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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Methodologies for Conducting Education Research

Introduction, general overviews.

Experimental Research
Quasi-Experimental Research
Hierarchical Linear Modeling
Survey Research
Assessment and Measurement
Qualitative Research Methodologies
Program Evaluation
Research Syntheses
Implementation

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Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

Gender, Power, and Politics in the Academy
Girls' Education in the Developing World
Non-Formal & Informal Environmental Education
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Methodologies for Conducting Education Research by Marisa Cannata LAST REVIEWED: 19 August 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0061

Education is a diverse field and methodologies used in education research are necessarily diverse. The reasons for the methodological diversity of education research are many, including the fact that the field of education is composed of a multitude of disciplines and tensions between basic and applied research. For example, accepted methods of systemic inquiry in history, sociology, economics, and psychology vary, yet all of these disciplines help answer important questions posed in education. This methodological diversity has led to debates about the quality of education research and the perception of shifting standards of quality research. The citations selected for inclusion in this article provide a broad overview of methodologies and discussions of quality research standards across the different types of questions posed in educational research. The citations represent summaries of ongoing debates, articles or books that have had a significant influence on education research, and guides to those who wish to implement particular methodologies. Most of the sections focus on specific methodologies and provide advice or examples for studies employing these methodologies.

The interdisciplinary nature of education research has implications for education research. There is no single best research design for all questions that guide education research. Even through many often heated debates about methodologies, the common strand is that research designs should follow the research questions. The following works offer an introduction to the debates, divides, and difficulties of education research. Schoenfeld 1999 , Mitchell and Haro 1999 , and Shulman 1988 provide perspectives on diversity within the field of education and the implications of this diversity on the debates about education research and difficulties conducting such research. National Research Council 2002 outlines the principles of scientific inquiry and how they apply to education. Published around the time No Child Left Behind required education policies to be based on scientific research, this book laid the foundation for much of the current emphasis of experimental and quasi-experimental research in education. To read another perspective on defining good education research, readers may turn to Hostetler 2005 . Readers who want a general overview of various methodologies in education research and directions on how to choose between them should read Creswell 2009 and Green, et al. 2006 . The American Educational Research Association (AERA), the main professional association focused on education research, has developed standards for how to report methods and findings in empirical studies. Those wishing to follow those standards should consult American Educational Research Association 2006 .

American Educational Research Association. 2006. Standards for reporting on empirical social science research in AERA publications. Educational Researcher 35.6: 33–40.

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X035006033

The American Educational Research Association is the professional association for researchers in education. Publications by AERA are a well-regarded source of research. This article outlines the requirements for reporting original research in AERA publications.

Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . 3d ed. Los Angeles: SAGE.

Presents an overview of qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods research designs, including how to choose the design based on the research question. This book is particularly helpful for those who want to design mixed-methods studies.

Green, J. L., G. Camilli, and P. B. Elmore. 2006. Handbook of complementary methods for research in education . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Provides a broad overview of several methods of educational research. The first part provides an overview of issues that cut across specific methodologies, and subsequent chapters delve into particular research approaches.

Hostetler, K. 2005. What is “good” education research? Educational Researcher 34.6: 16–21.

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X034006016

Goes beyond methodological concerns to argue that “good” educational research should also consider the conception of human well-being. By using a philosophical lens on debates about quality education research, this article is useful for moving beyond qualitative-quantitative divides.

Mitchell, T. R., and A. Haro. 1999. Poles apart: Reconciling the dichotomies in education research. In Issues in education research . Edited by E. C. Lagemann and L. S. Shulman, 42–62. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chapter outlines several dichotomies in education research, including the tension between applied research and basic research and between understanding the purposes of education and the processes of education.

National Research Council. 2002. Scientific research in education . Edited by R. J. Shavelson and L. Towne. Committee on Scientific Principles for Education Research. Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

This book was released around the time the No Child Left Behind law directed that policy decisions should be guided by scientific research. It is credited with starting the current debate about methods in educational research and the preference for experimental studies.

