great question that any serious debate about research must address: if you don’t engage ambitiously with markets or public opinion, how will you actually pay for the research you want to undertake?

Understandably we like to suppose that “government” in some form or another will meet the cost. But this in only to put the question one step further back. What kind of politics would we need to have for governments actually to direct resources in this way?

Clearly, relatively affluent countries spend large sums of money on all kinds of things. Why not on the love of knowledge for its own sake?

This is a tantalising question. It’s tempting to answer it in moral terms. One wants to explain why it is lovely and good and in the long-term national interest to support open-ended intellectual ambition.

But the question is not: would that be good and lovely? The question is: what would have to be the case for such a line of argument to be compelling to government?

There are many potential goods in the world that never come to fruition. And it is fair to say that we are, at present, very far from having a political or national culture in which such arguments would look powerful. It’s no help blaming other people. That gets us no closer to a good outcome.

The deep issue is this: fundamental and blue-sky research (research undertaken for the love of knowledge and from motives of sheer intellectual ambition) is possible on a large scale only with the profound consent of a whole society.

And universities – which are the natural homes of intellectual ambition – are not organised to secure this consent. Those who are fired by the love of knowledge do not see securing such support as fundamental to what they do.

And at an individual level, of course, the task belongs to no particular person. Yet, if we are to carry off the huge task of gaining such committed and widespread support we would have to devote ourselves to a vast project of engagement. We would have to have this task written into the DNA of research culture.

And this is the fateful irony. The motive of intellectual ambition very often goes alongside indifference to public opinion, lack of concern with buy-in from the wider world, hostility to winning over hearts and minds in large numbers.

We want the support that requires a great public but we don’t want to do the things that would win the loyalty of a great public. At worst, we want to demonise the philistines and have their taxes pay for our noble enthusiasms.

I mentioned that there were two motives for research. Aside from the pure pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, research is linked to problem solving. What this means is the solving of other people’s problems. That is, what other people experience as problems.

It starts with a tenderness and ambition that is directed at the needs of others – as they recognise and acknowledge those needs. This is, in effect, entry into a market place. Much research, of course, is conducted in precisely this way beyond the walls of the academy.

And this gives rise to the second great question that universities face with respect to research. If universities devote more of their energies to engagement with markets and public opinion, how will they retain a sense of noble mission – which is one of their defining characteristics? What would the institutions need to be like to carry this off?

My concern at this stage is not to provide a precise answer to either of the great questions. Rather, what I want is to get clear about the questions we really do have to address. That is, the questions that should be central to the debate.

Fundamentally, we are trying to explain to ourselves why research is good and how research will be paid for. Our danger is in asking and answering these questions independently.

We could have a fine account of why research is noble, but fail because we could not work out how to bring this to fruition in the world. Or we could have an account of how to make research pay but fail because we missed the whole point: which is that research is a noble human undertaking.

But not nearly enough people seem to be interested in answering both questions at the same time.

I believe that it is possible to integrate the two demands. And, in fact, that it is a central task of education and of culture to achieve such integration.

Our epochal task is to make our best ideals powerful in the world we happen to have. We must not be Jacobites: devotees of a gracious but lost cause. To avoid that fate we have to think about love and money at the same time. We have to answer the two great questions.

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1 Research: Why (Do) Research?

• Published: January 2017
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Chapter 1—Research: Why (Do) Research? This chapter covers various definitions of research taken from current and widely read texts. It establishes the focus on research as a process —i.e. doing research. Research is seen as a social activity inevitably undertaken as a collective process even if the outcome, particularly for PhD students, is regarded as the work of a single researcher. Qualitative methods are contrasted with quantitative ones, taking issue with Kelvin’s oft-quoted dictum “If you cannot measure it, you cannot (control) improve it.” What is offered in its place is the sign from Albert Einstein’s office “Not everything that counts can be counted, and not everything that can be counted counts.”

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Discourse Communities and Academic Conversations

Why do we do research.

Research always begins with the goal of answering a question. In your quest to answer basic research questions, you turn to a variety of different sources for evidence:  reference resources, people, evaluative and opinionated articles, and other sources.  All along the way, you continually evaluate and re-evaluate the credibility of your sources.

Applying Research Skills

How did you decide to come to the University of Mississippi? That decision was probably based on research. For example, you might have started with an internet search of “colleges in the south,” or maybe you visited the campus with friends or family. You probably talked to people and read about other schools. You may have spoken to admissions counselors or representatives from various schools. Whose advice did you trust more? On the one hand, the admissions counselors and representatives from a school have a lot of expertise, but they might also have some bias. On the other hand, your friends and family may have their own set of biases (e.g., maybe they want you to stay close to home). You had to navigate all of these claims and positions in order to decide on UM. You’ll do much the same thing as an academic researcher: you will gather sources, both primary and secondary; analyze and evaluate them in relation to each other; and determine how they contribute to your project.

The reasons academics and scholars conduct research are essentially the same as the reasons someone does research on which university to attend: to find information and answers to questions with a method that has a greater chance of being accurate than a guess or a  “gut feeling.”  College professors in a history department, physicians at a medical school, graduate students studying physics, college juniors in a literature class, students in an introductory research writing class—all of these people are members of the academic community, and they all use research to find answers to their questions that have a greater chance of being “right” than making guesses or betting on feelings.

Students in an introductory research writing course are “academics,” the same as college professors. You might not think of yourself as being a part of the same group as college professors or graduate students, but when you enter a college classroom, you are joining the academic community in the sense that you are expected to use your research to support your ideas and you are agreeing to the conventions of research within your discipline.  Another way of looking at it: first-year college students and college professors more or less follow the same “rules” when it comes to making points supported by research and evidence.

