water management in pakistan essay

Essay on “Water Crisis in Pakistan and its Remedies” for CSS, PMS, Judiciary Examinations

• August 30, 2021
• Essay for CSS PMS and Judiciary Exam

This is an essay on “Water Crisis in Pakistan and its Remedies” for CSS, PMS, and Judiciary Examinations. Pakistan’s big arguably, biggest — problem is water scarcity. The country faces acute water scarcity by 2025 and will be the most water-stressed country in South Asia within two decades. Almost 30 million Pakistanis have no access to clean water. Find below the complete Essay on the water crisis in Pakistan and its remedies.

World Bank (WB) and Asian Development Bank (ADB) report

Causes of the water crisis

• No dams construction
• Dispute between the provinces
• Demands of Sindh
• Punjab’s role
• Lack of proper water management
• Climate change
• Mismanagement of resource

Indian propaganda since 1947

• Standstill Agreement
• Role of the president of the World Bank
• Indus Basin Treaty 1960
• Wullar Barrage (The Tulbal Navigation Lock)
• Kishanganga Project
• Baghlihar Dam

Sources of Water

• Indus River
• Closed basin Kharan desert
• Makran coastal basin
• Water reservoirs/ capacities
• Terbela dam reservoir
• Mangla dam reservoir
• Chashma barrage reservoir
• Utilization of water
• Power generation

Water and Agriculture

Impact on Economy

Recommendations for Water Crisis

• Kalabagh dam
• Thal reservoir
• Raised Mangla dam
• Gomalzam dam
• Water management
• Use of alternative sources of energy

Essay on “Water Crisis in Pakistan and its Remedies” for CSS, PMS, Judiciary Examinations

According to the World Bank (WB) and Asian Development Bank (ADB), Pakistan is one of the most “water-stressed” countries in the world; it is likely to face an acute water shortage over the next five years due to lack of water availability for irrigation, industry and human consumption. A WB report states that the water supply in Pakistan has fallen from 5,000 cubic meters per capita to 1,000 cubic meters in 2010, and is likely to further reduce to 800 cubic meters per capita by 2020. Contributory factors consist of an increase in population, climate change, lack of a solid vision to construct water reservoirs, and misplaced use of Jhelum and Chenab rivers by India under the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) of 1960 that has resulted in reduced flow of water to Pakistan.

The water crisis has two dimensions. First is the distribution of water among the four provinces, particularly between Punjab and Sindh. The second is between Pakistan and India arising because of utilizing water from the Chenab and Jhelum rivers. The first problem basically arises from the second one.

India got the right to fully utilize water from the three eastern rivers; Ravi, Bias, and Sutlej, while Pakistan was to utilize water from the three western rivers; Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum under the Indus Water Treaty (IWT). India was also permitted limited irrigation of 1,343 million acres (2.85 MAF) from western rivers. Water for Pakistan was not quantified. However, it is implied in the treaty that India is not to exceed the specified limit for water utilization. If India continues with its current strategy of building dams on the Chenab and Jhelum rivers, then there would be serious implications for Pakistan’s agriculture and national security. It would aggravate the already strained relationship between the two countries, which is due to the unresolved Kashmir issue.

A very strong perception exists in Pakistan that India in its quest to utilize water from Chenab and Jhelum rivers and is not fulfilling its obligations under the IWT. It wants to constrict the flow of water to Pakistan. This strategy has a hidden political agenda to create scarcity of irrigation water that would hurt Pakistan’s economy and agriculture sector in between 10-15 years. The national interests of both countries would be best served if India honored its comn1ittnents under the IWT. But, is India ready to address Pakistan’s concerns or wants to safeguard its own interests by violating the IWT that could lead to worsening of relations between the two countries?

The Water Crisis at the National Level Exists due to the following reasons:

•  In the past, the public leadership did not succeed to develop a consensus on the construction of huge water reservoirs, particularly the Kalabagh dam that could have addressed many of the power and water problems that are being faced today.
• Provinces are in dispute over their respective share of water under the IWT, with particular reference to utilizing water for Kharif and Rabi seasons through link canals managed by the Indus River System Authority (Irsa). Irsa has stopped satisfying Punjab, Sindh, and Balochistan provinces over the distribution of irrigation water for the current Rabi season because of a 34.0 percent shortage of water, primarily due to the construction of the Baglihar dam on Chenab. Water supply would be further constricted because of the planned construction of the Basrur multipower project, Siwalkot dam, and Pakot Dul dam on Chenab river by India. Unless resolved it would continue to be a recurring problem.
• The Sindh Assembly has demanded scrapping the Hydropower project on the Chashma Jhelum link canal, a key project for the Punjab government . There is a strong perception in Sindl1 that the project would constrict the flow of water to the province and hurt its agriculture as well.
• Punjab 1s accused of stealing 16,000 cusecs of water between Taunsa and Guddu, from 2nd to 4th Feb 2010. The Punjab government claims that system losses are to blame for the water that has disappeared.
• Because of an absence of proper water management essentially at the secondary canal level, water crisis, particularly at the lower parts of these canals, is very evident. Coupled with flood irrigation, either irrigation by flooding basins or using the old Punchoo system, the water crisis keeps on increasing its intensity day by day. IRSA has no telemetry system and we cannot decide to distribute water by going beyond letter sense and include the spirit of the Water Apportionment Accord of 1991, we do not see an end to this water crisis in Pakistan.

As far as the scarcity of water in Pakistan is concerned, apparently, it has also to do with:

1. Climatic changes

2. Negligence and mismanagement of water resources by successive governments in Pakistan

Global warming has led to the melting of the Himalayan glaciers and consequent depletion in the flow of water into the Indus River system. The trend is likely to continue with rising temperatures. It is not that only the agricultural sector, the backbone of Pakistan’s economy , is suffering; due to depleting water supply, there is reduced power generation from the hydroelectric plants, having a devastating impact on the country’s industries too. Pakistan has no control over nature. However, it can improve the management of water resources. Pakistan needs to address the following problems on an urgent basis:

• The silting of dams and barrages is a continuous process. Due to heavy sediments carried by the rivers, Tarbela, Mangla and Chasma Dams have lost nearly 25% of their capacity.
• An estimated 40% of the water that runs through canals is lost because of seepage. The reason is the canal beds and banks are unlined, poorly lined, or porous.
• Traditional and antiquated agricultural techniques lead to excessive loss of water.
• While water-intensive varieties of crops, like sugarcane and rice, are cultivated. Optimum crop rotation is imperative but is not done effectively.

On 2 June 2008, Pakistan’s National Economic Council met under the Chairmanship of Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani and approved the development strategy based on the Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10. The water sector part of the overall strategy concentrates on water augmentation, water conservation, and effective use of water. It calls for the development of additional medium and large-size reservoirs with priority.

The water storages to be completed, by 2016 include Akhori Dam, Basha-Diamer Dam, Kalabagh Dam, and Munda Dam. Simultaneously the ongoing projects such as raising the structures of Mangla Dam, Gomal Dam, Satpra Dam, Kurram Tangi Dam, and Sabakzai Dam are also to be the top priority. The Medium-Term Development Framework 2005-10 also envisages a number of other measures, including reclamation of land from waterlogging and salinity, improvement of watercourses and ground-water management, etc.

Last year, 20 different UN bodies had warned; “Water is linked to the crisis of climate change, energy and food supplies and prices, and troubled financial markets. Unless their links with water are addressed and water crises around the world are resolved, these other crises may intensify and local water crises may worsen, converging into a global water crisis and leading to political insecurity and conflict at various levels”.

In a recent report, the United Nations has estimated that Pakistan’s water supply has dropped from about 5,000 cubic meters per person in the 1950s to about 1,420 cubic meters. Any further drop would seriously jeopardize economic growth and would be a health hazard. Notwithstanding Indus Basin Treaty, The need for effective international cooperation among riparian countries is greater now than ever before. The demand for water in all countries is escalating and increasingly the harmful effects of activities in upstream countries are being observed. Over a third of the 200 international river basins, are not covered, by an international agreement; only some 30, including Pakistan and India, have co-operative institutional arrangements.

Clearly, efforts are needed to formulate and reach an agreement on an international “code of conduct” or convention in the utilization of shared water basins so that the water needs of some countries are not undermined by irresponsible utilization of water resources by others. Improved international co-operation is also necessary regarding the transfer of knowledge and technology in the water resources field. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 1998, sets the standard for all agreements involving the shared use of trans boundary water, resources.

It specifically establishes the dual criteria of “equitable and reasonable utilization”‘ of the water resources and the need to “exchange data and consult on the possible effects of planned measures on the condition” of the water resource. The U.N. Convention provides the overall framework for Transboundary water sharing.

The partition of the South Asian Subcontinent on 14 August 1947 into the dominions of India and Pakistan gave birth to a host of problems, including that of the sharing of waters of the mighty Indus River System. The issue was of concern to Pakistan because the headworks of the rivers that irrigated Pakistan’s Punjab province mostly went to the Indian side. On 30 December 1947, Pakistan and India concluded a ‘Standstill Agreement’ for a three-month period under which Pakistan continued to receive water supply from the headworks of Madhopur on River Ravi and Ferozepur on River Sutlej, the two tributaries of River Indus. As the interim arrangement ended on 31 March 1948, the next day the Government of Indian Punjab stopped the supply of water to Pakistan from the Madhopur headwork, affecting, according to one estimate, 5.5% of Pakistan’s irrigated area.

Pakistan raised the issue at the Inter-Dominion Conference held on 3-4 May 1948. India dismissed Pakistan’s claim over water, from the headworks on its side as a matter of right but agreed to release water as a provisional arrangement. It was thus abundantly clear that slowly and gradually the quantity of water would be reduced. In 1951, David Lilienthal, who had formerly served as Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority and as Chairman of the US Atomic Energy Commission, undertook a research tour of Pakistan and India for writing a series of articles. In one of his articles, he opined that it would be very beneficial for the region if the two countries cooperated to jointly develop and operate the Indus Basin river system. He further suggested that the World Bank might play its role in bringing India and Pakistan to agree on some plan to develop the Indus river system for mutual benefit.

President of the World Bank, Eugene Black, picked up the idea and offered his good offices to resolve the issue of water sharing between India and Pakistan. The two neighbors welcomed the initiative and after tough bargaining during the protracted negotiations that spread, over nine years arrived at the contours of the agreement. Broad parameters thus settled the work of drafting began. Finally, m September 1960, President of Pakistan Field Marshall Mohammad Ayub Khan and Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in Karachi.

Following are the provisions of the Indus Basin Treaty 1960

• Pakistan surrendered three eastern rivers, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas to India with some minor rights to Pakistan.
• Largely three western rivers namely Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab remained with Pakistan.
• India was allowed to use water from the western rivers for irrigation of 642,000 acres of land that were already being irrigated from these rivers along with an entitlement to further irrigate 701,000 acres for crops.
• India was also given specified entitlement for ‘other’ storage, including, power and flood storage i.e., storage for non-consumptive purposes.
• Pakistan was to meet the requirements of its eastern river canals from the western rivers by constructing replacement works.
• Both parties are bound to. regularly exchange flow data of rivers, canals, and streams.
• A Permanent Indus Water Commission, with one Commissioner from each side, was to be set up to resolve issues.
• The procedures were set out for settlement of ‘questions’ ‘differences’ and ‘disputes’, bilaterally and through neutral experts and International Court of Arbitration as the case might be.

Since Pakistan required considerable time to build the necessary infrastructure to divert water from western rivers to eastern rivers and their canals on its side, India was to allow the ‘historic withdrawals’ on the part of Pakistan during the transitory period. According to the Treaty, two dams (Mangla on River Jhelum and Tarbela on River Indus) were to be built It also envisaged five barrages Maraia and Qadirabad on River Chenab, Sidhnai on River Ravi, Rasul on River Jhelum, Chashma on River Indus, and Mailsi on River Sutlej. Besides, one siphon and seven link canals (Rasul-Qadirabad on Rivers Jhelum-Chenab, Qadirabad-Balloki on Rivers Chenab-Ravi, Balloki-Suleimanki II and Sidhnai-Mailsi on Rivers Ravi-Sutlej, Chashma-Jhelum on Rivers Indus-Jhelum and Trimmu-Sidhnai on Rivers Indus-Ravi), to be constructed in Pakistan.

To meet the financial cost, India was to pay a fixed amount of US $ 62.060 million over a period of ten years. An international consortium pledged the US $ 900 million. The World Bank was to administer the Indus Basin, Development Fund. The Indus Basin Project was completed despite all hurdles those included opposition and reservations from many quarters in Pakistan who felt that Pakistan’s rights as a lower riparian state had been compromised. This amounted to a successful resolution of a major dispute over the world’s largest, contiguous irrigation system with a command area of about 20 million hectares.

Although the Indus Water Treaty has been a remarkable success story, lately some projects are undertaken by India in the Occupied territory of Jammu and Kashmir from where the western rivers flow into Pakistan have become major irritants and raised serious concerns in Pakistan:

India has embarked upon the construction of a huge network of water storage facilities, the national river linking project at an estimated cost of $120 bn likely to be completed by 2016. It includes the construction of the Basrur multi-power project, Siwalkot dam, and Pakot Dul dam on Chenab, in addition to the already constructed Baglihar dam. In 1985, India started construction of a barrage known as ‘Wullar Barrage (The Tulbal Navigation Lock)’ some 439 feet long and with a lock at the mouth of Wullar Lake, the largest freshwater Lake in Indian occupied, disputed, and held territory.

Purportedly but not so innocently, the stated purpose of the barrage was to make possible navigation in a 22 km stretch between the towns of Sopore and Baramula, during the lean winter season by regulating the flow of the River Jhelum. Pakistan raised objections to this project and the construction work halted in 1987. Pakistan contends that India cannot store water in excess of 0.01 MAF as ‘incidental storage’ on River Jhelum. Pakistan also apprehends that the Wullar Barrage may cause damage to its own project of linking Jhelum and Chenab with the Upper Bari Doab Canal. One important concern of Pakistan, which is extraneous to the Indus Water Treaty but squarely a security issue, is that in case of war between the two countries, India would take advantage of its ability to control the flow of water and make the crossing of the river easy or difficult according to strategic and tactical military requirement.

India, as usual, but erroneously contends that the Wullar Barrage would regulate the flow of water into Jhelum and control the floods. It would not reduce the overall quantum of water flow rather increase it during the lean winter season. All fair weather pretension and an obvious ruse, to get away with an extremely hurtful project to Pakistan. The project’s impact, India asserts, would be beneficial to Mangla Dam in power generation and to Pakistan’s triple canal system due to the regulated flow of water. The matter remains unresolved.

Outrageously on the Kishanganga Project, the Indians hawk on the premise that it will ostensibly bring water from River Kishanganga to Wullar Lake, where a hydroelectric power station is proposed. The project envisages the construction of a channel and a tunnel for this purpose. Simultaneously to build a dam, near the place where River Kishanganga crosses the Line of Control to enter Pakistan-administered Kashmir, where it is known as Neelum.

Here Pakistan plans to construct a 969 MW-capacity Neelum-Jhelum Power Plant with Chinese assistance. The Pakistani project is to going to be completed in 2017, due to a delay in construction work. Pakistan is genuinely concerned and fears that the Kishanganga Project would lead to a shortfall of water flow into Neelum, reducing its power generation by an estimated 9%. The Indus Water Treaty does not bar any party from storing water for power generation as per entitlement.

However, there is the principle of prior appropriation enshrined in the Treaty. India intends to complete the Kishanganga Project by 2016 to avail the opportunity of diverting K.ishanganga’a water to Wullar Lake before Pakistan is able to invoke the provision of prior appropriation. India also claims that Pakistan need not worry because the water diverted by the l<ishanganga Project would reach Pakistan through River Jhelum, no matter Neelum-Jhelum project suffers.

In 1999, India began construction work of 470-feet high, 317 meters wide Baghlihar Dam, also known as Baghlihar Hydroelectric Power Project, oh River Chenab in Doda District of Indian occupied Kashmir. Although India called it a run-of-the-river project, the dam was to have a ‘pond age’ of 15 million cubics! Deters with submerged gated spillways.

Pakistan raised objection to the project design on the ground that the submerged gate ‘spillways would enable India to increase the storage capacity of the reservoir and, if India desired, to halt the supply of water to Pakistan for more than three weeks during the winter season. Pakistan fears that it would lose between 7000 to 8000 cusecs of water per day for Rabi crops. Pakistan also sensed the danger of inundation of the area above Maraia Head Works, if India released water simultaneously from Dulhasti, Baghlihar, and Sala! Darns into River Chenab. Pakistan viewed the Baghlihar Project as another security risk, in times of tension or war, as India would be able to control the flow of water facilitating or hampering the movement of Indian/Pakistani troops according to its requirement.

After the Indus Water Commission failed to resolve the Baghlihar Dam issue, the matter was referred to the World Bank which acknowledged that the issue amounted to a ‘difference’ and appointed Professor Raymond Lafitte, an engineer from Switzerland, as the neutral expert to decide the matter. On 12 February 2007, Lafitte gave his verdict directing India to reduce the capacity of pond age by 13.5% and the height of the Dams’ structure by 1.5 meters. He also called for raising power intake tunnels by 3 meters to reduce flow-control capability. Pakistan had reservations about the verdict but both India and Pakistan agreed to abide by it. The matter, it appears, stands closed.

It is heartening to see that during its recent visit to Pakistan to discuss Indus Water issues, the Indian delegation conceded that all “water disputes must be resolved within an agreed timeframe.” Pakistan’s Indus Commissioner Syed Jamaal Ali Shah told the Indian delegation that a reduction in supplies was jeopardizing the water transfer operation to the eastern part of Pakistan. He also conveyed the message that Pakistan wanted India to take necessary steps if deforestation and environmental impact affected the river flow on its side.

Now dams will be Discussed in detail.

World’s largest earth and rock-filled dam were built at Terbela on river Indus in 1976 with a gross capacity of 11.62 maf and a live storage capacity of 9.68 maf. With the passage of time, due to silting, 24.6% of the storage has been lost and now it has a live storage of 7.295 maf.

Mangla reservoir is the second major storage of Pakistan. It was built in 1967 on river Jhelum with a gross capacity of 5.882 maf and live storage of 5.41 maf. Again due to siltation it has lost 13.2% of its storage and presently can store 4.636 MAF of water.

Chashma barrage is situated on river Indus and was built in 1972 with a gross storage of0.870 maf and live storage of O.717 maf. It has also reduced its storage capacity by 39.3% and is left with a storage capacity of0.435 maf.

In Pakistan, we utilize the water available to us for different purposes. The basic utilization is for irrigation and then used for power generation, drinking, and also provided to some Industries.

