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Conflict management, problem solving and decision making are topics that are generally considered to be distinct, but are actually interconnected such that they are used together to come up with the most feasible solution.

To come to the best possible outcome of a problem on the basis of sufficient information, certain problem solving steps need to be used. Some of these are as follows:

• Scrutinizing the problem
• Outlining the issue; solutions depends on the way it is outlined
• Detecting the main reasons which allowed the problem to occur
• Identifying the series of techniques to apply, and their outcomes
• Produce alternative options through processes such as brainstorming, discussions between groups and other discrete processes
• Choosing the simplest method that resolves the root cause
• Implementing the chosen method
• Monitoring and reviewing the execution

The flaw with this process is that it assumes there exists an ideal outcome, the information is available to reach this outcome, and the people taking part in the process are acting rationally. Unfortunately, this situation is extremely unusual.

Read More: What is Project Management? Definition, Types & Examples

Another flaw is the emotions of people involved in decision making. The core focus of conflict management is to reduce the effect of people’s emotions and make them think rationally. The typical solution choices are:

• Forcing/Directing – A method whereby a superior with autonomous power has a right to force the decision
• Smoothing/Accommodating – Negotiating the matter and trying to settle down the dispute
• Compromising/Reconciling – A give and take approach where each side surrenders something in order to come to a solution. The extent of dispute limits the generation of options.
• Problem-solving/Collaborating – Refers to collective decision making to come up with a solution that is conventional
• Avoiding/Withdrawing/Accepting – A method which may not settle the dispute but allows time to calm the emotions

Any of these approaches can be used for conflict management depending on the nature of conflict, although there primary focus is to control the level of the dispute. But, in due course, the underlying problems of the conflict need to be solved in its entirety .

To make the right decision, availability of sufficient and precise data needs to be present. Some decisions are not as simple, and data about them is not easily available.

The problems you can face range from simple to wicked problems.

• Wicked Problems are the kind of problems that continuously alter and demand the participant’s complexity and emotions. An iterative approach is best for these kinds of problems, as decision to every step simplifies the problem.
• In Dilemmas, you have to choose the solution which is the least worse as there is no right answer to these problems, but choosing a solution is always better than not making a decision.
• Conundrums are complicated questions that have speculative or hypothetical answers.
• Puzzles and mysteries need superlative judgment in certain circumstances. Lack of time to contract these decisions to simple problems is a constraint in this approach, although you can apply processes to a point.
• Problems require hard work to be solved. Carefully and properly designed execution of problem solving processes can show the best outcomes.

In order to come to the best possible conclusion, an understanding and balance of the following points is essential:

• Characteristics of problem at hand
• Emotion and conflict of stakeholders
• Features of different type of decisions
• Pick up the single best decision using your best judgement in given circumstances

The core of all the above is choosing & implementing the best decision, followed by a continuous review of the decision, making changes as quickly as possible, and providing a feedback.

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Effective Strategies for Conflict Management in Problem Solving Cycles

• Post author By bicycle-u
• Post date 08.12.2023

Conflict is an inevitable part of human interaction and can arise in various situations, including in the workplace, within teams, or even in personal relationships. Managing conflict effectively is crucial for maintaining positive relationships and achieving successful outcomes. This article will explore some proven conflict management strategies that can be applied in problem-solving cycles.

Firstly, it is important to acknowledge that conflict is not always a negative occurrence. In fact, conflicts can often lead to positive outcomes, such as the generation of new ideas or the identification of underlying issues. However, when conflict arises, it is crucial to address it promptly and constructively.

One of the most effective conflict management strategies is open communication. Encouraging all parties involved to express their thoughts and feelings in a respectful manner can help to uncover the root causes of the conflict and facilitate problem-solving. Active listening is also a key component of open communication, as it allows each party to fully understand the perspectives and concerns of others.

Another essential strategy is to focus on finding win-win solutions. This involves searching for mutually beneficial outcomes that address the needs and interests of all parties involved. By emphasizing collaboration and cooperation, rather than competition, conflict can be transformed into an opportunity for growth and development.

In conclusion, conflict management is a critical skill for successful problem-solving cycles. By promoting open communication, active listening, and a focus on win-win solutions, conflicts can be effectively managed and transformed into positive outcomes. These strategies can be applied in various contexts, whether in the workplace or personal relationships, to foster healthy and productive interactions.

Understanding Conflict Management

In problem-solving cycles, conflict is an inevitable part of the process. When individuals or teams work together to find solutions, differences in opinions, ideas, and approaches can lead to conflict. Conflict arises when there is a disagreement or tension between individuals or groups regarding goals, priorities, resources, or methods.

Effective conflict management involves understanding the nature of conflict and employing strategies to address and resolve it. It is important to approach conflict in a constructive and positive manner, as conflicts can provide opportunities for growth, innovation, and better outcomes.

Conflict can be categorized into two types: constructive and destructive. Constructive conflict refers to disagreements that lead to positive outcomes, such as increased creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving. Destructive conflict, on the other hand, hinders progress and stifles productivity.

To effectively manage conflict, it is essential to analyze the underlying causes and dynamics. Common causes of conflict include differences in communication styles, values, goals, and interests. Understanding these underlying factors can help identify potential areas of conflict and develop appropriate strategies for resolution.

Conflict management strategies can include active listening, open communication, mediation, negotiation, and compromise. Active listening involves truly hearing and empathizing with the perspectives and concerns of others. Open communication promotes transparency and encourages dialogue to address misunderstandings and find common ground.

Mediation involves a neutral third party facilitating communication and guiding the resolution process. Negotiation focuses on finding mutually agreeable solutions by exploring alternatives and making concessions where necessary. Compromise requires finding a middle ground that satisfies the needs and interests of all parties involved.

Conflict management should also prioritize building and maintaining positive relationships. It is important to approach conflicts with respect, empathy, and a willingness to understand and accommodate different perspectives. By fostering a culture of open communication and collaboration, conflicts can be transformed into opportunities for growth, learning, and stronger problem-solving.

In conclusion, conflict is a natural and expected part of problem-solving cycles. Understanding the nature of conflict and employing effective conflict management strategies is crucial for successful problem resolution. By approaching conflicts with empathy, active listening, open communication, and a focus on building positive relationships, conflicts can be transformed into opportunities for positive change and growth.

Benefits of Effective Conflict Resolution

In the cycles of problem solving and conflict management, effective conflict resolution has numerous benefits. When conflict is handled effectively, it can lead to positive outcomes and improved relationships among team members.

One of the main benefits of effective conflict resolution is that it reduces tension and stress within the team. Conflict can create a hostile and uncomfortable environment, but by resolving it in a constructive manner, team members can feel more at ease and motivated to work collaboratively.

Effective conflict resolution also promotes open communication and transparency. When conflicts are addressed and resolved, team members are encouraged to express their opinions, concerns, and ideas freely. This enhances overall communication within the team and fosters an environment of trust and respect.

Furthermore, effective conflict resolution can lead to innovative problem-solving. When conflicts arise, they often bring to light different perspectives and opinions. By actively engaging in conflict resolution, team members can learn to value different viewpoints and find creative solutions that address everyone’s needs.

Another benefit of effective conflict resolution is the development of stronger relationships. Conflict can strain relationships and create barriers between team members. However, by resolving conflict in a respectful and productive way, team members can build trust, empathy, and understanding, leading to stronger and more harmonious working relationships.

Problem Solving Cycles in Conflict Management

In conflict management, problem solving cycles play a crucial role in resolving issues and achieving productive outcomes. These cycles involve a series of steps that guide individuals and teams in addressing conflicts and finding innovative solutions.

The problem-solving cycle begins with the identification and definition of the problem or conflict at hand. This crucial step helps to clarify the issues, understand the underlying causes, and recognize the stakeholders involved. Once the problem is clearly defined, the next phase involves gathering information and conducting a thorough analysis of the situation. This includes identifying the interests, needs, and perspectives of all parties involved in the conflict.

After conducting a comprehensive analysis, the problem-solving cycle moves on to the generation of potential solutions. This step encourages brainstorming and creative thinking to develop various options that could address the conflict effectively. In this phase, it is important to foster open dialogue and encourage diverse perspectives to generate a wide range of possible solutions.

Once a range of potential solutions has been identified, the next step in the problem-solving cycle is evaluating and selecting the most appropriate option. This entails considering the feasibility, effectiveness, and potential consequences of each solution. It is crucial to involve all stakeholders in the decision-making process to ensure buy-in and ownership of the chosen solution.

Once a decision has been made, the problem-solving cycle moves on to implementation. This phase involves developing a clear action plan, assigning roles and responsibilities, and setting specific timelines. It is important to communicate the plan effectively to all stakeholders and provide the necessary support and resources to ensure successful execution.

Finally, the problem-solving cycle concludes with the evaluation and review of the implemented solution. This step helps to assess the effectiveness of the chosen approach and identify any areas for improvement. By reflecting on the outcomes and lessons learned, individuals and teams can refine their conflict management strategies and enhance their problem-solving skills for future challenges.

Importance of Communication in Conflict Resolution

Effective communication plays a crucial role in the resolution of conflicts. When conflicts arise, it is important for all parties involved to openly and honestly express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns. By actively listening and understanding each other’s perspectives, individuals can work towards finding common ground and resolving the conflict.

In problem solving cycles, communication helps in identifying and addressing the root causes of conflicts. Through open dialogue, individuals can explore the underlying issues that contribute to the conflict and develop strategies to address them. This process allows for a more comprehensive and long-lasting resolution, rather than just treating the symptoms of the conflict.

Communication also helps in managing conflicts by fostering empathy and understanding. When individuals communicate effectively, they can put themselves in each other’s shoes and gain a deeper appreciation for the other person’s point of view. This empathy can lead to a more collaborative approach to conflict resolution, where all parties are actively involved in finding mutually beneficial solutions.

Furthermore, communication helps in minimizing misunderstandings and misinterpretations that often escalate conflicts. Through clear and concise communication, individuals can clarify any misconceptions, address any false assumptions, and ensure that everyone is on the same page. This reduces the likelihood of conflicts escalating and allows for a more efficient and effective resolution process.

In conclusion, effective communication is of utmost importance in conflict resolution. By promoting open dialogue, addressing underlying issues, fostering empathy, and minimizing misunderstandings, communication plays a vital role in finding mutually beneficial solutions and resolving conflicts in problem solving cycles.

Active Listening Techniques for Conflict Resolution

In the management of problem solving cycles, conflicts are bound to arise. Conflict is a natural part of any human relationship and must be effectively managed in order to ensure productive outcomes.

The Importance of Active Listening

One key technique in conflict resolution is active listening. Active listening involves fully engaging with the speaker and demonstrating understanding and empathy. By actively listening, individuals can better understand the concerns and perspectives of others, which can lead to more effective problem solving.

Active listening techniques can be employed in various conflict resolution scenarios, including team meetings, client interactions, and interpersonal relationships. The goal is to create an environment of open communication and mutual respect, allowing parties to express their thoughts and feelings freely.

Techniques for Active Listening

Here are some techniques that can enhance active listening during conflict resolution:

• Maintain eye contact: By maintaining eye contact, you show the speaker that you are fully engaged and attentive.
• Ask clarifying questions: Clarifying questions help you gain a deeper understanding of the speaker’s perspective and can prevent misunderstandings.
• Reflect and paraphrase: Reflecting and paraphrasing the speaker’s words demonstrates that you are actively listening and seeking to understand their viewpoint.
• Show empathy: Demonstrating empathy towards the speaker’s feelings and experiences can help create a sense of trust and openness.
• Avoid interrupting: Interrupting the speaker can be perceived as disrespectful and may hinder effective communication. Allow the speaker to finish before responding.
• Summarize key points: Summarizing key points at the end of the conversation can help ensure that both parties are on the same page and have a clear understanding of the issues.

By incorporating these active listening techniques into conflict resolution processes, individuals can foster better understanding, promote collaborative problem solving, and ultimately achieve successful outcomes in any problem solving cycle.

Effective Negotiation Skills for Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is an essential part of effective management. It involves finding mutually acceptable solutions to conflicts and reaching agreements that satisfy all parties involved. Effective negotiation skills play a crucial role in resolving conflicts and promoting a healthy work environment.

Understanding the Problem

The first step in conflict resolution is to understand the problem at hand. It is important to listen to all parties involved and gather relevant information. By understanding the root causes of the conflict, a manager can gain insights into the underlying issues and find a solution that addresses the actual problem.

Setting Clear Goals

Once the problem is understood, it is important to set clear goals for the negotiation process. This involves identifying the desired outcomes and defining the boundaries within which the negotiation will take place. Clear goals help guide the negotiation and ensure that both parties are working towards a mutually beneficial solution.

During the negotiation process, effective communication is key. It is important to listen actively, ask clarifying questions, and express thoughts and concerns clearly. Active listening helps in understanding the other party’s perspective and finding common ground. It is also important to remain calm and composed during the negotiation process, as emotions can hinder effective communication and problem-solving.

• Be open to compromise
• Focus on interests, not positions
• Explore alternatives
• Find win-win solutions
• Use objective criteria for decision-making

By following these negotiation skills, conflicts can be resolved in a constructive manner. Effective negotiation skills allow managers to build strong relationships, promote collaboration, and foster a positive work environment. Through open communication and a focus on finding mutually beneficial solutions, conflicts can be transformed into opportunities for growth and improvement.

