how to write mini thesis

HOW TO WRITE A THESIS: Steps by step guide

Introduction

In the academic world, one of the hallmark rites signifying mastery of a course or academic area is the writing of a thesis . Essentially a thesis is a typewritten work, usually 50 to 350 pages in length depending on institutions, discipline, and educational level which is often aimed at addressing a particular problem in a given field.

While a thesis is inadequate to address all the problems in a given field, it is succinct enough to address a specialized aspect of the problem by taking a stance or making a claim on what the resolution of the problem should be. Writing a thesis can be a very daunting task because most times it is the first complex research undertaking for the student. The lack of research and writing skills to write a thesis coupled with fear and a limited time frame are factors that makes the writing of a thesis daunting. However, commitment to excellence on the part of the student combined with some of the techniques and methods that will be discussed below gives a fair chance that the student will be able to deliver an excellent thesis regardless of the subject area, the depth of the research specialization and the daunting amount of materials that must be comprehended(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

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What is a thesis?

A thesis is a statement, theory, argument, proposal or proposition, which is put forward as a premise to be maintained or proved. It explains the stand someone takes on an issue and how the person intends to justify the stand. It is always better to pick a topic that will be able to render professional help, a topic that you will be happy to talk about with anybody, a topic you have personal interest and passion for, because when writing a thesis gets frustrating personal interest, happiness and passion coupled with the professional help it will be easier to write a great thesis (see you through the thesis). One has to source for a lot of information concerning the topic one is writing a thesis on in order to know the important question, because for you to take a good stand on an issue you have to study the evidence first.

Qualities of a good thesis

A good thesis has the following qualities

A good thesis must solve an existing problem in the society, organisation, government among others.
A good thesis should be contestable, it should propose a point that is arguable which people can agree with or disagree.
It is specific, clear and focused.
A good thesis does not use general terms and abstractions.
The claims of a good thesis should be definable and arguable.
It anticipates the counter-argument s
It does not use unclear language
It avoids the first person. (“In my opinion”)
A strong thesis should be able to take a stand and not just taking a stand but should be able to justify the stand that is taken, so that the reader will be tempted to ask questions like how or why.
The thesis should be arguable, contestable, focused, specific, and clear. Make your thesis clear, strong and easy to find.
The conclusion of a thesis should be based on evidence.

Steps in writing a Thesis

First, think about good topics and theories that you can write before writing the thesis, then pick a topic. The topic or thesis statement is derived from a review of existing literature in the area of study that the researcher wants to explore. This route is taken when the unknowns in an area of study are not yet defined. Some areas of study have existing problems yearning to be solved and the drafting of the thesis topic or statement revolves around a selection of one of these problems.
Once you have a good thesis, put it down and draw an outline . The outline is like a map of the whole thesis and it covers more commonly the introduction, literature review, discussion of methodology, discussion of results and the thesis’ conclusions and recommendations. The outline might differ from one institution to another but the one described in the preceding sentence is what is more commonly obtainable. It is imperative at this point to note that the outline drew still requires other mini- outlines for each of the sections mentioned. The outlines and mini- outlines provide a graphical over- view of the whole project and can also be used in allocating the word- count for each section and sub- section based on the overall word- count requirement of the thesis(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).
Literature search. Remember to draw a good outline you need to do literature search to familiarize yourself with the concepts and the works of others. Similarly, to achieve this, you need to read as much material that contains necessary information as you can. There will always be a counter argument for everything so anticipate it because it will help shape your thesis. Read everything you can–academic research, trade literature, and information in the popular press and on the Internet(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).
After getting all the information you need, the knowledge you gathered should help in suggesting the aim of your thesis.

Remember; a thesis is not supposed to be a question or a list, thesis should specific and as clear as possible. The claims of a thesis should be definable and also arguable.

Then collecting and analyzing data, after data analysis, the result of the analysis should be written and discussed, followed by summary, conclusion, recommendations, list of references and the appendices
The last step is editing of the thesis and proper spell checking.

Structure of a Thesis

A conventional thesis has five chapters – chapter 1-5 which will be discussed in detail below. However, it is important to state that a thesis is not limited to any chapter or section as the case may be. In fact, a thesis can be five, six, seven or even eight chapters. What determines the number of chapters in a thesis includes institution rules/ guideline, researcher choice, supervisor choice, programme or educational level. In fact, most PhD thesis are usually more than 5 chapters(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

Preliminaries Pages: The preliminaries are the cover page, the title page, the table of contents page, and the abstract.

The introduction: The introduction is the first section and it provides as the name implies an introduction to the thesis. The introduction contains such aspects as the background to the study which provides information on the topic in the context of what is happening in the world as related to the topic. It also discusses the relevance of the topic to society, policies formulated success and failure. The introduction also contains the statement of the problem which is essentially a succinct description of the problem that the thesis want to solve and what the trend will be if the problem is not solved. The concluding part of the statement of problem ends with an outline of the research questions. These are the questions which when answered helps in achieving the aim of the thesis. The third section is the outline of research objectives. Conventionally research objectives re a conversion the research questions into an active statement form. Other parts of the introduction are a discussion of hypotheses (if any), the significance of the study, delimitations, proposed methodology and a discussion of the structure of the study(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

The main body includes the following; the literature review, methodology, research results and discussion of the result, the summary, conclusion and recommendations, the list of references and the appendices.

The literature review : The literature review is often the most voluminous aspects of a thesis because it reviews past empirical and theoretical literature about the problem being studied. This section starts by discussing the concepts relevant to the problem as indicated in the topic, the relationship between the concepts and what discoveries have being made on topic based on the choice of methodologies. The validity of the studies reviewed are questioned and findings are compared in order to get a comprehensive picture of the problem. The literature review also discusses the theories and theoretical frameworks that are relevant to the problem, the gaps that are evident in literature and how the thesis being written helps in resolving some of the gaps.

The major importance of Literature review is that it specifies the gap in the existing knowledge (gap in literature). The source of the literature that is being reviewed should be specified. For instance; ‘It has been argued that if the rural youth are to be aware of their community development role they need to be educated’ Effiong, (1992). The author’s name can be at the beginning, end or in between the literature. The literature should be discussed and not just stated (RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

The methodology: The third section is a discussion of the research methodology adopted in the thesis and touches on aspects such as the research design, the area, population and sample that will be considered for the study as well as the sampling procedure. These aspects are discussed in terms of choice, method and rationale. This section also covers the sub- section of data collection, data analysis and measures of ensuring validity of study. It is the chapter 3. This chapter explains the method used in data collection and data analysis. It explains the methodology adopted and why it is the best method to be used, it also explains every step of data collection and analysis. The data used could be primary data or secondary data. While analysing the data, proper statistical tool should be used in order to fit the stated objectives of the thesis. The statistical tool could be; the spearman rank order correlation, chi square, analysis of variance (ANOVA) etc (RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

The findings and discussion of result : The next section is a discussion of findings based on the data collection instrumentation used and the objectives or hypotheses of study if any. It is the chapter 4. It is research results. This is the part that describes the research. It shows the result gotten from data that is collected and analysed. It discusses the result and how it relates to your profession.

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation: This is normally the chapter 5. The last section discusses the summary of the study and the conclusions arrived at based on the findings discussed in the previous section. This section also presents any policy recommendations that the researcher wants to propose (RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

References: It cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not your own. It is acceptable to put the initials of the individual authors behind their last names. The way single author is referenced is different from the way more than one author is referenced (RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

The appendices; it includes all data in the appendix. Reference data or materials that is not easily available. It includes tables and calculations, List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures. If a large number of references are consulted but all are not cited, it may also be included in the appendix. The appendices also contain supportive or complementary information like the questionnaire, the interview schedule, tables and charts while the references section contain an ordered list of all literature, academic and contemporary cited in the thesis. Different schools have their own preferred referencing styles(RE: write a thesis or writing a thesis).

Follow the following steps to achieve successful thesis writing

Start writing early. Do not delay writing until you have finished your project or research. Write complete and concise “Technical Reports” as and when you finish each nugget of work. This way, you will remember everything you did and document it accurately, when the work is still fresh in your mind. This is especially so if your work involves programming.

Spot errors early. A well-written “Technical Report” will force you to think about what you have done, before you move on to something else. If anything is amiss, you will detect it at once and can easily correct it, rather than have to re-visit the work later, when you may be pressured for time and have lost touch with it.

Write your thesis from the inside out. Begin with the chapters on your own experimental work. You will develop confidence in writing them because you know your own work better than anyone else. Once you have overcome the initial inertia, move on to the other chapters.

End with a bang, not a whimper. First things first, and save the best for last. First and last impressions persist. Arrange your chapters so that your first and last experimental chapters are sound and solid.