Whereas impact on the economy is concerned, according to the estimates of the federal government, the agriculture sector would suffer a loss of about Rs. 90 billion because of drought. Since agriculture has remained a major source of shouldering the already crippled economy , it has a vital role to play particularly in terms of food security and employment of the ever-burgeoning population of the country. It contributes around 35 % to the GNP and employs about 44% of the labor force. It also contributes 65% of our export earnings. The adverse effects of water shortage on agriculture would have a spiraling effect on the prevailing level of poverty.

•  Less water means less agricultural yields and to fulfill the food requirements of the nation, we will be dependent on other countries.
• Raising livestock is the main source of livelihood in rural areas. It is also an important economic activity, which contributes 9.7% of GDP, which will be affected due to a shortage of water.
• Orchards of Pakistan bring home a healthy amount of foreign exchange, which can be affected due to water shortage.
• Due to less production of main crops, which are wheat, cotton, sugar cane, and rice, the Industries related to them will suffer adversely.
• Then due to drought and more dependency on groundwater for irrigation, the water table will go down, and this will cause water constraints to the population.
• Less agricultural outputs will compel people to head towards urban areas for jobs, which will increase unemployment further.
• The distribution of water is controlled from the center by IRSA (Indus river system authority) as per the 1991 agreement between the provinces. Now the shortage of water will cause disputes between the provinces, which may cause harm to the national integrity.

So for overcoming the water crisis, following steps are recommended:

The national water strategy must be based upon two essential elements covering

1. Water developments

2. Water management

In water development, the following dams should start immediately;-

Bhasha dam would be located 200 miles upstream of Terbela on river Indus. its gross storage capacity would be 7.3 maf and live storage 5.7 maf. Its power generation capacity would be 3360 mw.

Kalabagh dam site is located 132 miles downstream of Terbela. Its gross storage would be 6.1 maf. It would have a power generation of 3600 mw.

That reservoir would be located on the right bank of Chashma – Jhelum link canal, along the western bank of river Jhelum. Its reservoir would have a gross capacity of 2.3 maf.

In this, the present Mangla dam would be further raised by 40 ft and thus increasing its gross capacity to 9.5 maf. In addition, its power generation capacity would be increased by 15%.

Mirani dam is located on Dasht River about 48 km of Turbat town in Mekran division. Its main objective is to provide water for irrigation. Its gross storage is 0.30 maf.

Gomalzam dam is located at Khajori Kach on Gomal River in South Waziristan, about 75 miles from Dera Ismail Khan. Its main objective will be to irrigate 132000 acres of land, power generation of 17.4 mw, and flood control.

From these projects, we shall be able to store an additional 20maf of water. Managing water resources is the need of time, and we in Pakistan are already short of water, mnst chalk out a strategy. Following are recommended in this regard:-

Presently the losses occur due to seepage, infiltration, and leakages, etc. seepage results in waterlogging, and these losses can be reduced or eliminated by lining the canals.

In addition, people should be educated to conserve water by cooperation”: Furthermore government should make laws on water conservation, like many western countries.

The second-largest contribution to the total water available comes from groundwater sources. This source has been exploited and very well used by public and private tube wells. It can still provide over nine maf of water. This source can be exploited and judiciously used for irrigation purposes. However in some areas, groundwater is rapidly depleting due to excessive pumpage, authorities should take control in such areas to save them from depleting.

Efforts would be made to convert the present rotation-based irrigation system to a demand-oriented system. The modem irrigation techniques, that is trickling, sprinkling, etc, have the potential to improve water distribution and its utilization.

Authorities should take appropriate steps to curb the illegal extraction of water and ensure its equitable distribution.

Presently irrigation department has failed to stop the illegal theft and extraction; thus irrigation distribution system needs to be privatized through·water user associations.

In addition, water, nowadays is supplied to farmers at a very negligible cost and that is why they do not treat water as a precious resource; therefore there is a need to increase the water prices to make irrigators realize the importance of this asset.

Farmer’s organizations, water user associations, and the private sector must be involved in the construction, operation, and maintenance of i.e irrigation system. Such associations are conceived as a mechanism for creating a cooperative framework for the improvement of watercourses.

The problems faced by the water sector in the country are many, acute and serious and it is also known that we can generate about 83 maf of more water. Therefore, building more reservoirs and an effective management strategy are the needs of the time. Also, implementation of the recommendations will enable the country to ·meet the challenges, and achieve the objectives of integrated, efficient, environmentally and financially sustainable development and management of limited water resources. At the same time, it will enable us to utilize every drop of our water for our bright future.

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Water Management in Pakistan: Challenges and Way Forward

• First Online: 29 February 2024

Cite this chapter

• Muhammad Nawaz Khan 6 &
• Adeel Mukhtar 7  

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Water management is the biggest challenge of twenty-first century being confronted by Pakistan due to inadequate water management practices, insufficient storage capacity, irrigation inefficiency, population explosion, over-exploited ground water, climate-induced water stress, and India’s water hegemony as upper riparian. Continuing mismanagement of water resources is resulting in increasing water insecurity in the country. Pakistan is already a water stressed country which has not optimally managed its available water potential through adroit water conservation and storage strategies. The country would not be water secure until it implements stringent water management measures in addition to building dams. In this context, the study endeavours to answer the question as to why adequate water management practices are essential for the future water security of Pakistan as well as its socio-economic development. The study also highlights challenges faced by the water sector in the country and concludes with the doable policy recommendations.

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The inter-annual variability indicator, defined by the Water Resource Institute as the standard deviation of annual total water divided by the mean of annual total water from 1950 to 2010, is calculated as follows: 0 represents the least variability, while 5 represents the most variability; the range for this metric is 0–5. This is much higher than China’s index of 1.97, India’s index of 1.72, Sri Lanka’s index of 1.59, and Bangladesh’s index of 1.59 (0.07).

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Nawaz Khan, M., Mukhtar, A. (2024). Water Management in Pakistan: Challenges and Way Forward. In: Behnassi, M., Al-Shaikh, A.A., Gurib-Fakim, A., Barjees Baig, M., Bahir, M. (eds) The Water, Climate, and Food Nexus. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50962-9_19

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Original research article, pakistan’s water resource management: ensuring water security for sustainable development.

• 1 Director Area Study Centre (China), NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan
• 2 HoD Media and Communication Studies, NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan
• 3 Department of International Relations, NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan

Pakistan is blessed with abundant water resources but facing a critical water shortage due to a lack of storage facilities, poor water governance, and the adverse impacts of climate change. The burgeoning population at present 225 million, which is expected to cross 250 million by 2025 is creating an additional burden on water resources, as per capita availability is depleting sharply from 5,000 m3 in 1951 to 1,100 m3 in 2005, which is expected to fall to 800 m3 by 2025. Pakistan’s water demand is increasing at an average yearly rate of 10% which in terms of the area will increase to 338 km3 by 2025, against the availability of 240–258 km3. Out of the available surface water, approximately 74% is extracted, while 83% of the groundwater is used for agricultural and other uses, which is an exceptionally high ratio for a water-scarce country like Pakistan. The adverse impacts of climate change are also causing extreme weather conditions, resulting in drought and floods almost every year. Inadequate water reservoirs, water wastage in agriculture and households, negligible wastewater recycling, and contamination of drinking water are causing health risks that have turned serious national security challenges for Pakistan. This research article argues that surface and subsurface water in Pakistan is depleting sharply, and if not addressed in time, has the potential of becoming the biggest national security problem. The article investigates the available water status in Pakistan covering surface and subsurface resources in detail, including reservoirs for storage, and sectoral utilization, to draw conclusions on water availability and usage requirement. The policy recommendations highlight the effective integration of smart technology in addressing multidimensional water issues and efficient water governance for ensuring water security for the sustainable development of Pakistan.

1 Introduction

Pakistan is the world’s fifth most populous country with an estimated population of 225 million and an average growth rate of 1.75% every year ( World Bank, 2022b ), it is 33rd country by area with 650 miles of coastline along the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea and 340,590 square miles land area ( UN, 2022 ). The geography, topography, and climate of Pakistan are diverse ranging from the high and glaciated mountains of Hindukush, Himalayan to the plains and deserts of Punjab and Sindh, mountain and semi-mountains of Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) provinces. Starting from the north, Pakistan has three distinct geographical zones: The Northern highland containing Kashmir and Gilgit -Baltistan regions. The northern regions have famous ranges of Hindukush, Karakoram, and the Pamir Mountains, where K2 and Nanga Parabt are also located. The Indus plain contains tributaries of the Indus River starting from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea. Baluchistan Plateau is in the west and the Thar Desert lies in the east of the country, which is contiguous to the Cholistan Desert of Punjab Province and the Rajasthan Desert of India. Pakistan is blessed with all four seasons, where climate varies from tropical to temperate and arid conditions in the coastal South. The northern and glaciated regions receive extreme cold and snowfall during winters, while the monsoon season is from July to September every year in the rest of the country, with some variations in the plains of Punjab and Sindh. Two extreme conditions of drought and flood are also common occurrences witnessed in a year as seen in the ongoing year 2022. Indus River System (IRS) is the major source of water supply for Pakistan ( Pappas, 2011 ). However, the increase in demand for water due to increasing population, agriculture, and other household requirements has pushed Pakistan towards water scarcity ( Khalid, 2017 ). There is also an asymmetry in the availability of water for drinking, irrigation, and other usages ( Taimur, 2022 ). Pakistan is fortunate to be geographically located in rain favourable areas and varied temperature zones, ranging from four different climates to receiving rainfall throughout the year. As per the World Bank survey, Pakistan receives an average of 200 mm of rainfall from July to September ( World Bank, 2021 ). Unfortunately, most of the rainwater ends up in the Arabian Sea, due to flooding and improper water storage and drainage channels ( Briscoe et al., 2005 ). The research article has been developed considering the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on the provision of fresh drinking water across Pakistan, water storage, management, judicious distribution, and use of technology for recycling wastewater. As a policy input to the relevant government ministries in Pakistan, this research article provides a comprehensive set of recommendations to achieve SDGs by 2030.

2 Literature review

For a comprehensive literature review, the dimensions as shown in Figure 1 have been discussed in this part.

FIGURE 1 . Literature review dimensions.

2.1 Pakistan’s population and water requirements

Water being a necessity for life has always been a source of the establishment of great civilizations as can be witnessed since the dawn of civilization, e.g., by observing the ancient Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilizations in the Middle East and the Indus Civilization in South Asia (Water From the Dawn of Civilization | Earth Sciences—UNESCO Multimedia Archives, n.d.). The water demand has been exponentially increasing with the increase in the global population. Approximately six times more water is needed worldwide due to the increasing world population as compared to the last century ( Tehsin et al., 2019 ). Water availability has been gradually strained due to increasing demand and consumption of natural resources coupled with water mismanagement, particularly in the case of developing nations, where Pakistan is no exception. Pakistan has the Indus River System (IRS) as the principal source for irrigation that ‘irrigates 80 percent of the 21.5 million hectors of agricultural land in Pakistan ( Ministry of Finance, 2007 ) Pakistan Economic Survey 2006–07 Chapter 16 Environment. PDF, n.d.). Being the only major river system coupled with increasing population and decreasing snowfall over the Himalayas and Karakorum Mountain ranges puts increasing stress on the surface water resources in Pakistan. Underground water sources are also depleting at a fast pace due to unusually high withdrawals. The alarming decline in per capita availability of freshwater resources, i.e., from 5,300 cubic meters (m 3 ) at the time of inception of Pakistan in 1947 to about 1,000 cubic meters (m 3 ) in 2011 indicates many challenges, most significant one are the water resources management in Pakistan ( World Bank, 2013 ). Pakistan is blessed with a unique mix of water resources in the form of glaciated mountains, the Indus Basin River Water System (IRS), and a network of canals and distributaries. However, with the rising population, lack of appropriate water resource management, and water distribution, and less emphasis to sensitize the public on water discipline, Pakistan is fast transiting from a water-stressed to a water-scarce country. It is highlighted that Pakistan is the fifth populous country in the world with an annual increase rate of 1.75%. At present, the population of Pakistan is estimated at approximately 225 million, which is likely to reach 250 million by 2025 ( Yaqoob et al., 2021 ), where urban population alone is likely to increase by 52% by 2025 ( Janjua et al., 2021 ). Due to this exponential increase in population, the water demand for agriculture and non-agriculture usage like; industrial and domestic will also increase by 8% in 2025 ( Parry, 2016 ). It has been revealed through a literature review that in 1951, Pakistan had a per capita water availability of 5,000 m 3 , which fell to 1,100 m 3 in 2005, and by 2025, it is expected to fall to 800 m 3 ( Qureshi and Ashraf, 2019 ). The UN estimates that Pakistan’s water demand is increasing at an average yearly rate of 10% ( Connor, 2015 ), which means that the water demand in terms of the area will increase to 338 km 3 by 2025, but the total water availability will remain in the same range from 240 to 258 km 3 ( Shaheen, 2010 ). Out of the available surface water, approximately 74% is extracted, while 83% of the groundwater is extracted for agricultural and other uses, which is an exceptionally high ratio for a water-scarce country like Pakistan ( Laghari et al., 2012 ). The inadequate water resources management system is causing a demand and supply gap in the judicious utilization of available water due to the increase in population, and wastage of surface and groundwater. Water scarcity is emerging as a serious national security challenge for Pakistan. Apart from water-related disputes with India ( Riaz et al., 2020 ), it is also causing inter-provincial disharmony and societal conflicts ( Bhatti et al., 2019 ).

2.2 Water resources of Pakistan

Pakistan’s water resources, like most of the South Asian nations, comprise surface water sources i.e., rivers, lakes, coastal basins, large and small water reservoirs, and underground water resources. Primary sources include rainfalls and falls leading to the formation of glaciers. Pakistan has 143 large and small water storage reservoirs, among which the Tarbela, Mangla, and Chashma are major ones with a collective storage capacity of 18.92 Million Acre Feet (MAF) ( Tehsin et al., 2019 ). Over some time, a serious decline in the existing water resources of Pakistan has been witnessed, which can be attributed to several factors. The increased demand for freshwater supply can be related to the increasing population. The population growth has resulted in rendering more than 12% population without fresh drinking water as per the Human Development Report 2001 of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) ( UNDP and United Nations, 2001 ). Furthermore, a reduction in average annual rainfall has also contributed to stress on water resources due to less recharge on yearly basis ( Naheed and Rasul, 2010 ). The phenomena of global warming have also affected Pakistan, with rising temperatures every year ( Chaudhry et al., 2009 ), which results in the melting of glaciers at a rapid pace. The unregulated use of tubewells has also contributed to the water scarcity and depletion of subsurface water sources ( Tehsin et al., 2019 ).

2.3 Water resources management in Pakistan

The institutional arrangements to manage and regulate the water resources in Pakistan are devolved to the provincial and further to the local governments since 2001 ( Cooper, 2018 ). Some of the key challenges in water management in Pakistan emanate from the unequal per capita water consumption in urban and rural areas. Water supply and sanitation are underinvested by the public sector (Water and Sanitation, n.d.). In April 2018, the Ministry of Water Resources published the National Water Policy to address the water resources management issues prevailing in Pakistan and projected the key targets to be achieved by 2030. It emphasized more sustainable utilization of water resources and proposed the concept of “producing more crop per drop” ( National Water Policy of Pakistan, 2018 ). Water expert and former diplomat Shafqat Kakakhel contends that Pakistan’s new National Water Policy, despite significant gaps, represents a breakthrough moment ( Opinion: Pakistan’s new National Water Policy is historic, 2018 ). The water resource distribution between Pakistan and India is also managed through a bilateral water distribution accord called the “Indus Water Treaty (IWT)”. The details are covered in the relevant part on water resources and distribution in subsequent paragraphs. The summary of literature review is given at Table 1 .

TABLE 1 . Summary of literature review.

3 Data and methodology

The study has been completed over the last 7 months covering a wide-ranging examination of Pakistan’s topography, from the northern Himalayan areas of Gilgit and Skardu to the plains and deserts of Punjab and Sindh. The framework of Data and Methodology is given in Figure 2 below, which is explained in detail in the ensuing paragraphs.

FIGURE 2 . Framework of data and methodology.

3.1 Methodology of systematic literature review (SLR)

This SLR methodology is designed to systematically review the required literature to draw relevant conclusions from available data. More specifically, SLR helps to review the climate and water governance-related literature for the classification of key governance elements; enabling dynamics; significant gaps and challenges; and possibly an effective governance approach for the management of water resources of Pakistan. SLR is a preferred mode for researchers in reviewing various attributes of water governance and management. Based on the SLR strategies devised by prominent researchers, a five-step approach has been observed for undertaking the SLR, which broadly covers; scoping, planning for SLR, searching, screening, and presenting a literature review. The Systematic Literature Review (SLR) Methodology was adopted for the critical examination of available literature on Pakistan’s water resources, utilization, and constraints. The excerpts of literature have been incorporated in Literature Review part above, however, details of the SLR methodology are given in Figure 3 below.

FIGURE 3 . Process of systematic literature review (SLR).

3.2 Implications drawn from literature review

The available literature mostly focuses on Pakistan’s available water resources, distribution among the provinces and sectors of water utilization, that too in a compartmented fashion. Therefore, the current study has been designed in a way to cover the holistic investigation of water management in Pakistan which should take into account all forms of surface and sub surface water, its recharging, storage, distribution, and future vision for achieving water related SDGs by 2030. The implications of climate changes on water management in Pakistan have also been examined in detail and relevant conclusions have been incorporated in the policy recommendations.

3.3 Model setting

Pakistan’s available water resources, population, and water requirement for human consumption, agriculture, and non-agriculture consumption have been analyzed using primary data available from the Ministry of Energy Pakistan, Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA), Indus River System Authority (IRSA), field visits to major dams of Mangla, Tarbela and Chashma, and review of different studies and findings conducted by national and international organizations on Pakistan. For the tangible outcome of the study, a comprehensive approach was adopted covering all regions of Pakistan for examination of the water situation. All headworks and barrages were physically visited for analyzing the water governance issues. Interviews were also conducted with regulatory staff, who agreed to respond based on anonymity and incorporating their views in the study without referring to them. Their privacy request has been given value and nowhere any identity to this effect has been divulged. Figure 4 below shows the area of field visits for examining the water situation. From the northern glaciated region of Skardu along the Indus River, the field visits followed the systematic route stretching from north to south of Pakistan, passing over the entire Indus Basin Delta and Indus River System, which provided a unique mix of natural resources, the climax of engineering expertise and colossal irrigation system in the form of canals and link canals for proportionate distribution of water to the entire country. The manifestation and implications of the Indus Water Treaty on water sharing between India and Pakistan since its implementation in the last 50 years have also been examined in detail. The inter-provincial water-sharing arrangements have been analyzed with their implications on national security. Pakistan’s water management policy documents have been examined and referred to in the relevant parts of the study. In the last part, viable recommendations have been offered as policy input for relevant government ministries for optimization and conservation of available water resources, developing national consensus on the construction of additional water reservoirs for sustainable development of Pakistan and achieving water-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by 2030.