Schoenfeld, A. H. 1999. The core, the canon, and the development of research skills. Issues in the preparation of education researchers. In Issues in education research . Edited by E. C. Lagemann and L. S. Shulman, 166–202. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Describes difficulties in preparing educational researchers due to the lack of a core and a canon in education. While the focus is on preparing researchers, it provides valuable insight into why debates over education research persist.

Shulman, L. S. 1988. Disciplines of inquiry in education: An overview. In Complementary methods for research in education . Edited by R. M. Jaeger, 3–17. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Outlines what distinguishes research from other modes of disciplined inquiry and the relationship between academic disciplines, guiding questions, and methods of inquiry.

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"Research Methods in Education, 8th Edition is an up-to-date, one-stop shop, taking education research students from conceptualization to presentation. With this book on your library shelf, you are good to go.”

Welcome to the companion website for Research Methods in Education , 8th edition, by Louis Cohen, Lawrence Manion and Keith Morrison.

On this accompanying website, you will find the following resources:

PowerPoint slides
Additional materials (including examples, case studies and links to useful websites) to support chapters in the book
SPSS data files to support chapters 38–44
NVivo data files to support chapters 32–37
Downloadable tables and figures from the book
A link to an interactive training programme in research methods

What people are saying about Research Methods in Education , 8th edition:

Very much still the key text for “all” education students and researchers. Cohen et al continue to update Research Methods in Education , with new theoretical, ethical, virtual and mixed methods information. It’s worth noting the impressive web page and links to materials for all chapters which is still the benchmark when looking at the competition for books in this area of social and education research.

Dr Richard Race, Senior Lecturer in Education, Roehampton University, UK

A clear enhancement on the already well established text. The new edition addresses an important need to explain research design and question setting in more detail, helping guide the newcomer through the research process from inception through analysis to reporting.

David Lundie, Associate Professor of Education, University of St Mark & St John, UK

Research Methods in Education is a unique book for everybody who has to undertake educational research projects. The book gives an in depth understanding of quantitative and qualitative research designs and offers a practical guide for data collection and data analysis. It is an essential "friend" for teachers and students from various disciplines who are not familiar with social science research.

Dr Ellen P.W.A. Jansen, Associate Professor Teacher Education, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

Research Methods in Education continues to offer an excellent route map, a well-structured and inspiring travel guide, for students engaging in research. It works across levels, and while it provides clarity for the beginning researcher there is plenty here to aid the seasoned researcher with an open mind to new approaches and emerging practices. A superb text that provides guidance for my own research as well as for students and partners in research projects

Peter Shukie, Lecturer in Education Studies and Academic Lead in Digital Innovation, University Centre at Blackburn College, UK

Research Methods in Education is, besides being my personal favorite research methods book, a deep as well as a broad handbook useful both for undergraduate teacher education students as well as researchers and PhD students within educational sciences. In this new edition, new chapters are added emphasizing both quantitative and qualitative methods in combination with thought-through discussions about how to mix them. The book can be used when planning a project and then throughout the whole research process and is therefore a complete methods book.

Karolina Broman, Senior Lecturer in Chemistry Education, Umeå university, Sweden

Comprehensive, well written and relevant: the 8th edition of Research Methods in Education offers the background for methods courses at different levels. The new edition keeps the strong focus on education studies. Excellent extensions will make the book an even more popular basis for classes on both qualitative and quantitative methods.

Felix Weiss, Assistant Professor for Sociology of Education, Aarhus University, Denmark

Research Methods in Education , 8th Edition is an up-to-date, one-stop shop, taking education research students from conceptualization to presentation. With this book on your library shelf, you are good to go.

Dr Fiona McGarry, Lecturer in Research Methods, University of Dundee, UK

The 8th edition of Research Methods in Education contains a wealth of up-to-the-minute information and guidance on educational research which will be of immense value to researchers at all stages of their careers and across the education domain from early years settings to higher education. As research and education move into increasingly fluid and complex dimensions, Research Methods in Education will support students, researchers and practitioners in charting a course through these changing waters as they seek to create new knowledge about effective teaching and deepen our understanding of how learners learn.