Mediation as a Conflict Resolution Strategy

Conflict is an inevitable part of problem-solving cycles in any organization. However, effective conflict management is crucial to ensure smooth problem-solving processes and maintain a positive work environment.

One strategy that has proven to be highly effective in resolving conflicts is mediation. Mediation involves the intervention of a neutral third party, known as a mediator, who helps facilitate communication and negotiation between conflicting parties.

Benefits of Mediation

Mediation offers several benefits as a conflict resolution strategy. Firstly, it allows all parties to express their concerns and interests openly and honestly. The mediator assists in creating a safe and respectful environment where everyone feels comfortable sharing their perspective.

Secondly, mediation promotes collaboration and cooperation among the conflicting parties. The mediator acts as a facilitator, guiding the conversation and ensuring that each party has an equal opportunity to be heard. This collaborative approach often leads to creative and mutually satisfactory solutions.

Furthermore, mediation helps build better relationships between conflicting parties. By engaging in open dialogue and working towards a common goal, individuals involved in the conflict can develop a deeper understanding and appreciate each other’s viewpoints.

Effective Mediation Process

For mediation to be effective, there are several key steps and techniques that should be followed. Firstly, the mediator must establish ground rules and create a safe space for dialogue. This includes ensuring confidentiality and impartiality.

The mediator then identifies the underlying causes of the conflict and helps the parties focus on problem-solving rather than blame. By clarifying interests and needs, the mediator can guide the conversation towards finding mutually beneficial solutions.

During the mediation process, active listening and effective communication are crucial. The mediator encourages each party to listen attentively to the other’s perspective and promotes constructive dialogue. The use of open-ended questions and paraphrasing helps facilitate understanding and clarity.

Finally, the mediator assists the parties in developing a written agreement that outlines the agreed-upon solutions and action steps. This agreement serves as a reference point for future conflict resolution if needed.

Overall, mediation is a valuable conflict resolution strategy in problem-solving cycles. When implemented effectively, it can lead to the resolution of conflicts in a respectful and collaborative manner, fostering better relationships and contributing to the overall success of the organization.

Collaborative Problem Solving in Conflict Management

Collaborative problem solving plays a crucial role in effective conflict management. In the context of problem solving cycles, it is essential to adopt a collaborative approach that encourages open communication, active listening, and cooperation among the parties involved.

Building a Collaborative Environment

Creating a collaborative environment is the foundation for successful conflict management. This involves establishing a safe space where all parties feel comfortable expressing their concerns, ideas, and perspectives. By encouraging open dialogue, individuals can work together to identify the root causes of the conflict and collectively generate potential solutions.

Active Listening and Empathy

Active listening is a critical skill in collaborative problem solving. It enables individuals to truly understand each other’s viewpoints and experiences. By actively listening, each party can demonstrate empathy towards one another, facilitating a deeper understanding of the underlying issues and fostering a spirit of cooperation.

Empathy involves putting oneself in another person’s shoes, acknowledging their emotions, and seeking understanding. By adopting an empathetic mindset, individuals can build trust and rapport, which are essential for effective conflict resolution.

Collaborative problem solving is an iterative process that involves ongoing communication, brainstorming, and evaluation of solutions. It requires a willingness to compromise and find mutually beneficial outcomes. By working together, individuals can reach resolutions that address the underlying problems and promote sustainable conflict management.

Emotional Intelligence in Conflict Resolution

In the cycles of problem solving, conflict is inevitable. However, the way we handle conflict can greatly impact the outcome of the problem solving process. One powerful tool for effective conflict resolution is emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions, as well as the emotions of others. In the context of conflict resolution, emotional intelligence helps us to navigate through difficult emotions and communicate effectively.

When faced with a conflict, individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to approach the situation with empathy and understanding. They are able to acknowledge their own feelings and those of others, which allows for a more constructive and collaborative dialogue.

Additionally, emotional intelligence enables individuals to regulate their emotions during conflict. Rather than reacting impulsively or allowing emotions to escalate, emotionally intelligent individuals are able to stay calm and composed. This helps to create a safe and positive environment for problem solving.

Another important aspect of emotional intelligence in conflict resolution is the ability to read non-verbal cues and understand underlying emotions. This allows individuals to better grasp the needs and concerns of others, leading to more effective problem solving strategies.

In summary, emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in conflict resolution within problem solving cycles. By understanding and managing our own emotions, as well as empathizing with others, we can create a supportive and collaborative environment that promotes effective problem solving.

Building Trust for Successful Conflict Management

Trust is an essential factor in effective conflict management and problem-solving cycles. When individuals trust each other, they are more likely to communicate openly, listen actively, and collaborate towards finding solutions to conflicts.

Trust plays a crucial role in conflict resolution as it creates an environment of psychological safety, where individuals feel comfortable expressing their perspectives and concerns. This open communication leads to a better understanding of the underlying causes of conflicts and facilitates the identification of suitable resolutions.

Building trust requires time and effort from all parties involved. It involves displaying transparency, honesty, and integrity in actions and words. Trust is nurtured through active listening, empathy, and showing respect for different viewpoints.

A key component of building trust is establishing clear expectations and boundaries. When individuals understand the expectations, roles, and responsibilities of each party involved, they feel more secure and confident in the conflict management process.

Another essential aspect of building trust is acknowledging and addressing past conflicts or betrayals. By openly discussing these issues and finding resolutions, individuals can heal and build stronger relationships based on trust and mutual understanding.

Trust can be built through consistent follow-through on commitments and promises made during conflict management discussions. When individuals witness that others keep their word and act upon their commitments, trust is strengthened.

In conclusion, building trust is a fundamental element in successful conflict management and problem-solving cycles. It creates an atmosphere of cooperation, open communication, and understanding. By actively working to build trust, individuals can navigate conflicts more effectively and reach resolutions that benefit all parties involved.

Empathy and Understanding in Conflict Resolution

In the management of problem solving cycles, conflicts are bound to arise. These conflicts may stem from various sources, such as differing opinions, scarce resources, or conflicting goals. However, effective conflict resolution requires more than just finding a solution; it calls for empathy and understanding.

Empathy is the ability to put oneself in someone else’s shoes and understand their perspective. In the context of conflict resolution, empathy allows individuals to truly listen to one another without judgment or bias. By actively practicing empathy, parties involved in a conflict can gain a deeper understanding of the underlying issues and emotions driving the disagreement.

Understanding, on the other hand, involves grasping the complexities and nuances of the conflict. It requires individuals to go beyond surface-level understanding and dig deeper into the root causes of the disagreement. Through understanding, people can identify the underlying values, needs, and fears that are driving the conflict and work towards addressing them in a constructive manner.

When empathy and understanding are present in conflict resolution, a transformative process can occur. Instead of approaching the conflict with the mindset of “winning” or “losing,” parties involved can focus on finding a mutually beneficial solution that addresses the underlying needs of all parties. Empathy and understanding create an environment of trust and collaboration, fostering open communication and creative problem-solving.

It is important to note that empathy and understanding do not mean agreement or condoning harmful behavior. They simply provide a foundation for productive dialogue and problem-solving. Through empathy and understanding, conflicts can be transformed from destructive cycles into opportunities for growth and learning.

Conflict Resolution Strategies in the Workplace

In any work environment, conflicts are bound to arise. These conflicts can stem from a variety of sources, such as differences in opinions, work styles, or values. It is essential for effective problem management to have strategies in place to address and resolve conflicts in the workplace.

1. Communication and Active Listening

One of the key strategies for resolving conflicts in the workplace is effective communication. Encouraging open and honest communication allows employees to express their concerns and viewpoints, providing an opportunity for understanding and finding common ground. Active listening plays a crucial role in conflict resolution, as it allows individuals involved in the conflict to feel heard and validated.

2. Mediation and Facilitation

When conflicts escalate and become challenging to resolve, mediation and facilitation can be helpful techniques. Mediation involves bringing in a neutral third party, such as a trained mediator, to assist in facilitating dialogue and finding a resolution. Facilitation, on the other hand, involves a designated facilitator guiding the conflict resolution process and ensuring that all parties have an equal opportunity to express their thoughts and concerns.

A common approach during mediation or facilitation is to encourage compromise and finding common ground. This involves identifying the underlying interests of the conflicting parties and seeking solutions that satisfy all parties to some extent. It is essential to maintain a fair and unbiased environment during these processes to ensure that conflicts are resolved in a mutually beneficial manner.

3. Conflict Management Training

An effective long-term strategy for conflict resolution in the workplace is providing conflict management training for employees. This training equips individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to identify, address, and resolve conflicts effectively. Conflict management training can include sessions on effective communication, negotiation techniques, active listening skills, and understanding different conflict styles.

Implementing conflict resolution strategies in the workplace is essential for maintaining a healthy and productive work environment. By fostering effective communication, utilizing mediation or facilitation when necessary, and providing conflict management training, organizations can address conflicts in a constructive manner and prevent them from becoming larger problems. Ultimately, effective conflict resolution strategies contribute to the overall success and well-being of both individuals and the organization as a whole.

Conflict Resolution Techniques in Personal Relationships

In personal relationships, conflicts are bound to arise from time to time. It is essential to have effective conflict resolution techniques to ensure the maintenance of healthy relationships. By addressing conflicts promptly and effectively, individuals can prevent the escalation of issues and promote understanding and growth.

Identifying the Root Cause

When conflicts arise in personal relationships, it is crucial to identify the root cause of the problem. This involves open and honest communication, active listening, and empathy. Each party should express their thoughts and feelings without judgment, allowing for a deeper understanding of the issue at hand.

Collaborative Problem Solving

Once the root cause of the conflict is identified, both parties can engage in collaborative problem solving. This approach involves working together to find a solution that satisfies the needs and concerns of both individuals. By focusing on finding a mutually beneficial resolution, personal relationships can strengthen, and conflicts can be effectively resolved.

Implementing these conflict resolution techniques can greatly contribute to the resolution of conflicts in personal relationships. By promoting open and effective communication, empathy, and compromise, individuals can foster healthier and more long-lasting connections with their loved ones.

Conflict Resolution Training and Development

Conflict resolution training and development is an essential component of effective problem-solving and conflict management in any organization. By providing employees with the necessary skills and strategies to address and resolve conflicts, organizations can create a more positive and productive work environment.

Conflict resolution training typically includes workshops, seminars, and interactive exercises that help employees understand the nature of conflicts and their underlying causes. These training programs also provide strategies for effective communication, active listening, and negotiation, which are crucial skills for resolving conflicts.

Through conflict resolution training, employees learn how to identify and address conflicts early on, preventing them from escalating into larger problems. They also learn how to manage their emotions and maintain a respectful and collaborative attitude during conflict situations.

In addition to training sessions, development programs play a vital role in conflict resolution. These programs focus on developing the leadership and problem-solving skills of employees, empowering them to address conflicts in a constructive and proactive manner.

Development programs often include mentoring and coaching sessions, where employees receive personalized guidance and support in dealing with conflicts. These programs also provide opportunities for employees to practice their conflict resolution skills in real-life scenarios, allowing them to become more confident and proficient in managing conflicts.

By investing in conflict resolution training and development, organizations can benefit from improved teamwork, increased productivity, and enhanced employee satisfaction. Conflict resolution skills empower employees to handle disagreements and differences of opinion in a constructive and collaborative manner, ultimately leading to more effective problem-solving and decision-making processes.

Evaluating the Outcome of Conflict Resolution Strategies

After implementing conflict resolution strategies, it is essential for management to evaluate the outcome and effectiveness of these strategies. Evaluation allows organizations to assess whether the chosen strategies have successfully resolved the problem at hand and improved the overall conflict management process.

One way to evaluate the outcome of conflict resolution strategies is to analyze the impact on the problem itself. Did the strategies effectively address the root cause of the conflict and lead to a satisfactory resolution? This can be assessed by gathering feedback and input from all parties involved in the conflict, including employees, managers, and stakeholders. By understanding their perspectives and assessing their level of satisfaction, management can gain valuable insights into the effectiveness of the implemented strategies.

Another important aspect to evaluate is the impact of conflict resolution strategies on the overall problem-solving cycles within the organization. Did the strategies streamline the problem-solving process and improve efficiency? Were conflicts resolved in a timely manner, minimizing disruptions to workflow? Evaluating these factors can help management identify areas for improvement and make adjustments to the conflict resolution strategies if necessary.

Furthermore, the success of conflict resolution strategies can also be measured by analyzing the long-term effects on employee morale and productivity. Did the strategies foster a positive work environment and improve team dynamics? Did employees feel heard and respected during the conflict resolution process? Evaluating the impact on employee satisfaction and engagement can provide management with valuable insights into the effectiveness of the strategies and their ability to promote a harmonious workplace.

Overall, evaluating the outcome of conflict resolution strategies is crucial for organizations seeking to optimize their conflict management processes. By assessing the impact on the problem itself, the overall problem-solving cycles, and employee morale and productivity, management can identify successful strategies and make informed decisions for future conflict resolution endeavors.

Questions and answers:

What are some effective conflict management strategies for problem solving cycles.

Some effective conflict management strategies for problem solving cycles include active listening, clear communication, collaboration, compromising and seeking win-win solutions.

How can active listening help in managing conflicts during problem solving cycles?

Active listening is a crucial conflict management strategy during problem solving cycles as it involves fully focusing on and understanding the perspectives of all parties involved. It helps in building empathy, trust and creating a safe space for open communication which can lead to better problem solving and resolution.

Why is clear communication important in conflict management during problem solving cycles?