FIGURE 4 . Field visits to the indus basin area.

3.4 Data analysis

The study focuses on ensuring efficient water governance for sustainable development of Pakistan, therefore, the data collected from literature review, field visits, interviews and on-sight briefings have been analyzed using qualitative and quantitative research methods. The findings have been explained in results and discussion part, while policy recommendations have been proffered in the last part of the study.

4 Empirical results and discussion

4.1 pakistan’s water demand and availability.

Water remains one of the critical issues in Pakistan since the time of its inception in 1947. Water is a main source of sustenance not only for humans but plants and animals as well around the globe. Pakistan remains scarce in terms of clean drinkable water availability to the masses. Indus River System (IRS) is the major source of water for the people and agriculture in Pakistan ( Pappas, 2011 ). The population of Pakistan is increasing at a rapid pace due to which the average daily demand for water is also increasing, while availability is declining sharply. Another important aspect is that Pakistan is an agrarian country, where due to inadequate alternate sources of agricultural water, more than 95% of the surface and sub-surface water is consumed by agriculture and livestock sectors ( Khalid, 2017 ). Pakistan is ranked 80 ( Mehmood et al., 2013 ) among 122 nations in the world regarding drinkable water ( Azizullah et al., 2011 ). Figure 5 below shows the graphical representation of water supply and demand status in Pakistan by 2025.

FIGURE 5 . Pakistan’s water availability and demand by 2025.

Pakistan is an underdeveloped country due to which it faces issues in many domains, where water scarcity has emerged as the most pressing national security issue. Pakistan not only faces a water shortage but also lags in clean drinkable water for the population. The construction of water reservoirs for storing and then systematically distributing water remains lopsided, despite the growing demand. Figure 6 below shows the systematic path towards water scarcity as year on year basis, the gap between water availability, storage, and sectoral consumption is widening and water security is emerging as a vital national security challenge for Pakistan if remedial measures are not initiated now as the time is running out and we are only 3 years away from the water-scarce line.

FIGURE 6 . Water stress level in Pakistan by 2025.

There is also an asymmetry in the availability of water for drinking, irrigation, and other usages ( Taimur, 2022 ). Pakistan receives an average of 200 mm of rainfall from July to September ( World Bank, 2021 ), but most of the rainwater ends up in the sea due to inadequate water storage and drainage channels.

4.2 Pakistan’s water resources and management

4.2.1 the supply source of water resources.

Pakistan’s Northern areas which include the provinces of Gilgit-Baltistan (GB) and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K) are blessed with abundant glaciers with an approximate area of 13,680 sq km, which is approximately 3% of the mountainous region of the upper Indus River Basin ( Ahmed et al., 2007a ). The winter season from October to March every year receives plentiful snowfall which is the main source of icing of the glaciers. The melting process starts in the summer, roughly from late May to August, which feeds adequate water to Indus River Systems (IRS). River Kabul is another source of water to IRS as it enters Pakistan through Unai Pass in Southern Hindukush to the North of Khyber Pass in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) Province at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level.

Rainfall is complimentary to the melting of glaciers in the summer and monsoon seasons of Pakistan, which provide profuse water to IRS. On average, the rainfall is more than 200 mm from July to September each year. More than 70% of the rain is witnessed from the monsoon and the western disturbances. In northern parts of Pakistan, a low-level rain cycle continues at frequent intervals even during winter.

According to the World Bank report, groundwater provides 90% of domestic water in rural areas and 70% at the national level with its share of approximately 50% for agriculture ( World Bank, 2022a ). The main sources of recharging of groundwater are the seepage from IBIS, which sits as a freshwater layer even on saline water in desert regions of Pakistan and is considered the main source of drinking and irrigation. Similarly, rainwater also finds its way through the layers to submerge in groundwater. The percentage-wise sources of groundwater recharge are given in Figure 7 below. Due to the unpredictability of canal water supplies, farmers across Pakistan have resorted to groundwater pumping, which is going on in a highly unregulated manner. The agriculture areas in the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) have installed approximately 500,000 tube wells, which are estimated to pump water of approximately 50 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) ( Ahmed et al., 2007b ), whereas, the groundwater potential in Pakistan is approximately 55 MAF ( Ebrahim, 2018 ). Even in the domestic sector, unmonitored groundwater misuse is on the rise, which is sharply decreasing the most precious commodity of nature.

FIGURE 7 . Groundwater sources in Pakistan (World Bank Report https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/03/25/managing-groundwater-resources-in-pakistan-indus-basin ).

The primary source of surface water in Pakistan is through Indus River System (IRS) which is based on the river inflows and is measured at predesignated rim stations. The rim stations are control measures in the shape of dams, barrages, and other such reservoirs. The significant rim stations on Indus River System are at Mangla and Tarbela Dams, Marala at Chenab River, Marala reservoir at River Jehlum, Sulemanki Headworks at Sutlej River, and Baloki at Ravi River. Figure 8 shows the alignment of different rivers in the Indus River System.

FIGURE 8 . Indus rivers system in Pakistan.

Pakistan’s 70% of the land is drained by the IRS accounting for almost 566,000 km 2, which is spread to all four provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Punjab, Sindh, and Baluchistan originating from Gilgit -Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K) except Kabul River which enters in KPK Province at Khyber Pass ( Winston et al., 2013 ). The stretch of IRS is approximately 2,900 km with an elevation of 18,000 ft from the Himalayas to the lower riparian areas of Sindh Province leading it to the Arabian Sea ( Janjua et al., 2021 ). The IRS is among the leading irrigation system in the world. Around 150,000 km 2 of agricultural land out of 190,000 km 2 is irrigated by the Indus Basin Irrigation System ( Ahmed et al., 2007a ). The IRS contains a network of 16 barrages, three dam, three Headworks, two siphons, 44 canal systems, (23 in Punjab, 14 in Sindh, five in KPK, and two in Balochistan), while 12 link canals and more than 107,000 small water courses ( Hassan and Ahmad Khan, 2002 ).

4.2.2 Water resource management system

The IRS is a lifeline for Pakistan’s survival as majority of the agricultural production is dependent on the river water. The Indus Basin contributes more than 25% of Pakistan’s GDP, as it provides a critical water supply to almost 90% of the food production crops in Pakistan. The Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) of Pakistan is among the world’s leading contiguous irrigation systems, which contains six major rivers which are, the Sutlej, Ravi, Jhelum, Chenab, Indus, and Kabul rivers. The IBIS has an annual flow of 146-million-acre feet (MAF), while 106 MAF of water is diverted to canals. Pakistan receives about 50%–80% of average river flows from glacial melt, while the remaining is from the yearly monsoon rains. The three Western rivers, ie., Indus, Chenab, and Jhelum contain 144.91 MAF of water, and the two Eastern rivers ie., Ravi and Sutlej contain 9.14 MAF of water. From the available water, 104.73 MAF is used for irrigation purposes, 39.4 MAF usually flows to the Arabian sea due to limited storage capacities, and around 9.9 MAF is expended through the system losses like evaporation, seepage, and spill during floods. Figure 9 shows the excellent network of IBIS, which is unique in South Asia and the world at large.

FIGURE 9 . Indus basin irrigation system (IBIS) of Pakistan. Source ministry of planning and development ( Iqbal, 2013 ) https://www.pc.gov.pk/uploads/plans/Ch20-Water1.pdf .

The current water storage capacity is insufficient as the three main reservoirs, i.e., Mangla (1967), Tarbela (1978), and Chashma (1971), have a designed capacity of 15.75 MAF, however, sedimentation has reduced it to 13.1 MAF. Therefore, these reservoirs can hardly store water for 30 days against global standards of at least 120 days. The usual flow to the Arabian Sea during floods has also increased significantly as witnessed during the recent floods of the year 2022, which instead of storing and then reusing at the time of need has been wasted causing enormous men and material losses to the tune of 30 million people affected and financial losses of US$ 30 billion ( Haidar and Dilawar, 2022 ). Moreover, the canals and link canals have an Earth surface which also results in the seepage of a substantial amount of irrigation water. Another important aspect is the traditional approach to farming and the use of irrigation water through flooding instead of using a drip irrigation system. Such a lavish wastage of water has created serious demand and supply gap, and depleted the limited storage capacity, especially during the critical harvesting seasons.

Pakistan is a lower riparian country and all the rivers less than Kabul flow to Pakistan from India. During the early days of partition on 01 April 1948, India stopped the rivers flow to Pakistan, which gave a devastating blow to the agriculture sector and a serious national security issue emerged. After hectic diplomacy by the great powers and the World Bank, Indus Water Treaty (IWT) was formalized on 19 September 1960. According to the treaty, India was granted exclusive rights to two eastern rivers (Beas/Sutlej and Ravi), while Pakistan was given the rights to three Western rivers (Jhelum, Chenab, and Indus) ( Riaz et al., 2020 ). Despite three major wars and two standoffs with India, the IWT has proved its resilience and robustness. This is a highly successful treaty of the South Asian region. Despite some reservations over its interpretation and implementation by way of constructing dams on a run of the rivers flow by India in Indian Occupied Kashmir, it has largely prevailed ( Ishaque and Shaikh, 2017 ). Figure 10 shows the river’s distribution under IWT between India and Pakistan.

FIGURE 10 . Indus water treaty and distribution of rivers between India and Pakistan.

Pakistan has elaborate organizations at the federal and provincial levels for managing water resources as given at Table 2 . The organizational framework, institutional capacity, and bureaucratic mindset have made the horizontal (within institutions) and vertical (among institutions) coordination, synchronization, and execution of work extremely challenging and often fragmented. The institutional responsibilities for climate and water governance are dreadfully demarcated between federal and provincial institutions, and other associated organizations ( Yasin et al., 2021 ). This functional ambiguity often creates overlaps and conflicts of interest. As a result, mistrust prevails among and between the provinces on issues of water governance like; water availability and flows, water allocations, and data sharing.

TABLE 2 . Pakistan’s water resource management organizations

In the recent years, the water availability and quality have become the most critical issues in Pakistan ( Soomro et al., 2011 ). The increasing population, industrialization, and food demand have intensified these problems during the last few decades. The government of Pakistan from time to time has enacted several laws and regulations for the availability, storage, distribution, and use of water. Realizing the impact of climate change, limited storage capacity, and achieving water-related SDGs of provision of safe and clean drinking water to all by 2030, the regulations are in place which have been promulgated with the consensus of all the provinces and economic coordination council (ECC). The details of promulgated laws and regulations for governance of water in Pakistan are highlighted at Table 3 . however, their implementation in the right spirit appears to be a daunting task for federal as well provincial governments.

TABLE 3 . Pakistan’s water resource management laws

4.2.3 Impact of climate change on water sustainability

The United Nations Secretary-General Mr. Antonio Gutters paid an official visit to Pakistan on 9–10 September 2002 to show solidarity to flood victims and assess the devastations through field visits and official briefings. He stated that “nature, has attacked Pakistan, which contributes less than 1% of global emissions” ( Guterres, 2022b ), while facing the consequences of developed countries’ emissions and pollution of climate. He further added that “it was outrageous that action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions was being put on the back burner, today it is Pakistan, and tomorrow, it could be your country” ( Guterres, 2022a ), pointing toward industrialized countries. The Global Climate Index (GCI) 2021 has also vindicated Pakistan’s vulnerabilities to climate risks, where Pakistan stands at number 8 ( Eckstein et al., 2021 ) in the vulnerability Index. The analysis presented highlights the severe impacts of climate change on Pakistan ranging from extreme heat and drought to dreadful floods. Therefore, long-term water sustainability in Pakistan is highly susceptible to changes in weather patterns.

4.2.4 Recycling and management of wastewater

The sustainable use of recycled wastewater for agriculture, washing, cleaning, and other uses less drinking is on the rise in developed countries and developing countries are also catching up. In Pakistan, neither adequate regulations nor any such public-private partnership is in place for the smart use of wastewater. The problems of wastewater disposal tend to stem from distortions due to the failure of environmental policies and the lack of institutional capacity for monitoring and management ( Bashir, 2012 ). The biggest challenge faced by the policymakers is the efficient use of technology and the realization for the masses to recycle wastewater. The rural population is disconnected from mainstream national policies and international good practices, and hardly any mechanism exists to address this vital issue at the national and provincial levels. Therefore, as Pakistan approaches the water scarcity line in the next 3 years, the situation will be further exacerbated and complicated.

4.2.5 Water scarcity an evolving national security challenge

According to Rao Irshad Ali Khan, Chairman Indus Water River Authority (IRSA), the water availability in Pakistan has declined tremendously since 1947 ( Islam, 2011 ). At the time of independence, the per capita water availability was 5,600 cubic meters. This percentage has decreased from over 5,260 cubic meters in 1951 to 1,038 cubic meters in 2010. If the same situation continues, then by 2022, the water availability in Pakistan will further decrease to 877 cubic meters per annum and by 2025 to 660 cubic meters, and by 2050 it will touch 575 cubic feet ( Daud et al., 2017 ).

Another important factor is the availability of river water, viz a viz the requirement of sub-surface water to meet human consumption and agriculture needs. However, these wells due to the improper level of maintenance get dried up and people in rural area start looking for alternative sources which in most cases is full of health hazards. Rural areas lack proper infrastructure due to which there are no proper water storage areas for storing rainwater, resulting in flooding and wastage of rainwater.

5 Policy recommendations

5.1 proposed policy framework.

After critically examining Pakistan’s available water resources, storage, distribution, governance and management, promulgation of laws and regulations, and future water demand and supply gap, certain recommendations are offered, which shall provide the policy input for Pakistan’s relevant ministries and organizations. The thrust lines of the proposed framework given in Figure 11 involve strong policy implementations for efficient water governance, to achieve water-related SDGs and MDGs by 2030 for the sustainable development of Pakistan.

FIGURE 11 . Proposed policy framework.

The efficient water governance model suggested in Figure 12 , considers the synergistic coordination with key stakeholders, relevant institutions, policy framework, and unfathomable commitments of leadership at all levels for achieving the optimum results. The important elements of the proposed water governance model include; political commitment and leadership for policy formulation and implementation. Capacity building of relevant institutions, stakeholders’ engagement, and use of technology for efficient resource management.

FIGURE 12 . Elements of the proposed water governance model.

The terms of reference for each of the elements of the proposed water governance model are highlighted in self-explanatory Figure 13 below.

FIGURE 13 . Suggested terms of reference for water governance elements.

5.2 Drip water and recycling of wastewater for irrigation

Due to a lack of smart irrigation water management, each province consumes its water quota at a very early stage. While main cash crops remain deprived of water at critical stages of the year. A drip system is suggested to be encouraged in a phased manner to judiciously use available water. Sindh is often found complaining about the discriminatory distribution of water by the federal government. The Sindh Information Minister Sharjeel Memon even appealed to the federal government to take notice of the grave water shortage in Sindh province ( Alvi, 2019 ). He even brought to the attention of the government the 1991 water accord, which ensured judicious water distribution to all provinces. The Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord 1991 was established to dispense water share to all provinces. However, the accord doesn’t give an exact proportion of the amount of water being allocated to the provinces ( Irsa, 1991 ). For this purpose, IRSA was established to address, regulate, and develop standard operating procedures regarding water allocation to the provinces. Unfortunately, each province has its unique features in terms of agricultural needs and population, thus making the interpretation and implementation of the accord even more difficult. Therefore, it is suggested that smart irrigation systems be installed as a priority for the judicious use of agricultural water. Similarly, wastewater recycling plants should be introduced in a phased manner commencing from provincial capitals and gradually extending to all urban and rural areas. This water should be diverted for cleaning, agriculture, and other non-drinkable usage. Modern housing societies like Bahria Town Islamabad have already installed such plants, which can be replicated in other parts as well.

5.3 Enforcement of legislations

While Pakistan has promulgated multi-dimensional legislation for the storage, distribution, and use of water, however, there are several coordination and management issues at federal and provincial levels, which have been amply discussed in the analysis part. It is, therefore, suggested that appropriate dispute resolution forums be established through consensus so that the stakeholders can debate and find solutions to evolving water challenges instead of press briefings. The recent floods have also exposed Pakistan’s extreme vulnerability to climate change, therefore, appropriate laws and Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should be revisited and re-adjusted to meet future challenges in a befitting manner.

5.4 Construction of more reservoirs on an urgent basis

The need for the construction of more dams has been realized in the last 4 decades, however, the trivial political mileages created fissures among the federating units, which provided an excuse for not constructing dams. Now that Pakistan is at a critical juncture of its survival, hardly 3 years away from being declared as water scarce country, therefore, all elements of national power (ENP) should be mobilized for building consensus, arranging resources, and fast-paced completion of more dams. The speed of the ongoing projects of Diemer and Bhasha should be expedited and while China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is more focused on infrastructure development, a part of it should be renegotiated for the construction of water reservoirs. A comprehensive road map for at least 15–20 years should also be prepared by the Ministry of Planning Commission in consultation with all the stakeholders for the development, conservation, and judicious use of water. The existing capacity of Mangla, Tarbela and Chashma has been eroded to a large extent due to silting, which should be restored at priority.

5.5 Rationalizing groundwater and crop patterns

The installation of tube wells should be subject to the issue of a no objection certificate (NOC) by the local government after all the technical evaluations of water availability and sustainability, coupled with the monitoring mechanism for avoiding the wastage of groundwater. Instead of an individual-level water supply, a community-based tube well system is proposed to conserve groundwater and ensure effective monitoring. Similarly, in short term, water-intensive crops should be discouraged and replaced by high-yield crops requiring less water.

5.6 Refurbishment of canals and tributaries

To preserve the water seepage and unusual waste, it is strongly recommended that all water channels should be cemented. This practice was initiated in Punjab province some 20 years ago and has proved highly successful in the preservation of water. This should be extended across Pakistan over a phased program. This long-term investment would be beneficial for ensuring water security on a sustainable basis.

5.7 Integrated water management system (IWMS)

The “whole of government” and “whole of nation” approach is recommended for dealing with water crises holistically. The proposed approach should be able to handle the existing and evolving challenges like; the impact of climate change, surface and groundwater use, urbanization, industrialization, and pollution impacting the water quality.