• The Process of Research Writing . Authored by : Steven D. Krause . Located at : http://www.oercommons.org/courses/the-process-of-research-writing/view . Project : OER Commons . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
• Why do we research?. Authored by : Andrew Davis. Provided by : University of Mississippi. Project : WRIT 250 Commtitee OER . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

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10 Reasons Why Research is Important

No matter what career field you’re in or how high up you are, there’s always more to learn . The same applies to your personal life. No matter how many experiences you have or how diverse your social circle, there are things you don’t know. Research unlocks the unknowns, lets you explore the world from different perspectives, and fuels a deeper understanding. In some areas, research is an essential part of success. In others, it may not be absolutely necessary, but it has many benefits. Here are ten reasons why research is important:

#1. Research expands your knowledge base

The most obvious reason to do research is that you’ll learn more. There’s always more to learn about a topic, even if you are already well-versed in it. If you aren’t, research allows you to build on any personal experience you have with the subject. The process of research opens up new opportunities for learning and growth.

#2. Research gives you the latest information

Research encourages you to find the most recent information available . In certain fields, especially scientific ones, there’s always new information and discoveries being made. Staying updated prevents you from falling behind and giving info that’s inaccurate or doesn’t paint the whole picture. With the latest info, you’ll be better equipped to talk about a subject and build on ideas.

#3. Research helps you know what you’re up against

In business, you’ll have competition. Researching your competitors and what they’re up to helps you formulate your plans and strategies. You can figure out what sets you apart. In other types of research, like medicine, your research might identify diseases, classify symptoms, and come up with ways to tackle them. Even if your “enemy” isn’t an actual person or competitor, there’s always some kind of antagonist force or problem that research can help you deal with.

#4. Research builds your credibility

People will take what you have to say more seriously when they can tell you’re informed. Doing research gives you a solid foundation on which you can build your ideas and opinions. You can speak with confidence about what you know is accurate. When you’ve done the research, it’s much harder for someone to poke holes in what you’re saying. Your research should be focused on the best sources. If your “research” consists of opinions from non-experts, you won’t be very credible. When your research is good, though, people are more likely to pay attention.

#5. Research helps you narrow your scope

When you’re circling a topic for the first time, you might not be exactly sure where to start. Most of the time, the amount of work ahead of you is overwhelming. Whether you’re writing a paper or formulating a business plan, it’s important to narrow the scope at some point. Research helps you identify the most unique and/or important themes. You can choose the themes that fit best with the project and its goals.

#6. Research teaches you better discernment

Doing a lot of research helps you sift through low-quality and high-quality information. The more research you do on a topic, the better you’ll get at discerning what’s accurate and what’s not. You’ll also get better at discerning the gray areas where information may be technically correct but used to draw questionable conclusions.

#7. Research introduces you to new ideas

You may already have opinions and ideas about a topic when you start researching. The more you research, the more viewpoints you’ll come across. This encourages you to entertain new ideas and perhaps take a closer look at yours. You might change your mind about something or, at least, figure out how to position your ideas as the best ones.

#8. Research helps with problem-solving

Whether it’s a personal or professional problem, it helps to look outside yourself for help. Depending on what the issue is, your research can focus on what others have done before. You might just need more information, so you can make an informed plan of attack and an informed decision. When you know you’ve collected good information, you’ll feel much more confident in your solution.

#9. Research helps you reach people

Research is used to help raise awareness of issues like climate change , racial discrimination, gender inequality , and more. Without hard facts, it’s very difficult to prove that climate change is getting worse or that gender inequality isn’t progressing as quickly as it should. The public needs to know what the facts are, so they have a clear idea of what “getting worse” or “not progressing” actually means. Research also entails going beyond the raw data and sharing real-life stories that have a more personal impact on people.

#10. Research encourages curiosity

Having curiosity and a love of learning take you far in life. Research opens you up to different opinions and new ideas. It also builds discerning and analytical skills. The research process rewards curiosity. When you’re committed to learning, you’re always in a place of growth. Curiosity is also good for your health. Studies show curiosity is associated with higher levels of positivity, better satisfaction with life, and lower anxiety.

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Why should you do research as an undergraduate?

Alumni, faculty, and employers answer the question., erika james, dean, the wharton school; reliance professor of management and private enterprise.

When I was a student, I took a short detour to a corporate setting, which was an experience that only reinforced my belief that my true calling was in academia. The lasting professional and personal relationships I have developed through my research have proven to be invaluable, and transformed my life in many ways. Though not every student will pursue a career in academia, all students can benefit greatly from the skills gained through research. The experience will prepare you to think critically, anticipate opportunities and be an effective leader in any industry or endeavor.

Diana Roberson, Vice Dean, Wharton Undergraduate Division; Samuel A. Blank Professor of Legal Studies & Business Ethics 

Raveen Kariyawasam, W’22, SEAS’22

Adam Grant, Saul P. Steinberg Professor of Management, Professor of Psychology

I can’t imagine a better way to learn than doing undergraduate research. When I was in college, getting involved in research changed the course of my life. It gave me the chance to explore fascinating questions, soak up wisdom from brilliant mentors, and stretch my creative and critical thinking muscles. I discovered that I loved creating knowledge, not just consuming it.

Dara Cook, W’95

Wendy De La Rosa, Assistant Professor of Marketing

So many consumers, cultures, and organizations have been ignored and under-researched. As a result, so much is still unknown. For me, there is nothing more honorable than being the person who pushes our collective human knowledge forward (even if it is just by a centimeter). You can be that person, and you can start right now, right here at Penn.