Write the Introduction after writing the Conclusions. The examiner will read the Introduction first, and then the Conclusions, to see if the promises made in the former are indeed fulfilled in the latter. Ensure that your introduction and Conclusions match.

“No man is an Island”. The critical review of the literature places your work in context. Usually, one third of the PhD thesis is about others’ work; two thirds, what you have done yourself. After a thorough and critical literature review, the PhD candidate must be able to identify the major researchers in the field and make a sound proposal for doctoral research. Estimate the time to write your thesis and then multiply it by three to get the correct estimate. Writing at one stretch is very demanding and it is all too easy to underestimate the time required for it; inflating your first estimate by a factor of three is more realistic.

Punctuating your thesis

Punctuation Good punctuation makes reading easy. The simplest way to find out where to punctuate is to read aloud what you have written. Each time you pause, you should add a punctuation symbol. There are four major pause symbols, arranged below in ascending order of “degree of pause”:

Comma. Use the comma to indicate a short pause or to separate items in a list. A pair of commas may delimit the beginning and end of a subordinate clause or phrase. Sometimes, this is also done with a pair of “em dashes” which are printed like this:
Semi-colon. The semi-colon signifies a longer pause than the comma. It separates segments of a sentence that are “further apart” in position, or meaning, but which are nevertheless related. If the ideas were “closer together”, a comma would have been used. It is also used to separate two clauses that may stand on their own but which are too closely related for a colon or full stop to intervene between them.
Colon. The colon is used before one or more examples of a concept, and whenever items are to be listed in a visually separate fashion. The sentence that introduced the itemized list you are now reading ended in a colon. It may also be used to separate two fairly—but not totally—independent clauses in a sentence.
Full stop or period. The full stop ends a sentence. If the sentence embodies a question or an exclamation, then, of course, it is ended with a question mark or exclamation mark, respectively. The full stop is also used to terminate abbreviations like etc., (for et cetera), e.g., (for exempli gratia), et al., (for et alia) etc., but not with abbreviations for SI units. The readability of your writing will improve greatly if you take the trouble to learn the basic rules of punctuation given above.

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What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples

Published on 15 September 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on 5 December 2023.

A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a PhD program in the UK.

Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Indeed, alongside a dissertation , it is the longest piece of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .

Thesis template

You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.

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Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, frequently asked questions about theses.

You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.

A thesis statement is a very common component of an essay, particularly in the humanities. It usually comprises 1 or 2 sentences in the introduction of your essay , and should clearly and concisely summarise the central points of your academic essay .
A thesis is a long-form piece of academic writing, often taking more than a full semester to complete. It is generally a degree requirement to complete a PhD program.
In many countries, particularly the UK, a dissertation is generally written at the bachelor’s or master’s level.
In the US, a dissertation is generally written as a final step toward obtaining a PhD.

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The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:

Your discipline
Your theoretical approach

Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.

In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section , results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .

Thesis examples

We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.

Example thesis #1: ‘Abolition, Africans, and Abstraction: the Influence of the “Noble Savage” on British and French Antislavery Thought, 1787-1807’ by Suchait Kahlon.
Example thesis #2: ‘”A Starving Man Helping Another Starving Man”: UNRRA, India, and the Genesis of Global Relief, 1943-1947’ by Julian Saint Reiman.

The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:

Your full title
Your full name
Your department
Your institution and degree program
Your submission date.

Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.

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An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.

Theoretical framework

Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyses the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.

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George, T. (2023, December 05). What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 22 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/thesis-ultimate-guide/

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Applying for Graduate School
Understanding Expectations
Developing Genre Awareness
Establishing a Project’s Value
Writing Scholarship and Research Proposals
Writing Literature Reviews

Writing Theses and Dissertations

Understanding the Publication Cycle
Understanding Authorship
Writing About Data
Explaining Research to Diverse Audiences
Writing with Integrity
Revising with Intent
Staying Motivated and Productive
Creating a Writing Toolkit
Building Grammatical Confidence

Graduate Writing: Writing Theses and Dissertations

Most research-based graduate programs require students to produce a thesis or dissertation. This document is evidence of the research project that you carried out as part of your degree. Many graduate students enter their program having previously completed an undergraduate thesis, but for some students this may be a new and potentially daunting task. Regardless of whether you have previous experience or not, you will need to understand what you will need to produce to successfully write and defend your thesis or dissertation .

Take time to review the Grad Hub's Thesis/Dissertation Roadmap , which covers everything from purpose to formatting. Your supervisor and your committee members will also be key sources of information as you put together this document.

The IMRD Thesis or Dissertation

IMRD stands for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion and refers to a common structure for theses, dissertations as well as journal articles. This structure offers flexibility to capture a wide range of research projects and consequently is commonly used in many disciplines, primarily within the social and physical sciences, but is useful for writing up any empirical or applied project.

The IMRD structure is an overarching organizing principle that can be modified to accommodate one or more studies. Introductions may serve as a standalone chapter or be merged with a Literature Review, while a Discussion chapter may also include the Conclusion. If reporting on multiple studies, there may be multiple Results and/or Discussion chapters followed by a separate Conclusion. Many theses and dissertations will also include an Appendix that contains supplementary material for your committee to reference and understand your project.

Using LaTex to write your thesis? Consider downloading the LaTex template developed by Professor Mark Eramian in the Department of Computer Science.

Looking for more information about how to structure an IMRD thesis or dissertation?

Bitchener, J. (2010). Writing an applied linguistics thesis or dissertation: A guide to presenting empirical research . Palgrave Macmillan.
Note: Available as an ebook through the University Library .

Humanities Theses and Dissertations

Depending on the nature of their graduate research, some humanities students may opt for an IMRD structure to write up their project. However, these texts often follow a looser structure that focuses on building and sustaining a central argument, with chapters organized thematically in service of this aim.

Reviewing sample theses and dissertations that have been recently published within one’s discipline can provide insight into the different ways in which these texts can be structured.

Looking for more information on how to structure a humanities thesis or dissertation?

Research & Learning Online. (2021). Structuring a long text. Monash University. https://www.monash.edu/rlo/graduate-research-writing/write-the-thesis/writing-the-thesis-chapters/structuring-a-long-text

The Manuscript-Style Thesis or Dissertation

A manuscript-style thesis or dissertation is composed of a series of previously published articles bookended with an introduction and conclusion identifying the overarching themes of the collected work.

In its guidelines on Manuscript-Style Theses and Dissertations , the university explicitly states “A manuscript-style thesis is not . . . merely a collection of published or publishable papers. It must meet the principles and objectives required of a thesis” (para. 2). What does this mean? Simply, that the work must cohere and build to a central theme that sufficiently contributes to knowledge (for more on this topic, visit Establishing a Project’s Value ).

This type of dissertation tends to be more popular in PhD programs and is sometimes referred to as a “PhD by publication.” If any of the previously published papers include co-authors, such texts commonly mandate an explicit statement of contribution to clarify the student’s involvement (e.g., data collection, data analysis, drafting of text). Having co-authored papers tends to be more conventional in the sciences as it is more common to work on projects as part of a larger laboratory or investigative team.

Looking for more information about manuscript-style theses and dissertations?

Filippou, K. (2020, March 1). Writing a thesis by publication. Some reasons for and against. DoctoralWriting SIG . https://doctoralwriting.wordpress.com/2020/03/01/writing-a-thesis-by-publication-some-reasons-for-and-against/
Pacheco-Vega, R. (2019, September 13). The dissertation analytical table (DAT) – an overview device to formulate a 3-papers thesis/doctoral dissertation. Raul Pacheco-Vega, PhD . http://www.raulpacheco.org/2019/09/the-dissertation-analytical-table-dat-an-overview-device-to-formulate-a-3-papers-thesis-doctoral-dissertation/
Trietsch, C. (2019, October 24). Dear STEM students: Don’t write thesis chapters -- Write manuscripts. Insider Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/blogs/gradhacker/dear-stem-students-don%E2%80%99t-write-thesis-chapters-write-manuscripts

Alternate Formats

The structure of any thesis or dissertation should reflect the nature and purpose of the research project. While non-standard structures are often characteristic of certain creative arts disciplines, they are gaining traction in other fields too, such as the digital humanities.

Alternate theses and dissertations can also be very appealing for students who are foregrounding decolonization in their research as a non-standard structure may more accurately represent the scholarly perspectives or content contained therein.

In discussion with your supervisor, committee members, and other university stakeholders, you will determine if it is appropriate, valuable, and permissible to present your work in a non-standard way. Like any decision, this should be made carefully. Regardless of the format you choose, what remains critical is that the text clearly and convincingly demonstrates to your committee members how you have advanced knowledge in a meaningful way.

Looking for more information about alternate formats?

