thesis on teachers' job performance

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• Published: 11 April 2023

Influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance

• Joti kumari 1 &
• Jai Kumar 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  158 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Business and management

Motivation is the key to success in educational institutions, and it empowers a teacher to work with an affection that contributes to the accomplishment of hierarchical objectives. Yet, what drives school teachers to be pleased or motivated to achieve exceptional performance? This contemplation must be considered thoroughly in different regions with different predictors. Therefore, this study aims to identify the factors influencing teachers’ motivation and evaluate the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance in private schools in Mirpurkhas, Pakistan. We use quantitative statistics and a partial least-squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM analysis) design; the data was collected through a survey questionnaire. We found that motivation significantly influences teachers’ job performance. The study revealed that self-determined and non-self-determined motivation and factors influencing teachers’ motivation significantly impact teachers’ job performance. The administration must formulate teachers’ motivational policies and practices to meet their needs. Furthermore, school administrations should provide adequate resources like bonuses, rewards, good communication, moral support, emotional support, and an increment in salaries to ensure quality learning and yield high performance from their teaching staff to improve the relevant education system.

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Introduction.

Some of the country’s leading educational institutions have recently established teaching excellence centers, focusing on supporting and improving learning materials to produce optimal teaching strategies and processes. Consequently, quality education is becoming a more critical concern in the educational world in recent years. This research adopts the self-determination theory (SDT) put forward by Ryan and Deci ( 2000b ) as a model that can be implemented in the motivation and performance of teachers in Pakistani schools. SDT can be more emphasized with its factors named self-determined and non-self-determined motivation. It is important to note that SDT distinguishes between regulated and independent motivation. A school with good motivation strategies can ensure harmony, prosperity, and increased student enrollment. Correspondingly, the teacher’s positive behavior related to teaching increases their level of understanding and interest, eventually improving their job performance. According to Hanus and Fox ( 2015 ), motivation is a process that drives individuals to move toward accomplishing a goal. It is the key to success for every educational institution and empowers a teacher to work with an affection that contributes to accomplishing hierarchical objectives. They recommended incentivizing teachers to motivate them to achieve the most outstanding results. According to Inayatullah and Jehangir ( 2012 ), head teachers’ unfavorable work environment and inadequate leadership abilities were to blame for the low motivation of teachers. According to Nawaz and Yasin ( 2015 ), factors including a weak appraisal system, small class sizes, a shortage of staff rooms, and a lack of educational resources all impact how motivated secondary school teachers are. Lack of professional development opportunities and job security further affect teachers’ intrinsic motivation (Sajid et al., 2018 ).

Being a developing nation, Pakistan has made significant efforts in recent years to expand the general education system and school education. The School Education and Literacy Department is in charge of overseeing school education in Pakistan’s Sindh province. There is evidence that the instructors in Sindh province generally lack intrinsic motivation, negatively impacting teacher performance and student learning (F. Shaikh, 2012 ). Recent reports show Sindh province’s school system is inferior (Saleem, 2020 ). The teaching profession evolved into a launching pad for young people.

It should be noted that internal administration and leadership largely determine the nature of the school environment. The school principal or controller of education, acting as the Chief Executive, must understand and acknowledge that people can produce results. Therefore, understanding the employees’ motivation is central to each organization (Onen and Maicibi, 2004 ). It is necessary to understand their factors to train high-quality teachers, acting as a motivational tool. Based on several studies, employees can be motivated in two ways, internal and external, derived from different distinctive forms of rewards. Internal motivation drives oneself for self-satisfaction, also known as self-determined motivation. According to Collie and Martin ( 2017 ), teacher motivation can be defined as the primary motive for teachers’ engagement in teaching, which might vary in how self-determined they are (Ryan and Deci, 2000a ).

In contrast, external motivation exists when a person is influenced to receive monetary compensation and achievement, known as non-self-determined motivation. Motivating individuals in an organization is essential because it can encourage people’s behavior and actions regarding perceived goals. As believed by Panda and Mohanty ( 2003 ), it is generally accepted that teachers’ job performance plays a significant role in terms of the educational learning of students and their academic performance. In the present economic world, where competitiveness is at its peak, employers have realized that teachers’ job performance plays a vital role in schools’ move toward success. Also, various kinds of employee-related decisions, including job promotion, rotation, job enrichment, and job security, can be measured at all organizational levels regarding performance (Tan Mullins, 2020 ). Despite the significance of motivation in excellent education in an era of profound transition toward the more learning-oriented approach, empirical research on the motivational components of teachers has gotten very little attention. However, the researchers discovered a favorable association between instructors’ motivation and job performance and a statistically significant relationship between their motivation and performance (Akhtar et al., 2017 ). An investigation into the educational system in Pakistan also looked at the connection between employee performance and the efficiency of training, and intrinsic motivation. The sample used here included staff from both private and public schools, and it revealed that employee behavior varied depending on their demographics and work environment. However, more research is still needed (Shahzadi et al., 2014 ). In schools, teachers lack motivation, and as a result, they are less prepared, directly influencing students and the educational structure. In Sindh, Pakistan, few studies have been conducted on teacher recognition in private-sector schools. As a result, the primary goal of this study was to investigate the impact of teachers’ motivation on teachers’ job performance to assist in the attainment of educational excellence in private schools. In the past, studies have been done in different sectors of Pakistan and other regions. Still, in Mirpurkhas city of Pakistan, there seems to be a research gap concerning the educational sector because this study is not performed before since there is no high competition has been seen. Hence, teachers get little attention, so their performance might be compromised. This study will fill this gap by identifying factors that motivate teachers and influence teachers’ job performance and how they can be effectively implemented to increase teachers’ job performance in the Mirpurkhas City of Pakistan and can increase the quality of education.

From this perspective, this research endeavors to recognize the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance in Pakistan, keeping in mind the end goal to address issues emerging from motivational methodologies in educational settings. The research model and hypotheses were examined using data from the Mirpurkhas, Sindh, Pakistan private schools, based on a literature review from earlier related studies. Therefore, this study aims to answer three research questions: (1) How does self-determined motivation contribute to teachers’ job performance at private schools? (2) How does non-self-determined motivation affects teachers’ job performance at private schools? And (3) To what extent do factors influencing teachers’ motivation impact the teachers’ job performance in private schools? To answer these questions, the quantitative method is used in this study. A questionnaire has been adopted to gather relevant information that can be utilized to assess the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the impact of motivation on teachers’ job performance and factors affecting teachers’ motivation to restore the situation. The study will be meaningful to educational policy formulators and other participants who will be able to incorporate the motivational factors and their effect on job performance in Pakistan. Implanting the best possible human resources practices relating to the dilemma of teachers’ motivation, stipulating reforms in educational policies for addressing evolving matters in the arena.

Literature review

The literature review explains the research process. The first step in empirically examining the planned research was identifying the factors. Various resources were reviewed for this goal to find motivation and job performance elements. Pakistan gained independence in 1947, and its entire educational system was designed to develop a class of people who intended to work for the bureaucracy to maintain the country’s old socioeconomic structure. The colonial powers established the socioeconomic framework to exploit the subcontinent’s inhabitants. Pakistan has made considerable progress toward the goal of universal primary education. Still, significant inequalities in learning levels continue between public and private schools and between rural and urban areas. The diversity in teaching quality between educational institutions is one of the primary causes of these inequities. Among the many issues is a shortage of skilled teachers, particularly topic specialists, inequality in the distribution of teachers throughout schools, school personnel, low teacher accountability, and inadequate training opportunities and incentive systems. In Pakistan, a lack of chances and incentives for professional development and career advancement has made teaching an unappealing career choice. High teacher turnover and a lengthy replacement process worsen teacher deployment issues in schools with low status, low wages, and insufficient working conditions. To remove gaps in pupil-teacher ratios and diminish multi-grade teaching, a more regular spatial pattern of teachers is required throughout school levels and schools at each level. Schools in major urban areas frequently have excess teachers, whereas schools in socioeconomically poor areas have teacher shortages.

The primary purpose of the examination was to discover a structure and several often expressed elements. Despite the substantial research on motivational dynamics on teacher effectiveness, several areas remain unexplored, opening up various study possibilities. Self-determined, non-self-determined, and factors affecting teachers’ motivation are possible important terms that reflect teachers’ desire to learn and incorporate new information. According to de Jesus and Lens ( 2005 ), teacher motivation is critical for educational managers and leaders since it impacts student motivation. The teacher’s performance will be at its highest level in carrying out their responsibilities if motivation is maintained (Brandmiller et al., 2020 ). The way a person reacts to their environment at work determines their basis. Whether partially or concurrently, work motivation has a good and significant impact on teachers’ performance (Rofifah et al., 2021 ).