Michael Roberts, William H. Lawrence Professor of Finance

Nancy Zhang, Professor of Statistics and Data Science, Vice Dean of Wharton Doctoral Programs

Geoffrey Garrett, Former Dean and Reliance Professor of Management and Private Enterprise, The Wharton School

Debi Ogunrinde, C’16, W’16

Paul Karner, C’03, W’03

Ashish Shah, W’92

My undergrad experience prepared me for success in a crisis that few expected and fewer were prepared for. When at Wharton, I was fortunate enough to conduct research in two completely different areas of finance.   Read more

Kate Lakin, Putnam Investments

Julio Reynaga, C’13, W’13

Katherina M. Rosqueta, WG’01, Founding Executive Director, Center for High Impact Philanthropy,  University of Pennsylvania

Joseph Wang, C’13, W’13

Nada Boualam, C’17, W’17

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Research allows you to pursue your interests, to learn something new, to hone your problem-solving skills and to challenge yourself in new ways. Working on a faculty-initiated research project gives you the opportunity work closely with a mentor–a faculty member or other experienced researcher. With a self-initiated research project, you leave the University of Montana with a product that represents the distillation of your interests and studies, and possibly, a real contribution to knowledge.

Why should you consider getting involved in research and creative scholarship:

• Gain hands-on experience completing a research or creative project.
• Work closely with a faculty mentor and have the opportunity to connect with other faculty and other student researchers who work in your area of interest.
• Earn academic credit, scholarships, stipends and/or other awards for having conducted research.
• Hone your leadership and teamwork skills as you collaborate with others.
• Gain academic credentials that will help create a well-rounded resume, publishing your work and working with a research team.
• Learn valuable life skills for life and class such as professionalism, time management, learning how to use online research tools.
• Learn valuable skills for life and class (professionalism, time management, multi-tasking, online research tools).
• Learn to effectively communicate your ideas and how to analyze and critique the work of others.
• Assisting in research gives you hands-on experience in your field.
• You gain a deeper understanding of the scientific process... develop research questions and form and test your hypotheses.
• You learn what it’s like to work in a lab and learn about the planning of experiments, writing grants and how to report findings.
• You can get paid. Sometimes as an employee and sometimes as a scholarship
• You can publish your work. If you help a faculty member they will mention your work, or you
• An excellent opportunity to develop relationships with faculty members who work in your area of interest and make connections with other students working on research. You will build a strong working relationship with a faculty mentor and be able to ask for a letter of recommendation.
• An opportunity to hone your leadership and teamwork skills as you collaborate with others.
• Opportunity to discover new knowledge and expand about what you already know.
• Create a well-rounded resume--you will show "hands-on" experience. You know how to produce results.

You should try to take advantage of every opportunity to make the most of your college experience. Engaging in projects, whether in a laboratory, a library, a music or art studio, or elsewhere, is a good way of developing your talents and abilities, finding out the kind of work you are good at, and preparing for graduate study or a career. Such projects often lead to presentations at professional conferences, which can be a great asset as you apply for graduate school, scholarships, or even jobs.

Every field of study has its own research problems and methods. As a researcher, you seek answers to questions of great interest to you. Your research problem could be aesthetic, social, political, scientific or technical. You choose the tools, gather and analyze the data, and report your findings to a wider audience.

What is it like to do research?

The research experience varies greatly. You might work alone, or in a large team. You could conduct your research in a library, a museum, a laboratory, or a community. 

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Why do Research?

Participating in undergraduate research prepares you for your post-graduation plans by expanding your academic experience and giving you the opportunity to explore an academic discipline more fully., there are many benefits to becoming a researcher, including:.

• Graduate and Professional School : Undergraduate researchers are more likely to move into graduate programs.
• Academic Achievement : Undergraduate researchers demonstrate higher achievement and are more likely to stay in school.
• Career Goals : Undergraduate research can help you clarify your choice of degree program, career interests, and post-graduation plans.
• Transferable Skills : Undergraduate research strengthens written and oral communication, critical thinking, technical skills, and information literacy.
• Community : Undergraduate research provides opportunities to build a learning community with faculty and fellow students.
• Confidence : Undergraduate research builds confidence in your abilities within the discipline, and improves your overall perception of the discipline.

  About 50% of UCF undergraduate researchers continue their education after graduating with their bachelors degree!

Set yourself up for success after graduation; participate in undergraduate research.

For many professional schools, you will need at least five letters of recommendation. Most graduate programs require at least three letters of recommendation. Job applications often also require references. Conducting undergraduate research is a way to develop strong relationships with faculty members who can serve as references for you.

With over 60,000 students, UCF is a big place. Participating in undergraduate research allows students to engage in unique experiences; typically students work as individuals or in small teams on research and creative projects. Drawing from these experiences can help students stand out during interviews for graduate and professional school programs, as well as the job market.

Undergraduate researchers have numerous opportunities to expand their portfolio, or academic resume. These opportunities include things like presenting their work (both on and off campus), earning scholarships or fellowships, taking course credit, and defending theses and publishing their work. All of these opportunities can be documented on a students’ resume.

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Six Reasons Why Research is Important

Everyone conducts research in some form or another from a young age, whether news, books, or browsing the Internet. Internet users come across thoughts, ideas, or perspectives - the curiosity that drives the desire to explore. However, when research is essential to make practical decisions, the nature of the study alters - it all depends on its application and purpose. For instance, skilled research offered as a  research paper service  has a definite objective, and it is focused and organized. Professional research helps derive inferences and conclusions from solving problems. visit the HB tool services for the amazing research tools that will help to solve your problems regarding the research on any project.

What is the Importance of Research?

The primary goal of the research is to guide action, gather evidence for theories, and contribute to the growth of knowledge in data analysis. This article discusses the importance of research and the multiple reasons why it is beneficial to everyone, not just students and scientists.

On the other hand, research is important in business decision-making because it can assist in making better decisions when combined with their experience and intuition.

Reasons for the Importance of Research

• Acquire Knowledge Effectively
• Research helps in problem-solving
• Provides the latest information
• Builds credibility
• Helps in business success
• Discover and Seize opportunities

1-  Acquire Knowledge Efficiently through Research

The most apparent reason to conduct research is to understand more. Even if you think you know everything there is to know about a subject, there is always more to learn. Research helps you expand on any prior knowledge you have of the subject. The research process creates new opportunities for learning and progress.