Canadian Association for Graduate Studies. (2021). Rethinking the PhD: Broadening the dissertation . https://cags.ca/rethinkingphd-dissertation/
Carter, S. (2015, November 19). Innovation in the doctoral thesis: Cutting edge or over the edge? DoctoralWriting SIG . https://doctoralwriting.wordpress.com/2015/11/19/innovation-in-the-doctoral-thesis-cutting-edge-or-over-the-edge/
Note: Available at the Education and Music Library, Indigenous Education Collection (LB2369 .J337 2008)
University of Pittsburgh. (2022). Innovative dissertations. Humanities Engage. https://www.humanitiescareers.pitt.edu/innovative-dissertations

Planning and Project Management

Even if you are incredibly passionate about your research, it can be a challenge to carry your thesis or dissertation to the finish line. This text may be the longest you’ve ever written (and may ever write) so having a plan is essential, especially to circumvent those days (or weeks) when you just do not feel like writing.

As part of your early planning, look at a range of sample theses or dissertations in your field and ask yourself the following questions:

How long are they?
How are they structured?
What commonalities do you see?
What makes one more readable than another?

This review process will help you construct a mental framework, coupled with the formal guidelines from your department and/or CGPS. After all, what is the point in trying to write a 300-page document if a 180-page one will do?

Sample theses and dissertations can be found in repositories like USask’s HARVEST and other university repositories and/or showcases (e.g., Queen’s University ), ProQuest Dissertations & Theses , and Library and Archives Canada .

Having a clear understanding of what the final product will be is often key; from there, you can work backward to understand what steps they need to take to reach the end goal. To help with this process, a dissertation calculator can be a useful tool for helping to conceptualize a workable timeline.

Once you have the bigger picture in place, figure out a realistic schedule that identifies monthly, weekly, and daily goals—while also accounting for setbacks.

Keep in mind that it will be easier to write your thesis or dissertation if you have a regular writing practice and do not wait until your research is “finished” before starting to write up your work. Such writing might involve writing sections of your literature review or methodology or keeping a research journal that will then serve as stimulus material for your discussion. Plus, having a regular writing practice can help make writing less intimidating and more mundane and help reduce potential tendencies toward perfectionism that can make it difficult to get started on the project.

Looking for more information on planning and project management?

Golding, C. (2017) Advice for writing a thesis (based on what examiners do), Open Review of Educational Research , 4 (1): 46-60, https://doi.org/10.1080/23265507.2017.1300862
Lantsoght, E. (2018, January 11). Seven essential tips for managing a large research project. The Wiley Network. https://www.wiley.com/network/researchers/writing-and-conducting-research/seven-essential-tips-for-managing-a-large-research-project
Santiago-Lopez, A. (2019, January 04). Six project-management tips for your PhD. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-07860-6
Saunders, F. (2014, November 05). How can you treat your PhD like a project? The Thesis Whisperer . https://thesiswhisperer.com/2014/11/05/how-can-you-treat-your-phd-like-a-project/

Productivity and Avoiding Burnout

As you write your thesis or dissertation, you may feel blocked, unmotivated, overwhelmed, or even hostile to the process. Such emotional responses are completely normal and reflect the complexity of the task at hand.

Fortunately, there are strategies you can use to help ensure that you continue to meet your goals while also maintaining your well-being.

Many productive academic writers identify daily writing as key to their success. Daily writing does not necessarily mean 3–4 hours of uninterrupted time, rather it could mean having anywhere from 30–90 minutes set aside.

These writers also set concrete, achievable, time-restricted tasks as part of daily writing. For instance, rather than saying, “I’m going to write for 60 minutes today,” they say, “Between 9–10:30am today I’m going to write two paragraphs for my literature review.” Having a tangible plan in place before writing means that writing time remains focused and outcome oriented. These outcomes might be small, but they add up quickly.

Having such plans in place can help with productivity, but it is also important to plan for life—and fun! By nurturing relationships and hobbies, we promote and protect our well-being and prevent burnout.

If you find yourself struggling or are finding it difficult to cope at any stage of your program, do connect with the Student Wellness Centre .

Looking for more information on productivity and avoiding burnout?

Ali, S. G. (2021, September 21). 6 tips for the final year of your dissertation marathon. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2021/09/21/tips-final-year-writing-your-thesis-opinion
Belleville, G. (2019). Sit down and write your thesis! Practical and motivational tips for scientific writing. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 35 (8), 945-947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2019.04.011
Bérubé-Lupien, É. (2021, March 23). 7 tips for efficient thesis writing. University Affairs. https://www.universityaffairs.ca/career-advice/career-advice-article/7-tips-for-efficient-thesis-writing/
Office of Graduate Research Flinders University. (2020, March 5). Vlog 207 - How to set up your life to write [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sZ6WohkWBZg
Pain, E. (2018, April 30). How to write your Ph.D. thesis. Science Careers. https://www.science.org/content/article/how-write-your-phd-thesis
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http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4637-1416 Trevor Duke 1 , 2 , 3
1 Centre for International Child Health , University of Melbourne , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
2 School of Medicine and Health Sciences , University of Papua New Guinea , Port Moresby , Papua New Guinea
3 Paediatric Intensive Care Unit , Royal Children’s Hospital , Melbourne , Victoria , Australia
Correspondence to Prof Trevor Duke, University of Melbourne Department of Paediatrics,Royal Children’s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052 ; trevor.duke{at}rch.org.au

Many universities and colleges in low-income and middle-income countries require a masters dissertation or thesis for as part of postgraduate training, and some colleges offer a 1-year to 2-year diploma of child health as a clinical qualification to enable skills in child health for generalists, or as part of the early phase of paediatric training. This paper describes the stages of doing a research project for such a masters or diploma, and describes in detail how to write a minor thesis. The paper is designed to provide a practical approach for junior researchers, and their supervisors. Colleges differ in their formal requirements of a minor thesis (word count, line spacing, referencing style), but this paper outlines the principles and practical issues rarely covered elsewhere.

medical education
paediatric training
research training
low and middle income countries

https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2018-315340

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Introduction

What is a minor thesis and why do it.

A minor thesis is a written, systematic description of your project. It has a structure, and tells the story of your research: why you did it, how you did it, what you found and what it means.

The reasons to do a research project during your postgraduate training include to:

learn the basics of research theory and techniques, including epidemiology and biostatistics;

understand how to do a literature review, and how to appraise the literature to address questions;

explore an area of interest for you (develop some expertise and a deeper understanding of a topic);

give you tools to critically and thoughtfully appraise problems you are faced with every day;

learn to communicate scientific research in verbal presentations and written form.

Making a start on your project

Figure 1 shows many of the stages in conducting a research project. The order is not necessarily fixed, some steps, such as a literature search can be done early when considering a research question, or done later in the writing phase (often it is done in both phases). The literature review summarised in the thesis is usually focused on the research question, that is the question leads to the literature review (which is done in a systematic way). Learning about literature searching (through PubMed or Medline), learning about a reference manager database like EndNote and learning about databases and statistical analysis programs like Excel or SPSS can be done at any time, but best to start these early in the process. Not all steps are needed for some projects, such as a relatively simple clinical audit, but it is good to know what steps to consider.

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Stages in a research project and writing a minor thesis.

Choosing a research topic

A diploma of child health (DCH) thesis should address a simple clinical or public health question. It could be an audit of a condition or practice which is of interest to you. A research project often starts with an idea that interests you, or a problem you have noticed. You may have 12 months for your DCH (realistically even less, about 10 months prior to exams). The project should ideally be able to be completed in 4–6 months. This is because the main part of DCH training is developing clinical competence in paediatrics, and being a good registrar.

A masters project is expected to be more involved, and should be planned early, ideally in the year before you begin collecting data. You usually have 18 months to 2 years. You should choose a topic of interest, explore what has already been written on the subject, what local research exists, in what context this has been done, talk to your supervisors and take time to identify clear research questions and choose a feasible and practical method for your study. But a masters project and thesis should not dominate your time, as the main task of postgraduate training is to develop the all-round skills to be a good paediatrician. This includes an understanding of child health epidemiology and research methods, but too much of a focus on research can detract from clinical responsibilities and clinical learning.

A clear research question

While many students find it easy to identify a theme or topic, it is often more difficult to define a research question or questions. A research question should be objective and answerable using a research methodology. Research questions can be quantitative, qualitative or a combination of both. Quantitative research questions generate data that are measures or values, which can be used for descriptive and inferential statistics (such as ‘what are the causes of anaemia in children presenting to Kimbe Hospital?’ ‘what is the prevalence of disability among children admitted to hospital in Vientiane?’ or what ‘what is the long-term outcome for very low birth weight neonates in Honiara?’ The questions may be general (‘what are the patient characteristics of children with MDR TB?’) or specific (‘what is the success rate of outpatient treatment of moderate gastroenteritis?’ and ‘what proportion of newborns with PROM will need antibiotic treatment?’). Many questions will be objective/numerical (‘what is the case fatality rate for birth asphyxia at Goroka Hospital between 2011 and 2016?’); some will be categorical (‘what are the common types of seizures that children with epilepsy in Yogyakarta have?’).