It is believed that intrinsically motivated teachers concentrate on the benefits of activities directly related to teaching, emphasizing the intrinsic satisfaction they derive from their work. On the other hand, Extrinsically driven teachers are more likely to seek out other perks such as time off, income, and other extrinsic rewards associated with their profession. The impact of intrinsic motivation on teacher job performance was discovered in Mary’s ( 2010 ) research. The findings revealed a significant positive association between intrinsic motivation and teachers’ job performance, implying that as intrinsic motivation rises, so does teachers’ job performance. While S.H. Shaikh et al. ( 2019 ) in research paper found that all external factors positively and significantly impact employees. This survey provides extensive information on the importance of external factors in illuminating employees’ job performance. Obilade ( 1999 ) concluded that a teacher’s work performance may be defined as the tasks and obligations a teacher fulfils at a given time to achieve objectives and goals in the educational system (Aktar et al., 2012 ) conducted studies on the impact of rewards on employees’ performance in Bangladesh. The findings revealed a positive relationship between rewards and employees’ performance and showed a highly positive significance in the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Furthermore, Tasya and Gilang ( 2020 ) conducted a study, and the results showed that motivation significantly impacts employee performance. Moreover, Nurun Nabi et al. ( 2017 ) found that if employees are positively motivated, their effectiveness and efficiency can be significantly improved to accomplish organizational goals. Other studies conducted by Nurun Nabi et al. ( 2017 ), Robescu and Iancu ( 2016 ), and Somsa-ard ( 2016 ) have recognized the rationale of work motivation on employees’ performance. However, they are limited in scope as they consist of a single organization and accumulate results based on a small sample size and descriptive statistics. The demands for satisfying motivating requirements have not been met, and most teachers tend to feel less motivated by motivational phenomena (Rodrigo and Palacios, 2021 ). This is a result of the education administration system’s ineffective implementation, particularly concerning the education administration system’s prioritization of the quality of human resources, specifically for teachers, who still do not meet the requirements to support initiatives to enhance performance and the level of education (Kudasheva et al., 2015 ).

According to the literature review, researchers have focused on a few factors. However, there is still a need to include other factors, such as self-determined motivation, non-self-determined motivation, and factors influencing teachers’ motivation. Therefore, the proposed research will fill this gap and examine how these factors influence teachers’ job performance in private schools.

Motivation and teachers’ job performance

Modern technological advancement and economic policies have redesigned teachers’ and students’ roles in Pakistan’s educational sector. Educational institutions face significant problems regarding theories, practices, methods, and concepts. Motivation is perhaps the essential element that the educational sector considers to enhance learning. Teachers’ needs must be carefully considered for a country to achieve high-quality standards (Ofojebe and Ezugoh, 2010 ). The future of our education system rests in the hands of teachers, who have to learn and determine the quality of the instruction given to learners. A teacher who is driven at work will therefore make every effort to finish the responsibilities assigned to him by his superiors. A highly motivated teacher will attempt to accomplish his goals and complete the task in the interim. Competence, motivation, and the learning environment either directly or indirectly have a favorable and significant impact on teacher performance and antecedent relationship variables on educational quality. Including how well instructors perform and how that affects the standard of education (Mulang, 2021 ). Maslow stated (Sutrisno and Sunarsi, 2019 ) that the motivation is to create the driving force behind the stimulation of work to collaborate, work effectively, and integrate into their job satisfaction efforts.

However, Matsson and Dahlqvist ( 2013 ) assert that motivation is an essential tool for improving and retaining employee performance in the organization. According to Herzberg and others ( 1968 ), motivational factors are related to the capacity of the job, such as job challenges, responsibilities, achievements, remembrance, promotion, responsibility, and growth. These factors affect personal motivation, performance, or satisfaction (Ott, 1989 ). According to Aworemi et al. ( 2011 ), when employees are interested and happy in their work, they are motivated and perform well. The well-known psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan proposed the theory of self-determination in 1985. They revolutionized a motivation theory that posits that individuals tend to become influenced by achievement and growth needs. SDT connects individual motivation, personality (Ryan and Deci, 2000b ), and optimal function (Ryan and Deci, 2000b ). It proposes two essential kinds of motivation, namely self-determined motivation and non-self-determined motivation, which tend to have strong forces that build ourselves and how we behave (Deci and Ryan, 2004 ).

Description of potential variables

Self-determined motivation (sdm).

Self-determined motivation is an essential element of SDT given by Ryan and Deci ( 2000 ) that explores individual motivation and personality concerned with how individuals act regarding the social environment. Intrinsic motivation prevails in work and brings individuals personal satisfaction, such as spending preference, empowerment, trust, autonomy, and recognition (Benati and Coccia, 2018 ). Self-determined motivation (SDM) incorporates intrinsic motivation. It drives the idea of intrinsic motivation, which highlights how an individual responds in different situations and assists in developing one’s cognitive capabilities and identified regulation (IDEN). Which is concerned with carrying out an activity because people tend to recognize its meaning and worth and consider it its act, while the integrated principle (INTEG) is one in which individuals recognize the value of the activity to such an extent that it becomes part of their self. It involves various factors based on the assumption that teachers actively acclimate themselves for personal growth and competence, enabling them to perform tasks with greater interest and pleasure.

Non-self-determined motivation (NSDM)

Non-self-determined motivation is a component of SDT (Ryan and Deci, 2000b ), which undermines the concept of individuals’ extrinsic motivation. It expounds that individuals behave to obtain something from outside or due to coercive pressures (Emeka et al., 2015 ). They suggested that outside factors tend to increase the motivation of employees, which eventually improves job performance positively, concerning an increase in productivity. A teacher is said to be non-self-determined and motivated when he performs to earn money, achieve, or meet the expectations of others. Non-self-determined motivation (NSDM) includes Amotivation (AMO), which is placed at number one. Individuals either have no willingness to act or take passive or submissive action. Following external regulation (ER) is to perform the activities with the expectation of obtaining external rewards. Next is introjected regulation (INTRO); the behavior is modified by self-worth conditions such as modesty or self-esteem. Teachers engaging in tasks or activities external to them and putting them into action for achieving some reward or instrumental reason are referred to as non-self-determined motivation.

Factors influencing teachers’ motivation (FITM)

Teachers’ motivation plays a significant role in advancing teaching and learning excellence.

Diverse motivational variables influence teachers’ job performance and can help them stay employed for a long time, such as a fair promotion system, strong leadership practices, and a reward system. Training and development are concerned with providing training opportunities to improve skills. At the same time, situational work factors refer to a good working environment and good educational policies to motivate teachers and improve their job performance. Toth et al. ( 2000 ) argued that the administration must establish an environment where teachers feel highly motivated and valuable.

Hypothesis development and conceptual framework

Based on past studies, the following hypotheses are proposed in this study

H1: Self-Determined motivation has a relationship with teachers’ job performance.

H2: Non-self-determined motivation has an impact on teachers’ job performance.

H3: Factors influencing teachers’ motivation impact teachers’ job performance.

Research methodology

Research design, sampling size, and data.

The study aimed to unveil the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance at private schools; the reason for choosing private schools was the massive competition among the private schools in Mirpurkhas city, as it will be easy for policymakers to implement the recommendations. The study adopted primarily quantitative research methodology by descriptive-correlation type. The study has adopted a survey questionnaire as a primary data collection technique by keeping the research objectives in view. Additionally, secondary data was acquired from books, the internet, reports, and journals. Figure 1 , depicts the conceptual framework.

Conceptual Framework.

When selecting tools for research in the study, the researcher made sure that the chosen instruments were suitable by considering the literacy level and accessibility of the target respondents. Data was collected from the Mirpurkhas City of, Pakistan, and private school teachers in the region were targeted in this research. The estimated known population of 52 schools consisted of 606 teachers. The researcher selected 37 registered private schools based on random sampling. According to the PLS-SEM sample size rule of thumb with 0.8 statistical significance, the minimum sample size was 153. To produce more accurate results, the researcher disseminated 433 questionnaires in the 37 schools, of which 405 filled questionnaires were received. The questionnaire was written in English, which teachers easily understand per their qualifications. The researcher provided a questionnaire to respondents and gave them adequate time to complete the questionnaire. The purpose was to help the respondents by clarifying the questions and overcoming the difficulty in items to acquire a reasonable response rate. The questionnaire is divided into two sections; the first section incorporates respondents’ demographic information (e.g., age, gender, marital status, and qualification). At the same time, the second section included variables that consisted of 35 items segregated into four different components, including self-determined motivation, non-self-determined motivation, factors influencing teachers’ motivation, and job performance. Table 1 depicts the demographic information of respondents.

Measurement of variables

This study incorporated four variables, whereas the indicators and scales used in this study are adopted with slight modifications from previous literature as they are ingrained in their corresponding arena. Seven Point Likert Scale has been used to collect the responses (ranging from 1 representing “strongly disagree” to 7 representing “strongly agree”) to measure the items of a particular research variable. Seven-point Likert scales are more valid, easy to use, and representative of respondents’ actual opinions. Considering these advantages, 7-point questions are the ideal choice for surveys like those used in different fields of study, particularly in comparison with higher-order items. Lewis ( 1993 ) discovered that 7-point scales had a stronger relationship with t -test findings. The questionnaire is composed of a total of 35 questions and is divided into different sections. The scale and instrument of the questionnaire on motivation, which contains 14 items that comprise self-determined motivation and non-self-determined motivation, were adapted from Blais inventory of work motivation (BIWM) given by Tremblay et al. ( 2009 ) with slight modification and omnibus survey of Canadian Forces (CF). The factors influencing teachers’ motivation consist of 12 items adopted from other studies (Nyakundi, 2012 ). At the same time, the job performance contained nine items and was adapted from the psychometric scale (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988 ).