Clear communication is important in conflict management during problem solving cycles because it helps in avoiding misunderstandings and promotes effective collaboration. When the parties involved clearly express their needs, concerns and ideas, it becomes easier to find common ground and work towards a mutually beneficial solution.

What role does collaboration play in effective conflict management during problem solving cycles?

Collaboration is a key strategy in effective conflict management during problem solving cycles as it involves actively working together to find a solution that meets the needs and interests of all parties involved. It promotes the sharing of ideas, the pooling of resources and the cultivation of a sense of ownership over the problem-solving process, leading to more sustainable and satisfactory outcomes.

How can compromising and seeking win-win solutions aid in conflict management during problem solving cycles?

Compromising and seeking win-win solutions are important conflict management strategies during problem solving cycles as they help in finding a middle ground between conflicting parties. Compromising involves finding a solution that partially satisfies the needs of all parties, while seeking win-win solutions involves finding creative and mutually beneficial outcomes that address the interests of all parties involved.

Effective conflict management strategies for problem solving cycles include active listening, open communication, finding common ground, and seeking win-win solutions.

How can active listening help in conflict management during problem solving cycles?

Active listening can help in conflict management during problem solving cycles by ensuring that all parties feel heard and understood. It involves giving full attention to the speaker, paraphrasing and summarizing their points, and asking clarifying questions.

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Applying a Problem‑Solving Approach to Conflict Cornell Course

Course overview.

When most of us face conflict, we often either avoid dealing with it, or we jump in and try to force a solution. These responses may be driven by a lack of comfort with or even a fear of conflict. Unfortunately, neither response is always correct, and neither approach should be the first step. Professors Klingel and Nobles will share how to overcome these instincts and successfully apply a problem-solving approach to conflict.

The first course in this series, “Diagnosing Workplace Conflict,” focused on fully diagnosing a conflict without jumping into problem solving. In this course, you'll look at how to best handle a fully diagnosed conflict using a problem-solving approach. A common issue we'll address is jumping to solutions before understanding the scope of the conflict and the needs that will have to be addressed to resolve it. Thus, you'll begin by determining the scope. Depending on the scope you may move forward with the problem-solving approach, or, you may decide to let it go. The problem-solving approach, which consists of eight steps that can be broken down into three key elements, is the framework through which this course is taught. In the course project, you'll practice applying this approach to a conflict of your choosing. The approach is intended to be used when solving conflict you are directly involved in. Despite this, we'll offer practical advice on how you could adapt this for other use cases.

You are required to have completed the following course or have equivalent experience before taking this course:

• Diagnosing Workplace Conflict

Key Course Takeaways

• Move from conflict diagnosis to problem solving
• Determine the scope of the conflict and how to proceed
• Determine the problem, interests, and criteria for successful resolution
• Generate options and agree on a solution
• Implement and monitor a measurable solution

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How it works, course authors.

• Certificates Authored

Katrina Nobles is the Director of Conflict Programs for the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution at the Cornell University ILR School, focusing on educating the next generation of neutrals and practitioners on campus and in the workplace. Professor Nobles designs curriculum, instructs professional programs, and facilitates discussions for organizational workplace conflicts. She also teaches the Campus Mediation Practicum, an on-campus credit course that applies mediation skills to the campus judicial system, allowing students to work as peer mediators. 

Professor Nobles has presented at national conflict resolution conferences on facilitating collaborative problem solving, cross-cultural communication, and conflict diagnosis. She has practiced mediation for over 15 years, and prior to her employment at Cornell, Professor Nobles was the Cortland County Coordinator for New Justice Mediation Services. During that time, she mediated hundreds of community, child custody/visitation, child support, and family disputes. Professor Nobles holds a Master’s degree in Conflict Analysis and Engagement from Antioch University Midwest.

• Conflict Resolution

Sally Klingel is the director of Labor-Management Relations programming for the Scheinman Institute on Conflict Resolution in Cornell’s School of Industrial and Labor Relations.   She specializes in the design and implementation of conflict and negotiation systems, labor-management partnerships, collective bargaining strategies, strategic planning, and leadership development.  Her work with Cornell over the past 20 years has included training, consulting, and research with organizations in a variety of industries, local, state and federal government agencies, union internationals and locals, public schools and universities, and worker owned companies.

Sally Klingel holds a M.S. in Organizational Behavior from Cornell University’s School of Industrial and Labor Relations, and a B.A. from the University of Michigan. She has authored articles, monographs and book chapters on innovations in labor-management relations and conflict methods.

• Labor Relations

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Conflict Management: Definition, Strategies, and Styles

Learn how to manage disputes at home or work using various conflict management styles and strategies.

Conflict management is an umbrella term for the way we identify and handle conflicts fairly and efficiently. The goal is to minimize the potential negative impacts that can arise from disagreements and increase the odds of a positive outcome. 

At home or work, disagreements can be unpleasant, and not every dispute calls for the same response. Learn to choose the right conflict management style, and you'll be better able to respond constructively whenever disputes arise.  

Learn key approaches to conflict management

If you want to learn conflict management skills and approaches, consider enrolling in UC Irvine's Conflict Management Specialization . Start learning with Coursera Plus today with a free 7-day trial.

What is conflict management?

Conflict management refers to the way that you handle disagreements. On any given day, you may have to deal with a dispute between you and another individual, your family members, or fellow employees. 

Although there are many reasons people disagree, many conflicts revolve around: 

Personal values (real or perceived)

Perceptions 

Conflicting goals  

Power dynamics

Communication style

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5 conflict management styles

It's human to deal with conflict by defaulting to what's comfortable. According to University of Pittsburgh professors of management Ken Thomas and Ralph Kilmann, most people take one of two approaches to conflict management, assertiveness or cooperativeness [ 1 ]. From these approaches come five modes or styles of conflict management: 

1. Accommodating

An accommodating mode of conflict management tends to be high in cooperation but low in assertiveness. When you use this style, you resolve the disagreement by sacrificing your own needs and desires for those of the other party. 

This management style might benefit your work when conflicts are trivial and you need to move on quickly. At home, this style works when your relationship with your roommate, partner, or child is more important than being right. Although accommodation might be optimal for some conflicts, others require a more assertive style. 

2. Avoiding

When avoiding, you try to dodge or bypass a conflict. This style of managing conflicts is low in assertiveness and cooperativeness. Avoidance is unproductive for handling most disputes because it may leave the other party feeling like you don't care. Also, if left unresolved, some conflicts become much more troublesome. 

However, an avoiding management style works in situations where:

You need time to think through a disagreement.

You have more pressing problems to deal with first.

The risks of confronting a problem outweigh the benefits.

3. Collaborating

A collaborating conflict management style demands a high level of cooperation from all parties involved. Individuals in a dispute come together to find a respectful resolution that benefits everyone. Collaborating works best if you have plenty of time and are on the same power level as the other parties involved. If not, you may be better off choosing another style. 

4. Competing

When you use a competitive conflict management style (sometimes called 'forcing'), you put your own needs and desires over those of others. This style is high in assertiveness and low in cooperation. In other words, it's the opposite of accommodating. While you might think this style would never be acceptable, it's sometimes needed when you are in a higher position of power than other parties and need to resolve a dispute quickly. 

5. Compromising

Compromising demands moderate assertiveness and cooperation from all parties involved. With this type of resolution, everyone gets something they want or need. This style of managing conflict works well when time is limited. Because of time constraints, compromising isn't always as creative as collaborating, and some parties may come away less satisfied than others. 

Learn more about these conflict management approaches in this video from Rice University:

Tips for choosing a conflict management style

The key to successfully managing conflict is choosing the right style for each situation. For instance, it might make sense to use avoidance or accommodation to deal with minor issues, while critical disputes may call for a more assertive approach, like a competitive conflict management style. When you're wondering which method of conflict management to choose, ask yourself the following questions:

How important are your needs and wants?

What will happen if your needs and wants aren't met?

How much do you value the other person/people involved?

How much value do you place on the issue involved?

Have you thought through the consequences of using differing styles?

Do you have the time and energy to address the situation right now?

The answers to these questions can help you decide which style to pick in a particular situation based on what you've learned about the various conflict management styles. 

Tips and strategies for conflict management

Conflicts inevitably pop up when you spend time with other people, whether at work or home. However, when conflicts aren’t resolved, they can lead to various negative consequences. These include: 

Hurt feelings

Resentment and frustration

Loneliness and depression

Passive aggression and communication issues

Increased stress and stress-related health problems

Reduced productivity

Staff turnover

Conflict is a part of life. Knowing a few strategies for managing conflict can help keep your home or workplace healthy. Here are a few tips to keep in mind when conflict arises:

Acknowledge the problem.

If someone comes to you with a dispute that seems trivial to you, remember it may not be trivial to them. Actively listen to help the other person feel heard, then decide what to do about the situation. 

Gather the necessary information.

You can't resolve a conflict unless you've investigated all sides of the problem. Take the time you need to understand all the necessary information. This way, you'll choose the best conflict management style and find an optimal resolution. 

Set guidelines.

Whether discussing a conflict with a spouse or intervening for two employees, setting guidelines before you begin is essential. Participants should agree to speak calmly, listen, and try to understand the other person's point of view. Agree up front that if the guidelines aren't followed, the discussion will end and resume later. 

Keep emotion out of the discussion.

An angry outburst may end a conflict, but it's only temporary. Talk things out calmly to avoid having the dispute pop up again. 

Be decisive. 

Once you've discussed a dispute and evaluated the best approach, take action on the solution you've identified. Letting others in on your decision lets them know you care and are moving forward.  

Build conflict management skills today

Learn key conflict types and strategies to resolve them. Enroll in the Conflict Management Specialization from UC Irvine today to build your skills.

Article sources

Management Weekly. " Thomas Kilmann Conflict Model , https://managementweekly.org/thomas-kilmann-conflict-resolution-model/." Accessed March 13, 2024.

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Conflict Management Cycle: A Complete Guide

Conflict Management Cycle is a dynamic process designed to navigate and resolve conflicts efficiently. Discover how this cycle guides you through conflict identification, analysis, resolution, and post-conflict evaluation. Learn to foster a more harmonious environment through effective conflict management strategies in our insightful blog.

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With the increased pace of life, conflicts arise more than ever today. According to the Myers Briggs research, out of the people surveyed, 36% reported that they have dealt with conflict often, very often, and even at the workplace. So, it’s time to address the issue to drive your business towards success.  

But how to eliminate conflicts? What approach can organisations adopt? Read this blog to learn about Conflict Management Cycle. Also, explore various strategies to manage conflicts successfully. 

Table of Contents  

1) What is Conflict Management? 

2) The Conflict Management Cycle explained 

    a) Stage 1: Proactive phase 

    b) Stage 2: Strategic phase 

    c) Stage 3: Reactive phase 

    d) Stage 4: Recovery phase 

3) Key strategies for effective conflict resolution 

4) Conclusion 

What is Conflict Management?  

Conflicts are natural occurrences that arise when there is a clash of interests, differing perspectives, or disagreement on certain issues. They can arise in various contexts, including personal relationships, professional environments, and even within our own minds. Conflict Management is crucial in maintaining healthy relationships, promoting effective communication, and fostering positive outcomes. 

It refers to the process of handling and resolving conflicts constructively and productively. It involves a set of strategies, techniques, and skills aimed at understanding, addressing, and finding solutions to conflicts that arise between individuals and groups. 

The Conflict Management Cycle explained  

Conflicts can be complex and dynamic, requiring a systematic approach to effectively address and resolve them. The Conflict Management Cycle provides a framework that guides us through the various stages of conflict resolution. Each stage plays a vital role in understanding, managing, and finding resolutions to conflicts. So, let’s explore the four key stages of this cycle: 

Stage 1: Proactive phase  

The proactive phase marks the initial stage of the Conflict Management Cycle. It involves taking preventive measures and creating an environment that minimises the likelihood of conflicts arising. 

This stage primarily emphasises proactive communication, fostering positive relationships, and establishing clear expectations and guidelines. As a result, individuals and organisations can reduce the occurrence and severity of conflicts. 

Stage 2: Strategic phase  

The strategic phase in Conflict Management Cycle is where conflicts are identified, assessed, and analysed. This stage focuses on understanding the nature and causes of conflicts, gathering relevant information, and evaluating their potential impact. 

Further, it involves conducting a thorough analysis of the underlying issues, interests, and needs of all parties involved. By employing active listening, effective communication, and problem-solving techniques, individuals can develop strategies for resolution and gain insights into the root causes of conflicts. 

Ready to enhance your Conflict Management skills? Register for our Management Training now.  

Stage 3: Reactive phase   

In the reactive phase, the focus shifts towards addressing conflicts immediately. This stage involves implementing the strategies and interventions developed during the previous phase. It requires effective communication, negotiation skills, and a willingness to find mutually beneficial solutions. 

This phase aims to manage conflicts promptly and constructively, minimising further escalation and damage. By engaging in respectful dialogue, considering different perspectives, and exploring collaborative solutions, individuals can work towards resolving conflicts effectively. 

Stage 4: Recovery phase  

The recovery phase occurs after conflicts have been addressed and resolved. It involves reflecting on the conflict experience, learning from it, and implementing measures to prevent similar conflicts in the future. 

This stage emphasises evaluating the outcomes, identifying lessons learned, and implementing changes to improve future Conflict Management. The recovery phase also focuses on rebuilding relationships, restoring trust, and fostering a positive environment. 