2- Research Helps in Problem-solving

Problem-solving can be divided into several components, which require knowledge and analysis, for example,  identification of issues, cause identification,  identifying potential solutions, decision to take action, monitoring and evaluation of activity and outcomes.

You may just require additional knowledge to formulate an informed strategy and make an informed decision. When you know you've gathered reliable data, you'll be a lot more confident in your answer.

3- Research Provides the Latest Information

Research enables you to seek out the most up-to-date facts. There is always new knowledge and discoveries in various sectors, particularly scientific ones. Staying updated keeps you from falling behind and providing inaccurate or incomplete information. You'll be better prepared to discuss a topic and build on ideas if you have the most up-to-date information. With the help of tools and certifications such as CIRS , you may learn internet research skills quickly and easily. Internet research can provide instant, global access to information.

4- Research Builds Credibility

Research provides a solid basis for formulating thoughts and views. You can speak confidently about something you know to be true. It's much more difficult for someone to find flaws in your arguments after you've finished your tasks. In your study, you should prioritize the most reputable sources. Your research should focus on the most reliable sources. You won't be credible if your "research" comprises non-experts' opinions. People are more inclined to pay attention if your research is excellent.

5-  Research Helps in Business Success

R&D might also help you gain a competitive advantage. Finding ways to make things run more smoothly and differentiate a company's products from those of its competitors can help to increase a company's market worth.

6-  Research Discover and Seize Opportunities

People can maximize their potential and achieve their goals through various opportunities provided by research. These include getting jobs, scholarships, educational subsidies, projects, commercial collaboration, and budgeted travel. Research is essential for anyone looking for work or a change of environment. Unemployed people will have a better chance of finding potential employers through job advertisements or agencies. 

How to Improve Your Research Skills

Start with the big picture and work your way down.

It might be hard to figure out where to start when you start researching. There's nothing wrong with a simple internet search to get you started. Online resources like Google and Wikipedia are a great way to get a general idea of a subject, even though they aren't always correct. They usually give a basic overview with a short history and any important points.

Identify Reliable Source

Not every source is reliable, so it's critical that you can tell the difference between the good ones and the bad ones. To find a reliable source, use your analytical and critical thinking skills and ask yourself the following questions: Is this source consistent with other sources I've discovered? Is the author a subject matter expert? Is there a conflict of interest in the author's point of view on this topic?

Validate Information from Various Sources

Take in new information.

The purpose of research is to find answers to your questions, not back up what you already assume. Only looking for confirmation is a minimal way to research because it forces you to pick and choose what information you get and stops you from getting the most accurate picture of the subject. When you do research, keep an open mind to learn as much as possible.

Facilitates Learning Process

Learning new things and implementing them in daily life can be frustrating. Finding relevant and credible information requires specialized training and web search skills due to the sheer enormity of the Internet and the rapid growth of indexed web pages. On the other hand, short courses and Certifications like CIRS make the research process more accessible. CIRS Certification offers complete knowledge from beginner to expert level. You can become a Certified Professional Researcher and get a high-paying job, but you'll also be much more efficient and skilled at filtering out reliable data. You can learn more about becoming a Certified Professional Researcher.

Stay Organized

You'll see a lot of different material during the process of gathering data, from web pages to PDFs to videos. You must keep all of this information organized in some way so that you don't lose anything or forget to mention something properly. There are many ways to keep your research project organized, but here are a few of the most common:  Learning Management Software , Bookmarks in your browser, index cards, and a bibliography that you can add to as you go are all excellent tools for writing.

Make Use of the library's Resources

If you still have questions about researching, don't worry—even if you're not a student performing academic or course-related research, there are many resources available to assist you. Many high school and university libraries, in reality, provide resources not only for staff and students but also for the general public. Look for research guidelines or access to specific databases on the library's website. Association of Internet Research Specialists enjoys sharing informational content such as research-related articles , research papers , specialized search engines list compiled from various sources, and contributions from our members and in-house experts.

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• 01 May 2024

Why it’s essential to study sex and gender, even as tensions rise

You have full access to this article via your institution.

In 2023, students protested against a new policy in Texas, where parents would be notified if their child asks to be identified as transgender. Credit: Brett Coomer/Houston Chronicle/Getty

This week, Nature is launching a collection of opinion articles on sex and gender in research. Further articles will be published in the coming months. The series will highlight the necessity and challenges of studying a topic that is both hugely under-researched and, increasingly, the focus of arguments worldwide — many of which are neither healthy nor constructive.

Some scientists have been warned off studying sex differences by colleagues. Others, who are already working on sex or gender-related topics, are hesitant to publish their views. Such a climate of fear and reticence serves no one. To find a way forward we need more knowledge, not less.

Collection: Sex and gender in science

Nearly 20 researchers from diverse fields, including neuroscience, psychology, immunology and cancer, have contributed to the series, which provides a snapshot of where scholars studying sex and gender are aligned — and where they are not. In time, we hope this collection will help to shape research, and provide a reference point for moderating often-intemperate debates.

In practice, people use sex and gender to mean different things. But researchers studying animals typically use sex to refer to male and female individuals , as defined by various anatomical and other biological features. In studies involving humans, participants are generally asked to identify their own sex and/or gender category. Here, gender usually encompasses social and environmental factors , including gender roles, expectations and identity.

For as long as scientific inquiry has existed, people have mainly studied men or male animals. Even as recently as 2009, only 26% of studies using animals included both female and male individuals, according to a review of 10 fields in the biological sciences 1 . This bias has had serious consequences. Between 1997 and 2000, for instance, eight prescription drugs were removed from the US market, because clinical testing had not revealed women’s greater risk of developing health problems after taking the drugs.

Male–female comparisons are powerful in biomedical research — don’t abandon them

The tide, however, is turning. Many journals, including those in the Nature Portfolio , and funders, such as the US National Institutes of Health, have developed guidelines and mandates to encourage scientists to consider sex and, where appropriate, gender in their work.