6 Conclusion

Today Pakistan is confronting ever-increasing water security issues, which are likely to compound further due to the burgeoning population, negative impacts of climate change, and inefficient management of available water resources. The prevailing mistrust among the federation and federating units, inadequate implementation of policies, and lack of storage capacity attribute to ongoing friction and disputes. Addressing interprovincial disputes, predominantly between Sindh and Punjab, is a challenge for the federal government as such issues arise every cropping year. It is, therefore, imperative that the government should introduce policies that help in addressing equity, storage issues, environmental sustainability, and sustained economic development while ensuring water security. Regulating and altering water-use comportment, along with adopting modern irrigation technologies, can limit water shortages in the short term and pave the way for improved economic growth and development in the long term.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

WI designed the study, and contributed results parts. MM contributed literature review, while RT contributed policy recommendations and proof reading.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: water scarcity, water management, sustainable development, human security, national security

Citation: Ishaque W, Mukhtar M and Tanvir R (2023) Pakistan’s water resource management: Ensuring water security for sustainable development. Front. Environ. Sci. 11:1096747. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2023.1096747

Received: 12 November 2022; Accepted: 03 January 2023; Published: 20 January 2023.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2023 Ishaque, Mukhtar and Tanvir. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Waseem Ishaque, [email protected]

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The Nation: Dealing with Pakistan’s growing water insecurity

Water insecurity is already imposing significant social, environmental, and economic development challenges for pakistan..

Water insecurity is already imposing significant social, environmental, and economic development challenges for Pakistan. In recent years, climate-induced disasters (floods and droughts) have highlighted the urgency to introduce climate-resilient solutions for improved water governance at all levels. In 1980, Pakistan had a relatively abundant supply of water. In 2000, Pakistan had become water-stressed and by 2035, Pakistan is predicted to have become water scarce. In addition, COVID-19 has underscored the importance of strengthening the resilience of potable water supply systems. Thus, Pakistan’s increasing water scarcity and vulnerability to climate change highlights the urgent need to manage climate-related risks and to improve water use at the national and local levels. Presently, groundwater provides over 90% of drinking water supplies to all major cities, including Rawalpindi and Islamabad Capital Territory, often referred to as the “twin cities.”

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Features of the indus basin, water management challenges in pakistan's indus basin, limitations of the interprovincial water accord, the way forward: recommendations for improving sustainability in pakistan's indus basin, conclusions, data availability statement, water management in pakistan's indus basin: challenges and opportunities.

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Shahmir Janjua , Ishtiaq Hassan , Shoaib Muhammad , Saira Ahmed , Afzal Ahmed; Water management in Pakistan's Indus Basin: challenges and opportunities. Water Policy 1 December 2021; 23 (6): 1329–1343. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2021.068

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The Indus River System is a major source of life in Pakistan. A vast array of Pakistan's agricultural and domestic consumption needs are critically dependent on the Indus River System. The Indus River contributes towards 25% of the country's gross domestic product, providing water for almost 90% of the food production in Pakistan. Linked to the water security issues, Pakistan is potentially at risk of facing a severe food shortage in the near future. The World Bank report of 2020–2021 estimates that the water shortage will increase to 32% by 2025, which will result in a food shortage of almost 70 million tons. Water shortage could also result in confrontation between the provinces as river sharing has always been a source of problem for Pakistan. According to recent estimates, siltation and climate change will reduce the water storage capacity by 2025 to almost 30%. As for the per capita water storage capacity in Pakistan, it is about 150 m 3 , which is quite meagre in comparison with that in other countries. Irrigated agriculture will soon be adversely affected due to the reduced surface water supplies and the consequent increase in groundwater abstraction. To make matters worse, over the past decades, a great deal of distrust has developed among the provinces of Pakistan regarding the water distribution issue, and the successive federal governments have failed to formulate a cohesive inter-provincial National Water Policy. Along with the shortages and increasing demand for water, administrative corruption also plagues the water sector and is quite common. The beneficiaries of this water reallocation system are not only the rural elite, for example the large and politically influential landlords, but also the small and medium capitalist farmers. If not properly addressed, these complications of decreasing water resources could result in serious political and economic hostility among the provinces. If it wants to harness its potential to increase storage capacity, Pakistan must improve its water-use efficiency and manage its groundwater and surface water resources in a sustainable way. Strengthening the institutions and removing mistrust among the provinces are the key elements for maintaining a sustainable irrigated agriculture in the Indus Basin.

Indus River, a major source of life in Pakistan.

River sharing has always been a source of problem and confrontation between the provinces of Pakistan.

The paper highlights various problems in Pakistan's Indus Basin.

It also gives several recommendations for improving sustainability in Pakistan's Indus Basin.

Being the sixth most populous country in the world, the population of Pakistan is predicted to reach 220 million by the year 2025. The Indus Basin occupies a total area of 566,000 km 2 and 80% of Pakistan's total population lives within the Indus Basin. Over the last 10 years, Pakistan has become a water-stressed country. The United Nations (UN) has estimated that the per capita water availability of Pakistan has reached 1,090 m 3 ( Condon et al ., 2014 ). The economic development of Pakistan has always been dependent on irrigated agriculture, and consequently, water. Seventy-five percent of Pakistan's total population is dependent on agriculture, and this sector accounts for 60% of the foreign exchange earnings, employs 44% of the labour force and accounts for almost 20% of the country's GDP ( Qureshi, 2011 ).

However, Pakistan's water resources are under immense pressure due to the rapidly growing population. An increase in population means that there is a requirement for more food, but no new resources of water are there for its production. Water shortage has been identified as the most challenging of all problems by the Government of Pakistan because the water required for agriculture is vital for the growth of the agriculture sector and consequently for poverty reduction ( Syed et al ., 2021 ).

Due to the deficiency in surface water supplies, farmers are meeting their growing needs through overexploitation of groundwater which is unregulated in Pakistan. The simultaneous use of both groundwater and surface water is taking place on almost 70% of the irrigated lands ( Qureshi et al ., 2004 ). However, the poor quality of groundwater has resulted in salinization, which is a significant threat to sustainable irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. Today, Pakistan is one of those countries that are the worst affected by salinity ( Syed et al ., 2021 ). Successful conjunctive management of both groundwater and surface water is essential for successful irrigation in the country ( Qureshi & Mccornick, 2010 ). With the passage of time, contract farming in the country is increasing rapidly resulting in more advanced and commercial farmers, foodgrains being displaced by high-value crops and more people being attracted to agriculture because of the increasing prices of agriculture commodities. A paradigm shift in the water management strategies and water-resource development is required to find a solution to these problems.

Irrigation is the leading consumer of both groundwater and surface water in Pakistan. With the passage of time, as the population and the economy of the country grow, the management and distribution of water resources will become a serious issue. Currently, water usage for industrial and municipal supplies in the urban sector is about 5.3 km 3 , which is expected to increase to 14 km 3 by 2025 ( Condon et al ., 2014 ). The irrigation sector will, therefore, face a tough competition from the industrial and municipal sectors for the use of water. The current per capita water availability of 1,090 m 3 will be decreased considerably by the year 2025, which would mean that the shortfall in water requirement will be around 32%, which will result in 70 million tons of food shortage ( Arshad & Shafqat, 2012 ). In order to cover the large areas in the canal commands, the Indus Basin was designed to provide low-intensity irrigation. However, the increased cropping intensities and the demand for more water have put more pressure on the surface irrigation systems ( Bhutta & Smedema, 2007 ). The overexploitation of groundwater and reduction in the surface water supplies are having a deleterious effect on the agriculture sector in Pakistan, which accounts for almost 20% of the country's GDP and is consequently affecting the food security of the people ( Habib, 2021 ).

Pakistan's water disputes with Afghanistan and India are always in the limelight and take precedence over other matters, but in an already fragile nation like Pakistan, it is the intra-state or inter-provincial water disputes that are posing a threat to environmental, domestic and political security. Intra-state or inter-provincial water disputes can cause more violence and damage than intra-state or international conflicts. However, mostly, the level of attention attracted by international water disputes is much more than that of intrastate water disputes ( Mustafa et al ., 2013 ). The growing demand–supply gap as a result of climate change and the growing population is making water resource a source of conflict among Pakistan's provinces. Pakistan, being an agrarian economy, has deep regional and ethnic fissures that have led to disputes among the four provinces ( Ranjan, 2012 ). The management of both surface water and groundwater is very important for the future of Pakistan. Hopefully, there exist various opportunities for improving the management of water in the country. However, the supply–demand gap is increasing rapidly and is creating incessant unrest among the provinces. The increase in droughts especially in Sindh province has made problems worse. Therefore, there is an urgent need for adopting and implementing water conservation measures, building new water reservoirs and managing and allocating water resources in a better way. This paper presents an in-depth review of the water resource situation in Pakistan, the challenges being confronted by the water sector and the likely remedial measures to overcome these challenges and ensure sustainable irrigated agriculture in Pakistan's Indus Basin. In this paper, Section 2 presents the main features of the Indus Basin, Section 3 discusses the problems faced by the country's water sector, Sections 4 and 5 provide various recommendations for improving sustainability in the water sector and Section 6 concludes the paper.

About 566,000 km 2 of the area, which is about 70% of the country, is drained by the Indus Basin. It spreads over parts of four provinces, namely Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) ( Yu et al ., 2013 ). As shown in Figure 1 , the Indus Basin is fed by the eastern rivers (Ravi and Sutlej) and the western rivers (Jhelum, Chenab and Kabul). The total length of the basin is about 2,900 km and an altitude of 18,000 ft (5486.4 m) from the top of Himalayas to the low-lying areas of Sindh, where it flows into the Arabian Sea.

Irrigation and river network of Pakistan's Indus Basin ( FAO, 2013 ).

The Indus Basin has the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world. About 150,000 km 2 of cropland out of 190,000 km 2 are irrigated by the Indus Basin Irrigation System ( Ahmad, 2005 ). The Indus Basin is home to the seventh largest mangrove system and the fifth largest delta in the world. However, there has been a deterioration of the delta's ecosystem in recent years due to a lack of a sustained minimum river flow. The average precipitation in the basin is around 230 mm/year, which is very low. A sub-tropical climate exists in the basin with transpiration rates of 2,112 mm/year ( Ullah et al ., 2001 ). Most of the flow in the Indus River (around 40–70%) is from glacier melt and snow off the Himalayas. Most of the flow (about 85%) in the basin's catchment occurs from the months of May to September ( National Research Council, 2012 ). The Indus Basin in Pakistan has a mean annual flow of 176 billion m 3 , of which almost 90% is supplied for irrigation purposes. Despite this, there are high variations in demand and supply: for example, during the droughts of 2000 and 2002, the difference between supply and demand was 20% ( Briscoe, 2006 ). Due to factors such as urbanization and high population growth aggravated by evapotranspiration, canal and water course seepage, field application losses and field-level irrigation inefficiency, deficits are expected to be around 20% by 2025 ( Briscoe, 2006 ; Ranjan, 2012 ).

The underlying unconfined aquifer in the Indus Basin covers 0.16 million square kilometres of the surface area. A total of 63 billion m 3 is considered as a safe groundwater yield for the aquifer, whereas extractions from the industrial, domestic and agriculture sectors amount to 52 billion m 3 . However, the increase in salinity due to the decline in the groundwater levels and redistribution of salts in the aquifer, further exploitation of groundwater is highly unlikely. In Pakistan, the challenge of uncertain and low crop yields has been transformed into more assured crop production due to the availability of groundwater. Due to the on-demand groundwater availability in this Indus Basin, crop yields have increased, which has resulted in improved rural livelihoods and increased food security. However, this growth has led to various other problems like degradation of groundwater quality, falling water tables and groundwater overdraft ( Qureshi & Mccornick, 2010 ).

Availability, variability and future water demand in Pakistan

Pakistan is the fifth most populous country in the world and its population is increasing at the rate of 2.8%. Currently, the country's population is around 220 million, which is expected to reach 250 million by 2025 ( Yaqoob et al ., 2021 ). The percentage increase in urban population will be from 35% in 2017 to 52% by 2025 ( UNDP, 2019 ). Due to this increase in population, the water demand for industrial, domestic and other non-agricultural uses will increase by 8% in 2025 ( Parry, 2016 ). In 1951, Pakistan had a per capita water availability of 5,000 m 3 , which fell to 1,100 m 3 in 2005, and by 2025, it is expected to fall to 800 m 3 ( Khemka & Kumar, 2019 ; Qureshi & Ashraf, 2019 ).

The UN’ estimates that Pakistan's water demand is increasing at the rate of 10% every year ( Connor, 2015 ). The estimates suggest that water demand will increase to 338 km 3 in terms of area by 2025, but the total water availability will remain in the same range from 240 to 258 km 3 ( Shaheen, 2010 ).

The total current water withdrawals in Pakistan area-wise are calculated as 175 km 3 . Out of this, almost 29% of the withdrawals (about 50.75 km 3 ) are from groundwater and about 71% (124.25 km 3 ) are from surface water. Out of the overall surface water available, 74% is extracted, while 83% of the total available groundwater is extracted, which is extremely high ( Laghari et al ., 2012 ). The demand–supply gap is also increasing due to an increase in population ( Figure 2 ), and since there is no proper mechanism for water allocation, disputes among the provinces are also increasing ( Bakhsh et al ., 2011 ).

Water availability per capita ( Ministry of Planning, 2017 ).

Vulnerability due to climate change

The effect of climate change on water supply in the Indus Basin is still difficult to assess. There are many uncertainties associated with respect to the local impacts of glacial melt, snowmelt, glacial retreat and precipitation patterns ( National Research Council, 2012 ). Glacial melt and snow from the Himalayas contribute about 45% of the flow to the basin, which suggests that the vulnerability to climate change and glacial melt is very high. The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) range stretches 2,000 km across the Asian continent, spanning Pakistan, Nepal, India, China, Bhutan and Bangladesh. This region comprises large rivers that include the Indus, Brahmaputra and Ganges. These rivers provide water source to almost 1 billion people in these regions. According to the latest research, the rate of glacial retreat in the local glaciers is comparable to those in other parts of the world, confirming that glacial retreat has accelerated in the past century ( National Research Council, 2012 ).

Some recent estimates indicate that in the coming years, the rate of glacial melt due to the rise in global temperature will increase. This shall cause a 40% surge in river flow. However, the average flows in the Indus River in the long run would be lowered by almost 60% ( Briscoe, 2006 ). Moreover, with global warming, the evapotranspiration rates across the irrigated Indus Basin are likely to increase, which will result in increased irrigation water demands resulting in an increased competition of surface and groundwater among the provinces ( National Research Council, 2012 ).

Almost 85% of the annual discharge in the Indus Basin occurs between the months of May and September and is from monsoon rainfall, glacier and snowmelt. During the next decade or two, the entire hydrological system is expected to undergo a big change due to the change in the intensity, location and timing of monsoon activity ( National Research Council, 2012 ). The 2010 flood in Pakistan is an example of this change in the hydrological system ( Lau & Kim, 2011 ). Glacial melting played no role in this case.

Groundwater overdraft

In Pakistan, surface water has always been the main focus, which is related to subnational hydro-politics, but groundwater in the Indus Basin and the problems associated with it, such as groundwater overdraft, salinity and waterlogging, are expected to have more serious effects on the efficiency of agriculture, water use and, hence, the hydro-politics in the long run. The surface water scarcity has forced the farmers to abstract and even overdraw groundwater. According to a survey, 0.8 million water pumps are operating in Pakistan, most of them in Punjab, and almost 50% of the agricultural water requirements are met by them ( Qureshi et al ., 2008 ).

The increasing number of water pumps and overextraction of groundwater has led to the salinization of almost 4.5 million ha of land, half of which lies in the irrigated lands of the Indus Basin. Due to inappropriate practices of irrigation and waterlogging from canal seepage, nearly 1 million ha of irrigated land is also affected. In Sindh, the problem of salinity is more serious. The remedial measures taken to counter the problems of waterlogging and salinity have proved to be futile and the degradation of land is fast having a damaging effect on the agricultural productivity of Pakistan ( Qureshi et al ., 2008 ). In view of the above-mentioned groundwater problems, surface water conflicts between the two large provinces, that is, Sindh and Punjab, also arise. Land degradation and salinity in Sindh is more than that in the other provinces, and, therefore, it is obvious that Sindh has a greater requirement for surface water supplies. In the canal command areas of both Sindh and Punjab, there is a severe decline in the water table due to the overexploitation of groundwater ( Bhutta & Smedema, 2007 ).

The lack of storage capacity

Pakistan has very less storage capacity relative to other arid countries in the world, which is only 15% of the annual river flow. Pakistan has a per capita water storage capacity of only 150 m 3 , which is very less considering that the United States and Australia have a storage capacity of above 5,000 m 3 and China has 2,200 m 3 . The river flows are highly uneven all around the year, and, therefore, the agricultural requirements depend on storage capacity. However, Pakistan has a storage capacity for only 30 days in a year. If we compare this capacity with that of the other countries, it is extremely low, given that Egypt has a storage capacity for about 700 days, the United States for about 900 days and India for about 120–220 days ( Monheit, 2011 ).

Currently, Pakistan has only two major reservoirs, Tarbela and Mangla, which are plagued with siltation problems. Due to sediment deposition, both reservoirs have lost between 32 and 20% of their storage capacities, respectively ( Sattar et al ., 2017 ). Agriculture was recognized as the centre of the long-term development plan of Pakistan according to the Lieftinck Report of 1968. In this report, it was stated that insufficient irrigation development was the main cause for the limited growth of the agriculture sector between 1950 and 1960. In this report, it was concluded that in order to meet the increasing demands of agriculture, at least one reservoir, of the size of Tarbela, should be constructed once every 10 years. The report also stated that a yield of a million acre-feet (1.233 billion cubic meters) would be created by million acre-feet of storage available for agriculture. The storage yield curve also shows that the Indus River has significant remaining storage potential ( Figure 3 ). It was also stated that due to the high silt load of rivers, the storage capacity of the existing reservoirs would decrease ( Hassan, 2016 ).

Additional storage yield curve for the River Indus ( Ministry of Planning, 2017 ).

If no new storage capacities are built soon, canal diversions will remain the same, and the shortfall will increase by 12% in the next decade. The Pakistan Water Sector Strategy estimates that Pakistan needs to raise its storage capacity by 22 BCM by 2025 to meet the projected requirements of 165 BCM. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that Pakistan gives serious attention to building new storage facilities. It is unfortunate that, even after the completion of Tarbela Dam in 1976, no decision could be taken on the construction of new storage capacities ( Azeem et al ., 2017 ; Janjua & Hassan, 2020a ; Hussain et al ., 2020 ).