Julia Flutter, A Director of the Cambridge Primary Review Trust, Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, UK

As a doctoral supervisor I know that my students routinely return to Research Methods in Education as they develop their own research projects. This text has always been a mainstay on our reading lists but this new edition now features additional research topics and new perspectives on a wider range of research methods. As with previous editions this book is clearly organised and well written and appeals to a wide audience of experienced and novice researchers alike.

Dr Val Poultney, Associate Professor, University of Derby, UK

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A good supplimentary textbook

Brilliant well-written book. Easy to read students enjoyed this book and supported their learning.

Loved the examples and the additional resources.

This book provides a comprehensive guide for students undertaking reseach within education with text and structure that is both easy to follow and understand I would definitely recommend this text to students undertaking reseach.

A good resource for undergraduate and postgraduate students.

More for an undergrad audience not post grad, But very good to refresh existing knowledge and keeping up to date

It seemed straightforward and was priced well for students

A very well written book that should be of interest to learners. I have highly recommended it to students but given the current economic climate, cannot insist on an essential status

This book is very comprehensive. All chapters are enough detailed for students. Especially, the appendicies are very usefull for teachers and students. For example, App. A (Questions to ask about reseacrh article) and App. B (How to read a research article) have critical importance for all researchers, master and doctoral students. And also, In my opinion, Using the web site of the book (Instructor Teaching Site) can support students' effective learning, increase the course quality and make to easy the course management. I will recommend Research Method in Education as supplemental book in my course at this term

A good book for those in the early stages of research methods for education. Clearly written with simplicity in mind which takes you nicely through the different stages of research.

Key Features

Case-Study Approach : Each chapter introduces a substantive research question and then shows how the particular research methods presented in that chapter have been used to develop answers to that question—connecting the practical issues of educational research to the methods used to develop substantive knowledge.
Research Questions : Emphasis on research questions throughout the text helps students to understand what they are, why they are important, and how they work.
Themes : Each chapter has an interesting, overarching thematic issue or topic- illustrated by real data- that teaches students the concepts and methods in an applied fashion.
Readability : The language used is straightforward and accessible, with many illustrations and examples in every chapter.
Ethics : A full chapter on ethics (Chapter 3) is included and complemented in the chapters that follow by end-of-chapter exercises applying ethics to the topic at hand.
Ancillaries : The book is supported by a student study site featuring journal articles, web quizzes, video clips, and grade-level specific interactive exercises using real research examples. Also available is a password-protected instructor resources site featuring test banks, PowerPoint slides, lecture outlines, and more.

Sample Materials & Chapters

Chapter 4: Conceptualization and Measurement

Chapter 5: Sampling

Chapter 6: Causation and Research Design

Article contents

Observing schools and classrooms.

Alison LaGarry Alison LaGarry University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.983
Published online: 29 July 2019

Qualitative observation is an attempt to view and interpret social worlds by immersing oneself in a particular setting. Observation draws on theoretical assumptions associated with the interpretivist paradigm. Thus, researchers who engage in qualitative observations believe that the world cannot be fully known, but must be interpreted. Observation is one way for researchers to seek to understand and interpret situations based on the social and cultural meanings of those involved. In the field of education, observation can be a meaningful tool for understanding the experiences of teachers, students, caregivers, and administrators.