These efforts are reaping benefits 2 . Studies, for example, are showing that a person’s sex and/or gender can influence their risk of disease and chances of survival when it comes to many common causes of death — including cardiovascular conditions and cancer.

Despite this, many researchers remain unconvinced that the inclusion of sex and gender information is important in their field. Others, who are already doing so, have told Nature that they’re afraid of how their work is perceived and of how it could be misunderstood, or misused.

Podcast: Sex and gender discussions don't need to be toxic

Because researchers who are exploring the effects of sex and gender come from many disciplines, there will be disagreements. An often-raised and valid concern, for example, is that when researchers compare responses between female and male animals, or between men and women, they exclude those whose sex and/or gender doesn’t fall into a binary categorization scheme. Another is that variability between individuals of the same sex could be more important than that between sexes.

Sometimes sense does seem to get lost in the debates. That the term sex refers to a lot of interacting factors, which are not fully understood, does not invalidate its usefulness as a concept 3 . That some people misinterpret and misuse findings concerning differences between sexes, particularly in relation to the human brain , should not mean denying that any differences exist.

Tempering the debate

Many of the questions being raised, however, are important to ask, especially given concerns about how best to investigate biological differences between groups of humans , and the continued — and, in some regions, worsening — marginalization of people whose sex and/or gender identity doesn’t fall into narrowly defined norms. Often, such questions and concerns can be addressed through research. For example, studies might find that variability between individuals of the same sex in diet, or body weight, say, are more important predictors of how likely they are to develop anaemia than whether they are male or female.

We need more-nuanced approaches to exploring sex and gender in research

The problem, then is not the discussions alone: science exists to examine and interrogate disagreements. Rather, the problem is that debates — and work on sex and gender, in general — are being used to polarize opinions about gender identity. As Arthur Arnold, a biologist at the University of California, Los Angeles, and his colleagues describe in their Comment article , last September, legislation banning gender-affirming medical care for people under 18 years old was introduced in Texas on the basis of claims that everyone belongs to one of two gender groups, and that this reality is settled by science. It isn’t. Scientists are reluctant to study sex and gender, not just because of concerns about the complexity and costs of the research, but also because of current tensions.

But it is crucial that scholars do not refrain from considering the effects of sex and gender if such analyses are relevant to their field. Improved knowledge will help to resolve concerns and allow a scholarly consensus to be reached, where possible. Where disagreements persist, our hope is that Nature ’s collection of opinion articles will equip researchers with the tools needed to help them persuade others that going back to assuming that male individuals represent everyone is no longer an option.

Nature 629 , 7-8 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01207-0

Beery, A. K. & Zucker, I. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35 , 565–572 (2011).

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Tannenbaum, C., Ellis, R. P., Eyssel, F., Zou, J. & Schiebinger, L. Nature 575 , 137–146 (2019).

Velocci, B. Cell 187 , 1343–1346 (2024).

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A Peek Inside the Brains of ‘Super-Agers’

New research explores why some octogenarians have exceptional memories.

By Dana G. Smith

When it comes to aging, we tend to assume that cognition gets worse as we get older. Our thoughts may slow down or become confused, or we may start to forget things, like the name of our high school English teacher or what we meant to buy at the grocery store.

But that’s not the case for everyone.

For a little over a decade, scientists have been studying a subset of people they call “super-agers.” These individuals are age 80 and up, but they have the memory ability of a person 20 to 30 years younger.

Most research on aging and memory focuses on the other side of the equation — people who develop dementia in their later years. But, “if we’re constantly talking about what’s going wrong in aging, it’s not capturing the full spectrum of what’s happening in the older adult population,” said Emily Rogalski, a professor of neurology at the University of Chicago, who published one of the first studies on super-agers in 2012.

A paper published Monday in the Journal of Neuroscience helps shed light on what’s so special about the brains of super-agers. The biggest takeaway, in combination with a companion study that came out last year on the same group of individuals, is that their brains have less atrophy than their peers’ do.

The research was conducted on 119 octogenarians from Spain: 64 super-agers and 55 older adults with normal memory abilities for their age. The participants completed multiple tests assessing their memory, motor and verbal skills; underwent brain scans and blood draws; and answered questions about their lifestyle and behaviors.

The scientists found that the super-agers had more volume in areas of the brain important for memory, most notably the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. They also had better preserved connectivity between regions in the front of the brain that are involved in cognition. Both the super-agers and the control group showed minimal signs of Alzheimer’s disease in their brains.

“By having two groups that have low levels of Alzheimer’s markers, but striking cognitive differences and striking differences in their brain, then we’re really speaking to a resistance to age-related decline,” said Dr. Bryan Strange, a professor of clinical neuroscience at the Polytechnic University of Madrid, who led the studies.

These findings are backed up by Dr. Rogalski’s research , initially conducted when she was at Northwestern University, which showed that super-agers’ brains looked more like 50- or 60-year-olds’ brains than their 80-year-old peers. When followed over several years, the super-agers’ brains atrophied at a slower rate than average.

No precise numbers exist on how many super-agers there are among us, but Dr. Rogalski said they’re “relatively rare,” noting that “far less than 10 percent” of the people she sees end up meeting the criteria.

But when you meet a super-ager, you know it, Dr. Strange said. “They are really quite energetic people, you can see. Motivated, on the ball, elderly individuals.”

Experts don’t know how someone becomes a super-ager, though there were a few differences in health and lifestyle behaviors between the two groups in the Spanish study. Most notably, the super-agers had slightly better physical health, both in terms of blood pressure and glucose metabolism, and they performed better on a test of mobility . The super-agers didn’t report doing more exercise at their current age than the typical older adults, but they were more active in middle age. They also reported better mental health .