Another reason for the need for new reservoirs is that with the growing industry and population, the electricity demand in Pakistan is increasing by almost 7% annually, and the supply of electricity is falling short of demand by 2,000–4,000 MW ( Trimble et al ., 2011 ). Due to poor transmission capability, generation deficits and increasing electricity demand, the country is facing extreme power shortages in the form of daily power rationing, also known as load shedding. Blackouts are frequent in the cities, which last about 8–10 h a day during the summer season. In rural areas, these power outages are often double the frequency ( Dhaubanjar et al ., 2021 ).

Lack of environmental flows

The signing of the Water Apportionment Accord in 1991 recognized the need for environmental flows in the Indus Basin for the first time. Flow necessary for the environment was not agreed upon by the provinces at that time and further studies were planned to determine the environmental flows. It was decided in a report by international experts in 2005 that in order to maintain the flows that were required to sustain coastal fisheries, prevent salt accumulation and to check seawater intrusion, a flow of 5,000 ft 3 /s (141.584 cubic meters per second) is necessary from the Kotri Barrage to the sea ( González et al ., 2005 ). Due to the extensive Indus Basin Irrigation System canal network which diverted most of the water of Indus River for irrigation, sediment supply to the delta was also reduced considerably. Therefore, in order to meet the sediment demands, it was decided to ensure a cumulative flow of 30 km 3 over a 5-year period ( González et al ., 2005 ).

Despite the recognition of environmental flows by the Water Apportionment Accord of 1991, these flows were not allocated separately. Although while making calculations for allocation to provinces in each 10-day period, these environmental flows are included, they are the first ones to be compromised whenever the system's supply is insufficient. With the increasing claims of provinces for water allocations, the federal government must take a strong stance to make the environmental flows necessary, which will be very beneficial for the long-term sustainability of the basin.

Transboundary water issues (international)

The Indus Basin Treaty was signed between Pakistan and India in 1960, which entitled the three eastern rivers (Beas, Sutlej and Ravi) to India and the use of three western rivers (Indus, Chenab and Jhelum) was exclusively given to Pakistan. The construction of dams, link canals and barrages on the Indus River and its two tributaries was also a part of this treaty. Being the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world, the IRBS consists of 4 storage reservoirs (Tarbela, Chashma, Mangla and Warsak), 16 barrages, 12 inter-river link canals, 2 siphons, 44 command canals (23 in Punjab, 14 in Sindh, 5 in KPK and 2 in Baluchistan), 59,000-km-long irrigation canals and 107,000-km-long watercourses. The last few years have witnessed serious differences between Pakistan and India over the issue of water sharing. The alleged construction of a series of dams on rivers by India has created serious concerns for Pakistan. These issues and differences need to be resolved to avoid any damage to the irrigated agriculture in Pakistan ( Qureshi, 2011 ).

Apart from the rivers flowing from India, the Kabul River from Afghanistan is also a major contributor to the flows of the River Indus. It contributes 25 billion m 3 to the River Indus annually ( Ahmed, 2010 ; Azam, 2015 ; Yousaf, 2017 ). Afghanistan's short-term water usage is around 10 billion m 3 . Much of the water contribution from the Kabul River can be lost once Afghanistan begins to establish water storage projects on the River Kabul. Feasibility studies are already being conducted by Afghanistan to build new dams. Therefore, it is important that Pakistan should reach an agreement with Afghanistan on the sharing of water before differences turn into serious disputes ( Qureshi et al ., 2010a ).

Transboundary water issues (national)

In order to resolve the chronic issue of water disputes among the provinces, the then (1990) government of Pakistan took a positive step in the form of the Water Apportionment Accord. The Water Apportionment Accord 1991 was signed by all the four provinces of Pakistan, but serious differences among the provinces arose shortly after the signing of the accord, especially between Punjab and Sindh and between Sindh and Baluchistan. The Indus River System Authority (IRSA), an independent body, was established according to the provisions of the Water Accord by an act of parliament in 1991. The member board of the IRSA comprised of five members, one from the federal government and one from each province. The chairman was to be chosen from these five members in alphabetical order for a period of 1 year in rotation. The term of office of the members was 3 years. The implementation of the accord was the main agenda of the IRSA. Sharing of the available water supplies for each season was determined by the IRSA for each province. These supplies were released by the Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) from the reservoirs accordingly ( Bhatti & Farooq, 2014 ).

The operation of the IRSA was smooth and satisfactory for about a decade, but due to the problem of sedimentation in Mangla and Tarbela and the drought conditions, the water fell short of the requirements. The IRSA faced severe criticism, as it failed to satisfy all the provinces due to the shortage of water. The provinces, mainly Sindh and Baluchistan, objected to the accord, and with this, the sub-national hydro-politics also came into play. The Indus Water Accord 1991 also became controversial as Punjab was blamed by the then Sindh government for not releasing its agreed quantity of water. The Baluchistan government also alleged that Sindh was not releasing water to Baluchistan ( Kanwal, 2014 ).

The reservoirs of Mangla and Tarbela were the main causes of dispute among the provincial governments of KPK, Punjab and Sindh. Irrigation water for agriculture was mainly used by these three provinces. The Sindh government accused Punjab of stealing its share of water from these reservoirs. Punjab's provincial government was of the view that in order to accommodate the provincial governments of KPK and Sindh, it had been using less water than its requirements. Table 1 shows the water distribution for the four provinces of Pakistan as per the Indus Water Accord of 1991.

Water allocation among provinces.

Source : Indus Water Accord 1991.

a Including flood flows and future storages.

b Including urban and industrial uses for Karachi.

c Ungauged Civil Canals above the Rim Stations.

A minimum flow of water was allowed by the Indus Water Accord to be let into the sea and the remaining water was to be shared among the provinces ( Table 1 ). So, the accord could only ensure an erratic flow of water. However, the accord attempted to ensure a kind of equality among all provinces in that the provinces either lost in the form of shortages or gained from surpluses. The share of water for the provinces in terms of area were: (a) Punjab 69.03 km 3 ; (b) Sindh 60.17 km 3 ; (c) NWFP 7.13 km 3 and (d) Baluchistan 4.78 km 3 . The future storages and floodwaters were to be distributed as: (a) Punjab and Sindh 37% each; (b) NWFP 14% and (c) Baluchistan 12%. 141.11 km 3 was the total surface water that was distributed among the provinces (+3.70 km 3 above the Rim Stations).

Until 1999, the distribution of water was done on an ad hoc basis. As ample water was available, there was no controversy over its distribution and all four provinces received their due share as defined in the Water Apportionment Accord of 1991. However, the declining availability of water after 1999 led to the implementation of a ministerial decision that led to water allocation as per the historical uses of 1977–1982 ( Condon et al ., 2014 ). The proportional sharing of shortages and surpluses among the provinces is accounted for by the accord. However, the two small provinces, Baluchistan and KPK, were exempted from the proportional sharing of shortages by an act of 2003. Thus, whenever the total volume falls, the deficiencies are shared only by Sindh and Punjab ( Condon et al ., 2014 ). This implies that there is no proper mechanism of water distribution when the total volume falls short or when the demands of the provinces exceed the total available water. Also, KPK and Baluchistan have not yet developed their irrigation systems properly, and, therefore, they always get more water than they can use. The flows of the western rivers varied from 112.5 to 231.6 km 3 annually during the period 1937–2007. The mean annual river flows at 50% probability came out to be 168 km 3 . When the river flows are less than the allocated water based on canal diversions, as given in the accord, of 141.11 km 3 by about 17% of probability of exceedance, it creates disputes among the provinces ( Janjua & Hassan, 2020b ).

Problem of improper distribution and non-utilization

Out of the total water available in the country, only 3% is used for domestic and industrial purposes. Therefore, water sharing is related to environmental flows and agricultural requirements. The origins of the water conflicts in the country lie between the province of Sindh (lower riparian (agent)) and Punjab (upper riparian (agent)) and between Sindh (upper riparian (agent)) and Baluchistan (lower riparian (agent)). Punjab has certain grievances regarding water sharing ( Hassan, 2016 ) such as the following: Punjab has more than double-cropped areas than Sindh, but the water allocation for Punjab is only slightly higher than that for Sindh ( Table 1 ). Almost 66% of the total wheat, 73% of the total cotton and 68% of the total rice in Pakistan are produced in Punjab, while Sindh produces only 17% of wheat, 27% of cotton and 26% of rice. So, the crop productivity of Punjab is higher than that of Sindh. On the other hand, Baluchistan also accuses Sindh of stealing the water that it is not able to utilize. The Baluchistan government had filed a case against the Sindh government for payment of Pakistani Rupees (PKR) 7 billion. The Baluchistan government was of the view that Sindh had used its share of water which it could not utilize because of the lack of carrying capacity ( Laghari et al ., 2012 ).

The IRBS is beset by several problems that include improper management of groundwater, increasing waterlogging and salinity, seepage from unlined canals, poor irrigation practices, improper water distribution, transboundary water issues (national and international) and insufficient surface water supplies ( Bisht, 2013 ). Studies suggest that 40% additional food would be required by 2025 to feed the increasing population. Ecological and environmental threats, along with decreased investments in the water sector, can further aggravate the problem of water management in Pakistan ( Tariq et al ., 2020 ). The development of new storage reservoirs, the development of new water-sharing mechanisms among the provinces, improvement in existing irrigation structures and removal of mistrust among the provinces are some of the ways forward. To boost the sustainability and productivity of the irrigation system in Pakistan and to avoid conflicts among the provinces, the following potential solutions are suggested.

Improvement in water infrastructure and the development of new storage reservoirs

In a latest move, the government of Pakistan has successfully raised $8.32 million financing for water resources management projects in the fertile province of Punjab from the Asian Development Bank. This loan shall be targeted at financing the detailed designs and safeguard documents, feasibility studies and other due diligence assignments ahead of the execution of five priority irrigation infrastructure projects identified by the Punjab government ( Habib, 2021 ).

Pakistan has invested heavily on water infrastructure and is extraordinarily dependent on it. Much of the irrigation infrastructure in the country is in decay due to negligence and mismanagement. No fund allocation or asset management plan exists for the existing irrigation infrastructure. The funds allocated by the government for irrigation infrastructure are somewhat less. More fund allocation and investments are needed in the irrigation sector to ensure food security for more than 20 million people of Pakistan ( Janjua & Hassan, 2020a ). Therefore, the above allocation of $8.32 shall go a long way in addressing the pressing needs.

Apart from these, a policy should be formulated by the federal government for the development of hydropower and water storage projects on an urgent basis. No major water project could have been started in Pakistan since the construction of the Tarbela Dam in 1976 as a result of famine conditions, particularly in Sindh. For today's conditions, major reservoirs should be constructed by developing consensus among all the provinces ( Khan et al ., 2014 ).

Pakistan is dependent on the import of expensive oil to generate electricity despite its access to hydropower. Oil purchase places a huge strain on the economy, as it increases the external current account deficit and aggravates the country's balance of payment position ( Trimble et al ., 2011 ). The construction of hydropower dams would not only help in flood control and irrigation storage, but also lessen the burden of importing oil, which puts a considerable strain on our economy.

Developing mathematical models for water allocation among the provinces

A serious problem with the Water Apportionment Accord is that the water allocations are fixed, which creates a quantified entitlement. Fixed water allocation mechanisms can lead to water allocations that are unacceptable for the provinces, especially during times of uncertainty and droughts and due to the stochastic nature of river flows. The Water Apportionment Accord among the provinces of Pakistan was signed almost 28 years ago. Since then, the pattern of the water demands of the provinces has changed due to the increase in population and the irrigated area. Therefore, in Pakistan, the gap between water supply and water demand has considerably increased ( Hassan et al ., 2019 ). As the provincial water entitlements stated in the water apportionment are fixed, mathematical models (Bankruptcy Methods and Nash Bargaining Solution), as proposed by various authors such as ( Safari et al . (2014) ; Degefu et al . (2016) ; Fu et al . (2018) ; Qin et al . (2019) and Janjua et al ., (2020) ), are needed for water allocation among the provinces in order to cope with the changing supply and demand.

Addressing inequitable distribution and inefficient water use

Inefficient use and inequitable distribution of water lead to wastage and socio-political disorder. This is particularly relevant in the case of the irrigation sector and provincial water distribution where unjust distribution creates a feeling of dissatisfaction and deprivation in particular segments of society and leads to inefficient use of water. Pakistan has one of the lowest agricultural productivities in the world ( Hussain et al ., 2004 ). For wheat, agricultural productivity is 1 kg/m 3 in India and 1.5 kg/m 3 in California, whereas it is only 0.5 kg/m 3 in Pakistan. However, Pakistan has enormous potential for increasing crop water productivity and improving low system efficiency, which shall ensure more income and jobs – per drop of water.

Equitable distribution of water should be ensured among all water users to overcome the problem of unequal distribution. Farmers should be educated and encouraged to use efficient technology for irrigation like sprinkler and drip irrigation, which would help to save large amounts of water. Out of all the modern irrigation technologies that are available at present, drip irrigation remains the most efficient. Water can be conserved, and yield can be expanded for farmers with the help of this technology, specifically for those who are cultivating their crops in semi-arid regions. It has exceptionally attractive characteristics among all the alternatives considered by experts and policy-makers to address the issue of water availability ( Reid Bell et al ., 2020 ). Water-use efficiency is greatly increased by this method (when compared with the conventional irrigation methods where the yield increase is from 20 to 100%, while water savings range from 40 to 70%). The introduction of other water conservation technologies such as bed and furrow planting, precision land levelling and zero tillage can also help in improving water productivity ( Tariq et al ., 2020 ).

Ensuring controlled pumpage of groundwater

In order to ensure a sustained supply of water in areas where the water level is going down due to increased and unchecked pumping of groundwater, controlled pumpage is essential. There is no particular check or regulation for the installation of tube wells or for groundwater extraction at present ( Qureshi et al ., 2010b ). The overextraction of groundwater has resulted in scarcity of water in certain areas of Punjab. Groundwater consumers with better technology are digging deeper for the extraction of groundwater, but with depleting groundwater, it will not be possible in the future to get more water even with powerful pumps. In order to maintain a certain level of groundwater, restrictions need to be imposed on the pumping of groundwater to allow groundwater recharge. Also, instead of individual water extraction, community-based water supply should be encouraged to conserve the fast-depleting groundwater resources ( Watto & Mugera, 2016 ).

Mass public awareness about water management

It is essential that cohesive public awareness campaigns about water management be organized and stakeholders targeted at the institutional level, including at the levels of the government, academia, community and non-profit organizations. In general, radio and television are the most effective instruments for comparatively less-educated people, and print media should focus on the educated segments of the society. One aspect of the issue is the motivation and awareness at the national level, and the other segment of the campaign is also very important, which pertains to making the people realize through their payment/contribution for the services that they utilize ( Ahmad & Salam, 2018 ). People generally become careful when they know that whatever they are consuming requires payment, however small the amount may be. The severity of the issue is sometimes not conveyed through free services and mere motivation is not enough ( Sahibzada, 2002 ).

Improve water availability predictions and establish independent monitoring

The federal water agencies of the country, the WAPDA and IRSA, should work along with the provincial departments to set up a modern, reliable and independent methodology of water prediction ( Khan, 2020 ). Some large multi-state basins around the world should be consulted and the technology best suited for the Indus River should be adopted along with investments in existing infrastructure ( Bhatti et al ., 2019 ). Along with the improvement in the water availability prediction, a reliable method of flow monitoring should be implemented by the federal government through an audit of conveyance losses. The provincial irrigation departments should be involved and asked in which area the conveyance losses have increased, and compensation should be given to those who have suffered from these losses ( Bhatti et al ., 2019 ). To achieve this, an appropriate compensatory mechanism should also be implemented.

Marketing of unutilized water share

Presently, the smaller provinces, KPK and Baluchistan, are not able to utilize their due share of water. As per the functional decision of the IRSA, their unutilized share is used by the provinces of Sindh and Punjab. The provinces of Baluchistan and KPK have sought compensation from Sindh and Punjab on several occasions for using their unutilized share ( Laghari et al ., 2012 ).

The functional decision of the IRSA to exempt these provinces from the sharing of shortages means that their ‘unused’ water is used by the larger provinces of Punjab and Sindh. Baluchistan, for example, is presently not able to fully exploit its allocated water share, and, therefore, as stated in the Water Apportionment Accord of 1991, the provinces should be allowed to market their unutilized water share to the other provinces.

Rationalize cropping patterns

The misuse and overuse of groundwater in the past was the main reason for the survival of Pakistan's agricultural economy as unmanaged groundwater was used by millions of farmers. This era of misuse and overuse of groundwater is now coming to an end, as the water table is now falling in many areas ( Qureshi, 2020 ). A policy should be formulated to develop a balance between water withdrawals and groundwater recharge. There is a need to formulate an appropriate policy to replace water-intensive crops such as sugarcane and rice with high-value crops like pulses, vegetables and sunflowers, which can also help increase farm incomes. Pakistan is currently importing US$1 billion worth of edible oil ( Qureshi & Mccornick, 2010 ). Restricting rice and sugarcane production to domestic needs could help reduce considerable pressure on both surface and groundwater.

Separate allocation for environmental flows

Pakistan's agriculture primarily relies on the Indus River, and in the long term, the cost of ignoring environmental flows will be very high. These environmental flows must be allocated separately and should be a part of Pakistan's national water strategy. With the construction of new dams, there is an opportunity to recognize the environmental flows, revise the allocations and make separate allocation for them ( Lohano & Marri, 2020 ). It must be recognized that the window of opportunity for allocating and recognizing these flows will be very narrow, as with the passage of time, the provinces will also claim their increase in shares. The federal government must take a strong stance to recognize and prioritize environmental flows for the long-term benefit of the Indus Basin.

The water sector of Pakistan plays an important role in the development of the nation. With the increase in population, the gap between water supply and demand is increasing, leading to water insecurity among the provinces of Pakistan. At present, the country is facing severe water shortage, which will become more severe due to increase in population, climate change and poor management of water resources. The lack of trust among the provinces, inadequate technical policies and lack of storage capacity are the main causes of disputes among the provinces of Pakistan. Addressing intra-provincial disputes, particularly between the provinces of Sindh and Punjab, is a big challenge for the federal government. It is important that the government introduce innovative water policies for the water sector that help in addressing environmental sustainability, economic efficiency, equity and storage issues. Regulating and altering water-use behaviour, along with adopting modern irrigation technologies like drip irrigation, can curtail water shortages and pave the way for improved economic growth and development. It will be a long incremental process, but one that needs to be initiated earnestly through appropriate institutional reforms in the water sector and a healthy dose of democracy in the water resource decision-making structures.