Rigorous qualitative research is long-term, and demands in-depth engagement in the field. In general, the research process is cyclical, with the researcher(s) moving through three domains: prior-to-field, in-field, and post- or inter-field. Prior to entering the field, the researcher(s) examine their assumptions about research as well as their own biases, and obtain approval from an Institutional Review Board. This is also the time when researcher(s) make decisions about how data will be collected. Upon entering the field of study, the researcher(s) work to establish rapport with participants, take detailed “jottings,” and record their own feelings or preliminary impressions alongside these quick notes. After leaving an observation, the researcher(s) should expand jottings into extended field notes that include significant detail. This should be completed no later than 48 hours after the observation, to preserve recall. At this point, the researcher may return to the field to collect additional data. Focus should move from observation to analysis when the researcher(s) feel that they have reached theoretical data saturation.

education research
qualitative
observation
ethnography

Introduction

Observation, as a concept, can refer to many things. Yet, in terms of social research and ethnography, observation is the act of “record[ing] the ongoing experiences of those observed, through their symbolic world” (Denzin, 2017 , p. 185). It is an attempt to view and interpret social worlds by immersing oneself in a particular setting—a way to “see from the inside” (Emerson, Fretz, & Shaw, 2011 , p. 3). Observation draws on theoretical assumptions of the interpretivist paradigm, and is associated with methodologies such as ethnography, narrative inquiry, discourse analysis, grounded theory, phenomenology, and symbolic interactionism. It is one of many ways for researchers to understand situations based on the meanings of those involved. The particular approach to observation presented here considers the process and implications of observations in educational settings such as schools and classrooms.

The Interpretivist Paradigm

All research methods and methodologies are based on assumptions about reality and knowledge. In order to understand how one might study a particular research question or explore a phenomenon, it is important for researchers to examine their beliefs about whether the world around them can be objectively known. Researchers who approach their work from the interpretivist paradigm believe that the world cannot be objectively understood, and does not exist independently of thoughts or ideas. Since there is no objective truth, the world must be interpreted (Glesne, 2016 ). Further, the goal of such research is not just to interpret the social world, but to do so through the lens of actors in that particular setting or context. Through observation, then, qualitative researchers “access . . . others’ interpretations of some social phenomenon” and also use their own lens to interpret the actions and motivations of others (Glesne, 2016 , p. 9).

Because interpretivist qualitative research, as described in this article, is centered on interpretation, it is not considered “objective” research. Throughout the observation process, the researcher’s identity and subjectivity are always implicated. Interpretivist research engages participants’ multiple ways of knowing and making meaning, at the same time engaging socially constructed meanings agreed upon by society. Thus, while interpretations may be unique to individuals, to some degree, it is also possible to access the “perspectives of several members of the same social group about some phenomena,” which can “suggest some cultural patterns of thought and action for that group as a whole” (Glesne, 2016 , p. 9). In order to collect substantial evidence of such cultural patterns, interpretivist researchers prioritize significant, long-term engagement in the field. While one might observe and use the techniques described in this article on a short-term or ad hoc basis, sustained presence in the field and interaction with participants are vital for interpreting cultural understandings unique to the context.

Nearly every researcher has experienced schooling in some manner, making informal “insider” status somewhat universal for researchers who choose to study education. This amplifies researcher subjectivity such that most researchers entering the field have an a priori vision of what the student experience is like, and how educators are, or should be, in an educational setting. For those who have experienced traditional schooling, their experience is not insignificant, spanning more than a decade of their lives. Additionally, some education researchers are former educators, adding a further layer of knowledge and experience that influences how they engage in observation-based qualitative research. All this is to say that the cultural meanings that each of us bring to bear on educational research are heavily laden with our own schooling experiences and the social powers that shape them. This can be both a benefit and a reason for increased attentiveness or caution.

Another concern regarding observation in the field of education is that there are significant contextual implications for observations in classrooms. Thus, the term is doubly fraught with meaning. Generally, when teachers (or students) think about being observed, they assume judgement. While a fear or wariness about researcher judgement is not uncommon in observational research, the apprenticeship model for teachers invokes observation as a form of evaluation with real professional consequences. This is the case for pre service teachers and in-service teachers alike. In conjunction with student achievement, observation ratings may also be tied to teacher performance evaluations and merit pay. This discursive and symbolic conundrum can be problematic for qualitative researchers both in terms of gaining entry into the field, and also in terms of managing their own biases toward judgement. In conducting observation in classrooms, the aura of evaluation is ever-present. This is not to say that observation, as associated with educational evaluation, is bad. There are vast benefits to apprenticeship, directed feedback, legitimate peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991 ), and experiential learning (Dewey, 1938 ). When it comes to qualitative research, however, there is a necessary translation that must occur to orient both the reflexive approach of the researcher, and the understanding of the teacher or students being observed.