Data analysis and results

The study was endorsed by applying a quantitative analysis method in which empirical values are mathematically presented and manipulated to identify and explain the occurrence reflected by those observations (Babbie, 2004 ). The researcher applied statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) for presentation, summary, and reporting to calculate descriptive statistics, correlation, and regression. Further confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used for the path analysis through structural equation model (SEM) and FIMIX-PLS analysis using Smart PLS to accomplish research objectives.

Descriptive statistics and correlation

Table 2 demonstrates the descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation of all four variables with each other. As the correlation table shows all the positive values, the results indicate all independent variables have a positive relationship with the dependent variable. The dependent variable job performance is positively associated with self-determined motivation ( r  = 0.374, p  < 0.01) and follows a strong relationship with non-self-determined motivation ( r  = 0.622, p  < 0.01) and a significant relationship with factors influencing teachers’ motivation ( r  = 0.424, p  < 0.01). Correlation values are not >0.80, indicating that no multicollinearity exists. While mean values lie in the range of 5.86–6.05, which shows that mean values are more significant than mean values, and standard deviation lies between 0.81 and 0.77, which is an indication of low standard deviation and means that responses do not deviate from the mean and they are close to mean.

Structural equation model

According to Hoyle ( 1995 ), structural equation modeling (SEM) is considered a comprehensive statistical modeling tool to examine multivariate data related to problematic relationships between variables. According to Gerbing and Anderson ( 1988 ), the confirmatory factor analysis is to understand the path analysis of the structural model and check the measurement model. According to Wold et al. ( 2006 ), the structural model incorporates a PLS algorithm, and the measurement model consists of PLS bootstrapping. The PLS algorithm determines the validity and reliability of data. It generates the factor loading of all the variables to determine the relationship between variables, while PLS bootstrapping is considered a nonparametric process proposed by Efron and Tibshirani ( 1997 ) and Hinkin ( 1998 ). It is used for statistical testing the significance of different SEM results such as R square values, t -statistics, beta and path coefficients and p -values.

Reliability and validity analysis

This study is supported by applying different analysis methods to test reliability and validity, such as reliability and validity analysis and discriminant validity. The output illustrated in Table 3 shows the reliability test of all the variables. However, Cronbach’s alpha value >0.8, shown in Fig. 2 , also reflects the excellent acceptance of the data and ensures internal consistency in the responses (Bland and Altman, 1997 ). Cronbach alpha’s value lies between 0.834 and 0.910, more significant than the threshold value suggested by Hinkin ( 1998 ) and reveals excellent data consistency. The rho_A and composite reliability values are between 0.868 and 0.915, which is higher than the reference value recommended by Nunnally ( 1994 ). According to Hair et al. ( 2014 ), the value of AVE should be >0.5, which shows the existence of convergent validity among the data, and it also indicates that at least 50% of the variance was acquired by the constructs as suggested by Bagozzi and Yi ( 1988 ) and Chin, others ( 1998 ). Hence all four variables possess more than their threshold values and provide excellent data validity. Table 4 illustrates the discriminant validity. According to Carmines and Zeller ( 1979 ), Discriminant validity can be described as a single construct that differs from other model constructs. The Heterotrait–Monotrait (HTMT) ratio was used to calculate discriminant validity. According to research, the HTMT ratio, which has two different cutoff values of 0.85 or 0.90 for interpreting the ratio, is a superior option to test discriminant validity than the frequently employed Fornell–Larcker criterion (Henseler et al., 2016 ). All values were significantly lower than this tolerance threshold, which we used as a cutoff value of 0.85 to establish the discriminant validity of our results (see Table 4 ). In light of this, the measuring model showed acceptable convergent validity, reliability, and discriminant validity.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis.

The results of the exploratory factor analysis are referred to as the measurement model for all latent variables, followed by factor loading for all variables, as depicted in Fig. 2 , which is accomplished using smart PLS. The study consists of four variables, SDM, NSDM, FITM, and JP, including 34 items. According to Hair et al. ( 2014 ), things having factor loading below 0.50 should be removed from the model. By considering this measurement level, all the items have more than 0.50 loading except one item.

The figure shows the coefficient of determination R Square for the dependent variable job performance is 0.463, which means that all the other independent variables, such as SDM, NSDM, and FITM, explain 46.3% of job performance variance is linked with motivation and can be predicted from them. While NSDM with 49.7% variation in JP, FITM with 21.8% variation in JP, and SDM with 13.2% variation in JP. Therefore, the results indicate that the hypothetical path relationship between SDM, NSDM, and FITM with JP is statistically significant. Moreover, the effect size suggested by Cohen ( 1988 ) is as follows: 0.02–0.12, weak; 0.13–0.25, moderate; and 0.26 and above, substantial. Results in Table 5 show that NSDM and FITM have significant effect sizes, whereas NSDM has a small effect size. Furthermore, bootstrapping of all four variables was performed on the smart PLS. Bootstrapping is done to generate T -values and test the study’s hypothesis along with the confidence interval for all the indicators of the constructs. Following the results exhibited, the T -value of SDM is 3.225 > 1.96, and the p -value of <0.05 reveals positive and significant results and validates H1, while the T -value of NSDM is 8.745 > 1.96 with significant p -value and shows the significant relationship and supports H2. Moreover, FITM has an immense influence on teachers’ job performance, with a T -value of 4.348 > 1.96 and a significant p -value as per our assumption, thus validating H3. Hence, all results show the positive and strong relationship of JP with SDM, NSDM, and FITM and reveal that motivation exceptionally contributes to improving teachers’ job performance concerning developing interest at work, job security, job satisfaction, rewards, performance appraisal and training and development and therefore improving the overall educational system.

FIMIX-PLS analysis

Hahn et al. ( 2002 ) created the FIMIX-PLS methodology to measure the heterogeneity of a predetermined number of segments following the validation of the measurement and structural models. The FIMIX-PLS procedure (Mikalef et al., 2020 ; Sarstedt et al., 2022 ) has been employed by multiple researchers to distinguish groups. It makes it possible to recognize unobserved heterogeneity and classify groups that can then be used for multigroup analysis. Drawing on the idea of mixture regression, FIMIX-PLS has been developed as a solution to simultaneously estimate group-specific path coefficients and determine each individual’s segment membership (Ringle et al., 2009 ; Sarstedt et al., 2016 ). This method is the only one to provide researchers with the ability to determine how many segments should be extracted from the data, making it a critical tool in the process (Sarstedt et al., 2017 ). Each observation is given towards the Segment with the highest probability by the multi-stage method called FIMIX-PLS, which shows undetected heterogeneity.

Since the total number of segments is initially unknown, the first step is to determine the ideal number by following the G power method, the required number of the sample at the 5% significance level (Cohen, 1992 ). By dividing the sample size by 55, we have 405/55 405/55, which equals a maximum of 7.36 segments (~7).

The absence of heterogeneity is required to combat incorrect interpretation (Becker et al., 2013 ; Jedidi et al., 1997 ). We simultaneously confirm the unobserved heterogeneity due to Hypothesis 3. With the use of PLS-SEM, there are numerous ways to find unobserved heterogeneity. The best strategy, according to Hair et al. ( 2017 ); Sarstedt et al. ( 2011 ), is FIMIX-PLS (Hahn et al., 2002 ; Hair et al., 2021 ; Matthews et al., 2016 ) calculated in Tables 6 and 7 . It is necessary to stay away from the local best solution (Sarstedt et al., 2011 ). Results for segment sizes ranging from one to seven were computed using FIMIX-PLS.

Initially, the FIMIX-PLS algorithm is performed with a one-segment model for increasing segments. There is a requirement for a two-segment solution even if BIC, AIC, AIC3, and CAIC have a sufficient number of over-segmentation propensity (Sarstedt et al., 2011 ). The normed entropy (en) criterion demonstrates the best outcome with two segments (0.515). PLS-SEM results for the large and small segments are noticeably different. Segment 1 has a substantially more significant correlation (0.752) between non-self-determined motivation and job performance than segment 2. (0.302). Compared to segment 1, the association between factors affecting teachers’ motivation and job performance was substantially stronger (0.18) in section 2 (0.138). Segment 2 (0.183) has a stronger correlation between self-determination motivation and job performance than Segment 1. (0.108). Total effect results demonstrate that non-self-determined motivation is less significant with job performance in Segment 2 (0.752) than in Segment 1. Factors influencing teachers’ motivation have a higher impact on job performance (0.18) in segment 2 than in segment 1 (0.138).