Qualitative research generates broader understanding of opinions, or reasons, providing insight. It can help explain the reasons for quantitative results. Qualitative research questions may include perceptions of patients, parents or healthcare workers (‘what do adolescents with rheumatic heart disease understand about their condition?’ or ‘what are the greatest concerns of the parents of children with epilepsy?’ or ‘what are the perceptions and experiences of families of children with cancer?’). Such qualitative research may help explain, for example, why adolescents have low (or high) adherence rates with secondary prophylaxis with benzathine penicillin for rheumatic heart disease. But qualitative research helps us understand more deeply the reasons why things are as they are. 1 2

Many projects will have a mix of both quantitative and qualitative questions, and it is important to identify the differences early, so the right methodologies can be applied. Most research projects have more than one research question, and some research questions are not fully defined when you start a study, they develop along the way. However, it is important to have at least one clearly defined research question to begin.

Definition of terms and metrics of measurement

From an objective research question, the clear definition of terms and metrics of measurement are derived. For example, the population should be described in detail. A population descriptive could be as broad as ‘all children admitted to "X" hospital between March and July 2018’, or as focused as ‘infants with HIV as diagnosed by PCR testing’ box 1 .

Case example

Definition of terms: ‘what is the long-term outcome for very low birth weight (VLBW) neonates in Honiara ( the population )?’ The definition of terms might include:

Definition of population: VLBW 1000–1499 g, born in Honiara national referral hospital or born outside and referred to the special care nursery between January and December 2018.

Definition of outcomes and standardised methods of measurement:

Nutrition: z-scores weight for length and weight for age at 12 months. The proportion of children with moderate and severe malnutrition.

Motor outcomes: the proportion of children at 12 months with moderate or severe neurological deficit identified by a standardised developmental examination (such as the Bayley’s test).

Sensory outcomes: the proportion of children with impaired hearing based on autoacoustic screening.

Anaemia: the proportion of infants at 12 months with a haemoglobin <10 g/dL (WHO standardised definition).

Infectious disease morbidity: the number of hospital admissions from infections in the first 12 months, after initial hospital discharge: these could be subcategorised into acute respiratory infections, gastrointestinal infections, febrile illnesses, etc.

P—among children under 2 years of age with moderate-to-severe pneumonia or bronchiolitis presenting to an emergency department.

I—does nebulised hypertonic saline given in up to three doses over 2 hours?

C—compared with standard care including antibiotics, oxygen.

O—result in a lower respiratory distress score and fewer children requiring inpatient care.

T—over the first 12 hours.

Such a description of a study is not suitable to all studies that are not controlled intervention studies, and PICOT can rarely be used to describe all aspects of a study. However, if you read a journal article abstract of a randomised trial and cannot summarise it in terms of PICOT, then it is either a poorly written article, or poorly conducted study.

Choosing a valid methodology

Broadly, there are two major types of studies—descriptive and analytical. Descriptive studies describe a problem or outcome; analytical studies describe an association between exposures and outcomes. Descriptive study designs include case-reports, case series and descriptive epidemiology. Analytical study designs include randomised controlled trials, cohort studies, case-control studies, case-crossover studies, cross-sectional studies, pre-post studies and some observational studies.

What study design you use depends on many factors, including the research question being addressed, how common the condition is, whether the question is asking about short-term or long-term outcomes, how long you have to do the study, etc. You should discuss with your supervisor exactly what type of methodology is appropriate to answer the question(s) being addressed.

Basic steps to collecting, analysing and presenting qualitative descriptive information 2

Verbatim recording of responses from interviews, focus groups or observations.

Coding of this information, deidentifying where appropriate to ensure confidentiality.

Recording insights and reflections on the data.

Sorting through the data to identify similar phrases, themes, patterns, opinions and also identifying where these differ or diverge.

Gradually deciding on a small group of common themes that address the question, or generalisations (such as opinions or commonly reported practices) that hold true for the population studied.

Examine these generalisations in the light of existing knowledge and/or quantitative data.

Presenting the data according to themes, described in an objective way, with the verbatim responses from subjects as evidence for that generalisation. This helps to ensure that the analysis stays close to the informants’ points of view.

Developing your database: be clear about the metrics

An important element in successful research is the development of a data analysis plan. An analysis plan informs how you organise your data. It ensures your data collection form will have questions designed specifically to address your research questions, and that resultant databases are set up to answer your research questions. It is useful to develop a data analysis plan with your supervisor prior to designing any data collection tools, in order to ensure necessary questions are included in the most appropriate format, and that you understand the statistical tests you will be using.

With guidance from your data analysis plan, the data collection forms should will be designed to answer your research questions. The database should be developed early and checked by you and your supervisor to ensure it reflects the data collection forms, and that it is easy to enter data and analysable in order to answer these questions.

Some quantitative variables will have a numerator and denominator, and you should identify these. Identify the metrics clearly and early, and ensure you record them consistently (do not mix up metrics in your spreadsheet, such as recording some ages as months and some as years, or some weights in grams and others in kilograms). If there is more than one metric for an outcome—such as the definition of severe malnutrition, which may differ depending on age and tests done (weight-for-age / weight-for-height / mid-upper arm circumference / body mass index) then have four columns each labelled as the separate metric, and a ‘summary column’, which is binary 1/0 if severe malnutrition, based on whether the appropriate metric is present.

Ethics and funding

All studies should have ethics review. This is mandatory for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, and needed to fulfil the international standards of ethical research (Declaration of Helsinki 1964). Ethics approval is usually not required for a systematic review of previously published research, but most masters theses require an original research project with primary data collection. Research ethics is not meant to be a barrier, but an enabler of good research that is in the patients’ interests. There are a number of ethical principles that all researchers should adhere to, including consent, autonomy and human dignity, confidentiality, non-maleficence (doing no harm), beneficence (maximising good outcomes), justice and scientific integrity. 3 4 It is good to learn about ethics along the way, as this can help you be a good doctor and paediatrician, as well as a good researcher.

Set aside some time every week to do some work on your study and thesis

Begin to write your thesis early, just making a start is a big hurdle. You will have done a lot of work in the proposal stage, so use that document and expand on it. Organise your computer, with a separate folder for your study and thesis documents. Allocate time each week to work on your study or writing.

A masters study and thesis are best done over an extended period of time, and it is good to keep making some progress each week . Trainees sometimes have a writer’s block, or their study falters, or they become discouraged if they leave it for weeks or months. If you do something each week you maintain the threads of thought and keep others around you interested in your study, and it is good for your morale! Registrars who leave their project or writing to the end do not get as much out of their research experience as those who work steadily on it over 2 years, keeping clinical and research training requirements balanced.

Refer regularly back to the study questions

Each research project will have a number of questions, some major or primary outcomes and some supplementary or additional questions. They should be described clearly in the methods of the thesis and you should be able to identify them in your data collection form, your database and your thesis.

Keep your supervisor informed and interested in your study and thesis progress

Your supervisor is a busy person, with clinical, teaching and other responsibilities. But your supervisor should feel involved in your study, so keep them up to date on your progress, discuss problems with them early and listen to their feedback. Sometimes small research obstacles can be overcome easily if you discuss them, but if you keep them to yourself they become magnified in your mind. A problem shared is a problem halved! Communicate with your supervisor in person and by email, share your thesis writing with them. You should plan to meet your supervisor regularly; while some of these meetings will be to discuss clinical aspects of your training, set aside some time to focus on your project specifically. Sometimes your clinical supervisor will be different from the person who is supervising your research project. If you feel you are not getting the support you need from your supervisor, contact the masters coordinator or the professors to seek more assistance. Often this will be because your supervisor is busy, or may not be sure of how to help you—it is not because they do not want to! Do not let problems go unaddressed—always ask.