While interpretivist participant observation engages the subjectivity of the researcher, novice researchers are encouraged to take field notes as objectively as possible, reserving analysis and interpretation for a later phase. That said, our experiences as researchers in the field always engage some level of analysis as we integrate what we see and experience into our own extant frames of reference. Denzin ( 2017 ) reminded researchers that participant observation “entails a continuous movement between emerging conceptualizations of reality and empirical observations. Theory and method combine to allow the simultaneous generation and verification of theory” (p. 186). This article presents a methodological perspective on how one might conduct participant observation in educational settings, while paying particular attention to the movement between empirical or “objective” observation, subjective interpretation, and further evaluation. While the article focuses primarily on observation rather than analysis, it is necessary to consider how a researcher navigates the continuous push in the field to detach (concrete observation) and connect (understanding emerging concepts). The article thus includes some discussion of preliminary analysis and how it may be recorded.

It is always tricky to lay out methodological procedure when, in reality, the process is layered, cyclical, or non-linear (Spradley, 1980 ). For the researcher interested in observation, it is important to keep in mind the idea of “movement between” as stated by Denzin ( 2017 ). A vital skill for expert qualitative observation is to actually exist and think “between.” This allows for subjectivity and emic or insider understandings to inform, but not supersede, concrete thick descriptions (Geertz, 1973 ) of interaction in the field. This skill takes significant practice and mentorship. The included examples describe the process of a novice researcher, to show how one might begin to build capacity for observation and subsequent interpretation. Following the discussion of methodological procedure, there is a brief discussion of implications and encouragements for the use of ethnographic observation in educational settings.

Methodological Cycles of Observation

This section breaks the methodological process of observation in school settings into three domains: Prior-to-field , in-field , and post- or inter-field . These domains can be viewed as somewhat cyclical in nature and, realistically speaking, are not always discrete. As the researcher becomes more embedded in the research setting, more familiar with the context, and more adept at the “move between” description and analysis, the lines between the domains become blurry. So while one may separate these domains for the sake of explanation, they should be taken not as singular, but rather as guiding moments in the process of qualitative observation.

In the prior-to-field domain, the researcher examines or states their own epistemological stance toward the work, as well as their own biases toward the setting or subject matter. This reflexive work not only sets the tone for the in-field domain, but also allows the researcher to consider appropriate research questions. In the post- or inter-field domain, the researcher revisits their in-field observations to again navigate between the concrete field notes taken and their own subjective interpretations. This domain also provides opportunity to further focus observation and refine the research questions. Additionally, researchers may consider this an apt moment to check with participants for their own interpretations of interactions observed.

Prior-to-Field

Observation is more than simple data collection and, despite differing epistemological orientations, nearly all sources agree that observation-based research should be rigorously conducted. In other words, data gathered through observation or ethnography is “more than casually observed opinion” (Angrosino & Rosenberg, 2011 , p. 468). In more recent iterations of ethnographic methodology, observation is highlighted as a site of interaction. In this postmodern context, researcher subjectivity is acknowledged—rendering the researcher a participant, co-constructor, and co-negotiator of meaning at the study site. Angrosino and Rosenberg ( 2011 ) stated, “our social scientific powers of observation must, however, be turned on ourselves and the ways in which our experiences interface with those of others in the same context if we are to come to an understanding of sociocultural processes” (p. 470). This discussion of the nature of observation-based research is a vital starting point since it orients the researcher to the cultural meanings of the study site and encourages them to acknowledge their own subjectivity. As in post-critical ethnography (Noblit, Flores, & Murillo, 2004 ), this orientation serves to situate the project as theory and methodology that are inextricably intertwined. This means that the researcher needs to be aware of the experiences, meanings, and biases they bring to the field.