Understanding the Conflict Management Cycle and its different stages empowers individuals and organisations to navigate conflicts more effectively. They can drive themselves towards opportunities for growth, understanding, and improved relationships. 

Take the next step towards professional growth with our Problem Solving Training .  

Key strategies for effective conflict resolution  

a) Listen attentively to understand all perspectives without interruptions, fostering a deeper understanding of the conflict. 

b) Cultivate empathy by considering others' emotions and needs, creating a more compassionate and constructive environment. 

c) Focus on shared interests or goals to find collaborative solutions that benefit all parties involved. 

d) Communicate clearly and respectfully using “I” statements to express feelings and encourage open dialogue. 

e) Be open to alternative viewpoints and find win-win solutions through compromise. 

f) Seek neutral third-party help when conflicts escalate or become complex, facilitating resolution. 

g) Develop emotional intelligence to understand and manage emotions, promoting self-awareness and empathy. 

h) Keep the focus on the conflict, separate individuals from the problem, and address it constructively. 

i) Reflect on conflicts, identify lessons learned, and apply them to enhance future Conflict Management skills. 

j) Define clear terms, responsibilities, and timelines to ensure understanding and commitment to the resolution. 

Conclusion  

The Conflict Management Cycle provides a comprehensive framework for effectively addressing and resolving conflicts. By embracing this cycle and employing the strategies, individuals can navigate conflicts with resilience and foster positive resolutions. They can also cultivate a more harmonious and productive environment in various aspects of life. 

Gain an in-depth understanding of Conflict Management techniques with our Conflict Management Training .  

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Some Aspects of Problem Solving and Conflict Resolution in Management Groups

By: James P. Ware

Provides a brief overview of the strengths and weaknesses of group problem solving and suggests criteria for when to use a group. Also, describes the three primary modes of conflict resolution…

• Length: 13 page(s)
• Publication Date: Sep 1, 1978
• Discipline: Organizational Behavior
• Product #: 479003-PDF-ENG

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Provides a brief overview of the strengths and weaknesses of group problem solving and suggests criteria for when to use a group. Also, describes the three primary modes of conflict resolution (smoothing and avoidance; bargaining and forcing, problem solving) and discusses difficulties experienced by the members of interdepartmental groups. Can be used with cases on group and intergroup conflict.

Sep 1, 1978 (Revised: Nov 1, 1979)

Discipline:

Organizational Behavior

Harvard Business School

479003-PDF-ENG

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5.2 Small Group Dynamics

In this section:, small group dynamics, power and status in groups, toxic leadership in groups, cultivating a supportive group climate.

Almost every posting for a job opening in a workplace location lists teamwork among the required skills. Why? Is it because every employer writing a job posting copies other job postings? No, it’s because every employer’s business success absolutely depends on people working well in teams to get the job done. A high-functioning, cohesive, and efficient team is essential to workplace productivity anywhere you have three or more people working together. Effective teamwork means working together toward a common goal guided by a common vision, and it’s a mighty force.

Compared with several people working independently, teams maximize productivity through collaborative problem solving. When each member brings a unique combination of skills, talents, experience, and education, their combined efforts make the team synergistic—i..e, more than the sum of its parts. Collaboration can motivate and result in creative solutions not possible in single-contractor projects. The range of views and diversity can energize the process, helping address creative blocks and stalemates. While the “work” part of “teamwork” may be engaging or even fun, it also requires effort and commitment to a production schedule that depends on the successful completion of individual and group responsibilities for the whole project to finish in a timely manner. Like a chain, the team is only as strong as its weakest member.

Teamwork is not without its challenges. The work itself may prove to be difficult as members juggle competing assignments and personal commitments. The work may also be compromised if team members are expected to conform and pressured to follow a plan, perform a procedure, or use a product that they themselves have not developed or don’t support.  Groupthink , or the tendency to accept the group’s ideas and actions in spite of individual concerns, can also compromise the process and reduce efficiency. Personalities, competition, and internal conflict can factor into a team’s failure to produce, which is why care must be taken in how teams are assembled and managed.

Establishing a Team

• Select team members wisely
• Select a responsible leader
• Promote cooperation
• Clarify goals
• Elicit commitment
• Clarify responsibilities
• Instill prompt action
• Apply technology
• Ensure technological compatibility
• Provide prompt feedback

Source: Thill & Bovee, (2002). 

Group dynamics involve the interactions and processes of a team and influence the degree to which members feel a part of the goal and mission. A team with a strong identity can prove to be a powerful force. One that exerts too much control over individual members, however, runs the risk or reducing creative interactions, resulting in tunnel vision. A team that exerts too little control, neglecting all concern for process and areas of specific responsibility, may go nowhere. Striking a balance between motivation and encouragement is key to maximizing group productivity.

A skilled communicator creates a positive team by first selecting members based on their areas of skill and expertise. Attention to each member’s style of communication also ensures the team’s smooth operation. If their talents are essential, introverts who prefer working alone may need additional encouragement to participate. Extroverts may need encouragement to listen to others and not dominate the conversation. Both are necessary, however, so the selecting for a diverse group of team members deserves serious consideration.

Positive and Negative Team Roles

When a manager selects a team for a particular project, its success depends on its members filling various positive roles. There are a few standard roles that must be represented to achieve the team’s goals, but diversity is also key. Without an initiator-coordinator stepping up into a leadership position, for instance, the team will be a non-starter because team members such as the elaborator will just wait for more direction from the manager, who is busy with other things. If all the team members commit to filling a leadership role, however, the group will stall from the get-go with power struggles until the most dominant personality vanquishes the others, who will be bitterly unproductive relegated to a subordinate worker-bee role. A good manager must therefore be a good psychologist in building a team with diverse personality types and talents. Table 5.1 below captures some of these roles.

Table 5.1 Positive Group Roles

Of course, each team member here contributes work irrespective of their typical roles. The groupmate who always wanted to be recorder in high school because they thought that all they had to do what jot down some notes about what other people said and did, and otherwise contributed nothing, would be a liability as a slacker in a workplace team. We must therefore contrast the above roles with negative roles, some of which are captured in Table 5.2 below.

Table 5.2 Negative Group Roles

Original Source: Beene & Sheats, 1948; McLean, 2005

Whether a team member has a positive or negative effect often depends on context. Just as the class clown can provide some much-needed comic relief when the timing’s right, they can also impede productivity when they merely distract members during work periods. An initiator-coordinator gets things started and provides direction, but a dominator will put down others’ ideas, belittle their contributions, and ultimately force people to contribute little and withdraw partially or altogether.

Perhaps the worst of all roles is the slacker. If you consider a game of tug-o-war between two teams of even strength, success depends on everyone on the team pulling as hard as they would if they were in a one-on-one match. The tendency of many, however, is to slack off a little, thinking that their contribution won’t be noticed and that everyone else on the team will make up for their lack of effort. The team’s work output will be much less than the sum of its parts, however, if everyone else thinks this, too. Preventing slacker tendencies requires clearly articulating in writing the expectations for everyone’s individual contributions. With such a contract to measure individual performance, each member can be held accountable for their work and take pride in their contribution to solving all the problems that the team overcame on its road to success.

Recall back to our discussion of power and its bases. In a group or team, members with higher status are apt to command greater respect and possess more prestige and power than those with lower status. Status an be defined as a person’s perceived level of importance or significance within a particular context.

Our status is often tied to our identities and their perceived value within our social and cultural context. Groups may confer status upon their members on the basis of their age, wealth, gender, race or ethnicity, ability, physical stature, perceived intelligence, and/or other attributes. Status can also be granted through title or position. In professional circles, for instance, having earned a “terminal” degree such as a Ph.D. or M.D. usually generates a degree of status. The same holds true for the documented outcomes of schooling or training in legal, engineering, or other professional fields. Likewise, people who’ve been honored for achievements in any number of areas may bring status to a group by virtue of that recognition if it relates to the nature and purpose of the group. Once a group has formed and begun to sort out its norms, it will also build upon the initial status that people bring to it by further allocating status according to its own internal processes and practices. For instance, choosing a member to serve as an officer in a group generally conveys status to that person.

Consider This:  High Stakes in Action

What does high status look like in action.

Second, some indicators of your participation will be particularly positive. Your activity level and self-regard will surpass those of lower-status group members. So will your level of satisfaction with your position. Furthermore, the rest of the group is less likely to ignore your statements and proposals than it is to disregard what lower-status individuals say.

Finally, the content of your communication will probably be different from what your fellow members discuss. Because you may have access to special information about the group’s activities and may be expected to shoulder specific responsibilities because of your position, you’re apt to talk about topics which are relevant to the central purposes and direction of the group. Lower-status members, on the other hand, are likely to communicate more about other matters.

There’s no such thing as a “status neutral” group—one in which everyone always has the same status as everyone else. Differences in status within a group are inevitable and can be dangerous if not recognized and managed. For example, someone who gains status without possessing the skills or attributes required to use it well may cause real damage to other members of a group, or to a group as a whole. A high-status, low-ability person may develop an inflated self-image, begin to abuse power, or both. One of us worked for the new president of a college who acted as though his position entitled him to take whatever actions he wanted. In the process of interacting primarily with other high-status individuals who shared the majority of his viewpoints and goals, he overlooked or rejected concerns and complaints from people in other parts of the organization. Turmoil and dissension broke out. Morale plummeted. The president eventually suffered votes of no confidence from his college’s faculty, staff, and students and was forced to resign.

We’ve focused for the most part on effective leadership, but what happens if you find yourself working under a horrible manager or team leader? It happens. Plenty of people assume positions of authority who are effective in some areas of management (e.g., they are shrewd business people and good with money) but aren’t so good with people, or vice versa. There are even managers who are bad at everything and it’s only a matter of time before they are fired or ruin the operation with incompetence, or they may continue to be propped up by cronyism, nepotism, or some other kind of corruption. Some people are even offensive to the point of committing harassment along a spectrum of misbehaviour ranging from inappropriate jokes or rude remarks to outright predatory sexual harassment or assault and violence. Whatever the case, nothing good comes of toxic leadership. Employees just aren’t productive when fearing abuse from their managers or worrying about the their leadership running the operation into the ground.

If the mismanagement is severe—especially if it is physically or emotionally abusive—the best way of dealing with the situation is to leave it. A person at work who makes you feel unsafe may suffer from a personality disorder that makes them dangerous, and there’s no fixing that. If you’re in immediate danger, of course you must leave immediately. From there, figure out your options. For starters, you could consider the following:

• familiarize yourself with the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OHSA, 1990) via a guide such as  Workplace Violence and Harassment: Understanding the Law  (Ontario Ministry of Labour, 2016).
• know that all workplaces are required to have procedures in place for reporting incidents perpetrated by a manager or supervisor to a neutral authority without compromising your employment ( OHSA , 1990, sec. 32.0.6. [2] [b] ).
• make a Human Rights Code  (1990) complaint (called an application) to the  Human Rights Tribunal of Ontario  following advice from the  Human Rights Legal Support Centre .

If you’re not in immediate danger but the situation is too toxic to continue, you must leave as soon as possible. A major red flag is if most of your co-workers agree that your boss is terrible. If leaving is easier said than done because you live paycheque to paycheque and can’t afford to be out of work even for a short while, a well-devised exit strategy is in order. This Lining up your next stable employment is the best you can do, though it may take time and you may have to do it without a reference from your current employer.

If the toxicity is relatively minor, perhaps the result of some nasty things said here and bad moves there, using internal procedures required of employers by law to address managerial misconduct is the most ethical course of action. It is ultimately the employer’s responsibility to ensure a non-toxic work environment, and if that means disciplinary action going up the chain of command, then it’s worth it to have people doing their best work without hating the people they’re working for. Any OHSA-compliant workplace will have such reporting procedures in place, including provisions to prevent employment-compromising retaliation. With pressure from above and below in the workplace hierarchy, some offending managers may improve their behaviour knowing their job depends on it.

Of course, you must also be good about picking your battles if your leadership isn’t perfect but not horrible either. Managers are under plenty of pressure—especially middle managers who feel it from above and below—and can easily make mistakes such as being gruff when a softer approach would be more appropriate. If you have the type of boss who only talks to you about the one thing you did wrong in a day while saying nothing about the hundred things you did right, this may be a sign of someone who lacks good people skills. It may also be that they’re extremely busy and have time only for quality assurance rather than boosting morale. If your manager isn’t a complete monster, exercising some understanding about the reasons why will make your life and work more tolerable.

Any time a group of people comes together, new dynamics are put into place that differ from the dynamics present in our typical dyadic interactions. The impressions we form about other people’s likeability and the way we think about a group’s purpose are affected by the climate within a group that is created by all members.

When something is cohesive it sticks together, and the cohesion within a group helps establish an overall group climate. Group climate refers to the relatively enduring tone and quality of group interaction that is experienced similarly by group members. To better understand cohesion and climate, we can examine two types of cohesion: task and social.