But overall, Dr. Strange said, there were a lot of similarities between the super-agers and the regular agers. “There are a lot of things that are not particularly striking about them,” he said. And, he added, “we see some surprising omissions, things that you would expect to be associated with super-agers that weren’t really there.” For example, there were no differences between the groups in terms of their diets, the amount of sleep they got, their professional backgrounds or their alcohol and tobacco use.

The behaviors of some of the Chicago super-agers were similarly a surprise. Some exercised regularly, but some never had; some stuck to a Mediterranean diet, others subsisted off TV dinners; and a few of them still smoked cigarettes. However, one consistency among the group was that they tended to have strong social relationships , Dr. Rogalski said.

“In an ideal world, you’d find out that, like, all the super-agers, you know, ate six tomatoes every day and that was the key,” said Tessa Harrison, an assistant project scientist at the University of California, Berkeley, who collaborated with Dr. Rogalski on the first Chicago super-ager study.

Instead, Dr. Harrison continued, super-agers probably have “some sort of lucky predisposition or some resistance mechanism in the brain that’s on the molecular level that we don’t understand yet,” possibly related to their genes.

While there isn’t a recipe for becoming a super-ager, scientists do know that, in general , eating healthily, staying physically active, getting enough sleep and maintaining social connections are important for healthy brain aging.

Dana G. Smith is a Times reporter covering personal health, particularly aging and brain health. More about Dana G. Smith

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• Asian Americans, Charitable Giving and Remittances

2. Asian Americans who send remittances to their ancestral homelands

Table of contents.

• Charitable giving in the U.S.
• Charitable giving in ancestral homelands
• Which Asian Americans send remittances?
• Why do Asian Americans send remittances?
• Remittance flows from the U.S. to Asian origin countries
• Acknowledgments
• Sample design
• Data collection
• Weighting and variance estimation
• Appendix: Supplemental tables

In addition to asking Asian adults whether they have given to charitable organizations, we asked whether they have sent remittances – personal monetary transfers to someone living in the Asian country where they, their family or ancestors are from.

About a quarter of Asian adults in the United States say they have sent remittances in the year before the survey, which was conducted July 2022 to January 2023. Among those who have, the most common reasons for doing so are to help with ordinary expenses – like food and clothing – and health expenses.

Overall, 27% of Asian adults in the U.S. say they have sent money to someone in the Asian country they or their ancestors are from in the 12 months prior to the survey.

Among the six largest Asian origin groups in the U.S., Filipino (42%), Indian (36%) and Vietnamese (33%) adults are the most likely to say they have sent money to anyone living in their ancestral homeland. Chinese (10%) and Japanese (3%) adults are the least likely to say this.

By nativity

Asian immigrants are more than twice as likely as U.S.-born Asian adults to say they have sent remittances in the 12 months before the survey (32% vs. 13%).

Among immigrants, those who arrived in the U.S. more recently are somewhat more likely than longtime residents to say they have sent remittances:

• 37% of Asian immigrants who have lived in the U.S. for 20 years or less say they have sent remittances in the last year.
• 28% of Asian immigrants who have lived in the U.S. for more than 20 years say the same.

Among those born in the U.S., third- or higher-generation Asian Americans are the least likely to say they have sent money to someone in their Asian country of origin. Only 4% say they have done so, compared with 15% of second-generation Asian adults.

By ties to ancestral homeland

Among Asian adults who have immediate family living in their Asian ancestral homeland, 38% say they have sent remittances in the last year. A much smaller share of those who do not have family there (13%) say the same.

The survey also asked Asian adults whether they would move (or, in some cases, move back) to the place in Asia they or their ancestors are from . Remittance patterns differ by their answers to this question:

• Among Asian adults who say they would consider moving to their Asian country of origin, 37% say they sent remittances in the year before the survey.
• Among those who would not consider moving there, 23% say the same.

By education and income

There are no large differences by education or income in whether Asian Americans have sent remittances to their country of origin. Across these groups, about three-in-ten or fewer say they have done so in the year before the survey.

For example, 30% of those with a high school diploma or less and 26% with a postgraduate degree say they sent money. Likewise, similar shares of those with a family income of less than $30,000 and those with a family income of $150,000 or more say the same (20% and 26%, respectively).

By religion

Across major religious groups, Asian adults who are religiously unaffiliated are the least likely to say they have sent money to anyone who lives in their Asian country of origin.

Similarly, remittance sending is linked to how important religion is in Asian Americans’ lives:

• 39% of Asian adults who say religion is very important in their life have sent remittances in the 12 months before being asked.
• 15% of Asian adults who say religion is not too or not at all important have done the same.

Among Asian adults who have sent money to someone in their Asian ancestral homeland in the year before the survey, the most common reasons are to help with ordinary expenses like food and clothing (63%) and health expenses (50%).

Smaller shares of Asian adults who sent remittances say they have sent the money for a marriage or funeral (35%); for a large purchase, like appliances or home improvements (19%); or to save or invest (16%). Fewer than one-in-ten say the money was for importing products or services to the U.S. (7%) or for a business outside the U.S. (6%). Additionally, about a third of Asian adults (36%) say they sent remittances for another reason not specified in the survey. (The survey did not ask respondents what that reason was.)

Among Asian adults who sent remittances, there are some demographic differences in the reasons for sending money.

Korean adults are less likely than Filipino, Indian and Vietnamese adults to say they sent remittances for ordinary expenses, health expensesor a large purchase. 3 Among those who say they have sent remittances in the year prior:

• 28% of Korean adults say they sent money for ordinary expenses , compared with 72% of Filipino, 61% of Indian and 61% of Vietnamese adults.
• 21% of Korean adults sent money for health expenses, compared with 55% of Filipino, 56% of Indian and 42% of Vietnamese adults. 
• 4% of Korean adults sent money for a large purchase, compared with 28% of Filipino, 18% of Indian and 14% of Vietnamese adults.