Documents and backup

Write one master document, which can be used for the initial technical and ethics proposal, then expanded during your study to form your thesis, or sometimes adapted as a report to a funding agency, and concisely revised as a journal article you may write after completion of the study. Some people use multiple documents for each of these purposes and have multiple thesis versions on their computer. That is OK if it works for you, but it can be inefficient and confusing. The advantage of using one master document is that when you update or revise it, add a table, figure or reference or correct an error, everything gets updated and you do not have ‘version confusion’. You will inevitably end up with a couple of versions: first the proposal, then use that document to expand to a thesis document, then a paper you might write that is based on your study. Clearly name (and date) each type of document and each version, for example, Audit of antibiotic use Masters project proposal Your Name February 10 2018.doc and Audit of antibiotic use Masters thesis Your Name May 6 2018.doc , or a file name that clearly indicates what the purpose of the document is and when it was written or revised. Discuss version control with your supervisor(s) early in your research project—ensure you all agree on a system. A good method might be for you to date each version, and when your supervisor(s) review or edit your work, they add their initials to the file name. This ensures it is clear who has worked on the document. Ask your supervisor to ‘track changes’ so any suggested edits are found easily.

Set up a folder that contains all the separate documents for your thesis, do not just have them randomly scattered in your computer.

Back up the latest version of all thesis and study documents regularly, and keep the backup flash-drive or external hard drive in a safe and secure place. On your backup drive, only have your project documents, and do not use it in other people’s computers to minimise the risk of viruses. Backing up your data and study documents on cloud storage can be useful if you have reliable internet access: Dropbox is an open-access program, which provides free (up to 2 GB) cloud storage ( https://www.dropbox.com ), Google Drive is another method for cloud storage of documents for security in case your computer malfunctions. Cloud storage also enables sharing of documents with your supervisor.

Writing style

In a thesis write in the past tense. A study proposal (ie, for a study not yet underway) is usually written in the future tense: " In this study we plan to recruit 30 children with asthma. Children with acute intermittent asthma and chronic persistent asthma will be eligible. Children with a past history of Tb or bronchiectasis will be excluded" . In a thesis the same information in the past tense reads: " In this study we recruited 30 children with asthma. Children with acute intermittent asthma and chronic persistent asthma were eligible. Children with a past history of Tb or bronchiectasis were excluded" .

Writing should be concise and clear. I find it useful to read sentences out aloud to myself and ask, is the meaning clear and unambiguous? It is useful to ask someone else to read over your thesis at the end; not necessarily a medical person who is familiar with the topic, but an educated person who writes well (such as a teacher or scientist in another field). A thesis should be written in language that people without specific knowledge of the subject can understand.

Thesis structure

There is no one right way to write a thesis, but there is a generally accepted structure which has a number of major parts. A thesis can be written with these major parts as chapters, or as one document like a journal article with major subheadings. The major parts are mentioned here in this article.

A very brief (total 250–300 words) overview of the whole minor thesis. It usually has a structure (introduction, method, results, conclusions), each part with just one or two sentences. The abstract should fit on one page. It should state clearly the research question, the study type, the main method, the primary results and a conclusion (one to two sentences) based on the primary result. The abstract does not need references.

Introduction should state why you did the study, why it is an important topic to research. This may only be three to four paragraphs, especially if you have a literature review which follows. The introduction provides contextual information as to why you did the study. The introduction can highlight the burden of the disease or condition, why it is an important one in your country or in the region or globally, why it is important for your specialty. Your introduction may outline whether the condition or topic has been well studied or neglected in terms of research or study, and identify the gap that will be addressed by your study. In a DCH thesis, you might just write about why you became interested in the topic because you cared for a patient with the condition, or you are seeing a lot of such problems in your ward or hospital, etc. In the introduction, you should state clearly the objectives of your study, and the research question(s) being addressed.

Literature review

Literature review is a summary of the existing knowledge of the research topic. It should be focused, on the general topic and specific research question being addressed. In doing a literature review, keep notes on the search terms you use and on the search engines used (eg, PubMed, Google Scholar). For accessing full-text articles, papers are increasingly published as open access and you can access these through these search engines, however if your university or hospital has registered for Hinari program set up by WHO ( http://www.who.int/hinari/en/ ), and you have good internet band speed you will have access to thousands of other journals and ebooks.

In the opening paragraph of your literature review state how you did the search, for example, " I searched the published literature using PubMed and Google Scholar using the terms ‘asthma’ ‘spacer device’ ‘salbutamol’ ‘treatment’ ‘metered dose inhaler’ ‘home-made’ and ‘developing country’ or ‘low and middle income country’" . While there are formal methods of searching for information using standardised key words, phrases and MESH terms, when you are starting out with literature searching, try to make the search reflect closely your research question, and record exactly the words you use in the search.

Usually a literature review is written from ‘general to very specific’; the opening paragraph outlines the previously published information on the burden of the condition or the magnitude and significance of the problem, then subsequent paragraphs focus more narrowly on the previous literature on your specific research question(s). A good literature review integrates existing research under themes or subheadings, rather than having a series of paragraphs which just state what previous studies have found. A literature review may be structured thematically and have subheadings to identify themes. For example, a literature review for a study of the role of home-made spacers for asthma could start with the literature on the burden/prevalence of asthma in the community, and a paragraph about overall treatments (beta-2 agonists, corticosteroids), another about mechanisms of drug delivery (oral, metered dose inhalers, nebulisation), one about the effectiveness of spacers and their availability in certain areas and then focus specifically on the existing literature about home-made spacer devices. It is not necessary to write everything about asthma, but focus the review on the question you are studying; start general and move to very specific. Sometimes there may not be much literature on the subject you are studying, that is OK, just summarise what exists and highlight the gaps. There is no need to ‘pad out’ the literature review with peripheral information, make it relevant, concise and informative.

See references and reference manager program (below) to plan how to organise and cite your references.

In most journal articles, the literature review is incorporated into the discussion (and a little by way of background in the introduction). This can be the case in a minor thesis, but it is up to you. Most people find it easier to have a separate section, which is the literature review at the beginning, but there are no fixed rules.

Methodology

Methodology is a detailed description of how you actually did the study. It should be reproducible, that is, be written in a way that would enable another investigator to reproduce the same methodology and arrive at the same result (or a different result in a different population). Write the methodology of your study early, while you are doing it. Details of the exact method can be missed if it is not written until the end of your study. You will have written a methodology for your study proposal, you should start with this, change the future to past tense and add any details that have changed. Often at the end of a study, the methodology is a little refined or different to that which was submitted as a proposal. In the methodology there are no results, or other literature, and the only references are for methodology, or statistical or analytical methods described by another researcher in the literature. The methodology should include:

the study population;

definitions of all terms, cases, conditions;

how the study was planned and carried out;

the exact data you collected;

how, when, how often and where it was collected;

how the data were managed (entered into a database);

what the database is;

the analytical tests you did;

ethics approval;

explain any methodological problems and how they were addressed.

Results are presented as narrative, tables, graphs and figures. There are no fixed rules, except the results should be organised and logical. Unless it is very important and central to your thesis, it is best not to duplicate the exact result in each medium of presentation (eg, the same information—such as the baseline characteristics of the study population presented in a figure, table and narrative). Tables can provide a lot of detail and be informative; if presented as a written narrative, this can make the results too long and be tedious. The narrative should highlight the main results, describing in detail the outcomes for the primary research question, important secondary outcomes and orientate the reader to the tables, graphs and figures: explain what they describe, their main findings (without describing every detail). Each table, figure or graph must be referenced in the narrative (eg, ‘see figure 2’) at the appropriate point in the narrative, or this can be written as ‘table 1 describes the baseline characteristics of the children with asthma’, then describe in narrative the key baseline characteristics, but other details can be left for the reader to discover from examining the tables.

It is often thought that the results cannot be written until the study is complete. While this is partly true, it is important to plan and organise the results section early. Put subheadings into your thesis document that will help guide your subsequent analysis and writing. Draw up ‘dummy tables’ that contain the variables you want to report even before you have analysed the data, but leave the cells which will contain the numerical result blank. You may add other variables later, but drawing up such tables as you do the study will help you organise the presentation of results.

There is no fixed limit to the number of tables a minor thesis can have, but avoid duplicating data in the tables and the figures, and avoid a figure or graph that describes an obscure or unimportant aspect of the study. You do not have to include every result or data point that you gathered in the results, this can make a thesis seem to be lacking perspective, you may not ‘see the wood for the trees’, that is, you may miss the really important points because of too much information being reported, and the reader will find it tedious to read.