This research’s primary objective is to highlight the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance at private schools. The present study collected the data through a survey questionnaire using a random sampling technique from Mirpurkhas City, Pakistan, private school. After reviewing the extent of related literature, three research hypotheses have been formulated to support the study hence identifying and analyzing the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance in private schools. This research is one of the rare research conducted in this region that includes different predictors regarding motivation. This study explores the contribution of self-determined motivation, the influence of non-self-determined motivation, and factors affecting teachers’ motivation on teachers’ job performance. The results of research hypothesis one revealed that self-determined motivation significantly impacts teachers’ job performance with significant results. It concludes that teachers perform well when satisfied and feel pleasure. This study aligns with the SDT, which states that meeting one’s psychological needs optimizes performance (Ryan and Deci, 2000b ). Self-determined motivation increases employee motivation and encourages positive results such as well-being, commitment, and engagement. The researcher revealed that self-determined work motivation predicts job outcomes (Lam and Gurland, 2008 ). In the teachers’ daily performance, the significance of motivation cannot be overlooked, particularly when one is honored for getting rewards for the work performed and feeling contentment on the job. It is generally well-known that any form of individual will be enhanced by increasing motivation. It is valuable to consider that motivation plays an essential role in teachers’ daily performance in private schools.

The findings of research hypothesis two showed that non-self-determined motivation has a significant relationship with teachers’ job performance. It presents that once teachers are externally motivated in terms of job security, rewards and compensation for their performance become high. The results are relevant to the previous study conducted by Khwaja et al. ( 2018 ) discovered that all external factors positively and significantly influence employees. Hence, it is evident that any form of performance is an outcome of encouragement received from the organization, which eventually improves their performance and increases productivity.

The results of research hypothesis three disclosed that factors influencing teachers’ motivation significantly impact job performance. It showed that factors that motivate teachers are a fair promotion system, adequate resources, a good working environment, incentives, high employee salaries, supervision practices, training and development, good organizational guidelines, and performance appraisal. Here the findings of the study agreed with the study conducted by Forson et al. ( 2021 ), who concluded that motivational factors such as Employee compensation, job design, performance management and atmosphere are significant predictors of teachers’ job performance at schools. Moreover, the study found that training and development significantly influence teachers’ job performance; these findings are similar to the results presented by Asim ( 2013 ), which showed that training contributes significantly to increasing employees’ job performance. The study observed that job satisfaction is essential in improving teachers’ performance. These findings are similar to the results examined by Bishay ( 1996 ) in that teachers tend to be more satisfied when their higher needs, such as self-esteem and recognition, are fulfilled. Uche et al. ( 2011 ), looked into the link between motivational factors and a teacher’s job performance, and the results revealed a significant association between motivating factors and teacher job performance. These researchers concluded that teachers who are motivated to perform better. This study aligns with these studies and reveals that motivational factors greatly influence teachers’ job performance. Therefore, the administration should enable the overall staff to conceptualize problems that affect the school and discover permanent solutions. Once everyone is engaged in developing the solution, they can be motivated to actively participate in resolving such problems, which will eventually promote teamwork and lead to a rise in productivity.

Conclusion and recommendation

This research mainly investigates the influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance. It examines the factors that hugely influence teachers’ motivation. The hypothesis was tested using 405 responses from private schools in Pakistan. The results of this study support the hypothesis and demonstrate that self-determined motivation, non-self-determined motivation, and factors affecting teachers’ motivation play a vital role in teachers’ job performance since all predictors are significant in job performance. Employees can be motivated by participation and accomplishment when their values are integrated with the organizational goals (Lau and Roopnarain, 2014 ). The findings prove that the factors that motivate teachers are a fair promotion system, adequate resources, an excellent working environment, incentives, income, job security, pleasure at work, training, and development, good organizational guidelines, and performance appraisal. This study also has some limitations. This study was limited to the Mirpurkhas City of Pakistan; hence, the researcher suggested that the same research should be carried out in different regions of Pakistan or abroad to investigate the impact of motivation on teachers’ job performance. The study was limited to private schools; hence future research will include public schools too for further exploration of the topic to draw better results and compare both sectors. The study will assist school administrators in identifying the factors that can undermine teachers’ motivation and determine whether or not factors already in place support teachers’ motivation. In terms of offering educational materials, minimizing administrative duties, and offering emotional support, this study will assist principals in helping teachers in various ways. They can give teachers options concerning how they want to structure their work to reduce workload, provide teachers with options. Like how they want to organize and interact with the educational curriculum, give teachers constructive criticism about how they teach and how they might support their students’ autonomy, and provide teachers with step-by-step instructions and a way to monitor their growth as teachers.

Further research can consolidate the different techniques of samplings since this research has adopted random sampling, and we encourage future researchers to examine additional variables that influence teachers’ job performance. The influence of gender can be studied as a moderator while determining the impact of motivation on teachers’ job performance. It will benefit educational policy and decision-makers to incorporate the policies for motivational factors to achieve desired outcomes.

Policy implications

The results generated from the study will have a practical implementation in the administration of private schools, educational policy constructer, Ministry of Education, government officials, academicians, teachers’ associations, and other researchers to seek a pertinent framework to intensify positive determinants while addressing deficiencies. The study will also be meaningful to educational policy formulators and other participants who will be able to incorporate the motivational factors and their effect on job performance in Pakistan. Moreover, the factors prevailing in high performance and the reasons behind low performance will guide management decision-making. The results obtained from this study will facilitate the development of effective administration policy and tactics that will contribute to achieving the institutional objectives and thus strengthen the overall education system. This study may increase the teacher’s performance by motivating factors to improve the instructional framework. The study could be helpful since it could help people understand the significance of motivation and how it affects private school instructors’ productivity and effectiveness. The study’s motivational components could improve the instructional structure and teacher performance. The nature of the current investigation makes it crucial. The present study paradigm has received less attention in Asian contexts, particularly in Pakistan’s Mirpurkhas region. Academicians and other researchers may use the findings to conduct additional research on the best practical strategy for boosting teachers’ motivation. The Ministry of Education will use the findings to improve teacher incentive strategies. Moreover, the study’s findings will help department heads and principals identify elements that irritate teachers and enforce conformity where it is necessary.

Data availability

The authors made the data available in the supplementary files.

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kumari, J., Kumar, J. Influence of motivation on teachers’ job performance. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 158 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01662-6

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Original research article, impact of principal leadership styles on teacher job performance: an empirical investigation.

• 1 Faculty of Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
• 2 Department of English Language and Literature, College of Science and Humanities at Sulail, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia
• 3 Department of English, College of Science and Humanities at Al Kharj, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Al Kharj, Saudi Arabia

This study is intended to investigate the relationship and effect of principal leadership styles on teacher job performance at public secondary schools in Faisalabad city, Punjab, Pakistan. Given a correlational design purpose, data were assembled by drawing a sample of 102 principals and 512 teachers through self-administered questionnaires. The first instrument titled “Questionnaire for Principal Leadership Style” (QPLS) comprises three subscales, all reflecting a high degree of internal consistency, namely, autocratic leadership (α = 0.832), democratic leadership (α = 0.759), and laissez-faire leadership (α = 0.852). The second tool, Questionnaire for Teacher Job Performance (QTJP), also indicates good reliability (α = 0.813). Regarding the verification of the research questions and hypotheses, percentages, multiple regression, and Pearson's correlation coefficient were subsequently performed at the significance level of p < 0.05. As the findings attest, 59.3% of the variation in teacher job performance was statistically explained as the result of shared involvement of principal autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles. The results also revealed that the autocratic leadership constituted the largely exercised style, significantly exerting a strong and positive impact on teacher job performance, while the impact of laissez-faire leadership style was either problematic or unhelpful. Ultimately, the findings suggest that the principals under study should leverage a wise integration of leadership styles according to specific circumstances of their respective schools.

Introduction

The school conditions and role of leadership are widely listed as essential mediations to foster advancement, modernization, changes, and innovations in capacity building and teaching and learning practices ( Hallinger and Heck, 1996 ; Schleicher, 2015 ; Lee et al., 2019 ; Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2021 ). School leadership is inextricably linked to the everyday school operation as the key education driver of change and success or even a source of failure ( Kafka, 2009 ; Day and Sammons, 2016 ). Efficient leadership that consistently aligns school missions and visions with actions is the cornerstone to build effective schools ( Gurr et al., 2006 ; Werang and Lena, 2014 ). Thus, given the achievement of national educational goals and improved organizational performance, it is imperative to nurture schools with effective leadership.

Principals and teachers constitute the primary sources of effective leadership in educational institutions that lead to improve student academic achievement ( Day and Sammons, 2016 ; Fackler and Malmberg, 2016 ; Parveen et al., 2021 ). However, it is remarkably observed through prior studies that the principals' direct/indirect influence on student success is amid considerable controversy of positive and negative ( Tan, 2014 ; Hallinger and Ko, 2015 ; Wu et al., 2020a , b ). The salient credit then goes to teachers for the students' personal and intellectual development in educational institutes ( DuFour and Marzano, 2011 ). Equally significant, teachers' leadership and their instructions matter most to student academic achievement ( Sebastian and Allensworth, 2019 ). Thus, obviously, the school administration must be held accountable for facilitating and improving modern knowledge management and classroom instructions that likely optimize educational achievement and enhance teacher job performance ( Antony et al., 2012 ; Al-Safran et al., 2014 ; Keddie, 2015 ; Parveen et al., 2022 ).