By family ties

Asian adults with immediate family living in their Asian country of origin were more likely than those without family there to say they sent money for a large purchase (22% vs. 11%).

By education

Asian Americans with some college experience or less were more likely to say they sent money for a marriage or funeral, compared with those with a bachelor’s degree or more (42%. vs. 29%).

The U.S. is by far the world’s largest remittance-sending nation , in part because it also has the largest immigrant population of any country. In 2021, Asian Americans’ places of origin collectively received about $63 billion in remittances from the U.S. 4 The Asian countries that are the largest receivers of U.S. remittances broadly coincide with the most common origin countries for Asian Americans – India, the Philippines, China, Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. These six countries received about $55 billion from the U.S. in 2021. 5

India, the Philippines and China were also among the five largest receivers of U.S. remittances globally in 2021. Each country received over $10 billion in remittances from the U.S. that year. Vietnam, Korea and Japan received less in remittances from the U.S., but remittances from the U.S. made up a larger share of total remittances received by each of these countries in 2021 (over 40%).

Overall, remittances generally do not make up significant shares of these Asian origin countries’ overall gross domestic product. The exception is the Philippines, where nearly one-tenth (9.3%) of the country’s economy came from migrant remittances in 2021, and 3.3% came from remittances sent through the U.S. alone.

Many Asian origin countries, such as the Philippines and India , have developed programs to recognize their diasporas living abroad and their potential contributions to the country, including through remittances.

• Findings for additional Asian origin groups are not reported separately due to insufficient sample size. ↩
• In this analysis, remittance flows to Asian Americans’ places of origin from the U.S. refers to World Bank estimates for Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, Laos, Macao, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor-Leste and Vietnam. Remittance flows for China do not include those for Hong Kong, Macao or Taiwan, and the World Bank does not release separate estimates for Taiwan. The categorization of these countries or locations as places of origin for the U.S. Asian population follows the U.S. Census Bureau’s categorization of Asian origin prior to the 2020 decennial census, which did not categorize Central Asians, such as Afghans and Kazakhs, as Asian. For a detailed list of the bureau’s origin and race categorization, refer to Appendix F of the 2020 Census State Redistricting Data Summary File . ↩
• These countries are the six largest Asian origin countries for those living in the U.S., but not the six Asian origin countries that received the largest amount of money in remittances from the U.S. in 2021. The World Bank estimates that Pakistan received $2.5 billion from the U.S. in remittances in 2021, which would rank it higher than Japan, which received about $2.3 billion. ↩

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Helping women get better sleep by calming the relentless 'to-do lists' in their heads

Yuki Noguchi

Katie Krimitsos is among the majority of American women who have trouble getting healthy sleep, according to a new Gallup survey. Krimitsos launched a podcast called Sleep Meditation for Women to offer some help. Natalie Champa Jennings/Natalie Jennings, courtesy of Katie Krimitsos hide caption

Katie Krimitsos is among the majority of American women who have trouble getting healthy sleep, according to a new Gallup survey. Krimitsos launched a podcast called Sleep Meditation for Women to offer some help.

When Katie Krimitsos lies awake watching sleepless hours tick by, it's almost always because her mind is wrestling with a mental checklist of things she has to do. In high school, that was made up of homework, tests or a big upcoming sports game.

"I would be wide awake, just my brain completely spinning in chaos until two in the morning," says Krimitsos.

There were periods in adulthood, too, when sleep wouldn't come easily, like when she started a podcasting company in Tampa, or nursed her first daughter eight years ago. "I was already very used to the grainy eyes," she says.

Now 43, Krimitsos says in recent years she found that mounting worries brought those sleepless spells more often. Her mind would spin through "a million, gazillion" details of running a company and a family: paying the electric bill, making dinner and dentist appointments, monitoring the pets' food supply or her parents' health checkups. This checklist never, ever shrank, despite her best efforts, and perpetually chased away her sleep.

"So we feel like there are these enormous boulders that we are carrying on our shoulders that we walk into the bedroom with," she says. "And that's what we're laying down with."

By "we," Krimitsos means herself and the many other women she talks to or works with who complain of fatigue.

Women are one of the most sleep-troubled demographics, according to a recent Gallup survey that found sleep patterns of Americans deteriorating rapidly over the past decade.

"When you look in particular at adult women under the age of 50, that's the group where we're seeing the most steep movement in terms of their rate of sleeping less or feeling less satisfied with their sleep and also their rate of stress," says Gallup senior researcher Sarah Fioroni.

Overall, Americans' sleep is at an all time low, in terms of both quantity and quality.

A majority – 57% – now say they could use more sleep, which is a big jump from a decade ago. It's an acceleration of an ongoing trend, according to the survey. In 1942, 59% of Americans said that they slept 8 hours or more; today, that applies to only 26% of Americans. One in five people, also an all-time high, now sleep fewer than 5 hours a day.

Popular myths about sleep, debunked

"If you have poor sleep, then it's all things bad," says Gina Marie Mathew, a post-doctoral sleep researcher at Stony Brook Medicine in New York. The Gallup survey did not cite reasons for the rapid decline, but Mathew says her research shows that smartphones keep us — and especially teenagers — up later.

She says sleep, as well as diet and exercise, is considered one of the three pillars of health. Yet American culture devalues rest.

"In terms of structural and policy change, we need to recognize that a lot of these systems that are in place are not conducive to women in particular getting enough sleep or getting the sleep that they need," she says, arguing things like paid family leave and flexible work hours might help women sleep more, and better.

No one person can change a culture that discourages sleep. But when faced with her own sleeplessness, Tampa mom Katie Krimitsos started a podcast called Sleep Meditation for Women , a soothing series of episodes in which she acknowledges and tries to calm the stresses typical of many women.

Shots - Health News

Many grouchy, error-prone workers just need more sleep.

That podcast alone averages about a million unique listeners a month, and is one of 20 podcasts produced by Krimitsos's firm, Women's Meditation Network.