In tables and the narrative, include numbers (%), not just percentages. Percentages give no indication of the spread or precision of the data. Saying that 33% of children with asthma have chronic symptoms tells us limited information, as it does not indicate precision. The CIs may be extremely wide depending on the number of subjects investigated: 3/10=30% (0.3; 95% CIs 0.06 to 0.65), which means the true proportion could be anything from 6% to 65% in a small sample of 10 children with asthma. If the sample that yielded 30% of children with asthma as having chronic symptoms was 100 children, that is, 30/100=30% (95% CIs 0.21 to 0.40), that is, the true proportion is somewhere between 21% and 40%, a much more precise result. So never just quote a % in the results without clarifying what ‘n’ is (the number with the characteristic/number studied), and ideally include a CI around such proportions. There are many programs that can calculate CIs around a simple proportion, one is: http://www.sample-size.net/confidence-interval-proportion/

The analyses of most diploma and masters studies involves primarily basic descriptive epidemiology , rather than the need for any complex analytical tests, like regression or p values. It is important to get the descriptive epidemiology right, describe the population or subjects in the study in a logical way, numbers, percentages or proportions, median or means, ranges, IQRs or CIs. Be clear about numerators and denominators. Denominators will sometimes be different depending on the variable being described, and the number of observations made. It is not useful to have p values for every statistic, and many good thesis can be written without p values at all! For some analytical tests, such as the comparison of two proportions to determine if they are different (5 of 83 children in grade 1–4 have asthma, whereas 9 of 206 children in grades 5–7 had asthma) a p value can be useful in indicating whether an observed difference is likely to have arisen by chance.

For the presentation of most analyses of a comparison between groups, CIs are much more informative than p values. Avoid the trap of reporting multiple p values and the mistaken view that finding a p value of <0.05 is ‘significant’. If you do enough statistical tests a p value of <0.05 will arise merely by chance, not because a real difference exists. A p value alone cannot determine that a hypothesis is ‘true’, or if results are important. Only report p values and other analytical tests on your primary and major secondary results if indicated. Avoid using p values to report minor post hoc results (findings from your study that you did not plan), these are often just chance findings that reflect unanticipated bias or confounding. Unanticipated post hoc results may be interesting and generate further hypotheses for another study, but they should not be interpreted as definitive or conclusive. Often inexperienced researchers or readers assume that a ‘significant p value’ is conclusive when it provides preliminary information only. So do not overinterpret your results or fill them with p values and obscure statistical tests, but describe the findings clearly and concisely in plain language. The results section of a minor thesis does not have to be long, it can be one to two pages of narrative, and can have subheadings for each of the relevant results.

Discussion is an interpretation of the results, what they mean. The discussion should return to the objectives and the primary research questions of the study and indicate whether they have been achieved. The discussion should be organised into thematic paragraphs or sections, and subheadings can be a good way to guide the reader. The first paragraph of the discussion should restate the main result(s) of the study in plain language (without statistical tests). The discussion should compare the results with previous studies or pre-existing knowledge of the subjects. It should not duplicate the literature review (but it can link to this), but the discussion should cite other research where the results can be compared or contrasted with your own. Other research may be in different contexts (different populations, different level of resources, different methodologies, different outcomes measured). It is important to understand why two different studies addressing the one problem may yield different results, it does not mean that one study is inferior or inadequate.

The primary outcome or question is usually addressed in the first few paragraphs (with comparisons with other research if appropriate) and then secondary outcomes discussed (with similar comparisons).

Write in ways that indicate you are scientifically open to unexpected outcomes, and understand the uncertainty of your study. Do not write, for example: "I did this study to prove that probiotics reduce the duration of watery diarrhoea", but rather ‘this study was done to evaluate whether probiotics would reduce the duration of watery diarrhoea’. Similarly, do not be too categorical or certain: ‘this study proves that steroids should be used to treat chronic otitis media’, rather ‘in this small study of school aged children with chronic serous otitis media, topical corticosteroids reduced the duration of purulent ear discharge’.

A discussion of the shortcomings or limitations of the study is appropriate. Every study ever done has some limitations, so it does not mean you have done a poor study, just because there are some limitations. You should be honest about the limitations, but do not overstate them either (ie, it is not necessary to make excuses for a study). This is especially the case for so-called ‘negative studies’, that is, studies that did not find a difference or a significant result in the primary outcome; such studies can be just as important as ‘positive studies’, so you should not feel such a study is unworthy. Furthermore, you should not try to highlight an obscure post hoc p value that is <0.05 in order to give your study ‘significance’. In the limitations section, try to identify if there are any systematic biases or confounding in your study; this will help you avoid overstating the results. In reading other papers for your literature review, and for your own research, beware of the risk of type II error; the finding that there is ‘no difference’ when this could be due to a small sample size (a study that is underpowered to find a statistical difference, even when one exists). Again, for a DCH or masters thesis, do not worry if your study seems ‘too small’, it is the quality of the work that is important, and this will not be judged solely on the number of patients recruited into a study.

No new results can be introduced in the discussion section; if in writing the discussion you find a new result that you want to include or comment on, you need to incorporate it in the results section first, and then you can make comment on it in the discussion.

Conclusions/recommendations

The conclusions should be brief. Return to the research questions and suggest whether they have been answered or solved, and what the main finding was. Return to the objectives of the study and suggest if they have been achieved. Indicate what has been learnt from the study and how it might be applied. And indicate any clear recommendations that you think can come out of your study, which may be a change in clinical practice, increased awareness of the topic or problem, the adoption of your research method into everyday practice or the need for further research to be conclusive about a finding.

Any important statement of fact in the thesis should have a reference; this is obvious in the literature review, but applies equally to the introduction and discussion. References are not usually included in the methods, unless you are referencing another investigator’s method that you have used, or a statistical test or program that you used. Appropriate references may be journal articles identified during your literature review, or books or websites. When referencing a fact or finding from a journal ideally go to the original research paper which identified the finding, not an opinion paper which just repeated the finding. Ideally, you should get a copy of the full-text (not just the abstract) of the article that contains the finding that you are reporting as a fact, to verify that the paper did indeed say that. This is a type of fact checking that is good to do.

There are many ways to reference a thesis, references can be cited in the text as numbers (eg, 3, 5 , or [3, 5]) or (authors name, year). It does not matter as long as it is consistent throughout the thesis. I find the (authors name, year) format can make it hard to read the text if there are many references interspersed throughout the paragraphs. The numerical citations are more acceptable for the vast majority of journal styles, so it is best to do it this way, so it is easier to revise your thesis into a journal article.

There are various standards for referencing, including the Harvard Referencing Standard. There is no source document for Harvard style, but many universities have their own guidelines based on the Harvard style, such as Adelaide University: http://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/referencing_guides/harvardStyleGuide.pdf.

It is best to have a reference manager program , which can make reference lists in a particular journal style for you after you input the references from your literature search. There are many such programs now, including EndNote ( www.endnote.org ), which is used by a lot of scientists and clinical researchers. Using EndNote you can import citations directly from Google Scholar and PubMed searches, and you can download the full-text article if it is Open Access. EndNote is a commercial product, but other reference manager programs are freely available. Zotero is a free, open-source reference manager with cloud backup into which you can manually insert citations or extract citations from internet search engines ( https://www.zotero.org/download/ ). Other programs include Mendelay ( https://www.mendeley.com/ ) and ‘Cite This For Me’ ( http://www.citethisforme.com/harvard-referencing ).

It takes a bit of work learning how to use EndNote or Zotera and how it links to Pubmed and Google Scholar and to learn how to insert references into such a program, but it is well worth it.

When referencing a website, you should state the title of the website, the title of the web page, the exact URL and the date you accessed it.

If in your thesis you include or adapt tables or figures from another source (such as a website), you need to reference these.

Journals have different styles as to the number of authors listed in a reference. Some, if a reference has six authors or less include all their names. If a reference has seven or more authors just include six names, then ‘ et al ’.

Thesis order and length

The order of the pages of a thesis.

The full title of the thesis.

The full name of the candidate.

The name of the school associated with the research.

The year the thesis was submitted.

Declaration

Except where acknowledgement has been made, the work is your own.

The work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for another degree or assessment.

Acknowledgements

Table of contents

Lists of tables, figures and diagrams

Main body of the thesis (as described above)

Introduction—including objectives and specific research question(s);

Literature review;

Discussions;

Conclusions and recommendations;

Reference list.

Appendices—these are not mandatory in every thesis, but appendices can be helpful in enabling the reader to see what research tools you used or exactly how you gathered the data. Appendices may include:

Tables of raw data if appropriate, they have to be well formatted and not identify any patient by name or place of origin (confidentiality);

Ethics approval document;

Consent form used in the study;

Data collection form used in the study;

Any educational material used in the study.

Anything included in the appendices should be cited in the text of the main thesis, so the reader understands why they are included, for example, "We used a survey form that included basic demographic information, questions on frequency of asthma, asthma severity, previous hospitalisations, medication use, whether the child has an asthma action plan and what method the child used for taking Ventolin (see appendix 2)”. The reader can then refer to appendix 2 to see exactly what questions were asked.