As a preferred topic for global researchers, employee job performance has always been empirically proved to be related to leaders' behaviors and their leadership styles ( Bryman, 2011 ; Morrison, 2011 ; Haque et al., 2015 ; Younas et al., 2022 ). Specifically, considerable research reveals that principal leadership styles and teacher job performance are considerably tangled to each other (refer to Adeyemi, 2010 ; Imhangbe et al., 2018 ; Saleem et al., 2020 ). An extensive review of rigorous studies discloses that teacher performance certainly exerts a constructive and optimistic effect on student success under the shared vision and cooperation of leadership ( Awamleh and Gardner, 1999 ; Hallinger and Heck, 2011 ; Gumus et al., 2013 ). Accordingly, principals greatly affect the instructional and non-instructional functioning of teachers, which in turn directly contributes to student attainment ( Cheng, 1994 ; Leithwood et al., 2010 ). In most instances, setting directions, counseling services, mentoring, coaching, and developing faculty provided by school leadership are frequently listed at the top of interventions for boosting up teacher job performance and assisting teachers in addressing institutional challenges ( Schleicher, 2015 ; Welch and Hodge, 2018 ; Saleem et al., 2020 ). Obviously, effective leaders build up their teachers for upcoming challenges and vision ( Tomlinson, 2004 ; Phuc et al., 2021 ). Thus, Tobin (2014) posited that school principals are currently trying to bring quality in teacher competencies by facilitating them to a greater extent under their supervision. These two intertwined variables probably strengthen the value of educational development in the world.

Still, an unfavorable leadership style adopted by a leader may hinder teachers from achieving shared favorable objectives ( Bickmore and Dowell, 2018 ). Numerous teachers voluntarily leave the profession due to the adverse behaviors of school heads ( Jones and Watson, 2017 ; Bickmore and Dowell, 2018 ). Some are failing to offer excellent performance or educate students due to principal leadership vulnerability ( Oplatka and Arar, 2018 ). Accordingly, the performance and results of schools are also coming down due to the shortage and unavailability of strong leadership and qualified teachers. Theoretically, a teacher's role in the educational system is clearly stated in Pakistan's National Education Plans and Policies ( Punjab Government, 2012 ; Demir and Qureshi, 2019 ; Rizvi and Khamis, 2020 ). Unluckily, the social acceptability and image of teachers in Pakistan are getting worse these days, and teacher expertise is falling gradually due to several underlying causes ( Aslam, 2013a , b ; Özü et al., 2017 ). For instance, conflict-affected local contexts and the involvement of politics in teacher transfers and appointments also constitute the most often cited reasons for the decline in local teachers' efficiency and professionalism ( Ali, 2011 ; Chaudary and Imran, 2012 ; Nadeem et al., 2013 ; Halai and Durrani, 2018 ). Furthermore, Pakistani teachers do not enjoy much intellectual freedom, authority, independence, and satisfaction as compared to other professions ( Ghazi and Maringe, 2011 ; Malik et al., 2011 ; De Talancé, 2017 ; Ali, 2018 ). Interestingly, the mainstream media is constantly distressing the local teachers in terms of their performance. As a result, teacher shortage, gradually decreasing teacher status, and declining level of satisfaction and enthusiasm from teaching occupation consistently urge local and global researchers to pay attention to these issues ( Ali, 2018 ; Rizvi and Khamis, 2020 ).

Specifically, this study is intended to measure the impact of various principal leadership styles on the job performance of teachers currently serving their duties in secondary schools in the main province of Punjab, Pakistan. In fact, although extensive research has addressed the phenomenon from different perspectives and in different cultures, it remains a mystery that has not yet been satisfactorily solved. The linkage between principal leadership styles and teacher job performance is still largely unexplored in Pakistan ( Quraishi and Aziz, 2018 ; Maqbool et al., 2019 ; Yasmin et al., 2019 ; Saleem et al., 2020 ). Especially, public secondary school teachers in numerous Pakistani cities, i.e., Faisalabad, Punjab, are in dire need of substantial improvement with regards to their working conditions and job performance. Thus, with respect to education in Pakistan, more exposition is imperative to ascertain how and what style of leadership positively or negatively affects teacher job performance in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

The study findings have both theoretical and managerial contributions. First, the study helps build upon the educational and organizational literature regarding leadership and employee job performance. In addition, the study findings are expected to be considerably useful for principals, teachers, educational planners, and policymakers alike. This study contributes not only to improve school administration but also to prevent the teachers to quit their jobs, which constitutes a challenge for Punjab Educational Bureau nowadays. Accordingly, this contribution will probably improve the current situation of public secondary school teachers with attempts to effectuate principal leadership and enhance classroom instructions in a structured yet supportive school environment. Additionally, the study helps inform the Educational Bureau of Faisalabad city about the significance of the principals' leadership styles and job performance of their respective teachers. Ultimately, the study may facilitate sustainable collaborative efforts between schools and the local authority that may help decrease turnover and quittance of jobs of secondary school teachers in Faisalabad city. The study would, therefore, make a greater contribution to the ongoing efforts to improve their suffered current situation.

Research Objectives

The main objectives of this study are multifold as follows:

1. To investigate the highly adopted principal leadership styles in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city;

2. To verify the impact of these leadership styles on Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance;

3. To address the substantial correlation between principal leadership styles and Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance; and

4. To investigate which style of leadership is the most suitable to facilitate Faisalabad public secondary school teachers.

Research Questions

The following questions are formulated according to the objectives:

1. Which leadership style is persistently used by the principals in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city?

2. To what extent do the principal leadership styles (i.e., autocratic leadership, democratic leadership, and laissez-faire leadership) impact Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance?

3. How does the principal autocratic leadership style correlate with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance?

4. How does the principal democratic leadership style correlate with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance?

5. How does the principal laissez-faire leadership style correlate with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance?

Research Hypotheses

Based on prior studies and extant literature review, the following null hypotheses are made to conduct the study:

1. There is no considerable effect of principal leadership styles on Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance.

2. Principal autocratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance.

3. Principal democratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance.

4. Principal laissez-fair leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance.

Literature Review

Leadership styles.

Leadership is admittedly defined as the power to facilitate, stimulate, and inspire followers via the useful and efficient provision of institutional resources to implement strategies and achieve shared objectives ( Northouse, 2018 ). Also, leadership is conceptualized as how a leader influences a group to achieve communal goals ( Jaques, 2017 ). Simply put, leaders express a strong preference for close collaboration with the subordinates to extend their mutual interest rather than reliance on their authority to influence the subordinates to obey what has been dictated to them ( Adair, 2007 ; Northouse, 2018 ). The ways in which leaders provide direction, influence, and motivate their subordinates are called styles of leadership. In the educational sector, the pertinence and efficacy of leadership style rest on the functioning state in which school leaders balance their style with devotees' tasks ( Petersen et al., 2015 ; Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2021 ). The leadership styles adopted by the principals are diverse and derived from the foundation of locally cultural associations and the context of school settings ( Hallinger, 2018 ; Miller, 2018 ; Phuc et al., 2020 ). Simply put, principal leadership styles are greatly influenced by various factors, i.e., leader personalities, socioeconomic environment, and school culture; thus, styles and practices of leadership vary according to cultural and geographical differences ( Busher, 2006 ; Hoy and Miskel, 2008 ; Chen et al., 2017 ; Solomon and Steyn, 2017 ).

Through previous empirical research, three basic leadership styles mostly adopted by principals in developing countries are as follows: (i) autocratic leadership style; (ii) democratic or participative leadership style; and (iii) laissez-faire or free-rein leadership style ( Oplatka * , 2004 ; Okoji, 2016 ; Saleem et al., 2020 ). Mumford (2006) argued that most leaders preferably deploy participative and directive styles and endorses the encouragement of democratic leadership style as an alternative to laissez-fair and autocratic leadership styles. The literature review highlights the use or blend of various leadership styles in certain situations, i.e., democratic, autocratic, task-oriented, collegial, or transformational, that enable school leadership to instigate school improvement and reform ( Heck and Hallinger, 2010 ; Kiboss and Jemiryott, 2014 ; Sebastian and Allensworth, 2019 ; Hosseingholizadeh et al., 2021 ). Additionally, a conceptual model of school leadership was recently developed typically reliant on three leadership styles, namely, instructional, transformational, and moral, to improve school effectiveness and teacher job performance ( Phuc et al., 2020 ). Moreover, leadership, although being administrators or pedagogical leaders, demands the integration and proficient use of numerous approaches, such as behavioral approach, trait approach, and skills approach, and appropriate leadership styles across different situations or occasions ( Schleicher, 2015 ; Northouse, 2018 ; Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2021 ). Thus, successful school leaders are those who adopt an appropriate leadership style or a mixture of various styles to lead teachers toward the attainment of school goals ( Schleicher, 2015 ; Stevenson et al., 2016 ).

