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Revisiting Input and Output Hypotheses in Second Language Learning
This article discusses the impact that both input and output hypotheses have on second language learning. For decades, there have been opposing ideas in this regard. Several studies were consulted to have a clearer view of which approach is more recommendable for people involved in language teaching. For several years teachers of second language strongly believed that learning a new language depended on the exposition of learners to the target language. For effective learning, the exposition should be higher than the students' level but comprehensible enough for them to understand. However, this hypothesis was rejected when a new study revealed that the exposition was not enough. Students need to use the language they have learnt. These new ideas emerged from the output hypothesis that had a significant impact on the field of language teaching. The article concludes that both approaches can be used complementarily although more study is still needed.
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After discussing the ties between language teaching and second language acquisition research, the present paper reviews the role that second language acquisition research has played on two recent pedagogical proposals. First, communicative language teaching, advocated in the early eighties, in which focus on the code was excluded, and then the more recent research-based proposals of integrating some degree of focus on form in meaning-based curricula. Following Ellis (1998), four macro-options of focus-on-form interventions and their theoretical motivations are presented, followed by recent research evidence: input processing, input enhancement, formfocused output and negative feedback. The last section of the paper deals with two related pedagogical issues: the choice of linguistic forms in focused instruction and its benefits depending on individual factors and the learning context.
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Merrill Swain, who coined the Output Hypothesis, has been one of the important figures in the Second Language Acquisition field. She propounded her theory as complementary to Stephen Krashen’s Input Hypothesis suggesting that learners cannot attain full grammatical competence merely through input processing in a language. The Output Hypothesis has been quite successful in terms of shedding some light on unanswered questions related to output. However, there are still some deficiencies in interpreting what the hypothesis intended to explain. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to critically review the Output Hypothesis by concentrating on the deficiency of an operational definition of comprehensible output, scarcity of output instances and problems arising from forcing learners to produce language.
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Understanding the process of second language learning and teaching in an international class whose students are normally successful 100% is fundamental because generally the instructor is highly qualified and has strong theoretical foundations. Therefore, this article reports an observation of one of English for Tertiary Studies (ETS) classes in a language center of a university in Australia and collates the findings with the theories in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). The class is taught by an Australian native speaker with classroom teacher lecturer/researcher background, with 6 international students coming from neighboring Asian countries. The data was collected through audio and video recording, and note-taking of the interaction, which was further transcribed for analysis. The data presentation and analysis follow second language acquisition theoretical frameworks, including the role and characteristics of input, output, and interactional devices. The findings show that the teacher has a very facilitative role by providing modified input so the students can follow the lessons easily and by applying interactional devices that stimulate learner production or output. Key words: second language, learning, acquisition, input, interaction, output
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The purpose of the interview was to examine the role of input in the second language learning process of an individual through the lens of the Input Hypothesis, popularized by Stephen Krashen during the late 70s and early 80s. (Brown, 2014, p. 288) In this theory he made five claims about the learning process. The study shows that affective factors are a driving force of learning rather than Krashen’s passive condition that is required for a subconscious input process to happen and input is only one of the conditions required for learning. Key Words : Input Hypothesis , Second language learning , output
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The present study investigates the combined effects of different amounts of comprehension-based and form-focused instruction on skill-based proficiency and knowledge of grammatical structures of beginner-level efl students. Specifically, the study addresses the following research questions : 1) Does a basically comprehension-based program of instruction supported by form-focused instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve/develop their listening, reading and writing abilities more than a basically form- focused program of instruction? 2) Does a basically form-focused program of instruction help beginner-level efl learners improve their knowledge of grammatical structures more than a basically comprehension-based program of instruction? One experimental and one control group, each containing 20 lycee prep level Turkish efl students, participated in the study. The subjects in the experimental and control groups were randomly selected from among lycee prep classes in two diffe...
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The importance of target language (TL) data in the learning environment has been increasingly recognized by instructional practitioners. One contributing factor is the surge of instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) research since the 1980s, which has resulted in a variety of input-based insights and approaches. Conceptually, Krashen’s (1982, 1985) Input Hypothesis alludes to the essentialness of making input “comprehensible” enough (i+1). That is, learners’ exposure to input must occur at a level just beyond their current capabilities in order for it to be beneficial for acquisition. Pedagogically, focus on form (FonF) (Long, 1991; Long & Robinson, 1998) techniques such as textual enhancement, input flood, and processing instruction (VanPatten, 1996, 2002, 2004) offer practical means for language instructors to make certain physical or formal features of input more salient to classroom learners within a communicative, meaning-focused context. Such meaning-oriented contexts include, for example, processing input for comprehension as part of a larger pedagogic task. That being the case, the past decade of ISLA research has gradually moved beyond the abovementioned focus on the surface, formal features of input to probe into the more intrinsic attributes of L2 input at the phonological, lexical, grammatical and discourse levels.
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The Output Hypothesis: Theory and Research
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Cites background from "The Output Hypothesis: Theory and R..."
... This ability to talk about language is an important aspect of understanding language and can help development (Swain, 2005). ...
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... …the perception of, and selective attending to, L2 form by facilitating the processes of ‘noticing’ (i.e. paying attention to specific linguistic features of the input) and by ‘noticing the gap’ (i.e. comparing the noticed features with those the learner typically produces in output (Swain 2005)). ...