All relevant data are available from an online repository or repositories ( https://cust.edu.pk/static/uploads/2021/04/PhD-Thesis-Shahmir-Janjua.pdf ).

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Managing Groundwater Resources in Pakistan’s Indus Basin

• Improved groundwater management is crucial for a healthy, wealthy, and green Pakistan. Pakistan’s Indus Basin Irrigation System is the largest artificial groundwater recharge system in the world, but the current water management paradigm doesn’t reflect it.
• Over-abstraction, waterlogging and contamination threaten the crucial role of groundwater as a life-sustaining resource, which has cascading impacts on drought resilience, public health, and environmental sustainability.
• For groundwater to remain a safe and reliable source of drinking water and a lifeline for tail-end farmers, a balance must be achieved between efficiency of the surface water system and sustainability of groundwater resources.

Pakistan’s Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) is the largest contiguous surface water irrigation system in the world. Consisting of mighty barrages and thousands of kilometers of canals, the IBIS not only irrigates millions of hectares of agricultural land, but it also hosts a vast reservoir of groundwater that is central to the country’s water and food security.

Groundwater supplies 90 percent of domestic water in rural areas of Pakistan, 70 percent of domestic water nationally, and over 50 percent of agricultural water. It plays a pivotal role in mitigating the impacts of increasingly variable canal water supply and rainfall. Yet, despite Pakistan’s dependence on groundwater, its deteriorating condition remains poorly understood and the country has long failed to develop an evidence-based, sustainable groundwater management program.

A new World Bank report, Groundwater in Pakistan’s Indus Basin: Present and Future Prospects , aims to address this. The report tracks how groundwater has transitioned over the course of the 20 th century, from being barely considered at the beginning of the century, to becoming a nuisance mid-century, and now forming the backbone of Pakistan’s domestic water supply and agriculture.

The conceptual separation of surface and groundwater is largely artificial, as in reality there is a close interplay of water above and below the ground. Throughout the IBIS, fresh groundwater exists primarily due to widespread leakage from its canal network. As the IBIS expanded, seepage into the underlying aquifer led to a water table rise that contributed to waterlogging and salinization in the 1950s and 1960s which blighted agricultural production.

Shown in the figure below, the water table in a doab in Pakistan’s Punjab province gradually rose in the first half of the 20 th century – a period of significant irrigation infrastructure development – until it began saturating the topsoil and causing waterlogging. In response, the Government of Pakistan encouraged groundwater pumping to help lower the water table. This successfully reduced waterlogging in most of Punjab and, over time, groundwater became a lifeline for farmers. Today, it ensures a reliable source of water spatially and seasonally, especially where rainfall and canal water do not satisfy local demand.

Without seepage from the IBIS, fresh groundwater levels would fall, and rural communities that have naturally saline groundwater would lack year-round drinking water, as they currently do from the seepage that sits as a freshwater layer on top. Farmers, especially at the tail-end of canals, would suffer due to their reliance on groundwater to mitigate inequity in surface water distribution.

Today, waterlogging still afflicts 35 percent of the IBIS canal command area, mostly in the province of Sindh. Over-exploitation of groundwater is also emerging as a serious problem that affects about 18 percent of the irrigated area, as well as many urban areas, threatening the accessibility and the quality of groundwater.

The crucial role of groundwater as a life-sustaining resource is increasingly threatened not only by over- abstraction and waterlogging, but also by contamination. Only 20 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water, the remainder relying on water contaminated by increasing salinity, improper disposal of untreated wastewater, agricultural runoff with pesticide and fertilizer residue, and geogenic (natural) contaminants. Irrigation adds around 16 million tons of salt to the Indus basin every year, threatening soil health and agricultural production in up to 43 percent of the irrigated area. Fecal contamination of water resources is endemic due to poor water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services, a key factor in high rates of stunting in Pakistan , which affects 40 percent of children under five . Safe WASH services, essential in the fight to reduce stunting, cannot be sustainably achieved without protecting the quality of the underlying resource – groundwater.

In the past, these challenges were aggravated by an inadequate policy framework, lack of regulation and insufficient investments. Unregulated pumping has led to groundwater depletion and the drying up of wells in parts of Punjab. Excess irrigation in areas where groundwater levels are high is contributing to widespread waterlogging in Sindh. An increasing volume of unmanaged domestic and industrial wastewater is seeping into the ground, adding to the cocktail of contaminants affecting drinking water supplies. Inadequate data collection has inhibited the ability to adopt evidence-based policies to improve groundwater management.

Improving groundwater management, however, is integral to Pakistan’s economic development. According to the World Bank report Pakistan: Getting More from Water , without necessary reform and better demand management in the water sector, water scarcity will constrain Pakistan from reaching upper middle-income status by 2047.

In recent years, Pakistan has taken steps towards addressing modern groundwater challenges, starting with the National Water Policy 2018 which identified priorities for groundwater management. This was followed by the Punjab Water Policy in 2018 and the Punjab Water Act 2019. The policy emphasizes the need to curb groundwater over-abstraction and contamination, and the Act establishes a regime of licenses for abstraction and wastewater disposal, managed by newly created regulatory bodies.

Punjab is also developing a provincial Groundwater Management Plan. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, a similar act was passed in 2020 while in Sindh, a draft Water Policy is underway to provide much needed direction for tackling waterlogging and salinity, and for conjunctive management of surface water and groundwater. The federal government is drafting a five-year National Groundwater Management Plan to provide a framework for coordinating groundwater stakeholders across Pakistan.

These are important first steps. Going forward, the challenge will be to implement and deepen these initial reforms to ensure the long-term sustainability of Pakistan’s vital groundwater resources.

Groundwater in Pakistan’s Indus Basin: Present and Future Prospects proposes a roadmap to improve groundwater management, focusing on four intervention areas: appointing a coordinating agency that is accountable for groundwater management across all sectors in each province; establishing a modern groundwater database; managing water resources conjunctively; and improving groundwater quality.

As the last 100 years have shown, the Indus Basin’s groundwater challenges are complex and varied and demand an adaptive management response. Recent reforms in parts of the basin provide a basis for a more ambitious groundwater agenda, including the calculation of water budgets, wider engagement of stakeholders, comprehensive monitoring of water balances to manage waterlogging and depletion, the identification of opportunities for managed aquifer recharge, and a more rigorous approach towards safeguarding water quality.

Written by Lucy Lytton, Senior Water Resources Management Specialist, and Basharat Ahmed Saeed, Water Resources Specialist.

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Climate Change and Water Crises in Pakistan: Implications on Water Quality and Health Risks

Waseem ishaque.

1 Director Area Study Centre (China), NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan

Rida Tanvir

2 Department of International Relations, NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan

Mudassir Mukhtar

3 HoD Media and Communication Studies, NUML, Islamabad, Pakistan

Associated Data

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within this article.

Pakistan is vulnerable and most affected by adverse impacts of climate change. The study examines the impact of climate change on Pakistan during the year 2022, resulting into unprecedented heatwave and drought in summers followed by the abnormal rains and floods during monsoon season. Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan's economy, which has been devastated by both drought and floods. While the flood water is gradually receding, the stagnant contaminated water is causing several health risks for the inhabitants. This research argues that water security is the emerging national security challenge for Pakistan. The article investigates the status of water availability vis-a-vis the burgeoning population, agriculture, and other uses of water. Impact of abnormal melting of glaciers, nonavailability of dams for storage of rainwater, and lack of smart means for agriculture water have been examined to empirically validate the arguments.

1. Introduction

Climate change has become international buzzword today and it is “no longer an unfamiliar term, which can be comprehended through personal knowledge, experience, and interactions” [ 1 ]. The phenomenon of climate change is largely attributed to human induced actions, more specifically in terms of emissions of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [ 2 ]. Therefore, the phenomena of climate change are producing many threats on the Earth surface, ranging from droughts, heavy precipitation, and heatwaves to unprecedented tropical cyclones [ 3 ]. All these disasters have varying degree of impact over different geographical zones, resulting into environmental, health, economic, and social impact. There is no denying the fact that the world we live in today is far more vulnerable and affected by the negative impacts of climate change. However, the greatest health impact is being witnessed in the countries which have least share in greenhouse emissions [ 4 ]. There is also strong realization to attend to climate emergency, which is causing water security issues around the globe, and threatens food security, agricultural yield, food supply, and prices with serious implications on sustainable development, poverty, and inequality. The UNICEF warns about the availability and use of water in a nicely crafted statement that “the world needs to get water smart, and everyone has to realize that they have a role to play, and we cannot afford to wait” [ 5 ]. The “climate change is happening right now, and its effects are being felt around the world” [ 6 ].

Pakistan is vulnerable to the negative consequences of climate change, therefore, susceptible to unusual weather patterns, which can create strategic challenges [ 7 ]. The rising temperatures are causing rapid melting of glaciers in northern areas and unusual rains as seen in monsoon this year have created mayhem through floods, unprecedented in Pakistan's history in last 30 years. United Nations Secretary General Antonio Guterres stated that Pakistan is facing “the unrelenting effects of epochal levels of rains and flooding” [ 8 ]. The men and material losses are enormous and therefore, Pakistan is likely to face water crisis, food shortages, and serious implications for human security. Reacting to the recent flood situation in Pakistan, the Finance Minister Mr Miftah Ismail stated that “Pakistan is dealing with the worst effects of the climate change, which has caused over US$ 30 billion loss to Pakistan's economy and displacing 33 million people” [ 9 ]. This study explores the impacts of climate change on the availability, usage, and storage of water in Pakistan. The drought and floods of year 2022 have been taken as case study for analyzing the impacts of climate change across Pakistan by sampling both rural and urban areas. Figure 1 shows the sectoral usage of available water in Pakistan.

Sectoral distribution of water consumption in Pakistan.

2. Materials and Methods

The year 2022 is unprecedented in Pakistan's history of last three decades. The summers produced extreme temperatures which resulted in unusual melting of glaciers in northern areas of Pakistan resulting in partial collapse of bridge near Hassanabad in Hunza [ 10 ] as shown in Figure 2 .

Partial collapse of Hassanabad bridge.

Later, the exceptional monsoon rains produced extraordinary floods across the country, with huge men and material losses. The evolving trends indicate that Pakistan is most vulnerable to climate change. The floods have devastated the agriculture, livestock, and infrastructure. The loss to national economy is estimated at US$ 30 billion [ 11 ]. The survey and data analyses of past two and half decades reveal that Pakistan confronted from absolute dry and drought situations to devastating floods to the extent of witnessing both phenomenon in one calendar year as happening in the ongoing year 2022. The study has been completed by considering drought and floods data from primary and secondary sources with particular focus on this year. The field visits to rural and urban areas of Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), and Baluchistan were conducted for obtaining the first-hand information and data on the impacts of flood situation. The relevant officials in the ministry of climate change and meteorological offices were also interviewed and their views have been incorporated in the study for developing a comprehensive picture, conducting rationale analyses, and arriving at workable findings. The study is very contemporary and relevant and expected to provide valuable policy guidelines to relevant government ministries in Pakistan as they are grappling with the ongoing flood situation and rehabilitation process. Figure 3 highlights the vulnerability of Pakistan to climate change risks in the global context, which has been explored further in the study to empirically prove the vulnerabilities and risks.

Climate risk indexing and Pakistan's vulnerability [ 12 ].

3. Findings

3.1. deciphering the impact of climate change on pakistan.

Climate remains the most debated yet least addressed issue for decades. World leaders have often joined heads to tackle this global phenomenon but with little to no success. From motivational speeches to documentaries and movies on the effects of climate change on the Earth has been narrated time and again but to no avail [ 13 ]. The developed countries remain aloof of devastating effects of greenhouse gas emission is causing to the ozone layer. The growing depletion of the ozone layer is resulting in increased Ultraviolet (UV) radiations level on the surface of Earth, which has detrimental impact on human health resulting in cancer and weak immune system [ 14 ]. These UV radiations have devastating effect on the agriculture sector as well due to low yield of the crops [ 15 ]. Scientists have been talking about the infamous “black hole” in the Antarctic region for years. But the recent research in the year 2022 has discovered a hole in the Tropics (Tropics are the regions of the Earth near the equator) which is seven times bigger than the Antarctic region [ 16 ]. The more alarming situation is that, despite all this, the industrialized countries are less concerned by the deteriorating ozone and increase in global warming. Various protocols and initiatives like Kyoto Protocol, Copenhagen accord, and Paris accord had been initiated by the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Due to the Sovereign status of the global order, these agreements were not a binding, therefore, the industrial powers contributing the most carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases to the environment withdrew from these accords as it did not serve their economic interests. The major global contributors of the CO 2 emissions are given in Figure 4 :

10 most polluted countries as of 2020 [ 17 ].

Figure 4 gives an account for the 10 most polluted countries in the world as of 2020. However, China remains leading in that aspect in the year 2022 as well. United States remain on second number with 4.4 billion tons of CO 2 emissions, while India is third producing 2.3 billion tons of CO 2 .

According to Figure 5 , the above countries might not appear as the top 10 global CO 2 contributors, but they fall in the top 10 per capita CO 2 contributors, due to their large-scale reliance on oil and small number of populations. United Nations Secretary General Mr Antonio Gutters paid an official visit to Pakistan on 9-10 September 2002 to show solidarity to flood victims and assess the devastations through field visits and official briefings. He stated that the “nature has attacked Pakistan, which contributes less than 1% of global emissions” [ 19 ] while facing the consequences of developed countries emissions and pollution of climate. He further added that “it was outrageous that action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions was being put on the back burner, today it is Pakistan and tomorrow, it could be your country” [ 20 ], pointing toward industrialized countries. The Global Climate Index (GCI) 2021 has also vindicated Pakistan's vulnerabilities to climate risks as shown in Table 1 below, where Pakistan stands number 8 [ 21 ] in the vulnerability Index. The analysis presented highlights the severe impacts of climate change on Pakistan ranging from extreme heat and drought to dreadful floods. [ 22 ].

10 most polluting countries per capita 2022 [ 18 ].

Global climate index 2021 [ 22 ].

3.2. Examination of Water Calamities in Pakistan

Water is an essential need for ecosystem and human life. In recent times, it has been a growing concern that “precious blue” is becoming inadequate resource for future of human survival [ 23 ]. The amount of fresh water has remained constant on Earth surface since last 100 years; however, the access to water resources is unbalanced [ 24 ] with the rapid population growth, urbanization, and deforestation. Similarly, other issues, such as technological waste, growing industrialization, global warming, and climate change, all are among the key contributing factors for extreme water scarcity [ 25 ]. Although the water scarcity has emerged as a global challenge today, it has severely hit the underdeveloped countries like Pakistan with serious implications on all sectors. Pakistan stands among top 10 severely “high water risk countries” with agriculture as most affected sector [ 26 ]. Moreover, roughly 80% of the population is facing grave shortage of water during at least 1 month in a year which is very alarming. Under scarce surface water, ground water resources (last resort to water supply) are being over utilized. If appropriate measures are not initiated in time with “whole of nation” and “whole of government” approach, the situation would get worse in time to come and the entire country will face the severe crises of water scarcity by 2025, by most projections “Pakistan could run dry” [ 27 ]. The evolving situation has serious implications on the national security of Pakistan, as it will create challenges for sustainable agriculture production which contributes around 23% of Pakistan's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and creates job opportunities for around 42% of population [ 28 ]. According to the report published by Pakistan Institute of Development Economics (PIDE), Pakistan ranks 14th out of 17 very high-risk countries affected by water scarcity, as more than 1/3rd of available water is wasted due to bad management [ 29 ]. Since 1962, after the formalization of Indus Water Treaty (IWT) with India, per inhabitant water availability has plummeted from 5229 cubic meters to about 1187 in 2017, which is continuously on the downward slide [ 30 ]. The latest UN report on Pakistan's growing population indicates that by 2050, the population is likely to exceed 366 million [ 31 ], which will compound the water demand, which is predicted to reach 274-million-acre feet (MAF) by 2025 against available water supply of 191 MAF. This demand and supply gap would continue to grow year on year basis due to growing population and bad water management [ 32 ]. Figure 6 shows graphical representation of expected water situation in Pakistan by 2025 viz-a-viz the population [ 33 ].

Water availability in Pakistan by 2025 taken from Dr Muhammad Ashraf's research report.

3.3. Analysis on Flood Devastations in Pakistan in Year 2022

Most of Pakistan's economy is dependent on the agricultural sector; however, the industrial sector also contributes a great deal to the economic growth of Pakistan. The growing population is directly impacting the environment as the number of vehicles on roads and the number of industries to accommodate these individuals will also increase. The population of Pakistan at the time of independence was 32.5 million; however, as per the 2021 census, the population has increased to 225 million. Although, Pakistan remains significantly low on the global CO 2 emissions list, yet the effects of global warming have reached Pakistan in a sweeping manner [ 34 ]. The issue that industrialized countries failed to realize that the environment does not belong to a single country and when one country damages the ozone layer, the entire world would pay the price for that. The year 2022 was one such year for Pakistan when the effects of climate change brought heavy rainfalls in Pakistan resulting in major loss of lives, infrastructural damage, and massive economic losses to the tune of US$ 30 billion [ 35 ]. The NASA issued satellite imagery on the flood situation in Pakistan, which is given in Figure 7 .

NASA satellite imagery of floods in Pakistan, September 01, 2022.

Torrential rainfall and flooding have wreaked havoc across Pakistan killing over 1600 people including children and destroying infrastructure. According to statement given by Sherry Rehman Minister for Climate Change: “One third of the country is literally under water, a catastrophe of unknown precedent” The data are given in Table 2 and Figure 8 . Therefore, the devastating floods caused by unprecedented impact of climate change have hit Pakistan the most this year seriously impacting all the sectors of economy and society [ 36 ].

Flood devastation in Swat (KPK) and Baluchistan.

Province wise loss suffered because of heavy rain fall [ 36 ].