Task cohesion  refers to the commitment of group members to the purpose and activities of the group.  Social cohesion refers to the attraction and liking among group members. Ideally, groups would have an appropriate balance between these two types of cohesion relative to the group’s purpose, with task-oriented groups having higher task cohesion and relational-oriented groups having higher social cohesion. Even the most task-focused groups need some degree of social cohesion, and vice versa, but the balance will be determined by the purpose of the group and the individual members. For example, a team of workers from the local car dealership may join a local summer softball league because they’re good friends and love the game. They may end up beating the team of faculty members from the community college who joined the league just to get to know each other better and have an excuse to get together and drink beer in the afternoon. In this example, the players from the car dealership exhibit high social and task cohesion, while the faculty exhibit high social but low task cohesion. Cohesion benefits a group in many ways and can be assessed through specific group behaviors and characteristics. Groups with an appropriate level of cohesiveness (Hargie, 2011):

• set goals easily;
• exhibit a high commitment to achieving the purpose of the group;
• are more productive;
• experience fewer attendance issues;
• have group members who are willing to stick with the group during times of difficulty;
• have satisfied group members who identify with, promote, and defend the group;
• have members who are willing to listen to each other and offer support and constructive criticism; and
• experience less anger and tension.

Appropriate levels of group cohesion usually create a positive group climate, since group climate is affected by members’ satisfaction with the group. Climate has also been described as group morale. The following are some qualities that contribute to a positive group climate and morale (Marston & Hecht, 1988):

• Participation.  Group members feel better when they feel included in the discussion and a part of the functioning of the group.
• Messages. Confirming messages help build relational dimensions within a group, and clear, organized, and relevant messages help build task dimensions within a group.
• Feedback. Positive, constructive, and relevant feedback contribute to the group climate.
• Equity. Aside from individual participation, group members also like to feel as if participation is managed equally within the group and that appropriate turn-taking is used.
• Clear and accepted roles. Group members like to know how status and hierarchy operate within a group. Knowing the roles isn’t enough to lead to satisfaction, though—members must also be comfortable with and accept those roles.
• Motivation.  Member motivation is activated by perceived connection to and relevance of the group’s goals or purpose.

Group cohesion and climate are also demonstrated through symbolic convergence (Bormann, 1985). Have you ever been in a group that had ‘inside jokes’ that someone outside the group just would not understand? Symbolic convergence refers to the sense of community or group consciousness that develops in a group through non-task-related communication such as stories and jokes. The originator of symbolic convergence theory, Ernest Bormann, claims that the sharing of group fantasies creates symbolic convergence.  Fantasy , in this sense, doesn’t refer to fairy tales, sexual desire, or untrue things. In group communication, group fantasies are verbalized references to events outside the “here and now” of the group, including references to the group’s past, predictions for the future, or other communication about people or events outside the group (Griffin, 2009).

In any group, you can tell when symbolic convergence is occurring by observing how people share such fantasies and how group members react to them. If group members react positively and agree with or appreciate the teller’s effort or other group members are triggered to tell their own related stories, then convergence is happening and cohesion and climate are being established. Over time, these fantasies build a shared vision of the group and what it means to be a member that creates a shared group consciousness. By reviewing and applying the concepts in this section, you can hopefully identify potential difficulties with group cohesion and work to enhance cohesion when needed to create more positive group climates and enhance your future group interactions.

Adapted Works

“ Group Communication ” in Communication at Work  by Jordan Smith is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

“ Group Life Cycles and Member Roles ” in Business Communication for Success  by University of Minnesota is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

“ Power in Teams and Groups ” in Problem Solving in Teams and Groups  by Cameron W. Piercy, Ph.D. is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

“ Cultivating a Supportive Group Climate ” in Problem Solving in Teams and Groups  by Cameron W. Piercy, Ph.D. is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Beebe, S. A., & Masterson, J.T. (2015). Communicating in small groups: Principles and practices (11th ed.). Pearson.

Bormann, E. G. (1985). Symbolic convergence theory: A communication formulation.  Journal of Communication , 35 (4), 128–38.

Bormann, E. G. (1989). Discussion and group methods: Theory and practice  (3rd ed.). Harper and Row.

Brilhart, J. K., & Galanes, G. J. (1997). Effective group discussion .  Brown.

Griffin, E. (2009).  A first look at communication theory  (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Hargie, O. (2011).  Skilled interpersonal interaction: Research, theory, and practice  (5th ed.). Routledge.

Homans, G. C. (1992). The human group . Harcourt Brace & World.

Marston, P. J., & Hecht, M. L. (1988). Group satisfaction. In R. Cathcart & L. Samovar (Eds.),  Small group communication (5th ed.). Brown.

Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2002) . Essentials of business communication. Prentice Hall.

Conflict Management Copyright © 2022 by Laura Westmaas, BA, MSc is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Article contents

Conflict management.

• Patricia Elgoibar , Patricia Elgoibar University of Barcelona
• Martin Euwema Martin Euwema Katholieke Universiteit Leuven
•  and  Lourdes Munduate Lourdes Munduate University of Seville
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.5
• Published online: 28 June 2017

Conflicts are part of nature and certainly part of human relations, between individuals, as well as within and between groups. Conflicts occur in every domain of life: family, work, and society, local and global. Conflict management, therefore, is an essential competency for each person. People differ largely in their emotional and behavioral responses to conflict and need to learn how to behave effectively in different conflict situations. This requires a contingency approach, first assessing the conflict situation, and then choosing a strategy, matching the goals of the party. In most situations, fostering cooperative relations will be most beneficial; however, this is also most challenging. Therefore, constructive conflict management strategies, including trust building and methods of constructive controversy, are emphasized. Conflict management, however, is broader than the interaction of the conflicting parties. Third-party interventions are an essential element of constructive conflict management, particularly the assessment of which parties are intervening in what ways at what escalation stage.

• cooperation
• competition
• conflict behavior
• conglomerate conflict behavior
• constructive conflict management
• conflict resolution strategies

Definition of Conflict

Conflicts are part of nature, and certainly part of human relations. People experience conflict with other persons, in teams or in groups, as well as between larger entities, departments, organizations, communities, and countries. Conflicts appear at home, at work, and in our spare-time activities with friends, with people we love and with people we hate, as well as with our superiors and with our subordinates and coworkers. Parties need to accept conflicts as part of life dynamics and learn to deal with them effectively and efficiently. Conflict management refers to the way we manage incompatible actions with others, where others can be a person or a group.

Conflict is a component of interpersonal interactions; it is neither inevitable nor intrinsically bad, but it is commonplace (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ; Schellenberg, 1996 ). In the 20th century , Lewin ( 1935 ) concluded that an intrinsic state of tension motivates group members to move toward the accomplishment of their desired common goals. Later on, Parker Follett ( 1941 ) explored the constructive side of conflict and defined conflict as the appearance of difference, difference of opinions or difference of interests. Deutsch ( 1949 ) developed this line of thought and analyzed the relation between the way group members believe their goals are related and their interactions and relationships.

A common definition of conflict argues that there is a conflict between two (or more) parties (individuals or groups) if at least one of them is offended, or feels bothered by the other (Van de Vliert, 1997 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Traditionally, conflict has been defined as opposing interests involving scarce resources and goal divergence and frustration (Pondy, 1967 ). However, Deutsch ( 1973 ) defined conflict as incompatible activities: one person's actions interfere, obstruct, or in some way get in the way of another's action. Tjosvold, Wan, and Tang ( 2016 ) proposed that defining conflict as incompatible actions is a much stronger foundation than defining conflict as opposing interests, because conflicts also can occur when people have common goals (i.e., they may disagree about the best means to achieve their common goals). The key contribution of Deutsch’s ( 1973 ) proposal is that incompatible activities occur in both compatible and incompatible goal contexts. Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interaction, and outcomes as they approach conflict (Tjosvold et al., 2016 ).

Characteristics of Conflict

Euwema and Giebels ( 2017 ) highlighted some key elements of conflict.

Conflict implies dependence and interdependence. Parties rely to some extent on the other parties to realize their goals (Kaufman, Elgoibar, & Borbely, 2016 ). This interdependence can be positive (a cooperative context), negative (a competitive context), or mixed. Positive interdependence is strongly related to cooperative conflict behaviors, while negative interdependence triggers competitive behaviors (Johnson & Johnson, 2005 ). Interdependence also reflects the power difference between parties. A short-term contractor on a low-paid job usually is much more dependent on the employer than vice versa. Many conflicts, however, can be seen as “mixed motive” situations.

Conflicts are mostly mixed motive situations because parties have simultaneous motives to cooperate and motives to compete. Parties are, on the one hand, dependent on each other to realize their goal, and, on the other hand, they are at the same time competitors. For example, two colleagues on a team are cooperating for the same team result; however, there is competition for the role as project leader. In a soccer team, the players have a team goal of working together to win, but they can be competing to be the top scorer. The mixed motive structure is very important to understand conflict dynamics. When conflicts arise, the competitive aspects become more salient, and the cooperative structure often is perceived less by parties. Interventions to solve conflict, therefore, are often related to these perceptions and the underlying structures.

Conflict is a psychological experience. Conflict is by definition a personal and subjective experience, as each individual can perceive and manage the same conflict in a different manner. Conflict doesn’t necessarily have an objective basis (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). It depends on the perception of the specific situation, and the perception is by definition subjective and personal.

Conflict concerns cognitive and affective tension. When someone perceives blocked goals and disagreements, he or she can also, although not necessarily, feel fear or anger. Many authors consider that conflict is emotionally charged (Nair, 2007 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Sinaceur, Adam, Van Kleef, & Galinky, 2013 ), although the emotion doesn’t need to be labeled necessarily as a negative emotion. Some people actually enjoy conflict. Emotional experiences in conflict are also scripted by cultural, historical, and personal influences (Lindner, 2014 ).

Conflict can be unidirectional. One party can feel frustrated or thwarted by the other while the second party is hardly aware of, and doesn’t perceive the same reality of, the conflict.

Conflict is a process. Conflict is a dynamic process that does not appear suddenly, but takes some time to develop and passes through several stages (Spaho, 2013 ). Conflict is the process resulting from the tension in interpersonal interactions or between team members because of real or perceived differences (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ).

Type of Conflict: Task, Process, and Relationship Conflict

Early conflict and organizational research concluded that conflict interferes with team performance and reduces satisfaction due to an increase in tension and distraction from the objective (Brown, 1983 ; Hackman & Morris, 1975 ; Pondy, 1967 ; Wall & Callister, 1995 ). Jehn ( 1995 ) differentiated between task and relational conflict, and later also included process conflict (De Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012 ). Task conflict refers to different opinions on content (Jehn & Mannix, 2001 ). Examples of task conflict are conflict about distribution of resources, about procedures and policies, and judgment and interpretation of facts (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). Process conflict refers to how tasks should be accomplished (Jehn, Greer, Levine, & Szulanski, 2008 ). Examples are disagreements about logistic and delegation issues (Jehn et al., 2008 ). Finally, relationship conflict refers to “interpersonal incompatibility” (Jehn, 1995 , p. 257). Examples of relationship conflict are conflict about personal taste, political preferences, values, and interpersonal style (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ). All three types of conflict—task, process, and personal (relational) conflicts—are usually disruptive, especially personal conflict, which is highly disruptive (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; Jehn, 1995 , 1997 ). A review and meta-analysis by De Wit et al. ( 2012 ) showed that, under specific conditions, task conflict can be productive for teams. Moreover, conflict can wreck a team’s efforts to share information and reach a consensus (Amason & Schweiger, 1994 ). Therefore, research supporting the benefit of task and relationship conflict is not conclusive and each situation varies. What seems to be clear is that managing conflict efficiently to avoid escalation is a priority for teams.

Conflict Behavior, Conflict Management, and Conflict Resolution

Conflict behavior, conflict management, and conflict resolution are different layers of a conflict process and therefore should be distinguished. Conflict behavior is any behavioral response to the experience of frustration, while conflict management is the deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, both to prevent or to escalate them. Also, conflict management is differentiated from conflict resolution, which is specific action aimed to end a conflict.

Conflict Behavior

Conflict behavior is the behavioral response to the experience of conflict (Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). Conflict behavior is defined as one party’s reaction to the perception that one’s own and the other party’s current aspiration cannot be achieved simultaneously (Deutsch, 1973 ; Pruitt, 1981 ; Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994 ). It is both what people experiencing conflict intend to do, as well as what they actually do (De Dreu, Evers, Beersma, Kluwer, & Nauta, 2001 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). In conflict situations people often respond primarily, following their emotions, more or less conscientiously.

Many factors affect how people respond to the experience of conflict. Social psychology shows the processes are largely unconscious (Wilson, 2004 ). For example, how people respond to intimidating behavior by their supervisor might be primarily influenced by the context and individual perception, as well as previous relations with persons in authority, including parents and teachers (Gelfand & Brett, 2004 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ). These natural behavioral responses are also referred to as “conflict styles.” They are rooted in our personality and can differ in context. Some people will naturally respond by being friendly and accommodating, where others will start arguing or fighting (Barbuto, Phipps, & Xu, 2010 ; Kilmann & Thomas, 1977 ; Van Kleef & Cote, 2007 ).

Conflict behavior becomes more effective once we are more aware of our natural tendencies and are also able not to act upon them, and instead to show flexibility in behavioral approaches. This is where conflict behavior becomes conflict management. Therefore, one can be a naturally highly accommodating person who will spontaneously give in to others who make demands, but one will be more effective after learning to assess the situation at hand and to carefully decide on a response, which might be quite different from the natural or spontaneous reaction.

Dual-Concern Model

The dual-concern model holds that the way in which parties handle conflicts can de described and is determined by two concerns: concern for self (own interests) and concern for others (relational interests) (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 1983 ; Thomas, 1992 ; Van de Vliert, 1999 ) (see Figure 1 ). Usually, the two concerns define five different conflict behaviors: forcing, avoiding, accommodating, compromising, and problem solving or integrating. These behaviors are studied at the level of general personal conflict styles, closely connected to personality, as well as at the level of strategies and tactics (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ).