"Seven of those 20 podcasts are dedicated to sleep in some way, and they make up for 50% of my listenership," Krimitsos notes. "So yeah, it's the biggest pain point."

Krimitsos says she thinks women bear the burdens of a pace of life that keeps accelerating. "Our interpretation of how fast life should be and what we should 'accomplish' or have or do has exponentially increased," she says.

She only started sleeping better, she says, when she deliberately cut back on activities and commitments, both for herself and her two kids. "I feel more satisfied at the end of the day. I feel more fulfilled and I feel more willing to allow things that are not complete to let go."

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Environmental Factor

Your online source for niehs news, niehs-supported research can help people with asthma breathe better.

Recent scientific advances help to identify root causes of and new treatment approaches for asthma, a chronic respiratory disease.

By Janelle Weaver and Caroline Stetler

In recognition of Asthma Awareness Month, Environmental Factor shares the latest discoveries made by NIEHS scientists and grant recipients related to the chronic respiratory disease.

Asthma, which is characterized by coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath, affects about 25 million people in the United States, including 4.7 million children and adolescents. In 2021, more than 3,500 people across the country died from asthma-related causes.

The following examples of recently published research aim to improve the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of asthma by better understanding the environment’s role in the disease.

Majority of clinicians do not frequently assess environmental asthma triggers

Environmental assessment and recommendations to patients vary considerably among asthma care providers, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators. A higher percentage of specialists assessed asthma triggers at home, school, or work than primary care or advanced practice providers. However, 46%-76% of clinicians, depending on clinician type, reported not assessing triggers almost always during asthma visits. Read the full summary .

Citation : Salo PM, Akinbami LJ, Cloutier MM, Wilkerson JC, Elward KS, Mazurek JM, Diette GB, Mitchell TA, Williams S, Zeldin DC. 2023. Environmental management of asthma in clinical practice: results from the 2012 National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey . J Allergy Clin Immunol Glob 3(1):100192.

Plasma proteomic signatures of adult asthma

A large-scale proteomics study identified more than 100 plasma proteins associated with asthma in adults, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators. In addition to validating previous associations, the researchers identified many novel proteins that could inform the development of diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in asthma management. Read the full summary .

Citation : Smilnak GJ, Lee Y, Chattopadhyay A, Wyss AB, White JD, Sikdar S, Jin J, Grant AJ, Motsinger-Reif AA, Li JL, Lee M, Yu B, London SJ. 2024. Plasma protein signatures of adult asthma . Allergy 79(3):643-655.

Targeting the root cause of asthma

Housing policy may be a tool to reduce childhood asthma disparities, according to recent findings from the NIEHS-funded Mobility Asthma Project . As reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association, children who move to neighborhoods with lower rates of poverty experience significant improvements in asthma symptoms, in part by reducing stress. Read the full article .

Citation : Pollack CE, Roberts LC, Peng RD, Cimbolic P, Judy D, Balcer-Whaley S, Grant T, Rule A, Deluca S, Davis MF, Wright RJ, Keet CA, Matsui EC. 2023. Association of a housing mobility program with childhood asthma symptoms and exacerbations . JAMA 329(19):1671-1681.

Why anti-thromboxane therapies have failed in asthma clinical trials

Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) can dampen the immune response in the allergic lung, which may have important therapeutic consequences, according to NIEHS researchers and their collaborators. In contrast to its acute, pro-inflammatory, and bronchoconstrictive effects, TXA2 also has longer-lasting immunosuppressive effects that attenuate Th2 and Th9 cell differentiation that drives asthma progression. These results help explain the failure of anti-thromboxane therapies and suggest that targeting the TXA2/TP receptor signaling pathway may lead to the development of novel asthma treatments. Read the full summary .

Citation : Li H, Bradbury JA, Edin ML, Gruzdev A, Li H, Graves JP, DeGraff LM, Lih FB, Feng C, Wolf ER, Bortner CD, London SJ, Sparks MA, Coffman TM, Zeldin DC. 2024. TXA2 attenuates allergic lung inflammation through regulation of Th2, Th9 and Treg differentiation . J Clin Invest e165689 [Online 14 Mar 2024].

Community-level characteristics modify childhood asthma risk

Early-life air pollution exposure is associated with increased childhood asthma incidence, with higher risk among minoritized families living in densely populated communities, according to NIEHS-funded researchers. Their results suggest that exposure to fine particulate matter (PM) smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) may play a role in the development of asthma by early and middle childhood in communities characterized by fewer opportunities and resources and multiple environmental exposures. Read the full article .

Citation : Zanobetti A, Ryan PH, Coull BA, Luttmann-Gibson H, Datta S, Blossom J, Brokamp C, Lothrop N, Miller RL, Beamer PI, Visness CM, Andrews H, Bacharier LB, Hartert T, Johnson CC, Ownby DR, Khurana Hershey GK, Joseph CLM, Mendonça EA, Jackson DJ, Zoratti EM, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Seroogy CM, Ramratnam SK, Calatroni A, Gern JE, Gold DR; ECHO Children’s Respiratory and Environmental Workgroup. 2024. Early-Life exposure to air pollution and childhood asthma cumulative incidence in the ECHO CREW Consortium . JAMA Netw Open 7(2):e240535.

Additional resources to explore

• For resources on the prevention, treatment, and management of asthma, check out the NIH Learn More Breathe Better® program .
• Lower allergen levels in your home by reviewing these tips on the NIEHS asthma webpage .
• Join an asthma study to help scientists understand how bacteria and other factors in the environment affect people who have moderate to severe asthma.
• Learn about new research exploring the asthma-air pollution connection .
• Check out the asthma research portal from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

(Janelle Weaver, Ph.D., is a contract writer for the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison. Caroline Stetler is Editor-in-Chief of the Environmental Factor, produced monthly by the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison.)

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