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The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the correct form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced. The originator of the comprehensible output ...
plicate the significance of the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis to my self-directedlearning, I will concentrate on three issues: (1) comprehensi ble output and negative input; (2) comprehensible output and incomprehen sible output; (3) comprehensible output and comprehensible input. In con
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The comprehensible output theory is closely related to the need hypothesis, which states that we acquire language forms only when we need to communicate or make ourselves understood. [4] If this hypothesis is correct, then language acquirers must be forced to speak. According to Stephen Krashen, the Need Hypothesis is incorrect.
1 Introduction. In the SLA literature, the role of output in language learning process was relatively unexplored at the very beginning (Izumi, 1999, p.46). Input was considered an important factor for language learning and remained a hot-spot of research in the 1980s. Krashen (1985) proposed the Input Hypothesis, claiming that " If input is ...
Abstract. The comprehensible output hypothesis challenged the notion that second language (L2) acquisition occurs solely through comprehensible input, or put differently, through comprehending what is heard and read in the L2. The output hypothesis contends that the process of producing comprehensible output, that is, being pushed to ...
The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the correct form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced. The originator of the CO hypothesis, Merrill ...
Semantic Scholar extracted view of "Comprehensible Output" by S. Krashen. Investigating the impact of Swain's (1985) oral pushed output hypothesis on EFL intermediate students' L2 oral production under a mixed method approach revealed that students can modify more oral output through one-way pushed output activities than two-way activities and equalize their semantic and syntactic competence.
PDF. Tools. Request permission; Export citation; Add to favorites; Track citation; Share Share. Give access. ... (1985) comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis, there is still a severe lack of data showing that learner output or output modifications have any effect on second-language (L2) learning. Izumi and Bigelow (2000, p. 245) argued that ...
Swain's Comprehensible Output Hypothesis (1985) maintains that the development of a learner's communicative competence does not merely depend on comprehensible input: the learner's output has an ...
It pushed the learner to create a modified output, leading to development of his writing skills in second-language acquisition. Keywords: output hypothesis, noticing function, second language, acquisition 1. Introduction In the early 1980s, the dominant hypothesis in the field of second-language acquisition was the input comprehensible hypothesis.
Output Hypothesis： Its History and Its Future. In this interview, Professor Swain discussed the history and future of the Output Hypothesis. First, she explained the context in which she proposed the Output Hypothesis in 1985. Then she stated that the Output Hypothesis proposes producing language (speaking or writing) as a part of the process ...
The significance to language acquisition of pushing for comprehensible output is discussed and Swain's thesis has proved to be of relevance to the writer's experience as a self-directed learner. In the course of his diary study dealing with communication strategies, the writer of this paper has found that the way of acquiring a language is not merely as simple as "understanding the message" as ...
In an essay subsequent to his book, Krashen acknowledges a sixth hypothesis which he calls the compelling input hypothesis ( 2013 ). Simply put, he proposes based on evidence that acquisition of L2 is more successful when the input (reading and listening) is made up of material that the learner finds compelling.
The comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that we acquire language when we attempt to transmit a message but fail and have to try again. Eventually, we arrive at the correct form of our utterance, our conversational partner finally understands, and we acquire the new form we have produced. The originator of the CO hypothesis, Merrill ...
Students need to use the language they have learnt. These new ideas emerged from the output hypothesis that had a significant impact on the field of language teaching. The article concludes that both approaches can be used complementarily although more study is still needed. Keywords: Hypothesis, input, language, learning, output 1.
The constructs of comprehensible input and comprehensible output have been influential in classroom teaching for the past few decades. This chapter provides a picture of these terms critically evaluates their relevance for learning both in and out of the classroom. The chapter focuses on input and output as they relate to the Interaction Approach.
Output also plays a direct role in enhancing fluency by turning declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge (Bot, 2010). 3 The study of output hypothesis theory 3.1 Theoretical research 3.1.1 The relationship between input and output hypothesis Swain's output hypothesis changes people's perception of the role of language output.
The Importance of Output . In Chapter 3, we encountered the Input hypothesis (Reference Krashen Krashen, 1985) and Krashen's claim that exposing learners to language input (i.e. language that they can read/see or hear) was all that was needed for successful language learning. This belief in the absolute sufficiency of language input was challenged by research from immersion classrooms where ...
Merrill Swain. 22 Mar 2005 - pp 495-508. TL;DR: The output hypothesis as discussed by the authors was proposed as an alternative to the product of output as part of the process of learning, and has been widely used in the second-language learning literature. View 20 related papers. Abstract: In the 1980s, the word "output" was used to ...
The Output Hypothesis has been examined broadly in terms of its role in second language acquisition since it was first proposed by Swain. This paper introduces the Output Hypothesis with regard to its basic claims, related research both from home and abroad. Literature will be reviewed from two main dimensions: theoretical discussions and research on teaching practice. This paper will also put ...
comprehensible input really is the only cause factor in second language acquisition. Swain suggested that output was the missing factor and called the concept comprehensible output, which has come to be called the Output Hypothesis. It had been proposed by Swain in 1995 that one possible way to account for the lack of grammatical accuracy was that
In recent years, with the development of the research on the Output Hypothesis, many researchers and ChineseEnglish teachers have paid attention to this hypothesis. Since writing is considered to be a way of output on the fieldof second language acquisition, teachers in college have begun to apply Swain's "Output Hypothesis" to teachingcollege English writing. It does work but still ...