The different conflict styles have been studied intensively, with three approaches. A normative approach, wherein integrating (also known as problem solving) is seen as the preferred behavior for conflict resolution; a contingency approach, exploring conditions under which each of the behaviors is most appropriate; and a conglomerate approach, focusing on a combination of the behaviors (see “ Conglomerate Conflict Behavior ”).

Figure 1. Dual-concern model.

In forcing, one party aims to achieve his or her goal by imposing a solution onto the other party. Concern for one’s own interests and own vision is what matters. There is little attention and care for the interests and needs of the other party, or the relationship with the other (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ). This style is appropriate when the outcome is important for one party but trivial to the opponent, or when fast decision making is necessary. It becomes inappropriate when issues are complex, when both parties are equally powerful, when the outcome is not worth the effort for one party, or when there is enough time to make a collective decision. Moreover, forcing decisions can seriously damage a relationship and contribute to bullying in the workplace (Baillien, Bollen, Euwema, & De Witte, 2014 ); however, normative forcing, which is referring to rules and imposing them, can be effective (De Dreu, 2005 ). Note that some alternative terms that have been used for forcing in the literature are competitive , contending , or adversarial behavior .

With avoiding, one party aims to stay out of any confrontation with the other. This behavior prevents efforts to yield, to negotiate constructively, or to compete for one’s own gains. The conflict issue receives little attention, usually because the avoiding party thinks he or she won’t gain from entering into the conflict (Euwema & Giebels, 2017 ; Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Avoiding may be used when the benefits of resolving the conflict are not worth confronting the other party, especially when the problem is trivial or minor; when no good solutions are available for now; or when time is needed (Van Erp et al., 2011 ). An important motive for avoiding also is to prevent loss of face and to maintain the relationship. This is particularly true in collectivistic cultures, particularly in Asian societies (Oetzel et al., 2001 ). Avoiding is inappropriate when the issues are important to a party, when the parties cannot wait, or when immediate action is required (Rahim, 2002 ). Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim ( 1994 ) distinguished between long-term avoidance, which is a permanent move to leave the conflict, and short-term avoidance, defined as temporary inaction.

Accommodating

Accommodating is giving in or going along with the ideas, wishes, and needs of the other party. Accommodating usually is the result of a low concern for one’s own conflictive interests combined with a high concern for the interests and needs of the other party. Giving in often is related to a strong need for harmony and a sensitivity to the needs of the other. Accommodation is useful when a party is not familiar with the issues involved in the conflict, when the opponent is right, when the issue is much more important to the other party, and in order to build or maintain a long-term relationship, in exchange for future consideration when needed. Giving in also can be an educational strategy, giving space to the other to find out what the effect will be. Accommodating is less appropriate when the issue is of great concern, when accommodation creates frustration, or when accommodation reinforces dynamics of exploitation (Spaho, 2013 ). Note that an alternative term for this concept that can be found in the literature is yielding .

Compromising

Compromising involves searching for a middle ground, with an eye on both one’s own interest and the interest of the other. The premise is that both parties must find a middle ground where everyone receives equal consideration, meaning that each party makes some concession (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). Compromising is appropriate when a balance of forces exists and the goals of parties are mutually exclusive (Buddhodev, 2011 ). Compromise leads to a democratic solution; however, it may prevent arriving at a creative solution to the problem and a limited effort to increase resources before distributing them (Spaho, 2013 ).

Problem Solving or Integrating

Problem solving is a win–win strategy aimed at “optimizing rather than satisfying the parties” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 36). Great value is attached to one’s own interests and vision, but also a lot of attention is given to the needs, ideas, and interests of the other. One looks for open and creative solutions that meet both interests. Problem solving or integrating is useful in dealing with complex issues, and it allows both parties to share skills, information, and other resources to redefine the problem and formulate alternative solutions. It is, however, inappropriate when the task is simple or trivial, and when there is no time. Also, it is more difficult to develop when the other party does not have experience in problem solving or when the parties are unconcerned about the outcomes (Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ). Note that some alternative terms that can be found in the literature for this concept are cooperation and collaboration .

The dual-concern model is used as a contingency model, describing which conflict behaviors are used best under what conditions (Van de Vliert et al., 1997 ), and also as a normative model, promoting integrating behaviors as the most effective style, particularly when it comes to joined outcomes and long-term effectiveness. Forcing, in contrast, is often described as a noncooperative behavior, with risk of escalated and unilateral outcomes (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Burke, 1970 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim, 2010 ; Thomas, 1992 ). As a result, authors define forcing and integrating as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold, Morishima, & Belsheim, 1999 ). Following this model, many scholars during the 1970s and 1980s proposed that individuals use a single behavior in conflict, or that the behaviors should be seen as independent. Therefore, the antecedents and effects of different conflict behaviors are often analyzed separately (Tjosvold, 1997 ; Volkema & Bergmann, 2001 ). However, parties usually try to achieve personal outcomes, and try to reach mutual agreements by combining several behaviors in a conflict episode (Van de Vliert, 1997 ). This is the basic assumption of the conglomerate conflict behavior (CCB) theory (Van de Vliert, Euwema, & Huismans, 1995 ), which established that conflict behaviors are used in a compatible manner, sequentially or simultaneously.

Conglomerate Conflict Behavior (CCB)

In the dual-concern model, a contrast is made between forcing (contending with an adversary in a direct way) and integrating (reconciling the parties’ basic interests) as two opposed behavioral approaches (Tjosvold et al., 1999 ). However, the CCB framework assumes that individual reactions to conflict typically are complex and consist of multiple components of behavior (Van de Vliert, 1997 , Van de Vliert et al., 1995 ). The CCB theory covers the idea that behavioral components may occur simultaneously or sequentially and that the combination drives toward effectiveness (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Medina & Benitez, 2011 ). The theory has been supported in studies analyzing conflict management effectiveness in different contexts, such as in managerial behavior (Munduate, Ganaza, Peiro, & Euwema, 1999 ), in military peacekeeping (Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ) and by worker representatives in organizations (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

The main reason that people combine different behaviors is because conflicts are often mixed-motive situations (Euwema, Van de Vliert, & Bakker, 2003 ; Euwema & Van Emmerik, 2007 ; Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). Mixed-motive situations are described as situations that pose a conflict between securing immediate benefits through competition, and pursuing benefits for oneself and others through cooperation with other people (Komorita & Parks, 1995 ; Sheldon & Fishbach, 2011 ). Therefore, a person's behavior in a conflict episode is viewed as a combination of some of the five forms of conflict behaviors. An example of sequential complex behavior is to first put the demands clearly (forcing), followed by integrating (searching for mutual gains, and expanding the pie), and finally compromising, where distributive issues are dealt with in a fair way. An example of serial complexity can be found in multi-issue conflict, when for some issues conflict can be avoided, while for high priorities, demands are put on the table in a forcing way. Another CCB pattern is the conglomeration of accommodating and forcing. This pattern is sometimes referred to as “logrolling” (Van de Vliert, 1997 , p. 35), and it is a classic part of integrative strategies, to maximize the outcomes for both parties. Logrolling behavior consists of accommodating the high-concern issues of the other party and forcing one’s own high-concern issues. This approach is usually helpful in multi-issue trade negotiations; however, it requires openness of both parties to acknowledging key interests.

How to Explore Your Tendency in Conflict

The most famous and popular conflict behavior questionnaires are:

MODE (Management of Differences Exercise). MODE, developed in 1974 by Thomas and Killman, presents 30 choices between two options representing different conflict styles.

ROCI (Rahim's Organizational Conflict Inventory). The ROCI is a list of 28 items that measures the five styles of conflict behavior described.

Dutch Test of Conflict Handling. This list of 20 items measures the degree of preference for the five styles (Van de Vliert & Euwema, 1994 ; De Dreu et al., 2001 , 2005 ). It has been validated internationally.

Conflict management is deliberate action to deal with conflictive situations, either to prevent or to escalate them. Unlike conflict behavior, conflict management encompasses cognitive responses to conflict situations, which can vary from highly competitive to highly cooperative. Conflict management does not necessarily involve avoidance, reduction, or termination of conflict. It involves designing effective strategies to minimize the dysfunctions of conflict and to enhance the constructive functions of conflict in order to improve team and organizational effectiveness (Rahim, 2002 ).

Conflicts are not necessarily destructive (De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema, Munduate, Elgoibar, Pender, & Garcia, 2015 ), and research has shown that constructive conflict management is possible (Coleman, Deutsch, & Marcus, 2014 ). The benefits of conflict are much more likely to arise when conflicts are discussed openly, and when discussion skillfully promotes new ideas and generates creative insights and agreements (Coleman et al., 2014 ; De Dreu & Gelfand, 2008 ; Euwema et al., 2015 ; Tjosvold, Won, & Chen, 2014 ). To make a constructive experience from conflict, conflict needs to be managed effectively.

Deutsch’s classic theory of competition and cooperation describes the antecedents and consequences of parties’ cooperative or competitive orientations and allows insights into what can give rise to constructive or destructive conflict processes (Deutsch, 1973 , 2002 ). The core of the theory is the perceived interdependence of the parties, so that the extent that protagonists believe that their goals are cooperative (positively related) or competitive (negatively related) affects their interaction and thus the outcomes. Positive interdependence promotes openness, cooperative relations, and integrative problem solving. Perceived negative interdependence on the other hand, induces more distance and less openness, and promotes competitive behavior, resulting in distributive bargaining or win–lose outcomes (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

Whether the protagonists believe their goals are cooperative or competitive very much affects their expectations, interactions, and outcomes. If parties perceive that they can reach their goals only if the other party also reaches their goals, the goal interdependence is positively perceived and therefore parties will have higher concern for the other’s goals and manage the conflict cooperatively (De Dreu et al., 2001 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). On the contrary, if one party perceives that they can reach their goals only if the other party fails to obtain their goals, the interdependence becomes negatively perceived and the approach to conflict becomes competitive (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Goals can also be independent; in that case, conflict can be avoided (the parties don’t need to obstruct each other’s goals to be successful). Therefore, how parties perceive their goals’ interdependence affects how they negotiate conflict and whether the conflict is constructively or destructively managed (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 2008 ).

Successfully managing conflict cooperatively requires intellectual, emotional, and relational capabilities in order to share information, to contribute to value creation, and to discuss differences constructively (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). In contrast, a competitive-destructive process leads to material losses and dissatisfaction, worsening relations between parties, and negative psychological effects on at least one party—the loser of a win–lose context (Deutsch, 2014 ).

Deutsch’s theory proposes that emphasizing cooperative goals in conflict by demonstrating a commitment to pursue mutually beneficial solutions creates high-quality resolutions and relationships, while focusing on competitive interests by pursuing one’s own goals at the expense of the other’s escalates conflict, resulting in imposed solutions and suspicious relationships (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ).

In summary, Deutsch’s theory states that the context in which the conflict process is expressed drives parties toward either a cooperative or a competitive orientation in conflicts (Alper et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 2006 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ). In other words, a cooperative context is related to a cooperative conflict pattern, and a competitive context is related to a competitive conflict pattern. When parties have a cooperative orientation toward conflict, parties discuss their differences with the objective of clarifying them and attempting to find a solution that is satisfactory to both parties—both parties win (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ). On the contrary, in competition, there is usually a winner and a loser (Carnevale & Pruitt, 1992 ) (see Table 1 ). In the CCB model, the patterns can include cooperative (i.e., integrating) and competitive (i.e. forcing) behavior; however, the cooperative pattern will be dominated by integrating while the competitive pattern will be dominated by forcing (Elgoibar, 2013 ).

Table 1. Characteristics of Cooperative and Competitive Climates

Source : Coleman, Deutsch, and Marcus ( 2014 ).

How to Manage Conflicts Constructively

The need for trust.

Trust is commonly defined as a belief or expectation about others’ benevolent motives during a social interaction (Holmes & Rempel, 1989 ; Rousseau et al., 1998 ). Mutual trust is one important antecedent as well as a consequence of cooperation in conflicts (Deutsch, 1983 ; Ferrin, Bligh, & Kohles, 2008 ). As Nahapiet and Ghoshal pointed out, “Trust lubricates cooperation, and cooperation itself breeds trust” ( 1998 , p.255). There is ample evidence that constructive conflict and trust are tightly and positively related (Hempel, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2009 ; Bijlsma & Koopman, 2003 ; Lewicki, Tonlinson, & Gillespie, 2006 ).

Successful constructive conflict management requires maximal gathering and exchange of information in order to identify problems and areas of mutual concern, to search for alternatives, to assess their implications, and to achieve openness about preferences in selecting optimal solutions (Bacon & Blyton, 2007 ; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 ; Tjosvold, 1999 ). Trust gives parties the confidence to be open with each other, knowing that the shared information won’t be used against them (Zaheer & Zaheer, 2006 ). Various studies revealed that trust leads to constructive conglomerate behaviors and to more integrative outcomes in interpersonal and intergroup conflicts (Lewicki, Elgoibar, & Euwema, 2016 ; Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998 ; Ross & LaCroix, 1996 ).