Avoid plagiarism

It is really important that a postgraduate diploma or masters thesis be all your own work. It is too tempting these days to cut-and-paste information from Wikipedia, journal articles found online or other internet sites, but this is plagiarism and it is unacceptable and a form of cheating. Sometimes plagiarism occurs inadvertently if you are unsure of what the university standard is, or sometimes it occurs when people are under stress of deadlines. Regardless, it is always unacceptable. If you start only writing in your own words you will not fall into the trap of plagiarism. Do not directly copy anything from another source, but write it completely in your own words and add the original source as a reference. Many universities use programs like Turnitin to check for plagiarism. Another good program is Grammarly, which is both a Grammar and Plagiarism check. It is available at https://www.grammarly.com/1.

Writing up a paper for publication

It often takes several rounds of revisions to get a paper in shape for submission, but you should aim to write your thesis in a format where the most important or original data are publishable. You may not be able to include all the results or text in a journal publication. Brevity is important, and often ‘less is more’. Ask your supervisor about writing up your thesis for submission to a journal.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Professor Mike English (Kenya Medical Research Institute), Eleanor Neal, Dr Jocelyn Chan, Dr Hamish Graham (University of Melbourne) and Dr Bob Phillips for very helpful comments, and to the postgraduate students for their inspiration and examples. This paper drew on a number of sources, including ‘Minor thesis and research report structure’, from the Study and Learning Centre, RMIT University: http://mams.rmit.edu.au/8zbeww6e1n3i.pdf (accessed 11 February 2017). There is a book by Paul Gruber and Justin Zobel from University of Melbourne, which the author could not access, but this may be a useful reference. ‘How to write a better minor thesis’ Melbourne University Press, 2014 ( https://www.mup.com.au/items/135100).

Taylor SJ ,
Neergaard MA ,
Andersen RS , et al
Munyaradzi M ,

Funding The author gratefully acknowledges the RE Ross Trust for support to child health research training in Papua New Guinea and the Pacific, which is the basis of this work.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

How To Write An A-Grade Literature Review

3 straightforward steps (with examples) + free template.

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2019

Quality research is about building onto the existing work of others , “standing on the shoulders of giants”, as Newton put it. The literature review chapter of your dissertation, thesis or research project is where you synthesise this prior work and lay the theoretical foundation for your own research.

Long story short, this chapter is a pretty big deal, which is why you want to make sure you get it right . In this post, I’ll show you exactly how to write a literature review in three straightforward steps, so you can conquer this vital chapter (the smart way).

Overview: The Literature Review Process

Understanding the “ why “
Finding the relevant literature
Cataloguing and synthesising the information
Outlining & writing up your literature review
Example of a literature review

But first, the “why”…

Before we unpack how to write the literature review chapter, we’ve got to look at the why . To put it bluntly, if you don’t understand the function and purpose of the literature review process, there’s no way you can pull it off well. So, what exactly is the purpose of the literature review?

Well, there are (at least) four core functions:

For you to gain an understanding (and demonstrate this understanding) of where the research is at currently, what the key arguments and disagreements are.
For you to identify the gap(s) in the literature and then use this as justification for your own research topic.
To help you build a conceptual framework for empirical testing (if applicable to your research topic).
To inform your methodological choices and help you source tried and tested questionnaires (for interviews ) and measurement instruments (for surveys ).

Most students understand the first point but don’t give any thought to the rest. To get the most from the literature review process, you must keep all four points front of mind as you review the literature (more on this shortly), or you’ll land up with a wonky foundation.

Okay – with the why out the way, let’s move on to the how . As mentioned above, writing your literature review is a process, which I’ll break down into three steps:

Finding the most suitable literature
Understanding , distilling and organising the literature
Planning and writing up your literature review chapter

Importantly, you must complete steps one and two before you start writing up your chapter. I know it’s very tempting, but don’t try to kill two birds with one stone and write as you read. You’ll invariably end up wasting huge amounts of time re-writing and re-shaping, or you’ll just land up with a disjointed, hard-to-digest mess . Instead, you need to read first and distil the information, then plan and execute the writing.

Step 1: Find the relevant literature

Naturally, the first step in the literature review journey is to hunt down the existing research that’s relevant to your topic. While you probably already have a decent base of this from your research proposal , you need to expand on this substantially in the dissertation or thesis itself.

Essentially, you need to be looking for any existing literature that potentially helps you answer your research question (or develop it, if that’s not yet pinned down). There are numerous ways to find relevant literature, but I’ll cover my top four tactics here. I’d suggest combining all four methods to ensure that nothing slips past you:

Method 1 – Google Scholar Scrubbing

Google’s academic search engine, Google Scholar , is a great starting point as it provides a good high-level view of the relevant journal articles for whatever keyword you throw at it. Most valuably, it tells you how many times each article has been cited, which gives you an idea of how credible (or at least, popular) it is. Some articles will be free to access, while others will require an account, which brings us to the next method.

Method 2 – University Database Scrounging

Generally, universities provide students with access to an online library, which provides access to many (but not all) of the major journals.

So, if you find an article using Google Scholar that requires paid access (which is quite likely), search for that article in your university’s database – if it’s listed there, you’ll have access. Note that, generally, the search engine capabilities of these databases are poor, so make sure you search for the exact article name, or you might not find it.

Method 3 – Journal Article Snowballing

At the end of every academic journal article, you’ll find a list of references. As with any academic writing, these references are the building blocks of the article, so if the article is relevant to your topic, there’s a good chance a portion of the referenced works will be too. Do a quick scan of the titles and see what seems relevant, then search for the relevant ones in your university’s database.

Method 4 – Dissertation Scavenging

Similar to Method 3 above, you can leverage other students’ dissertations. All you have to do is skim through literature review chapters of existing dissertations related to your topic and you’ll find a gold mine of potential literature. Usually, your university will provide you with access to previous students’ dissertations, but you can also find a much larger selection in the following databases:

Open Access Theses & Dissertations
Stanford SearchWorks

Keep in mind that dissertations and theses are not as academically sound as published, peer-reviewed journal articles (because they’re written by students, not professionals), so be sure to check the credibility of any sources you find using this method. You can do this by assessing the citation count of any given article in Google Scholar. If you need help with assessing the credibility of any article, or with finding relevant research in general, you can chat with one of our Research Specialists .

Alright – with a good base of literature firmly under your belt, it’s time to move onto the next step.

Need a helping hand?

Step 2: Log, catalogue and synthesise

Once you’ve built a little treasure trove of articles, it’s time to get reading and start digesting the information – what does it all mean?

While I present steps one and two (hunting and digesting) as sequential, in reality, it’s more of a back-and-forth tango – you’ll read a little , then have an idea, spot a new citation, or a new potential variable, and then go back to searching for articles. This is perfectly natural – through the reading process, your thoughts will develop , new avenues might crop up, and directional adjustments might arise. This is, after all, one of the main purposes of the literature review process (i.e. to familiarise yourself with the current state of research in your field).

As you’re working through your treasure chest, it’s essential that you simultaneously start organising the information. There are three aspects to this:

Logging reference information
Building an organised catalogue
Distilling and synthesising the information

I’ll discuss each of these below:

2.1 – Log the reference information

As you read each article, you should add it to your reference management software. I usually recommend Mendeley for this purpose (see the Mendeley 101 video below), but you can use whichever software you’re comfortable with. Most importantly, make sure you load EVERY article you read into your reference manager, even if it doesn’t seem very relevant at the time.

2.2 – Build an organised catalogue

In the beginning, you might feel confident that you can remember who said what, where, and what their main arguments were. Trust me, you won’t. If you do a thorough review of the relevant literature (as you must!), you’re going to read many, many articles, and it’s simply impossible to remember who said what, when, and in what context . Also, without the bird’s eye view that a catalogue provides, you’ll miss connections between various articles, and have no view of how the research developed over time. Simply put, it’s essential to build your own catalogue of the literature.

I would suggest using Excel to build your catalogue, as it allows you to run filters, colour code and sort – all very useful when your list grows large (which it will). How you lay your spreadsheet out is up to you, but I’d suggest you have the following columns (at minimum):

Author, date, title – Start with three columns containing this core information. This will make it easy for you to search for titles with certain words, order research by date, or group by author.
Categories or keywords – You can either create multiple columns, one for each category/theme and then tick the relevant categories, or you can have one column with keywords.
Key arguments/points – Use this column to succinctly convey the essence of the article, the key arguments and implications thereof for your research.
Context – Note the socioeconomic context in which the research was undertaken. For example, US-based, respondents aged 25-35, lower- income, etc. This will be useful for making an argument about gaps in the research.
Methodology – Note which methodology was used and why. Also, note any issues you feel arise due to the methodology. Again, you can use this to make an argument about gaps in the research.
Quotations – Note down any quoteworthy lines you feel might be useful later.
Notes – Make notes about anything not already covered. For example, linkages to or disagreements with other theories, questions raised but unanswered, shortcomings or limitations, and so forth.