Principal Leadership Styles and Teacher Job Performance

The effective performance, work motivation, and contentment level of employees constitute factors of great importance for all institutions, especially educational organizations ( Ertas, 2015 ; Chen et al., 2017 ; Demircioglu, 2021 ). Previous studies further confirm that the capacity to complete the job tenure and survive a position is due to not only performance or the economic need for employment but also the leadership practices of superiors ( Sun and Wang, 2017 ; Bickmore and Dowell, 2018 ; Lee et al., 2019 ; Baig et al., 2021 ). Ultimately, the leadership role is of great significance in decision-making to inspire subordinates and reach a consensus about how and what their desires to be fulfilled for the achievement of employees' needs and desired objectives ( Kafka, 2009 ). Given teacher morale and performance improvement, certain leadership practices have empirically proved themselves valuable such as effective communication with teachers, well-established principal and teacher relationships, and attention to teacher professionalism ( Lambersky, 2016 ; Terosky, 2016 ). Thus, extant literature suggests that it requires tremendous efforts by both the school administration and teachers to enhance teacher job performance ( Imhangbe et al., 2018 ; Saleem et al., 2020 ). The ethical behavior of organizational leaders plays an important role in promoting work behavior, innovative ideas, and job satisfaction among workers ( Hsiung, 2012 ; Haque and Yamoah, 2021 ).

Adeyemi (2010) investigated principal leadership styles (i.e., democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership) in relation to teacher job performance in senior secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. Using the stratified random sampling technique, the study sample comprised 240 principals and 1,800 teachers. Frequency counts, percentages, Pearson's correlation matrix, and t -test were performed to establish the relationship among study variables. Regarding the study findings, the democratic leadership style constituted the dominant leadership style exercised by the principals under study. Specifically, higher levels of teacher job performance are closely associated with the principals' use of democratic and autocratic leadership styles in certain situations ( p < 0.05). Accordingly, no significant relationship was found between laissez-faire leadership and teacher job performance. The authors recommended that a mixture of autocratic and democratic leadership styles should be encouraged in their school administration to promote better teacher job performance, whereas principal laissez-faire leadership style should be discouraged as it failed to induce better teacher job performance.

The purpose of Werang and Lena's (2014) cross-sectional empirical research was to examine the relationship between principal leadership, school organizational climate, and teacher job performance at public senior high schools in Merauke Regency, Indonesia. The valid sample of 118 senior teachers was determined by Krejcie and Morgan's formula. Survey questionnaires were used to establish the relationship among various study variables. Their study findings revealed that principal leadership was positively significantly correlated with teacher job performance ( r = 0.395, p < 0.001). Additionally, a positive significant relationship was found between school organizational climate and teacher job performance ( r = 0.242, p < 0.001). Specifically, they stated that the favored leadership style was also the presence of autocratic leadership in the studied schools. Similarly, a study by Arar and Oplatka (2015) described a literature review of the previous studies to find the practiced leadership styles of Arab educational leaders, and they provided the results that there is a lack of democratic spirits in the Arab world.

Additionally, Okoji's (2016) correlation study examined the relationship between secondary school principal leadership styles (i.e., democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership) and teacher job performance in selected rural community schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study population comprised 50 principals and 250 teachers via a simple random sampling method. Two questionnaires were employed, namely, Principals' Leadership Assessment Inventory and Teachers' Job Performance Assessment Scale for the principals and teachers, respectively. The results revealed that statistically significant relationships existed between democratic ( r = 0.118) and autocratic ( r = −0.314) leadership styles and teacher job performance ( p < 0.05). The study findings also suggested that a blend of principal autocratic and democratic leadership styles would considerably improve job performance and productivity among Nigerian teachers.

Imhangbe et al. (2018) also examined the impact of principal leadership styles (i.e., democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership) on teacher job performance in public senior secondary schools in Edo, Nigeria. Their correlational design study described a survey of 69 principals and 397 senior teachers using two separately adapted questionnaires. Regression results disclosed that a blend of democratic, autocratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles statistically explained 68.3% of the variance in teacher job performance. Accordingly, democratic and laissez-faire leadership positively significantly impacted teacher job performance ( p < 0.05) with the most prominent strength of democratic leadership style ( r = 0.801), whereas no significant relationship existed between autocratic leadership style and teacher job performance ( p > 0.05). They also recommended the practice of principal democratic leadership style to effectuate teacher job performance in the area of study.

Given the emphasis of administrative influences on teacher job performance of private secondary schools in the Middle East, Saleem et al. (2020) recent study verified the effects of four principal leadership styles (i.e., directive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented leadership styles) on teacher job performance. These leadership styles are conceptualized in the path-goal theory. A sample of 253 middle management staff (i.e., vice principals, section heads, and coordinators) in Lahore, Pakistan, was recruited for empirical correlation data analysis using the structural equation modeling. The findings revealed that the principal directive leadership style exerted the most significant effect on five key indicators (i.e., teaching planning, classroom organization, monitoring and evaluation, classroom atmosphere and discipline, and teacher leadership) of teacher job performance ( p < 0.05), followed by the supportive and achievement-oriented leadership styles. Specifically, the effect of principal participative leadership on teacher job indicators was relatively negative and/or minimal. They also asserted that teachers preferred supportive leadership styles that communicate the school values to key stakeholders. Additionally, they highlighted the establishment of an improved learning environment that is supportive of the ethnic, cultural, and social diversity of Middle East teachers.

Study Materials and Methods

Selection of study design.

The correlational research design was primarily conducted to understand the natural relationship between the study variables ( Gall et al., 2007 ). The objective of the specific utilization of correlational research design for the study was to get a proper prediction of the variables in order to evaluate the correlation between principal leadership styles and teacher job performance. To realize this fine rationale, correlational statistics were performed.

Materials and Methods

The study was limited to only secondary schools of the public sector in Faisalabad city, Punjab province. The population consisted of 538 principals and 1,860 teache ( Supplementary Material ). The random sampling technique was used to draw a sample from the population. Accordingly, 115 principals and 600 teachers were approached to get data, of which 614 respondents (i.e., 102 principals and 512 teachers) finally contributed to the study. For the purpose of data collection, two instruments developed by Imhangbe et al. (2018) were adopted and slightly modified to match the educational context in Pakistan. Accordingly, two separate questionnaires were utilized, namely, (1) Questionnaire for Principal Leadership Style (QPLS) for the teachers to assess their principals' leadership styles and the perceived effect on their job performance and (2) Questionnaire for Teacher Job Performance (QTJP) for the principals to rate their teachers' job performance. The blend of both questionnaires was employed to effectuate the empirical investigation of three leadership styles, namely, autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire, and teacher job performance. The QPLS consists of three parts: Part A for demographic information and Part B containing 18 items, six items for each leadership style, to reveal the generally employed leadership style by the principals. All 18 items are measured on a 3-point Likert scale of “ always = 3,” “ sometimes = 2,” and “ never = 1.” Part C comprised 30 items. Accordingly, the purpose of inclusion of these questions was to examine the association of autocratic leadership (Q1–10), democratic leadership (Q11–20), and laissez-faire leadership (Q21–30) with teacher job performance. These items in Part C are assessed through a 4-point Likert scale with these values of “ strongly disagree = 1,” “ disagree = 2,” “ agree = 3,” and “ strongly agree = 4”.

The second tool, QTJP, was comprised of two portions. The first portion is about participant demographics. The second portion is integrated by five subparts utilizing items from Hsiung (2012) “Teachers' Job Performance Questionnaire.” In their study, Imhangbe et al. (2018) specified five job functions to rate teacher job performance, including teaching lessons, lesson planning, lesson evaluation, handling student discipline, and classroom management. Regarding the context of this study, their job performance evaluation items were adjusted to align with the K-12 Teacher Performance Assessment Report of the Education Department of Faisalabad city. Each category containing three items, thus, makes a total of 15 questions. Respondents indicated their responses using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from “ strongly disagree = 1” to “ strongly agree = 4”. The face and content validity of the instruments was verified by a panel of educational experts. Cronbach's alpha was used to assess the reliability, or internal consistency, of the instruments. The first tool, QPLS, had the coefficient of reliability of 0.832 for the subscale of autocratic leadership, 0.759 for democratic leadership, and 0.852 for laissez-faire leadership. Cronbach's alpha for the second tool, QTJP, was 0.813. All subscales showed good internal reliability of the variables of measurement.

Given the effective instrument administration, the questionnaire guide was written in both English and Urdu. The Urdu language makes the questions clearer for the participants as most of the Punjabis are fluent in Urdu when compared to English. Thus, the questionnaire was translated and written in two languages. Obviously, the type of language used depended on the respondents' preference, aiming at maximizing effective and efficient responses. Regarding instrument administration, the approval for data collection was granted by the Education Department of Faisalabad city, Pakistan. A total of 614 respondents were recruited; accordingly, 512 copies of the first tool were circulated to the teachers, and 102 copies of the second tool were forwarded to the principals, respectively. The researcher devoted 2 months to data collection.

Technique for Data Analysis

After the collection of valid questionnaires, proper statistical tools, i.e., percentages, correlation, and regression analysis, were adopted to check the reliability and ascertain the hypotheses. After data screening, percentages were performed to assess the persistently used principal leadership styles. Additionally, multiple regression analysis was employed to ascertain the first hypothesis. In this study, the regression analysis was performed to envisage the value of the one variable on other variables, i.e., principal leadership style and teacher job performance. Additionally, t -test and ANOVA were calculated to verify the proposed hypotheses. Given the verification of Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4, the Pearson's correlation was employed. For the testing purpose of all hypotheses, the level of significance of alpha ( p < 0.05) was used as the threshold value.