From a sociological standpoint, each of us moves in the world based on a number of more or less abstract identity markers that influence how others interact with us. A particular caution for educational researchers exists in the vast differences we know that students have in their schooling experiences. These differences are often based on social markers such as race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, sexuality, and religion. Schooling, as an institution, mirrors and even amplifies the social hierarchies of society such that some are distinctly privileged in educational settings, while others experience oppression and disadvantage. So, to build on the assertion that nearly all education researchers have “insider” experience with schooling, it is important to note that these experiences can differ greatly. Sometimes parallel or similar experiences may limit the view of the researcher in that they may see only their own experiences, and may not look beyond that feeling to truly engage what others might experience. Additionally, differing experiences or social positioning may result in misinterpretation of cultural meaning. Thus, educational researchers must prioritize the move between social meanings of their own and those of participants observed. This is one reason, in particular, why it is so important to record concrete sensory detail in the field.

When a researcher records concrete details, they are recording what is seen . If a researcher were to record only what they think about the events taking place in the field, this judgement (for that is what it is) may supplant other potential meanings that may be discovered. Recording concrete sensory details allows the researcher the space to later move between their own subjectivity and those of the participants—particularly during the process of writing expanded field notes. This process takes time and practice. Indeed, it takes a vigilant researcher to parse out the expectations overlaid on educational research settings by their own experiences from the experiences of others. In consideration of the ways that a researcher might begin to identify and examine their own biases, a good starting point is Sensoy and DiAngelo ( 2017 ). In their book Is Everyone Really Equal: An Introduction to Key Concepts in Social Justice Education , the authors guide the reader through an approachable exploration of concepts such as power, oppression, prejudice, discrimination, privilege, and social construction. Each of these concepts is vital for understanding researcher biases and how they influence interpretations in the field. In general, this examination process is referred to in the field as reflexivity, or “critical reflection on how researcher, research participants, setting, and research procedures interact with and influence each other” (Glesne, 2016 , p. 145). Pillow ( 2003 ) pointed out that this reflective process does not absolve the researcher of their own biases, yet has important ramifications for the analysis and findings.

Those who have trained and served as educators may have particular insight to offer in the field of educational research. They may understand the field in more depth, having recently experienced the nuance and pressures of policy. To those who say that prior experience in the field may bias the investigation—it does. However, all researchers are biased in that they experience the world in a particular manner and ascribe specific cultural and social meanings to settings and events. It is also necessary to acknowledge here that effective use of this depth of understanding for qualitative observation does not come without caution.

Prior to entering the field, researchers may make preliminary decisions about their level of involvement, participation, and immersion. While older iterations of ethnographic methodology encouraged the observer to participate as little as possible, this can hinder the researcher’s ability to truly understand indigenous meanings of the social situation being observed. Certainly, the lesser-involved researcher will have greater opportunity to record copious notes. However, simply being present in the setting does have an effect on participants and may alter the way that they act or interact. Furthermore, researchers need not see the roles of participant and researcher as two poles. Rather, it is useful to think of these as two ends of a continuum, where the researcher(s’) role is never static.

While research ethics are not the primary focus of this article, it would not be appropriate to advocate for observation without mentioning that participants’ rights and confidentiality should be considered at every step of the process. Prior to entering the observation setting, the researcher must obtain approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB). This is particularly important for research in schools, where participants may be minors and parental consent for participation may be required. Once approval is granted, the researcher should obtain consent from participants and provide a disclosure of nature of the study and time requirements for engaging in the study. Additionally, participants should be reminded that they can opt out of the study at any time. The IRB will also provide explicit guidelines on how all sensitive or identifiable data should be stored to protect participants’ identity.