3.4. Analysis on Drinking Water Quality in Pakistan

The quality of available drinking water in Pakistan is in a dreadful state. Both surface and subsurface water sources are contaminated and disease prone [ 37 ] in major cities as well as rural areas. In the overall context, per capita the availability of water is decreasing precipitously in Pakistan, and the country is ranked as “water stressed” country and fast heading toward “water scarce” country in coming few years [ 38 ]. The evolving situation also creates challenges for availability of water for agricultural production, and daily usage requirements, therefore intensifying the human security issues in Pakistan [ 39 ]. Water pollution is the most common word today in Pakistan, which can be ascribed to numerous aspects affecting quality of available water [ 40 ]. The common causes are an upsurge in the atmospheric temperatures, with an inbuilt tendency to take heat to the threshold of drinking water, microbes, organic chemicals, nutrients, and heavy metals [ 41 ] . The research findings have discovered other factors as well affecting water quality, which include surface debris, sporadic water supply, improper discharge of water supply, proximity of sewage water to drinking water lines, industrial waste which has now become very common in almost all major cities in Pakistan, discharge of untreated sewage water and highly incompetent technical workers and service providers on water disposal projects [ 42 ]. The pollution of water due to geological and natural factors depends on the presence of different chemicals and their concentration in the geological formations in selected areas, while anthropogenic pollution is caused by extensive use of herbicides and pesticides, coal mining, oil refining, careless disposal of garbage, and septic tanks [ 43 ]. Because of such developments, fresh drinking water is available to hardly 20% of population, while 80% population is content with drinking of contaminated water [ 44 ]. The recent floods have further aggravated the situation as vast swaths of land in Pakistan is still under water, which is now contaminated causing several health issues. The ongoing situation has also impurified subsurface drinking water due to seepage of contaminated flood water deep in Earth, and government's inability for effective disposal of sewage water.

3.5. Water Security

Food and energy security is directly influenced by water security for agrarian society like Pakistan, which contributes more than 23% in national GDP. Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan as it employs more than 40 million population and guarantor of breadbasket of the country. Therefore, “the loss of major river systems in the past had a domino effect on the thriving civilizations, which became extinct one after the other” [ 45 ]. Pakistan is transitioning from water strained country with declining “per capita fresh drinking water, which is less than 1800 cubic meters per year (m 3 /y) to water scarce country (per capita less than 1000 m 3 /y)” projected by 2035 [ 46 ]. Similarly, river water also receding to 800 m 3 /y is expected in 2026 due to growing population. Therefore, “water security is emerging threat for Pakistan” [ 47 ]. Pakistan is a lower riparian state reliant on the nature and other countries for river's water. India has constructed more than fifty big and small dams on the rivers coming to Pakistan, which are a constant source of irritation in the bilateral relations and vital for Pakistan's water and energy security. Similarly, Afghanistan is also considering construction of dams on Kabul River, which is likely to create two front dilemmas for Pakistan. The situation is even challenging when viewed in the context of availability of only two major dams in Pakistan, Tarbela, and Mangla which were constructed in late 1960s and 1970s; however, “their capacities are reducing due to silting.” While construction of new dams is highly politicized, charged with massive outrage from political parties and masses, therefore, not likely to happen in near future. It is expected that the availability of less water is likely to increase food shortages and create conflict among the federating units and the federation. Similarly, the negative impacts of climate change can cause melting glaciers and unusual pattern of rains, which may lead to flooding as we are witnessing in year 2022.

3.6. Food Security

The Indus Basin, which is the bedrock of agriculture support in Pakistan is seriously threatened by the negative impacts of climate change. The changing weather patterns may result in the reduction of crops yield “(15–20% in cereals) and livestock (20–30%)” [ 48 ], impacting negatively the dairy and poultry as the agriculture and livestock sectors are the “backbone of Pakistan's economy, which contributes 23% to GDP and accounts 60% exports of country” [ 49 ]. The food security is vulnerable to climate change due to reduction in crops and adversarial influences on livestock. Reduced water in real harvesting season is changing the crops patterns and the lands are vulnerable to droughts and flooding as well, which also create massive migrations. The devastations of ongoing floods have created serious food shortages in Pakistan and inflation is also all time high. Pakistan's Prime Minister has already rung the alarm bells by stating that Pakistan is vulnerable to serious food shortage, and it is feared that essential food items may be imported this year and next year as all cultivable lands are under water [ 50 ].

3.7. Implications of Climate Change on the National Mosaic of Pakistan

3.7.1. competition over water resources.

Agriculture-based economies are heavily dependent on the natural resources of the state. This is extremely critical situation for the state to cope with the needs of the masses and economic challenges when there is a scarcity of sustainable renewable and nonrenewable resources. Countries like Pakistan where socioeconomic challenges, such as rising population, lack of political will, internal security issues, urbanization, lack of public policies for managing population, and natural resources are growing at a faster pace as compared with its economic growth. Even the geographical position of the state near the equator is unable to supplement its growing needs and demands. It is an alarming situation for the Pakistan that in the presence of other socioeconomic challenges, the drastic impacts of climate change have also increased its economic and political challenges, while the insufficiency of water reservoirs is creating serious concerns of inter-provincial disharmony. The rising population has not only affected the quantity of water reservoirs but has also depleted the quality in the same manner. The increase in anthropogenic activities is causing water stress on natural reservoirs, while since independence in 1947, the country is facing persistent decline in the availability of water year on year basis due to multitude of factors examined above. According to the estimates of Mr. Jamshed Iqbal Cheema, Chairman Pakistan Agriculture Scientists Association (PASA), in 1947, the capita water availability was 5600 cubic meters, which decreased by 406% from 5260 cubic meters in 1951 to 1038 cubic meters in 2010 and 877 cubic meters in 2020. The PASA estimates that available water will further deplete by 2025 to a level of 660 cubic meters and by 2050 will reach 575 cubic meters as shown in Figure 9 below [ 51 ].

Per capita availability of water reservoirs in Pakistan [ 52 ].

The causes of water shortages in Pakistan exist in two types: (a) incidental causes related to poor water management policies at local level, (b) operational causes include the political conflicts (over the water resources on provincial/institutional level) and the societal differences over water management and distribution. Water issue is not only related with the environmental degradation, but also linked with the social factors as abnormal population growth causes a rise in demand of clean water resources, disturbance of equilibrium between communities, provinces, and water resources distribution. As Pakistan consists of multiple ethnicities and diversified geographical terrain but competition over the access of water resources has often created tensions and conflicts among the federating units. The growing vulnerabilities of communities over the insufficiency of water reservoirs promote lawlessness, antistate sentiments and sense of deprivation among its own nationals. Due to lack of strong monitoring mechanism over channelization of available water, for creating a balanced approach between demand and supply of available water, the population is incentivized for illegal water proliferation. The tacit approval from the water management departments has resulted in water theft cases mostly in Southern Punjab and interior Sindh, as there are many illegal drillings, hidden pipelines, and unrecorded water connections from main supply lines. Such illegal water channels mostly exist adjacent to sanitation systems in cities and rural areas, contaminating the available water. The increase in anthropogenic activities is also causing water stress on natural reservoirs.

Another reason of growing water scarcity is unlawful construction and sanitation systems near or over the water channels, which continuously contaminate water, especially during floods blend these altogether. The role of administration is highly crucial in this matter to control such catastrophic constructions and lessen the pressure on water consumption. The unprotected constructions along rivers, lakes, and streams often cause blockage of natural water channels particularly in monsoon and rainy season resulting into loss of lives, roads network, and infrastructure damage as the enormity of flood damages to clean water channels is immeasurable. In 2010 floods, Pakistan witnessed unimaginable losses as around 20 million people were victims, 1.7 million died, 436 healthcare centers were devastated, 80% food reserves were smashed, 2.9 million households were severely damaged, nearly 1.1 million houses were damaged and $ 9.7 billion economic loss in 135 districts. While the issues of accessing the safe water channels was still in demand after flood (96.8% before vs 96.7%). In year 2022 floods, these losses have increased manifolds and caused unprecedented damages to natural water resources. Around 33 million people are direct victims, death troll rising above 1500, while 110 district of Baluchistan (Quetta, Pishin, Killa Saifullah, Nushki, Jaffarabad, and Washuk), Punjab (Koh e Suleman ranges, Rajanpur, D. G Khan), Sindh (Mirpur Khas, Thatta, Sajawal, and Shaheed Benazir Abad) and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Swat and lower/upper Dir) are declared as most calamity hit areas. While 30% water channels are severely affected, and 63% flood victims are struggling for sufficient clean water channels. The economic losses suffered have been estimated to the tune of US$ 30 billion. The analyses amply highlight the insufficiency of available water and demand, compounded by adverse effects of floods during this year.

3.7.2. Negative Impact on Agriculture Sector

Pakistan is heavily relying on agricultural sector for its international exports and domestic food demands, but in the presence of water crisis and conventional irrigation system for its agricultural production, the country will face severe challenges of water scarcity in times to come. According to Global Food and Security Index 2021, Pakistan ranked 80 out of 113 countries [ 53 ] and Global Food and Security Index 2022, it has further slipped by four numbers and now ranks 84 out of 113 countries [ 54 ]. Pakistan lags behind all South Asian countries in food insecurity. The lack of progress in agricultural sector is also linked with the mismanagement of land and water resources, unsatisfactory policies of water governance, exponential population growth, and the negative impacts of climate change. Pakistan has also failed to adopt new strategies like advanced water management in agricultural sector, usage of adaptation methods in yields productions to enhance water consumption in eco-friendly manner, educate farmers about the water recycling and water productivity techniques. While water scarcity is a highly charged political issue in Pakistan as there is a turf war between the provinces and the federation. However, Punjab government took good initiative and introduced national water policy of Pakistan to ensure regularization of water governance system in the country. In the presence of fragile agriculture sector development, climate degradation impacts have worsened the livelihood and yield production. Therefore, on a year-on-year basis, the agriculture yield is squeezing, demand of water is increasing, and unplanned urbanization is resulting into loss of precious agriculture land. The overall impact of these issues is creating negative repercussions on agriculture production and aggravating food security situation in Pakistan.

3.7.3. Water Quality and Public Health Risks

The availability of clean drinking water is biggest national security challenge for Pakistan today. The water proliferation and loss of water supply sources from government record is not only raising the administrative issues but also causing multiple public health problems. The contamination of water along with the presence of sanitary pipelines expose the population with the contagious and chronic diseases like diarrhea, cholera, jaundice, typhoid, hepatitis C, liver cancer, and gastrointestinal infections. The water scarcity in Pakistan has enormous impact on health care system as well as the country is struggling with the diseases that are almost nonexistential in developed countries. The significant findings of this study are that in Pakistan, 50% diseases spread through contaminated water and provide most suitable medium of spread and transfer various bacterial and viral infections from human to human or animals to human as the country is facing the 40% of mortality rate caused by the contaminated water intake, while the frontline victims of waterborne diseases are pregnant women, newly born babies, and early teenage groups. It is also important to note that the primary source of water in Pakistan is sub-surface water channels, which over a period have become the hub of different variants of pathogens. According to World Health Organization (WHO) report, approximately, 2.5 million deaths occur annually in Pakistan from widespread diarrheal diseases caused by bacterial and protozoan agents present in inferior quality of drinking water. Around 80% population is exposed to unsafe water as UNICEF Pakistan has also shared the alarming fact that the well-being and health standards of youngsters are at risk; therefore, each year, 53,000 children under the age of 5 years lose their lives due to unhygienic water as 70% of household work and domestic usage of water in Pakistan is dependent on bacterial water sources. The floods of 2022 have compounded the problems of availability and access to clean drinking water. The field visits to rural and urban Sindh, KPK, and Baluchistan vindicated scarcity and contamination of drinking water, which has been reported by several NGOs and media as well. The stagnant water has been contaminated due to mixing of sewage water and created ideal breading grounds for bacteria causing serious health risks. Nonavailability of compatible medical support, inaccessibility, and nondisposal of flood water have created many health risks and entire population in affected areas is vulnerable to adverse effects of contaminated water. In most areas, the disposal of flood water is left to the nature and the government agencies have demonstrated inability to manage it, therefore, spread of waterborne diseases will continue for prolonged period in future.

4. Policy Recommendations

4.1. legislation for interministerial coordination.

The ministry of climate change should take a lead role and coordinate with all the provinces on the issues of water security. All related agencies and departments should work in harmony with this ministry for synergetic response. Similarly, international engagements would be essential component for successful policy implementation; therefore, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Climate Change should remove overlaps and avoid duplications wherever required.

4.2. Proper Enforcement of Legislation

“Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord 1991” highlights the judicious distribution of Indus River System (IRS) water among the federating units of Pakistan. However, this accord was unable to deal with the conflicts arising due to unfair distribution of water at times. To resolve this issue, “Indus River System Authority” (IRSA) was established in 1992 [ 55 ], through an act of Parliament to work as an institution for Indus water resources regulation and monitoring in Pakistan. However, the problems related to fair water distribution, monitoring and installation system, and the treatment plants lagged during the implementation phase. There always remained issues between Punjab and Sindh regarding unfair water theft. Despite establishment of “Council of Common Interest” (CCI) to resolve the grievances of provinces, but issues persist due to weak implementation mechanism and weak governance. The devolution of power under 18th amendment of the constitution, devolved the water distribution among the rural and urban areas of each province as an internal matter of the provinces; however, water crises remain at large seriously impacting inter-provincial harmony. The Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) is assigned the task of ensuring clean drinking water across Pakistan. Implementation of water-related policies requires a great deal of realization and urgency on the part of the political elites of Pakistan. The gravity of the issue needs to be addressed as a national emergency, otherwise, Pakistan is vulnerable to water scarcity situations normally witnessed in African continent.

4.3. Judicious Distribution of Water

Being a lower riparian, Sindh is often complaining about the water shortage, especially in the pre-monsoon period each year. The claims made by Sindh government at numerous occasions regarding Punjab stealing its share of water have been denied by Indus River System Authority (IRSA). After the 18th amendment, the allocation of resources to the provinces has been ensured to be judicious; however, the internal distribution of these resources to the rural and urban areas is the responsibility of the provinces. The IRSA is mandated to address, regulate, and develop standard operating procedures (SOPs) for water allocation to the provinces. Regrettably, each province has its own peculiarities in terms of agricultural needs and population, therefore, making the interpretation and implementation of the accord more difficult. To resolve water distribution issues on sustainable basis, the “whole of government approach” is recommended along with on-site consultative visits by the representatives of provincial and federal governments and political leaders for expeditious resolution of conflicting issues. Creating unnecessary fault lines is detrimental to national integration, which should be avoided at all costs.

4.4. Water Treatment Plants and Recycling of Water

Pakistan is in dire need of installing treatment plants as every year, hospitals are flooded with patients, both adults and children suffering from diseases resulting from contaminated water. People living in both urban and rural areas are exposed to contagions and microbial bacteria, which enter the body through water, unsafe for drinking. Not everyone in Pakistan can afford bottled water, therefore, it is the responsibility of the state to provide its citizens with safe drinking water. As we know that Pakistan receives a major portion of heavy rains between the months of July to September, where majority of rainwater ends up in rivers, ponds, while the rest of it results in heavy floods of cities and inhabitants. The government through installation of treatment plants can filter clean drinking water for ensuring public health. Similarly, more wastewater recycling plants are the need of time, which should be installed at priority. In rural areas, wastewater treatment is almost nonexistent, leading to pollution of surface and groundwater [ 56 ]. The government should pay instantaneous attention to the evolving challenges of treatment of wastewater for sparing clean water for drinking purposes and balanced delivery of recycled water to other uses like irrigation.

4.5. Climate Emergency and Disaster Response Mechanism

Pakistan was successful in convincing the world leaders during recently concluded United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) sessions about vulnerabilities to climate risks and the unprecedented impact during year 2022. UN Secretary General Antoni Guterres and US President Joe Biden personally appealed for help for Pakistan to alleviate the suffering and quick rehabilitation of flood victims. It is suggested that Pakistan should consider climate diplomacy as an urgent priority and initiate the process of engagement at bilateral and multilateral levels with developed countries to reduce the vulnerabilities and risks of climate change. Additionally, the disaster response mechanism also needs to be re-energized with strong interagency coordination. The existing structure of national and provincial disaster management authorities should be reinforced through capacity building and professional training. Appropriate equipment for rescue and relief operations also needs to be provided at vulnerable sites for immediate response to save maximum lives. The infrastructure development in flood affected areas should be expedited for which essential resources should be mobilized well in time. Such preparations should be done and rehearsed every year during pre-monsoon season for synergetic and a befitting response to minimize reaction time and save maximum lives.

5. Conclusion

Climate change is the evolving global threat, and Pakistan is most vulnerable from its negative impacts. The year 2022 witnessed extreme drought on one hand, followed by unusual floods over the short span of 2-3 months. Therefore, for Pakistan, alarm bells are ringing to take the holistic stock of situation by declaring climate emergency and adopt “whole of nation” and “whole of government” approaches for a comprehensive response ensuring strong interagency cooperation and capitalizing on the synergetic application of all Elements of National Power (EoNP) for optimum results. It is essential to integrate the respective departments under the umbrella of national and provincial disaster response agencies for harmonious functioning, coordination, and execution. There is dire need to create strong national realization to “conserve, preserve, and proportionally distribute existing water resources” [ 57 ]. Moreover, smart means for spending agriculture water and recycling of water for uses other than drinking would be helpful as such practices have been adopted by most of developed countries. The construction of more water reservoirs is the need of time and current floods across Pakistan are the testimony of this fact. It is felt that this study shall help the relevant government ministries as an academic policy input for addressing water security issues in Pakistan on sustainable basis.

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CSS Essay: Water Crisis in PAKISTAN – Causes and Consequences

Essay Outline | Water Crisis in PAKISTAN – Causes and Consequences

1. Introduction

– Water crisis – number one global risk based upon its impact on society (World Economic forum 2015). – Water Scarcity – a nightmare scenario for Pakistan, despite it having the world’s largest glaciers. – Pakistan being a single basin country is facing challenges of water scarcity. – Pakistan among the 36 most water stressed countries.

2. Overview of the Current Situation of water crisis in Pakistan.

2.1 IMF report throwing light on the severity of Pakistan’s water crisis. (a) Pakistan has the world’s 4th highest rate of water use. (b) Pakistan is the 3rd water stressed country in the world. (c) The aquifer in the Indus basin is the 2nd most stressed in the world.

3. Water Vision 2025.

(3.1) In 2009, the Running on Empty study projected that Pakistan’s water shortfall could be 5 times the amount of water stored in Indus reservoirs.

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4. Causes of water crisis in Pakistan. International causes ‘Water terrorism by India’.