Ethical Consideration

Adherence to ethical guidelines in scientific research is particularly of great significance. For all the schools involved, the researcher first obtained permission from the Punjab Educational Bureau. A detailed description of the questionnaire was also provided to the principals and the teachers. Neither a principal nor a teacher was forced to participate in the study or to fill out the questionnaire. The researcher asked their opinion before distributing the questionnaire. On the data collection sites, the researcher first provided a brief introduction, then proceeded to state the research purpose, approximated the time for getting information, and explained to the respondents how the study results would be used and the availability of the research summary when the research would be finalized. The researcher ensured the respondents about the confidentiality of their responses.

RQ1: Which leadership style is persistently used by public secondary school principals in Faisalabad city?

Table 1 describes the frequent practice of principal leadership styles. Given the practice of principal autocratic leadership style, 319 (62.30%) participants disclosed that their principals allocated the tasks without teacher will and assigned them duties against their will. Notably, 298 (58.20%) respondents confirmed that the decisions of school activities were solely made by the principals themselves without teacher consultancy. Similarly, 291 teachers (56.84%) validated that performance standards and expectations were set solely for teacher accomplishment; thus, they had to fulfill the standards of their principals according to their own set of expectations.

Table 1 . The frequency of principal leadership styles in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

Given the results of principal democratic leadership style, obviously, only 183 (35.74%) participants substantiated that their principals always accepted teachers' recommendations and feedback about school policies and plans, whereas 149 (29.10%) confirmed that mutual discussion was made before setting the cocurricular activities. Similarly, 176 (34.38%) teachers revealed that their principals nurtured a friendly working relationship for all staff members.

Regarding the principal's laissez-faire leadership style, 161 participants (31.45%) confirmed that their principals did not have much interest in day-to-day activities and events. Also, 157 teachers reported that their principals did not supervise classroom performances, whereas 169 respondents (33.01%) remarked that the principals occasionally provided necessary assistance to the teachers to handle work problems and difficulties. The figures and facts in Table 1 undoubtedly and clearly demonstrated that the autocratic leadership style was persistently practiced by public secondary school principals in Faisalabad city.

Hypothesis 1: There is no considerable effect of principal leadership styles on Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance .

It is depicted in Table 2 that the regression coefficient (β) of principal autocratic leadership style is 0.682, demonstrating that this leadership style had a strong positive relationship with teacher job performance, and its effect on teachers was statistically significant ( p < 0.05). Additionally, the regression coefficient (β) of principal democratic leadership style is 0.053, also indicating enough positive relationship existed between this style and teacher job performance, and its effect is statistically substantial ( p < 0.05). Still, the regression coefficient (β) of principal laissez-faire leadership style is −0.263, stating that a negative relationship through laissez-faire style statistically significantly affected teacher job performance ( p < 0.05).

Table 2 . Effect of principal leadership styles on teacher job performance in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

The regression coefficients of 0.682 and 0.053 are the positive indication of the effect of autocratic and democratic leadership styles. Inversely, the regression coefficient of −0.263 is the negative indication of the impact of laissez-faire leadership. Thus, this study provides empirical evidence that principal leadership styles meaningfully and significantly affect teacher job performance, both positive and negative, in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

According to the results of Table 2 , the coefficient of correlation ( r = 0.682) shows that all three leadership styles are moderately and positively associated with teacher job performance. It is also presented that R 2 of 0.593 and adjusted- R 2 of 0.590 indicate that principal leadership styles mutually and jointly determine or explain 59.3% of the dissimilarity in teacher job performance. Also, the value F (2, 918) of 266.493 deduces that all three leadership styles considerably, simultaneously, and communally determine teacher job performance in Faisalabad city.

Hypothesis 2: Principal autocratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance .

Table 3 reveals that the principal autocratic style has a mean score (X) of 2.57 with a standard deviation ( SD ) value of 0.29 from 512 respondents. Also, teacher job performance has a mean score (X) of 2.71 ( SD = 0.27, N = 512). Furthermore, the score of Pearson's correlation coefficient is 0.690 ( p < 0.005), indicating that the principal autocratic leadership and teacher job performance have a positive relationship, or the correlation is statistically significant in public secondary schools in Faisalabad city. Similarly, it is implied that the second null hypothesis, i.e., principal autocratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance , is completely rejected, whereas the p -value and positive Pearson's correlation coefficient are statistically significant. Ultimately, therein lies a strong and positive correlation between the principal autocratic leadership style and teacher job performance in Faisalabad city.

Table 3 . Autocratic leadership style correlation with teacher job performance in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

Hypothesis 3: Principal democratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance .

Similarly, the results in Table 4 illustrate that the mean scores (X) for principal democratic leadership style and teacher job performance are 2.31 ( SD = 0.30) and 3.45 ( SD = 0.39) from the 512 respondents, respectively. Obviously, Pearson's correlation coefficient value is 0.091 ( p = 0.004), approving that this approach to principal leadership has a positive but quite weak correlation with teachers in public secondary schools in Faisalabad city.

Table 4 . Democratic leadership style correlation with job performance of teachers in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city.

Inevitably, it is implied that the third null hypothesis, i.e., principal democratic leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance , is completely rejected. A weak positive correlation, due to a small score of 0.119 as the r coefficient is very close to zero, exists between both investigated variables, whereas the p -value and Pearson's correlation coefficient are statistically positively significant.

Hypothesis 4: Principal laissez-fair leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance .

Table 5 reveals that the mean score (X) of the laissez-faire leadership style is 2.53 ( SD = 0.30) regarding 512 respondents, and teacher job performance has a mean score (X) of 3.09 ( SD = 0.39) for the same sample. Furthermore, Pearson's correlation coefficient value is −0.382 ( p < 0.005), indicating that although this leadership style statistically significantly predicts teacher job performance, it has an inverse or negative correlation. Thus, the last null hypothesis, i.e., principal laissez-fair leadership style does not have a substantial correlation with Faisalabad public secondary school teacher job performance , is completely rejected. Simply put, although there is a significance of p -value, the negative value of Pearson's correlation coefficient discloses that a statistically significant but moderate and reverse correlation is found in both variables, i.e., principal laissez-fair leadership and teacher job performance in public secondary schools in Faisalabad city.

Table 5 . Laissez-faire leadership style correlation with job performance of teachers in public secondary in Faisalabad city.

Consequently, the study outcomes demonstrated that the preferred autocratic leadership style was frequently practiced by the majority of the principals of public secondary schools of Faisalabad city. The study outcome is very consistent with Duze's (2012) study. Accordingly, the most employed principal leadership style was the autocratic leadership in public secondary schools in Nigeria's Delta State. The same finding is also found in the study by Kozaala (2012) , indicating that most of the principals adopted directive communication while giving instructions to the teachers and made key decisions solely in the Kamuli district, Uganda. Most likely, according to Duze's (2012) and Kozaala's (2012) findings, the autocratic leadership style coherently exerts a constructive and positive impact on teacher job performance. Undoubtedly, when considering the studied context of Faisalabad's schools, this leadership style may prove helpful for school administration over proper staff control, especially in the supervision of teachers showing lack of enthusiasm and avoidance of complex targets toward school success. Thus, our finding proved Mwangi's (2013) claim that, to a certain extent, the principal autocratic style would constitute a useful tool to enhance teacher job performance.

Ultimately, the study analysis discloses a substantial relationship between both variables, i.e., principal leadership styles and teacher job performance, in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city. As a result, the impact of principal leadership on teachers is generally identified as positive, negative, and alternative in the studied area. Although the autocratic leadership predominated in most investigated schools, the principals also employed democratic leadership and/or laissez-faire leadership as the right approach for a specific situation. Accordingly, their approach to leadership is sometimes likely to be a blend of these styles. Given Hypothesis 1, therein lies an empirical result that autocratic and democratic leadership styles positively impact teacher job performance, whereas the laissez-faire leadership style exerts a negative impact on the local teachers. The study findings are consistent with Werang and Lena's (2014) study, uncovering a significant relationship between principal leadership styles and teacher job performance in senior high schools of Papua, Indonesia. Meanwhile, a study conducted by Saleem et al. (2020) to check the impact of leadership styles on teacher job performance in private schools of Pakistan disclosed the same results in the same context. Similarly, the findings confirmed Okoji's (2016) study in the context of selected rural community schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. Accordingly, Okoji (2016) also recommended that the integration of autocratic and democratic leadership styles would improve better teacher job performance.

In some school contexts and certain situations, the autocratic leadership style is empirically proved to positively correlate with teacher job performance. For instance, while this study was carried out in Pakistan, the subcontinent of Asia, the study by Imhangbe et al. (2018) conducted a similar leadership investigation in public secondary schools in Edo Central Senatorial District of Nigeria, Africa. Inversely, as per the findings of Imhangbe et al. (2018) , the effect of autocratic leadership style is negative, weak, or insignificant democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles jointly positively impacted teacher job performance. Their study disclosed that democratic and laissez-faire leadership styles jointly positively impacted teacher job performance. The difference in our findings gave empirical evidence that principal leadership is an authentic research gap in this area. Moreover, given the diversity and divergence regarding principal leadership styles, their effect on teacher job performance varies according to different contexts, state of affairs, and work settings. As for the results, although these studies disclosed the unlike facts in principal leadership styles, they cast light on the effect of these determining and salient factors on teacher job performance. Apparently, the differences in leadership approach are present while considering personal preferences and needs and different geographical locations and contexts. These results ascertain that principal leadership is always subject to contextual and cultural variation.