If you’d like, you can try out our free catalog template here (see screenshot below).

2.3 – Digest and synthesise

Most importantly, as you work through the literature and build your catalogue, you need to synthesise all the information in your own mind – how does it all fit together? Look for links between the various articles and try to develop a bigger picture view of the state of the research. Some important questions to ask yourself are:

What answers does the existing research provide to my own research questions ?
Which points do the researchers agree (and disagree) on?
How has the research developed over time?
Where do the gaps in the current research lie?

To help you develop a big-picture view and synthesise all the information, you might find mind mapping software such as Freemind useful. Alternatively, if you’re a fan of physical note-taking, investing in a large whiteboard might work for you.

Mind mapping is a useful way to plan your literature review.

Step 3: Outline and write it up!

Once you’re satisfied that you have digested and distilled all the relevant literature in your mind, it’s time to put pen to paper (or rather, fingers to keyboard). There are two steps here – outlining and writing:

3.1 – Draw up your outline

Having spent so much time reading, it might be tempting to just start writing up without a clear structure in mind. However, it’s critically important to decide on your structure and develop a detailed outline before you write anything. Your literature review chapter needs to present a clear, logical and an easy to follow narrative – and that requires some planning. Don’t try to wing it!

Naturally, you won’t always follow the plan to the letter, but without a detailed outline, you’re more than likely going to end up with a disjointed pile of waffle , and then you’re going to spend a far greater amount of time re-writing, hacking and patching. The adage, “measure twice, cut once” is very suitable here.

In terms of structure, the first decision you’ll have to make is whether you’ll lay out your review thematically (into themes) or chronologically (by date/period). The right choice depends on your topic, research objectives and research questions, which we discuss in this article .

Once that’s decided, you need to draw up an outline of your entire chapter in bullet point format. Try to get as detailed as possible, so that you know exactly what you’ll cover where, how each section will connect to the next, and how your entire argument will develop throughout the chapter. Also, at this stage, it’s a good idea to allocate rough word count limits for each section, so that you can identify word count problems before you’ve spent weeks or months writing!

PS – check out our free literature review chapter template…

3.2 – Get writing

With a detailed outline at your side, it’s time to start writing up (finally!). At this stage, it’s common to feel a bit of writer’s block and find yourself procrastinating under the pressure of finally having to put something on paper. To help with this, remember that the objective of the first draft is not perfection – it’s simply to get your thoughts out of your head and onto paper, after which you can refine them. The structure might change a little, the word count allocations might shift and shuffle, and you might add or remove a section – that’s all okay. Don’t worry about all this on your first draft – just get your thoughts down on paper.

Once you’ve got a full first draft (however rough it may be), step away from it for a day or two (longer if you can) and then come back at it with fresh eyes. Pay particular attention to the flow and narrative – does it fall fit together and flow from one section to another smoothly? Now’s the time to try to improve the linkage from each section to the next, tighten up the writing to be more concise, trim down word count and sand it down into a more digestible read.

Once you’ve done that, give your writing to a friend or colleague who is not a subject matter expert and ask them if they understand the overall discussion. The best way to assess this is to ask them to explain the chapter back to you. This technique will give you a strong indication of which points were clearly communicated and which weren’t. If you’re working with Grad Coach, this is a good time to have your Research Specialist review your chapter.

Finally, tighten it up and send it off to your supervisor for comment. Some might argue that you should be sending your work to your supervisor sooner than this (indeed your university might formally require this), but in my experience, supervisors are extremely short on time (and often patience), so, the more refined your chapter is, the less time they’ll waste on addressing basic issues (which you know about already) and the more time they’ll spend on valuable feedback that will increase your mark-earning potential.

Literature Review Example

In the video below, we unpack an actual literature review so that you can see how all the core components come together in reality.

Let’s Recap

In this post, we’ve covered how to research and write up a high-quality literature review chapter. Let’s do a quick recap of the key takeaways:

It is essential to understand the WHY of the literature review before you read or write anything. Make sure you understand the 4 core functions of the process.
The first step is to hunt down the relevant literature . You can do this using Google Scholar, your university database, the snowballing technique and by reviewing other dissertations and theses.
Next, you need to log all the articles in your reference manager , build your own catalogue of literature and synthesise all the research.
Following that, you need to develop a detailed outline of your entire chapter – the more detail the better. Don’t start writing without a clear outline (on paper, not in your head!)
Write up your first draft in rough form – don’t aim for perfection. Remember, done beats perfect.
Refine your second draft and get a layman’s perspective on it . Then tighten it up and submit it to your supervisor.

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Literature Review Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

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38 Comments

Thank you very much. This page is an eye opener and easy to comprehend.

This is awesome!

I wish I come across GradCoach earlier enough.

But all the same I’ll make use of this opportunity to the fullest.

Thank you for this good job.

Keep it up!

You’re welcome, Yinka. Thank you for the kind words. All the best writing your literature review.

Thank you for a very useful literature review session. Although I am doing most of the steps…it being my first masters an Mphil is a self study and one not sure you are on the right track. I have an amazing supervisor but one also knows they are super busy. So not wanting to bother on the minutae. Thank you.

You’re most welcome, Renee. Good luck with your literature review 🙂

This has been really helpful. Will make full use of it. 🙂

Thank you Gradcoach.

Really agreed. Admirable effort

thank you for this beautiful well explained recap.

Thank you so much for your guide of video and other instructions for the dissertation writing.

It is instrumental. It encouraged me to write a dissertation now.

Thank you the video was great – from someone that knows nothing thankyou

an amazing and very constructive way of presetting a topic, very useful, thanks for the effort,

It is timely

It is very good video of guidance for writing a research proposal and a dissertation. Since I have been watching and reading instructions, I have started my research proposal to write. I appreciate to Mr Jansen hugely.

I learn a lot from your videos. Very comprehensive and detailed.

Thank you for sharing your knowledge. As a research student, you learn better with your learning tips in research

I was really stuck in reading and gathering information but after watching these things are cleared thanks, it is so helpful.

Really helpful, Thank you for the effort in showing such information

This is super helpful thank you very much.

Thank you for this whole literature writing review.You have simplified the process.

I’m so glad I found GradCoach. Excellent information, Clear explanation, and Easy to follow, Many thanks Derek!

You’re welcome, Maithe. Good luck writing your literature review 🙂

Thank you Coach, you have greatly enriched and improved my knowledge

Great piece, so enriching and it is going to help me a great lot in my project and thesis, thanks so much

This is THE BEST site for ANYONE doing a masters or doctorate! Thank you for the sound advice and templates. You rock!

Thanks, Stephanie 🙂

This is mind blowing, the detailed explanation and simplicity is perfect.

I am doing two papers on my final year thesis, and I must stay I feel very confident to face both headlong after reading this article.

thank you so much.

if anyone is to get a paper done on time and in the best way possible, GRADCOACH is certainly the go to area!

This is very good video which is well explained with detailed explanation

Thank you excellent piece of work and great mentoring

Thanks, it was useful

Thank you very much. the video and the information were very helpful.

Good morning scholar. I’m delighted coming to know you even before the commencement of my dissertation which hopefully is expected in not more than six months from now. I would love to engage my study under your guidance from the beginning to the end. I love to know how to do good job

Thank you so much Derek for such useful information on writing up a good literature review. I am at a stage where I need to start writing my one. My proposal was accepted late last year but I honestly did not know where to start

Like the name of your YouTube implies you are GRAD (great,resource person, about dissertation). In short you are smart enough in coaching research work.

This is a very well thought out webpage. Very informative and a great read.

Very timely.

I appreciate.

Very comprehensive and eye opener for me as beginner in postgraduate study. Well explained and easy to understand. Appreciate and good reference in guiding me in my research journey. Thank you

Thank you. I requested to download the free literature review template, however, your website wouldn’t allow me to complete the request or complete a download. May I request that you email me the free template? Thank you.

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How to Write a Dissertation or Thesis Proposal
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Introduction

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Basic steps to collecting, analysing and presenting qualitative descriptive information 2

Developing your database: be clear about the metrics

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Read the full text or download the PDF:

How To Write An A-Grade Literature Review

Overview: The Literature Review Process

But first, the “why”…

Step 1: Find the relevant literature

Method 1 – Google Scholar Scrubbing

Method 2 – University Database Scrounging

Method 3 – Journal Article Snowballing

Method 4 – Dissertation Scavenging

Need a helping hand?

Step 2: Log, catalogue and synthesise

2.1 – Log the reference information

2.2 – Build an organised catalogue

2.3 – Digest and synthesise

Step 3: Outline and write it up!

3.1 – Draw up your outline

3.2 – Get writing

Literature Review Example

Let’s Recap

Psst… there’s more!

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