(a) Violation of Indus water Treaty by India. (i) Construction of Wullar barrage on River Jhelum. (ii) Construction of Buglihar Dam on River Chenab. (iii) Kishanganga project on river Neelam. (b) China’s mega water diversion scheme and its impact on the flow of river Indus and Satluj.National Causes. (a) Delay in the construction of dams and water reservoirs (Pakistan’s total dam storage is 30 days of average demand whereas the figure is 220 days for India. (i) Kalabagh Dam – a controversial issue. (b) Rapid population growth and urbanization (i) Country is among the world’s top 6 most popular states and as per the UN report, projected to have a population of 300 million by 2050 causing a threat to sustainability of water resources. (c) Financial constraints (d) Inefficient water policy making and lock of proper management of water resources by the government. (i) Agricultural sector is untaxed and more than 90 pc of Pakistan’s water resources are allocated to that sector. (ii) Unavailability of safe drinking water to the entire population. (iii) Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma reservoirs have lost about 5 million acre-feet due to sedimentation. (iv) An estimated 40% of water that run through canals is lost because of seepage. (4.3) Natural causes (i) Increase in the global warming and melting of glaciers. (a) On average, glaciers currently lose between 50 to 150 cm of thickness every year that is 2 to 3 times more than the average of the 20th century.

5. Consequences of Water Crisis. Global Impacts.

(a) Threat of nuclear war between India and Pakistan on the water issue. i.e; India uses water as weapon against Pakistan in IWT agreement conflict in 2016. Impacts. (a) Water wars among provinces (Escalating tensions between Punjab and Sindh). (b) Severe episodes of droughts leading to the devastation of agriculture. (i) Water logging and salinity is increasing as a result of installing more and more tube wells in order to overcome the shortage of dams. (c) Loss of habitat and devastation of tourism industry leading toward unemployment and Economy. (d) Sewerage disposal issue resulting in pollution (e) Lesser availability of clean drinking water (arsenic poisoning) (f) Importation of water at high rates.

6. Water management strategies International Level

(a) Pakistan should take the issue to International court of Justice in order to urge India not to make dams on Western rivers. At National Level (a) Construction of dams and improvement of existing canal system. (i) Construction of Kalabagh Dam [It will create a reservoir with usable storage capacity of 6.1 MAF]. (ii) Raising Mangla Dam, Gomal Dam, Satpara dam, and Sabakzai Dam should be the top priority. (iii) Canlas should be cemented in order to stop the seepage of water. (iv) Creation of Think tank (planning commission, HEC, universities, PEC) for water Resources Development and Management. (b) Water pricing reforms tariff reform is critical to ensure sustainable water use as canal water is heavily underpriced. (c) Bringing the agriculture within the tax net. (i) Agriculture in Pakistan is largely untaxed more than 90% of Pakistan’s water resources are allocated to this sector. (d) Sufficient and sincere political will is required to implement water pricing reforms. (e) Nationwide campaign to raise awareness. (i) Regarding less water intensive crop production exp drip irrigation system should be adopted. (ii) Optimum crop rotation should be encouraged.

7. Conclusion

– Public consensus on national issue to defeat the nefarious aims of enemies. – Provinces should reform the agriculture taxation system in the context of NFC award in order to entrance the political interest of powerful land owners. – Control of excessive groundwater exploitation is imperative.

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Css essay | water crisis in pakistan – causes and consequences.

Water is the most precious natural resource in the world. Without it there would be no life on earth. Unfortunately, water is becoming scarce and there are various factors leading to this scarcity. According to a report of world economic forum, water crisis is the number of one global risk based upon the devastation it is likely to create. Particularly in Pakistan the situation is alarming as Pakistan, though, bestowed with the world’s largest glacial resources is facing the prospect of water crisis. The expected demand and supply imbalance is creating challenges on the domestic, agricultural and industrial level as Pakistan’s water availability is heavily relied upon Indus Basin.

Water crisis is a nightmare scenario, that is all too real but inevitable for Pakistan. According to a recent IMF report, Pakistan is among the 36 most water stressed countries in the world. It has the world’s 4th highest rate of water use. Its water intensity rate measured as per unit of GDP is the world’s highest. Pakistan is also the 3rd most water stressed country in the world. According to New Nasa Satellite data of world’s underground aquifers, The aquifer in the Indus basin is the second most stressed in the world. In 2009, The Running of Empty study projected that by 2050. Pakistan’s water shortfall would be 5 times the amount of water that could be stored in the Indus river’s vast reservoir. Federal Minister of Water and Power, Khuwaja Asif has also warned that scarcity of water is another issue looming on Pakistan.

Water terrorism on the part of India is a major reason of Pakistan’s water crisis. India has constructed two hydro electric projects on river Neelam and called Kishanganga in Indian dialect. The Baglihar dam on Chenab permits the agreed quota of water flow to Pakistan despite Pakistan sought the help of World Bank to stop its construction. Wullar barrage has been constructed at the mouth of Wullar lake on river Jhelum. Pakistan believes that the construction of dams could be used as a geostrategic weapon as India can control the flow of Rivers. Moreover, Indian project on Wullar lake also has the potential of disrupting the triple canal Lover Bari Doab Canal. Further, China’s Mega Water Diversion scheme is also a source of concern for Pakistan as it could stop the flaw of water to river Indus and Satluj which is a tributary of Indus River.

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Delay in the construction of dams and reservoirs are also creating a threat to the amount of water available for household consumption and for agricultural and industrial use. Pakistan’s total dam capacity is 30 days of the average demand whereas the figure is 1000 days for Egypt and 220 days for India. Construction of Kalabagh dam has been delayed and the reason for its delay is the bitter controversy among the four provinces. The only province in favor of its construction is Punjab. When completed, the dam would create a reservoir with usable storage capacity of 6.1 Million acre-feet (MAF). Moreover, despite the two

ground-breaking ceremonies of Diamer-Bhasha dam by the successive governments, developmental work on the life saving project could not be started. Financial constraints accompanied with the lack of resources, infrastructure and political will among the leaders are some key factors which do not let the construction of dams, barrages and reservoirs in Pakistan.

Rapidly growing population along with urbanization are also some significant factors leading towards water scarcity. Pakistan is among the world’s top 6 most populous states as per the UN report, and is projected to have a population of about 300 million by the end of 2050 which has threatened the sustainability of water resources. The rapid increase in population is leading toward escalated demand of water and food resources and leading toward the depletion of natural resources.

Weak administration and poor water management are also causing water scarcity. It is the lack of effective policy making on the part of government that agriculture sector in Pakistan is largely untaxed. And more than 90% of Pakistan’s water resources are allocated to this sector. Moreover, traditional and antiquated agriculture techniques are leading towards 50 to 60% loss of water. Water intensive crops like rice and sugarcane are being cultivated without taking into account the optimum crop rotation. This inefficient water distribution is creating water shortages and has forced people to use unhygienic water for daily consumption.

The gradual loss in saving capacities of the existing reservoirs is also contributing to water scarcity. Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma reservoirs have lost about 5 million acre-feet, that is, 2.5% of their water saving capacity due to heavy sedimentation carried by the rivers. The canal beds are either unlined or poorly lined and 40 % of water that runs through canals is lost because of seepage. Increase in the global warming is a major reason of melting of glaciers. On average, glaciers currently lose between 50 to 150 cm thickness every year. Pakistan is sandwiched between China and India, the first and third largest emitters of carbon de oxide gas Co2 respectively. Glaciers are a major source of water supply for Pakistan, however, according to a study glaciers in Pakistan are melting continuously because of rising temperature and. By the year 2050, the country will no longer posses water reserves in the form of glaciers.

Water terrorism on the part of India is posing the threat of a nuclear war between the two rivals. Border between India and Pakistan is considered the most stressed border in the world. Any war between these two rivals is going to have negative repercussions on not only the south Asian region but also on the entire Asian continent. Hence, the water issue between the two neighbors has the potential to bring the entire region to the brink of major disaster, that is, the possibility of a nuclear war.

The short term implications of water crisis are already visible as tensions are escalating among provinces. The level of distrust, pertaining to the distribution of water, is increasing between Punjab and Sindh. Open Chashma-Jehlum canal to meet Punjab’s requirement has created tensions between the provinces in the past. Dispute could be resolved if the provinces show enough maturity in resolving the dispute amicably as they have done previously in resolving the dispute on National Fiancé Commission (NFC) award.

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Water shortage is also contributing to an increase in water logging and salinity. Reduction in the dam storage capacity is leading toward lesser per-acre water availability. To cope with this problem farmers are installing more and more tube wells. That is why salinity has become a major issue in most parts of Punjab and Sindh. Sindh contributes significantly in the production of cash crops including cotton and rice, however, scarcity of water is adversely affecting the production and exports of these crops. Water tables are dropping drastically and the resultant pumping of water to meet increased water demands is increasing the cases of arsenic poisoning. Lesser availability of clean drinking water is giving birth to many parasitic diseases and deadly viruses such as dengue. Water reduction is also creating problems in sewerage disposal and hence increasing pollution and temperature.

Pakistani government has to take significant measures to cope with the looming threat of water crisis. Arbitration, reconciliation and dialogue are the best options to resolve the issue of water between the two neighbors. Although water commissioner level talks between India and Pakistan have failed during August last year as India did not budge on its design of Kishanganga dam and also refused to halt the construction of river Chenab. However, a fresh round of talks should be held and both neighbors should understand that nuclear war is not the solution of their problems.

At the national level, construction of new dams is vital to meet the constantly increasing water demand. Construction of Kalabagh dam is imperative as it will create a reservoir with useable storage of 6.1 million nacre-feet. Government should also its divert its attention toward the rapid construction of Daimer- Bhasha Dam, which when constructed would be able to store 8 MAF of water. Construction of such larger reservoirs is imperative to maintain the cultivation of water intensive crops in the fertile lands of Sindh and Punjab Raising the structure of Mangla dam, Gomal dam, Satpara dam and Sabakzai dam should be the top priority of the government. Capacity building and improvement of existing canal system is necessary as 40% of water that runs through canals is lost because of seepage of water.

Government should create a think tank including planning commission, Higher Education Commission, (HEC) and universities in order to improve water resource development and management Water prancing reforms should be introduced to ensure sustainable water use as canal water is heavily underpriced. Agriculture in Pakistan is predominantly irrigated (90 percent) and consumes about 95 percent of annually available surface water. Bringing the agriculture sector within the tax net will bring sufficient funds to build new dams and will help improving supply to the water stressed areas of Pakistan. Nationwide campaigns should be conducted to raise the importance of water saving by growing less water intensive crops and by encouraging optimum crop rotation.

Water is an engine to economic growth in Pakistan. The country has the necessary natural endowment and is blessed with the world’s most extensive irrigation system. What basically required is the public consensus to defeat the nefarious aims of the enemies. Provinces should reform the system of agricultural taxation to entrench the political interests of powerful landowners. Control of excessive ground water exploitation is also imperative in dealing with the looming threat of water crisis in Pakistan.

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Home — Essay Samples — Geography & Travel — Pakistan — An Overview Of Pakistan’S Water Crises

An Overview of Pakistan’s Water Crises

• Categories: Pakistan

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Words: 1864 |

10 min read

Published: Mar 3, 2020

Words: 1864 | Pages: 4 | 10 min read

Table of contents

An overview of pakistan’s water crises, effects of water crises in pakistan.

• Climate change: The eventual changes in climate have severely affected the amount of water present in the country. As a result of global warming the temperatures are rising leading to greater evaporation of water ending in leading lands barren and unfit for agriculture. Apart from that, the monsoon season, since the past few years has been erratic and the winter season has shrunk to two or four months in some parts of the country. Simultaneously Pakistan does not have enough dams to store flood water and use it to compensate for water shortages. Also, forests have declined because of anthropogenic activities which have left forests barren. Less vegetation brings less rain so this causes shortage of water in the country.
• Water politics: Ever since its creation, Pakistan has suffered heavily at the hands of its enemy, India, who troubled Pakistan with several concerns and with water in particular. Never granted an equal share of resources, Pakistan lacked much and the headquarters and main supply of water to date remain in the hands of India. India uses this power to exploit Pakistan, releasing water in case of flood and holding it back when there is a shortage hence making Pakistan suffer with water issues deliberately. Tarbela and Mangla Dam, the only two major reservoirs of Pakistan have also been announced to have reached their dead levels only recently. Kugelman says that the Pakistani authorities need to step up efforts to overcome the water crisis, which is partly man-made.
• Wastage of water: Where on one hand we face issues storing water, the one we already have is also mismanaged and wasted on a daily basis. This mismanagement takes place at various levels. From mismanagement at domestic level to wasting water at an industrial level, we truly waste water at every level and fail to play our part in its conservation. After all it is every water drop that adds up to become a mighty ocean. We as tiny water droplets need to play our part in conserving water and once everyone plays their part as a responsible citizen, the country may be able to stabilize in terms of the shortage of water. Hence, wasting water is one of the major reasons our country lacks proper water management and sufficient amount to cater everyone’s needs.
• Decreased crops: Water is essential to the growth of crops hence crucial to the agricultural industry of Pakistan. Some crops such as rice required stagnant water in order to grow. Rice fields must be flooded with water at all time to ensure plentiful and proper growth. In case of a shortage of water, such fields would get insufficient water leading decrease in output of the crop ultimately being unable to meet the growing demands of the industry and the population. This is not just for rice fields, rather for all crops so such lack of water may drastically affect the output of crops and their shortage will affect Pakistan’s economy.
• Unemployment: As a result of decline of the agricultural industry the employment sector does suffer greatly. The more the agricultural sector flourishes, the greater the chances of employment as farmers etc. and it goes vice versa. With a rapid decline in the agricultural sector because of shortage of water, the need for farmers and other such jobs decrease hence leading to decline in employment. If water is unavailable in some farm, farmers may have to give up their fields as farming and crop growth is not possible without water.
• Export decline: Pakistan has some good quality fruits that it exports to other countries specially good quality fruits from Baluchistan. With a decline in the agricultural sector because of shortage of water, these exports would decline rapidly hence leading to negative impacts on the economy of Pakistan.
• Livestock farming:Livestock, like every other human require water and without water livestock farming would become a major issue. Cattle and livestock will not be raised and can lead to decline in cattle stock faming.
• Hydropower: Hydropower is the main source of energy generation in Pakistan. With shortage of water the electricity generation would decline causing an energy crisis. According to recent news WAPDA requires power of 75149 MW by year 2025 but it cannot be achieved without constructing new storage dams.
• Health issues: One major problem resulting from the shortage of water would be the unavailability of clean drinking water for the common people. In the absence of clean water people would be bound to drink unhealthy water leading to various infections such as typhoid.
• Water development: This suggests that new dam development projects should start to develop new dams and maintain and manage the ones that already exist. This includes focus on projects like those stated below:a) Kalabagh Dam: Kalabagh dam site is located 132 miles downstream of Terbela. Its gross storage would be 6.1 maf. It would have a power generation of 3600 mw. Thus setting up this dam will give plentiful amount of energy and also save and store water helping in Pakistan’s water crisis.b) Raised Mangla dam: In this the present Mangla dam would be further raised by 40 ft. and thus increasing its gross capacity to 9.5 maf. In addition, its power generation capacity would be increased by 15%.c) Bhasha Dam: One initiative that the government has taken is the collection of funds for the development of a new dam named Bhasha dam. The government is actively involving the citizen to contribute to making of this dam, hoping that it will save and store water for our future generations.
• Water management: The idea of water management includes management of the resources that are already present. Such maintenance would help save water and use it efficiently meaning that it will contribute to solving the water crises in Pakistan. The ideas of water management include the following:a) Conservation of water: One important method of water management is the conservation of water which begins at an individual level where we as responsible citizens need to save water in our daily uses. This could be as simple as closing the water tap while brushing your teeth, making use of a bucket to bath rather than open flowing water etc. It is our duty and moral responsibility to play our part as a responsible citizen because little things add up to make a whole.b) Government laws: the government needs to play its part by setting laws about ways to conserve and maintain water so that it remains available in the future as well.c) Modern techniques: For watering fields and other various purposes modern techniques should be used such as sprinkling etc. as it saves water and improves water distribution.d) Valuing water as a resource: Water is supplied to farmers at a very negligible cost and that is why they do not treat water as a precious resource hence there is a need to increase the water prices to make irrigators realize the importance of this asset.

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essay on water crisis in pakistan

Water is a vital natural resource for life, and without it, human existence would not be possible. Unfortunately, Pakistan is currently facing a severe water crisis, which has emerged as one of the most significant challenges for the country’s sustainable development. This essay will explore the reasons for the water crisis in Pakistan, its impact on the people, economy, and environment, and possible solutions to this problem.

Reasons for the Water Crisis in Pakistan:

There are several reasons why Pakistan is facing a water crisis. Firstly, the country is located in a region that is known for its arid and semi-arid climate. Therefore, the available water resources are limited. The country’s population is also growing at a rapid pace, which has put immense pressure on the existing water resources. Furthermore, poor water management practices, outdated irrigation systems, and a lack of investment in water infrastructure have exacerbated the problem.

Impact of the Water Crisis on the People, Economy, and Environment:

The water crisis in Pakistan has had severe consequences for the people, economy, and environment. The shortage of water has led to an increase in waterborne diseases, as people are forced to use contaminated water sources. The lack of access to clean drinking water has also resulted in malnutrition and stunted growth, particularly among children.

The water crisis has also had a significant impact on the country’s economy. Agriculture is the backbone of Pakistan’s economy, and it accounts for a significant proportion of the country’s GDP. However, the shortage of water has severely affected the agriculture sector, resulting in a decline in crop yields and income for farmers. This has also led to food insecurity and a rise in food prices, affecting the purchasing power of the average person.

The environment has also been affected by the water crisis. The shortage of water has led to the depletion of groundwater resources, which has resulted in the drying up of lakes, rivers, and wetlands. This has not only affected the biodiversity of the region but has also had severe consequences for the people who rely on these resources for their livelihoods.

Possible Solutions to the Water Crisis:

There are several possible solutions to the water crisis in Pakistan. Firstly, there is a need for better water management practices, including the efficient use of water resources and the reduction of water wastage. This can be achieved by investing in modern irrigation systems and technologies, such as drip irrigation, and improving the efficiency of existing irrigation systems.

Secondly, there is a need for investment in water infrastructure, including the construction of dams, canals, and reservoirs, which can help to increase the availability of water in the country. The construction of small-scale water harvesting structures, such as check dams, can also help to conserve water and prevent soil erosion.

Thirdly, there is a need for the promotion of water conservation practices, such as rainwater harvesting, and the development of alternative sources of water, such as desalination plants, which can help to increase the availability of water in the country.

Fourthly, there is a need for greater public awareness and education on the importance of water conservation and the sustainable use of water resources. This can be achieved through public campaigns, school education programs, and the promotion of water conservation practices at the community level.

Conclusion:

The water crisis in Pakistan is a significant challenge for the country’s sustainable development. It has severe consequences for the people, economy, and environment. However, there are several possible solutions to this problem, including better water management practices, investment in water infrastructure, water conservation practices, and greater public awareness and education. It is essential for the government, civil society, and private sector to work together to address this issue and ensure the sustainable use of water resources in Pakistan.

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