Additionally, as per Hypothesis 2, a statistically significant and strong relationship is found between principal autocratic leadership style and teacher job performance. Obviously, this independent variable, i.e., autocratic leadership, is largely impacting teacher job performance in the area of study. Our finding is congruent with that of Adeyemi (2010) , indicating a similar linkage and effect between these two variables. Inversely, Yusuf (2012) and Imhangbe et al. (2018) disclosed in their studies that principal autocratic style negatively affected teacher job performance and student achievement. The outcomes of Hypothesis 3 show that the democratic style had a positive but weak influence on teacher job performance. The finding is coherent with the outcomes of Okoji's (2016) study that the relationship between these two variables is statistically positive but weak ( r = 0.118, p < 0.05). Similarly, Kiboss and Jemiryott (2014) asserted that the democratic leadership style significantly enhanced the working conditions and teaching quality. Given Hypothesis 4, it is unveiled that that laissez-faire leadership style had a negative and inverse relationship with teacher job performance. Obviously, the finding is, however, contrary to Hsiung (2012) similar investigation on Nigerian principals and teachers in Edo Senatorial district, stating that there was a significant relationship between laissez-faire style of leadership and teacher job performance. However, Adeyemi (2010) observed that the use of laissez-faire leadership, most likely, induced lower teacher job performance compared to schools where leadership adopted autocratic leadership style.

Recommendations

Several recommendations were made according to the findings of this study as follows:

1) The autocratic leadership style should be sustained due to its frequent/preferred practice by the studied public secondary school principals and its strong and positive correlation with teacher job performance.

2) The practice of democratic leadership should be performed with caution due to its positive but weak impact on teacher job performance.

3) As schools in Pakistan are at the heart of education reform, practical training programs and policy for these principals may introduce new models of leadership or a blend of various leadership styles (i.e., autocratic leadership, democratic leadership, transformational leadership, or distributed leadership) to further assist local principals in handling and managing work settings and various administrative affairs to enhance the teacher job performance in Faisalabad city.

4) Leadership training modules aimed at teacher empowerment must be tailored and integrated into would-be principals' and teachers' professional development programs and plans.

5) The principals may consider depressing the practice of laissez-faire leadership style in public secondary schools of Faisalabad city due to its negative impact on teacher job performance.

6) More collaborative work between the authorities of the School Education Department and the local schools is needed to direct the adoption and usage of integrated leadership styles.

Limitations and Future Studies

This study limits its scope of context to public secondary schools of a city in a South Asia-based developing country. Therefore, there is a desperate need for more investigation and research for school leadership conceptualization in varying contexts and cultures. Particularly, the present investigation deals only with three leadership styles conceptualized in the path–goal theory. The adoption of other leadership styles could yield further insightful results in future studies.

This study attempts to demonstrate the significant impact of three leadership styles on the job performance of public secondary school teachers of Faisalabad city, Pakistan. First, the primary finding reveals the empirical evidence that the explored principal leadership styles meaningfully and significantly affect teacher job performance, both positive and negative.

Specifically, the study findings unveil that the principal autocratic leadership style was the most frequent practice of leadership as perceived by the teachers, followed by the democratic leadership style. Accordingly, both styles statistically exerted a significant impact on teacher job performance. Inevitably, the practice of these two leadership styles was found to be effective in the given context, a non-Western developing country. Conversely, the principal laissez-fair leadership style was identified as either problematic or unhelpful for all underlying constructs of teacher job performance. Hence, given the studied context of school leadership, the sole use or integration of autocratic and/or democratic leadership styles should be constructively adopted in public secondary schools to optimize the teacher job performance in the long run.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Author Contributions

KP presented the main idea and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. PQ proofread the manuscript. KP and PQ performed data collection and analysis. TK and AS helped us to finalize the revisions and proofreading. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feduc.2022.814159/full#supplementary-material and https://tinyurl.com/4ecduerc

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Keywords: principal leadership, school administration, leadership styles, teachers job performance, work motivation

Citation: Parveen K, Quang Bao Tran P, Kumar T and Shah AH (2022) Impact of Principal Leadership Styles on Teacher Job Performance: An Empirical Investigation. Front. Educ. 7:814159. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.814159

Received: 17 November 2021; Accepted: 14 March 2022; Published: 06 May 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Parveen, Quang Bao Tran, Kumar and Shah. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Khalida Parveen, nicepak81@hotmail.com

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Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

Gsas students shine in 2024 three minute thesis competition.

Photo Credit: Dan Holmes

April 30, 2024

Ayla Cordell | Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

The 2024 Three Minute Thesis Competition (3MT) at Brandeis Graduate School of Arts & Sciences was not Will Dahl’s first rodeo. “It took me two tries,” the Molecular and Cell Biology PhD student said. “On my first attempt last year, I missed a line and stood silent for what felt like ages. To be honest, I was terrified!” This year, Will took home the first place prize for the Sciences of $1,000 and the overall win. He credits his success to careful planning, refinement, and lots of practice. He focused on formatting his talk as a story that would resonate with a wide audience: “Every sentence must be calibrated to communicate, and there is no room for asides. The talk converges from broader impacts to the actual thesis.”

Explaining your research in just three minutes is a tall order, but on April 5, the third annual 3MT Competition, founded by the University of Queensland , saw ten GSAS students meet that very task. Marika McCann, Associate Director of Professional Development at GSAS and member of the 3MT team, alongside Associate Professor of Anthropology and Faculty Director of Professional Development Jon Anjaria; Anahita Zare of MRSEC ; and Becky Prigge, Assistant Dean of Student Affairs at GSAS, said this about the 2024 competitors: “Our team was very impressed with how hard our students worked and the overall enthusiasm they brought to their talks. The audience learned so much from our students in this short time, including the possibility of early detection of Parkinson’s Disease, the importance of examining circadian rhythms, patterns in Honduran ceramics, and Tamil transfeminine performance in post-war Sri Lanka.”

Under the bright white stage lights and looking out upon an audience of friends, family, members of the Brandeis community, and a panel of five judges, finalists took to the Spingold Theatre stage. While it was certainly nerve-wracking, contestants noted the benefits of presenting in this format.

Manning Zhang, who won first place in the Humanities/Creative Arts/Social Sciences category, said the best moment of the competition was standing on the stage for the final round with rushing adrenaline. Acknowledging that few friends and family know about what she researches in Sociology and Health Policy, she began sharing more with them to understand how different people would react to her research. While this helped her prepare for the competition, it ended up holding deeper meaning for Zhang: “It took me a really long time to pursue my research and say, ‘This is meaningful.’ Getting feedback from people and hearing that they understand what I’m doing is really important to me.”

Victoria Khaghani, a Master’s student in Anthropology who was Runner Up in the Humanities/Creative Arts/Social Sciences category, echoed this sentiment. “You have to push yourself pretty hard to be able to condense your research down. But being able to then present my research to my family and have them say, ‘We finally understand what you’re doing,’ where they can understand the importance of it…that was huge.”

While contestants hoped to teach their audience something about their research, some finished the competition having learned new things about themselves. “I really like speaking in front of people,” Pranav Ojha, a Molecular and Cell Biology PhD student, discovered. “Figuring out what words to say, how to communicate them to inspire care - I enjoyed that process, and I’m coming out of it with different career ideas.” His passion for public speaking was evident - Ojha finished the competition with a total $1,250, after winning both Runner Up in the Sciences and the People’s Choice Award, which is determined through audience vote.

The final round may have showcased three minutes of individual presentation, but 3MT thrives as a collective and collaborative effort. “This is one of the only opportunities GSAS students at Brandeis have to share their research with the overall Brandeis community, outside of their departments,” McCann noted. Zhang (Sociology and Health Policy) even reached out to 2022 winner Emiliano Gutierrez-Popoca (PhD English ‘23), whose talk on Master-Servant Relations in Early Modern Drama led him to the National 3MT competition. Though they come from different disciplines, 3MT provided a platform for shared experience, and Popoca helped Zhang revise her draft for the final round. “I’ve gained a lot of rapport with people I didn’t think I could have rapport with…networking is very precious,” Zhang said. The 3MT community at Brandeis continues to strengthen and grow, and we cannot wait for next year!

Special thanks to 3MT sponsors: Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, Mandel Center for the Humanities, Office of the Vice Provost for Research, and the Division of Sciences

This year’s winners include:

First Place - William Dahl (overall winner), Molecular and Cell Biology, Stressed Cells' Secret Weapon for Survival

Runner Up - Pranav Ojha, Molecular and Cell Biology, What Makes our Clock Tick: A Look at Where It All Starts

Humanities/Social Sciences/Creative Arts

First Place - Manning Zhang, Sociology and Health Policy, Move It or Lose It

Runner Up - Victoria Khaghani, Anthropology, The Devil’s in the Details: Neglected Patterns of Honduras

People’s Choice

Pranav Ojha