How can trust be promoted? Developing trust is challenging (Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2014 ; Hempel et al., 2009 ). Numerous scholars have noted that trust is easier to destroy than to create (Hempel et al., 2009 ; Meyerson et al., 1996 ). There are two main reasons for this assertion. First, trust-breaking events are often more visible and noticeable than positive trust-building actions (Kramer, 1999 ). Second, trust-breaking events are judged to have a higher impact on trust judgments than positive events (Slovic, 1993 ). Furthermore, Slovic ( 1993 ) concluded that trust-breaking events are more credible than sources of good news. Thus, the general belief is that trust is easier to destroy than it is to build, and trust rebuilding may take even longer than it took to create the original level of trust (Lewicki et al., 2016 ).

However, there is room for optimism, and different strategies have been shown to promote trust. As held in social exchange theory (Blau, 1964 ), risk taking by one party in supporting the other party has been found to signal trust to the other party (Serva et al., 2005 ). Yet, fears of exploitation make trust in conflict management and negotiation scarce. Therefore, the use of trust-promoting strategies depends on the specific situation, and parties need practical guidance on how and when to manage conflict constructively by means of promoting mutual trust.

How does the possibility of trust development between parties depend on the conflict context? Based on this practical question, some strategies for trust development have been proposed (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Fulmer & Gelfand, 2012 ; Gunia, Brett, & Nandkeolyar, 2012 ; Lewicki et al., 2016 ). In relationships where trust is likely, the following strategies can help: assume trustworthiness, prioritize your interests and give away a little information about them, engage in reciprocity (concessions), highlight similarities and spend time together, get to know your counterpart personally and try to be likable, behave consistently and predictably, and paraphrase your counterpart’s positions. In relationships where trust seems possible: emphasize common goals; focus on the subject, not on the people; look to the future and find a shared vision; mix questions and answers about interests and priorities—the fundamental elements of information sharing—with making and justifying offers; take a break; suggest another approach; call in a mediator; and forgive the other party’s mistakes. In relationships where trust is not possible, more cautious strategies can help: make multi-issue offers; think holistically about your counterpart’s interests; engage in reciprocity (concessions); express sympathy, apologize, or compliment your counterpart; and look for preference patterns in your counterpart’s offers and responses.

Constructive Controversy

C onstructive controversy is defined as the open-minded discussion of conflicting perspectives for mutual benefit, which occurs when protagonists express their opposing ideas that obstruct resolving the issues, at least temporarily (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Indicators of constructive controversy include listening carefully to each other’s opinion, trying to understand each other’s concerns, and using opposing views to understand the problem better. These skills are considered vitally important for developing and implementing cooperative problem-solving processes successfully and effectively.

Deutsch ( 2014 ) stated that there haven’t been many systematic discussions of the skills involved in constructive solutions to conflict, and he proposed three main types of skills for constructive conflict management:

Rapport-building skills are involved in establishing effective relationships between parties (such as breaking the ice; reducing fears, tensions, and suspicion; overcoming resistance to negotiation; and fostering realistic hope and optimism).

Cooperative conflict-resolution skills are concerned with developing and maintaining a cooperative conflict resolution process among the parties involved (such as identifying the type of conflict in which the parties are involved; reframing the issues so that conflict is perceived as a mutual problem to be resolved cooperatively; active listening and responsive communication; distinguishing between effective relationships between parties and positions; encouraging, supporting, and enhancing the parties; being alert to cultural differences and the possibilities of misunderstanding arising from them; and controlling anger).

Group process and decision-making skills are involved in developing a creative and productive process (such as monitoring progress toward group goals; eliciting, clarifying, coordinating, summarizing, and integrating the contributions of the various participants; and maintaining group cohesion).

Tjosvold et al. ( 2014 ) and Johnson et al. ( 2014 ) also elaborate on the skills needed for facilitating open-minded discussions and constructive controversy. They developed four mutually reinforcing strategies for managing conflict constructively:

Developing and expressing one’s own view. Parties need to know what each of the others wants and believes, and expressing one’s own needs, feelings, and ideas is essential to gaining that knowledge. By strengthening expression of their own positions, both parties can learn to investigate their position, present the best case they can for it, defend it vigorously, and try at the same time to refute opposing views. However, expressing one’s own position needs to be supplemented with an open-minded approach to the other’s position.

Questioning and understanding others’ views. Listening and understanding opposing views, as well as defending one’s own views, makes discussing conflicts more challenging but also more rewarding; therefore, the parties can point out weaknesses in each other’s arguments to encourage better development and expression of positions by finding more evidence and strengthening their reasoning.

Integrating and creating solutions. The creation of new alternatives lays the foundation for genuine agreements about a solution that both parties can accept and implement. However, protagonists may have to engage in repeated discussion to reach an agreement, or indeed they may be unable to create a solution that is mutually acceptable, and then they can both learn to become less adamant, to exchange views directly, and to show that they are trying to understand and integrate each other’s ideas so that all may benefit.

Agreeing to and implementing solutions. Parties can learn to seek the best reasoned judgment, instead of focusing on “winning”; to criticize ideas, not people; to listen and understand everyone’s position, even if they do not agree with it; to differentiate positions before trying to integrate them; and to change their minds when logically persuaded to do so.

Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution processes are aimed at ending a conflict. So, while conflict management can also include escalation, conflict resolution searches for a way of ending the conflict. The difference between resolution and management of conflict is more than semantic (Robbins, 1978 ). Conflict resolution means reduction, elimination, or termination of conflict.

To find a resolution, parties have to bring an extra piece of information, relate the information they have differently, or transform the issue, change the rules, change the actors or the structure, or bring in a third party (Vayrynen, 1991 ). The most popular conflict resolution processes are: negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration (Rahim, 2002 ). Conflict resolution can also be accomplished by ruling by authorities. Integration of the different techniques sequentially or simultaneously has been shown to support optimal conflict resolution (Jones, 2016 ).

Negotiation

Negotiation is a process in which the parties attempt to jointly create an agreement that resolves a conflict between them (Lewicki & Tomlinson, 2014 ). Walton and McKersie ( 1965 ) were the first to identify the two polar yet interdependent strategies known as distributive and integrative negotiation. Distributive negotiation means that activities are instrumental to the attainment of one party’s goals when they are in basic conflict with those of the other party. Integrative negotiation means that parties’ activities are oriented to find common or complementary interests and to solve problems confronting both parties. Other scholars also focused on the opposite tactical requirements of the two strategies, using a variety of terms, such as contending versus cooperating (Pruitt, 1981 ), claiming value versus creating value (Lax & Sebenius, 1987 ), and the difference between positions and interests (Fisher & Ury, 1981 ).

If a distributive strategy is pursued too vigorously, a negotiator may gain a greater share of gains, but of a smaller set of joint gains, or, worse, may generate an outcome in which both parties lose. However, if a negotiator pursues an integrative negotiation in a single-minded manner—being totally cooperative and giving freely accurate and credible information about his/her interests—he or she can be taken advantage of by the other party (Walton & McKersie, 1965 ). The different proposals that have been formulated to cope with these central dilemmas in negotiation are mainly based on a back-and-forth communication process between the parties, which is linked to the negotiators’ interpersonal skills (Brett, Shapiro, & Lytle, 1998 ; Fisher & Ury, 1981 ; Rubin et al., 1994 ).

Mediation is process by which a third party facilitates constructive communication among disputants, including decision making, problem solving and negotiation, in order to reach a mutually acceptable agreement (Bollen, Munduate, & Euwema, 2016 ; Goldman, Cropanzano, Stein, & Benson, 2008 ; Moore, 2014 ). Using mediation in conflict resolution has been proven to prevent the negative consequences of conflict in the workplace (Bollen & Euwema, 2010 ; Bollen et al., 2016 ), in collective bargaining (Martinez-Pecino et al., 2008 ), in inter- and intragroup relations (Jones, 2016 ), and in interpersonal relations (Herrman, 2006 ). However, mediation is not a magic bullet and works better in conflicts that are moderate rather than extreme, when parties are motivated to resolve the conflict, and when parties have equal power, among other characteristics (Kressel, 2014 ).

Conflict Coaching

Conflict coaching is a new and rapidly growing process in the public as well as private sector (Brinkert, 2016 ). In this process, a conflict coach works with a party to accomplish three goals (Jones & Brinkert, 2008 ): (a) analysis and coherent understanding of the conflict, (b) identification of a future preferred direction, and (c) skills development to implement the preferred strategy. Therefore, a conflict coach is defined as a conflict expert who respects the other party’s self-determination and aims to promote the well-being of the parties involved. Giebels and Janssen ( 2005 ) found that, when outside help was called in, parties in conflict experienced fewer negative consequences in terms of individual well-being than people who did not ask for third-party help.

Sometimes, the leader of a team can act as conflict coach. A study by Romer and colleagues ( 2012 ) showed that a workplace leader’s problem-solving approach to conflicts increased employees’ perception of justice and their sense that they had a voice in their workplace, as well as reduced employees’ stress (De Reuver & Van Woerkom, 2010 ; Romer et al., 2012 ). In contrast, the direct expression of power in the form of forcing behavior can harm employees’ well-being (Peterson & Harvey, 2009 ). A forcing leader may become an additional party to the conflict (i.e., employees may turn against their leader; Romer et al, 2012 ).

Conflict coaching and mediation are different processes. First, in conflict coaching, only one party is involved in the process, while in mediation, the mediator helps all the parties in conflict to engage in constructive interaction. Second, conflict coaching focuses on direct skills instructions to the party (i.e., negotiation skills). In that, conflict coaching is also a leadership development tool (Romer et al., 2012 ). There is a growing tendency to integrate conflict coaching and workplace mediation, particularly in preparation for conflict resolution, because the coach can help the coached party to investigate options and weigh the advantages of the different options (Jones, 2016 ).

Arbitration

Arbitration is an institutionalized procedure in which a third party provides a final and binding or voluntary decision (Lewicki, Saunders, & Barry, 2014 ; Mohr & Spekman, 1994 ). Arbitration allows the parties to have control over the process, but not over the outcomes. Therefore, arbitration differs from negotiation, mediation, and conflict coaching, in which the parties decide the agreement themselves (Posthuma & Dworkin, 2000 ; Lewicki et al., 2014 ). In arbitration, the third party listens to the parties and decides the outcome. This procedure is used mainly in conflicts between organizations, in commercial disputes, and in collective labor conflicts (Beechey, 2000 ; Elkouri & Elkouri, 1995 ).

Decision Making by Authorities

The strategies of negotiation, mediation, conflict coaching, and arbitration have in common that the parties together decide about the conflict process, even when they agree to accept an arbitration. This is different from how authorities resolve conflict. Decision making by authorities varies from parents’ intervening in children’s fights to rulings by teachers, police officers, managers, complaint officers, ombudsmen, and judges. Here, often one party complains and the authority acts to intervene and end the conflict. This strategy is good for ending physical violence and misuse of power. However, the authorities’ decisive power is limited, and therefore in most situations authorities are strongly urged to first explore the potential for conflict resolution and reconciliation among the parties involved. The authority can act as an escalator for the process, or as a facilitator, and only in cases of immediate threat can intervene or rule as a last resort. Authorities who employ this strategy can improve the learning skills of the parties and can impose upon the parties an acceptance of responsibility, both for the conflict and for the ways to end it.

It is important to emphasize the natural and positive aspects of conflict management. Conflict occurs in all areas of organizations and private lives and its management is vital for their effectiveness. Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities are identified, and new solutions are forged (Tjosvold et al., 2014 ). Therefore, when conflict occurs, it shouldn’t be avoided but should be managed constructively.

Further Reading

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Conflict Management Intervention: The Collaborative Problem-Solving Approach

By Dr. Shirley J. Caruso, Ed.D.

The collaborative problem-solving approach strives to build consensus. It involves identifying the problem or issue and then engaging group members in analyzing the facts of the current situation, generating creative ideas, and agreeing on a course of action . All group members are allowed to input ideas and are encouraged to listen and build on each other’s points.

The Collaborative Conflict Management Process

The steps in the collaborative conflict management process are as follows:

• Create a clear statement of what the situation or problem is.
• Insure that all members agree with the statement.
• Help the members create a goal statement that describes what the situation would look like if the situation or problem were resolved.
• Set time limits for each step of the collaborative conflict management process .
• Make sure group norms are in place.
• Explain the collaborative process by emphasizing the need to analyze objectively before jumping to solutions.
• Make sure all group members are heard and that there’s an objective exploration of the current situation or problem.
• Use brainstorming or anonymous brainstorming to generate a range of possible solutions.
• Establish objective criteria for finding the best solution by using a decision grid.
• Make sure that the what, how, who and when are specified when developing a plan to implement the agreed-upon solutions.

Compromising and Accommodating

Compromising is used when two groups have formulated strong positions. Neither group feels they can accept the position of the other, so a neutral middle ground needs to be developed.

Accommodating is appropriate in situations in which one group is only slightly interested in the problem, while the other group is deeply interested. Accommodating is focused on keeping the peace. This approach can involve asking everyone to just get along or asking one person in a conflict to give in to the others. Accommodating is the correct approach to take when the investigation of the problem reveals that one person is wrong. The consequence of accommodating is that the underlying issues are often left unsolved in the interest of keeping the peace.

General Principles of Good Feedback

Following general principles of good feedback can help to foster good communication among group members.

When Giving Feedback

Tell the other person what you notice or what has happened in a factual manner. Do not comment about him or her as a person. The feedback should be descriptive rather than evaluative. The description of what has happened should be formed on facts rather than impressions. In most cases, feedback should not be imposed. Ask the other person if you can offer feedback . If the person says no, respect that the timing for feedback may not be right. Ask the person to schedule a more convenient time to talk keeping in mind that feedback should be given as soon as possible after the situation requiring feedback . Offer suggestions for improvements that the person receiving the feedback is capable of putting into practice. Make sure that your understanding is accurate and reasonable by checking with the person, or even with others. This can help avoid misjudging the situation. Show that you care about the other person by offering feedback with the intent of helping the other person.

When Receiving Feedback

Demonstrate that you are listening attentively by making eye contact with the speaker. Make sure that you understand what is being said by paraphrasing, or asking questions. Stay relaxed by taking a deep breath, relaxing your body posture, and speaking slowly. Make sure you understand the other person’s perspective before you offer your side of the story. Even if you don’t agree with the feedback , it is sure to contain some valuable ideas. By accepting these ideas, you are showing respect for the other person’s perspective. Offer your own ideas as well. Your energy should be focused on improving rather than disagreeing with observations.

The collaborative problem-solving approach helps to build respect and trust among group members. The more regularly the group meets to discuss problems or situations, the more respect and trust are built.

Image source: https://bookboon.com/blog/2019/04/managing-conflict-5-steps-for-managers/

11 Replies to “Conflict Management Intervention: The Collaborative Problem-Solving Approach”

I felt this article was very through and on point. As soon as I read the description re: “Collaborative Conflict Management Process” I knew it was very detailed, but then I thought this process is not always so easily approached in real life, especially based off of my experiences in a corporate atmosphere. Usually no one can come to a decision without stressing their opinion is more appropriate, but then I went on to read the next section regarding “Compromising and Accommodating” and that is exactly what happens and it touched base on my thought, most likely one does have to give in to the majority by accommodating or contest for a compromise. A added note thought is that I think it also depends on those who have experience who are making the decision, for instance if one is in on the actual decision making yet fairly new to the group, he or she may have to “prove themselves” with actions that bring results before actually being taken seriously by the rest of the group. Overall I felt this article covered a clear/factual grasp on what it means to deal with conflict management.

If organizations and business professionals practiced this approach I believe companies would be more successful. Methodical problem solving does not seem to be utilized where I work. Typically it is more of a dictatorship, the manager tells their subordinates what to do and how to do it. Feedback is rarely requested or accepted from people who really need to provide it. I find that accepting feedback is generally viewed as criticism and people take it personally. I especially liked the point made about “energy being focused on improvements and not on disagreeing with observations”. It really made me think about how I react when I receive feedback from others. I need to focus on not taking comments which I disagree with in a personal manner.

This is a very clear cut article that I enjoyed. From my experience, conflict is inevitable at school, work. and even in our personal lives. Timing seems to constantly be a problem. In the article, you state “If the person says no, respect that the timing for feedback may not be right. Ask the person to schedule a more convenient time to talk keeping in mind that feedback should be given as soon as possible after the situation requiring feedback”, which is the most challenging task for me to do in the workplace because so many people try to avoid discussing problems revolving around conflict. From my experience, employees and co-workers try to postpone discussing conflict because they are narrow minded and feel like they are going to be blamed instead of having an open discussion to resolve the problem. Most employees take the view point of “us against them” which creates conflict and makes them un-receptive to feedback or try to avoid it all together. This article provides a great guideline to follow to minimize conflict and utilize mediation methods to implement.

I felt the article was clear and to the point. The emphasis on providing good feedback was particularly interesting. I was glad to see that body language was mentioned since it is commonly overlooked since giving and receiving feedback with appropriate body language can have a great impact on cohesiveness and respect within the group. The steps in the collaborative conflict management process are written with great details and are easily relatable to any work place or social setting. Overall this article is a great take away to reference in the future.

Spot on. This presents a rational, adult methodology for managing that which confounds many of us – conflict with our fellows and what is, in a larger sense, the cause of wars. It is a coherent, applicable set of tools for getting at the root cause while removing the most corrosive element in all conflict – emotion. It re-focuses the discussion on the problem and not the persons involved. This will (hopefully) serve to result in resolution.

I like it. I want to know more. I’d like to apply it at work and in my personal life.

Human beings don’t have to learn how to resolve conflict – we can continue as we have for millenia. It’s counter-productive and painful, but we engage in it every day in every city, town and village so it must be something we need to do. Figuring out a way to turn it around and into something more constructive with its aim to problem-solving would make this planet a better place to live and further our journey.

I feel that conflict management skills are needed in organizations today. I feel that conflict management skills should also be taught in schools early on. This is something that everyone can incorporate into their behavior and lives. I do feel many corporations do not practice conflict management, because Corporate America is such a political playground. I enjoyed the General Principles of Good Feedback section, because I feel feedback is key to good communication, and in turn a good relationship.

This is great! All of these items seem like common sense and we should all know that we need to take these proper steps in order to collaborate with others. Unfortunately it is not and it nice to see this in a simplistic way to reference it.

I love this point…”Make sure all group members are heard and that there’s an objective exploration of the current situation or problem.” I feel this is very important because NOT ALL group members are heard. We need to take the time to listen to others and recognize that there are some great ideas out there.

Referring back to the section on “Compromising and Accommodating” I will like to point out that this might be one of the most crucial elements in the “problem -solving approach”. Usually all of this material sounds like common sense, but few individuals truly practice it. I believe that most people will have a hard time accommodating to other people’s views or preferences if they disagree with them. This is what good leadership is all about. When people have different points of views and somebody gets ignored, the process of problem-solving is broken. It is a very common practice to go with the majority and ignore the minorities. Instead, we should persuade the minority in understanding the viewpoint of the majority to engage them and continue to have their support.

I liked this article. Discussing the difference between Collaborating and Accommodating is important especially within the work environment. Mentioning good feedback practices is also very important. Talking about the body language aspect is good to keep in mind and not everyone understands how important body language is.

This article is very interesting because it describes things that are common sense. Yet, I have noticed that many people do not know this information and they do not know how to deal with conflict. I think that it would be good to present this information to everyone, especially at workplaces. If everyone followed what the article says, it would be more enjoyable for people to work together.

Conflict Management and Resolution skills are an important part of working in an organization. It it is crucial that they are simple and to the point. This article is a good guide that can be used by any organization. Many of the points listed are at times overlooked and therefore no solutions are made. I am glad there was a portion in this article that talked about feedback, it is important for people to give feedback appropriately and effectively.

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Classroom Management Toolbox

Eastern Washington University

Problem Solving Cycle

This tool would be taught to the students at the beginning of the year, and then a poster of the cycle would be put in the room to remind students of the cycle so they can use it when they have a conflict with another student. The cycle is identify the problem, brainstorm ideas, weigh pros and cons, overcome obstacles, action steps, and then to reflect on the whole situation. Each of these steps will allow for students to self-identify the problem, what they think is causing the problem, and steps that need to be taken in order to solve the problem. The teacher should only intervene in the situation if the students are unable to go through the cycle successfully by themselves. This process teaches students to rely on themselves to solve problems rather than just having the teacher solve the problem for them.

This tool is in the corrective phase because it is being used to correct the behaviors and problems between students. This cycle also restores the conflicts in hope of starting a better relationship between students. Students will use this tool to solve problems with a student, and then can use the same steps again when another problem arises with perhaps a different student. This tool is mostly student centered but can become collaborative because it is up to the students the first time through the cycle to try to take all the steps to solving the problems themselves. However, if the students unsuccessfully go through the cycle without coming to an agreement on how to solve the problem, the teacher will then help to complete cycle so the students are able to come to an agreement on how to solve the issue.

More Information – Tool Source: Pinterest

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Spatial Variations of the Activity of 137 Cs and the Contents of Heavy Metals and Petroleum Products in the Polluted Soils of the City of Elektrostal

• DEGRADATION, REHABILITATION, AND CONSERVATION OF SOILS
• Open access
• Published: 15 June 2022
• Volume 55 , pages 840–848, ( 2022 )

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• D. N. Lipatov 1 ,
• V. A. Varachenkov 1 ,
• D. V. Manakhov 1 ,
• M. M. Karpukhin 1 &
• S. V. Mamikhin 1  

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The levels of specific activity of 137 Cs and the contents of mobile forms (1 M ammonium acetate extraction) of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Cr, Pb) and petroleum products were studied in the upper soil horizon of urban landscapes of the city of Elektrostal under conditions of local radioactive and chemical contamination were studied. In the soils within a short radius (0–100 m) around the heavy engineering plant, the specific activity of 137 Cs and the contents of mobile forms of Pb, Cu, and Zn were increased. The lognormal distribution law of 137 Cs was found in the upper (0–10 cm) soil layer; five years after the radiation accident, the specific activity of 137 Cs varied from 6 to 4238 Bq/kg. The coefficients of variation increased with an increase in the degree of soil contamination in the following sequence: Co < Ni < petroleum products < Cr < 137 Cs < Zn < Pb < Cu ranging from 50 to 435%. Statistically significant direct correlation was found between the specific activity of 137 Cs and the contents of mobile forms of Pb, Cu, and Zn in the upper horizon of urban soils, and this fact indicated the spatial conjugacy of local spots of radioactive and polymetallic contamination in the studied area. It was shown that the specific activity of 137 Cs, as well as the content of heavy metals and petroleum products in the upper layer (0–10 cm) of the soils disturbed in the course of decontamination, earthwork and reclamation is reduced.

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INTRODUCTION

Contaminants migrate and accumulate in urban ecosystems under the impact of both natural and technogenic factors. The processes of technogenic migration of 137 Cs are most pronounced in radioactively contaminated territories. It was found in urboecological studies that the intensity of sedimentation of aerosol particles containing radionuclides and heavy metals is determined by the types of the surfaces of roofs, walls, roads, lawns, and parks and by their position within the urban wind field [ 12 , 26 ]. Traffic in the cities results in significant transport of dust and associated contaminants and radionuclides [ 15 , 24 ]. During decontamination measures in the areas of Chernobyl radioactive trace, not only the decrease in the level of contamination but also the possibility of secondary radioactive contamination because of the transportation of contaminated soil particles by wind or water, or anthropogenic transfer of transferring of ground were observed [ 5 , 6 ]. Rainstorm runoff and hydrological transport of dissolved and colloidal forms of 137 Cs can result in the accumulation of this radionuclide in meso- and microdepressions, where sedimentation takes place [ 10 , 16 ]. Different spatial distribution patterns of 137 Cs in soils of particular urban landscapes were found in the city of Ozersk near the nuclear fuel cycle works [ 17 ]. Natural character of 137 Cs migration in soils of Moscow forest-parks and a decrease in its specific activity in industrial areas have been revealed [ 10 ]. Determination of the mean level and parameters of spatial variations of 137 Cs in soils is one of primary tasks of radioecological monitoring of cities, including both unpolluted (background) and contaminated territories.

Emissions and discharges from numerous sources of contamination can cause the accumulation of a wide range of toxicants in urban soils: heavy metals (HMs), oil products (OPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and other chemical substances. Soil contamination by several groups of toxicants is often observed in urban landscapes [ 20 , 23 ] because of the common contamination source or close pathways of the migration of different contaminants. A comprehensive analysis of contamination of urban soils by radionuclides and heavy metals has been performed in some studies [ 21 , 25 ]. The determination of possible spatial interrelationships between radioactive and chemical contaminations in urban soils is an important problem in urban ecology.

A radiation accident took place in the Elektrostal heavy engineering works (EHEW) in April 2013: a capacious source of 137 Cs entered the smelt furnace, and emission of radioactive aerosols from the aerating duct into the urban environment took place. The activity of molten source was estimated at about 1000–7000 Ci [ 14 ]. The area of contamination in the territory of the plant reached 7500 m 2 . However, radioactive aerosols affected a much larger area around the EHEW, including Krasnaya and Pervomaiskaya streets, and reached Lenin Prospect.

Geochemical evaluation of contamination of the upper soil horizon in the city of Elektrostal was carried out in 1989–1991. This survey indicated the anomalies of concentrations of wolfram, nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and other heavy metals related to accumulation of alloying constituent and impurities of non-ferrous metals in the emissions of steelmaking works [ 19 ].

The aim of our work was to determine the levels of specific activity of 137 Cs, concentrations of mobile forms of heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, Cr, and Pb) and oil products in the upper soil horizons in different urban landscapes of the city of Elektrostal under the conditions of local radioactive and chemical contamination.

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D. N. Lipatov, V. A. Varachenkov, D. V. Manakhov, M. M. Karpukhin & S. V. Mamikhin

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Lipatov, D.N., Varachenkov, V.A., Manakhov, D.V. et al. Spatial Variations of the Activity of 137 Cs and the Contents of Heavy Metals and Petroleum Products in the Polluted Soils of the City of Elektrostal. Eurasian Soil Sc. 55 , 840–848 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229322060072

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Received : 21 October 2021

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Accepted : 30 December 2021

Published : 15 June 2022

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S1064229322060072

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• Victor Mukhin

Victor M. Mukhin was born in 1946 in the town of Orsk, Russia. In 1970 he graduated the Technological Institute in Leningrad. Victor M. Mukhin was directed to work to the scientific-industrial organization "Neorganika" (Elektrostal, Moscow region) where he is working during 47 years, at present as the head of the laboratory of carbon sorbents.     Victor M. Mukhin defended a Ph. D. thesis and a doctoral thesis at the Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia (in 1979 and 1997 accordingly). Professor of Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia. Scientific interests: production, investigation and application of active carbons, technological and ecological carbon-adsorptive processes, environmental protection, production of ecologically clean food.   

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