Another key decision to make prior to entering the field is how field notes will be recorded. While notes can certainly be recorded on paper, or using a word-processing program on a laptop, pervasive use of personal digital technology (smartphones, tablets, etc.) has transformed the available options for documenting the field. As long as one has received approval for photo or video documentation from IRB, digital photography is instantaneous and can help document the research setting in greater detail. Digital videos can record activities and interactions such that the researcher can return to these when expanding field notes for further verification or perspective. Aside from simple dialogue, voice recorders can also record soundscapes , a growing area of qualitative research analysis (Gershon, 2013 ). There are also a number of app-based note-taking and qualitative-analysis programs helpful for observational research, including: Atlas.ti Mobile, Evernote, EverClip, MAXApp (corollary to MAXQDA), and Indeemo. Additionally, Google Could now offers a free speech-to-text function that can capture dialogue in more detail than one might be able to do on paper or by typing.

The choice of note-taking platform should take into account participants’ wishes, as well as the needs inherent to the setting. This decision is not just a simple question of what will work best for the researcher and their research product. Returning to the prior discussion of educator evaluation, teachers may associate note-taking—on paper or electronically—with recording judgement. When I have mentored student teachers, they have expressed that the tapping sound produced by typing on a laptop can increase their anxiety exponentially. While these considerations may sound superficial, the comfort level of participants is of utmost importance for the researcher in establishing themselves as collegial, and not intrusive. In fact, I have found it to be useful to ask a classroom teacher how they would prefer for me to record my observations. Regardless of their choice, I always assure them that I am “documenting” the events taking place, and not recording judgement.

Before moving on, it is worth noting that any prior-to-field decision-making may shift and evolve throughout the process of the research engagement. Qualitative research, by nature, seeks to understand meaning from the perspective of the actors in a particular context. Thus, the researcher must be willing to follow threads of understanding or thought, even if they are unexpected. For example, one may plan for low participation (Spradley, 1980 ) in the setting, but one day during the field visit the teacher may invite the researcher to lead a group of students through a math activity. In the interest of building rapport and trust with the participants, it may be necessary to move to a higher level of participation in response to this invitation. This will be discussed in further detail relating to the in-field domain. Emerson et al. ( 2011 ) stated that a good participant observer must be both “sensitive and perceptive about how they are seen by others” (p. 4). If the participants see the researcher as detached, unhelpful, or otherwise standoffish, this can affect their level of comfort and shift the insights they choose to share. Changes in the researcher’s level of participation should be recorded in field notes, and do not negate the reliability of eventual findings. In fact, participants may share additional insights with researchers who show interest in their perspectives, actions, and thoughts.

This section details two major considerations for researcher(s) embarking upon in-field observations: What to look for, and how to record what is seen. This is obviously oversimplified, but these two considerations will help to organize the process of collecting qualitative data via observation. These decisions can be made by an individual researcher or by research teams working together to investigate a particular setting or phenomenon.

What Should the Researcher Look For?

The first thing a novice researcher often asks about observation in the field is “What should I be looking for?” This question is loaded, and takes some time to unpack. While there may be something that the researcher hopes will happen, it is important to focus explicitly on what does happen, and how it happens. One of the first skills that a participant observer must begin to hone is explicit awareness of a situation (Spradley, 1980 ). This awareness can be compared to that of a wide-angle camera lens that takes in as much as possible. The goal, Spradley stated, is to overcome the “selective inattention” most people employ to conduct daily tasks and interactions (p. 55). This explicit awareness is not solely directed outward. Spradley also noted that the researcher must increase their introspectiveness so that they are better able to see and reflect upon the cultural frames and meanings associated with that which is observed.

Using the metaphor of a wide-angle lens, one common way to begin observation is through descriptive observation . In this case, the researcher approaches the observation with very general questions in mind. For example: “What is happening here?” or “What is going on?” These broad, open questions allow for the researcher to see and feel the setting as it is, without overlaying a priori meanings or assumptions.

Table 1. Spradley’s Descriptive Question Matrix

Source: . Spradley ( 1980 , pp. 82–83).

Spradley ( 1980 ) outlined a “Grand Tour” as a procedure for descriptive observation. In this overview, the researcher would take note of various facets of the setting and participants including:

The first three facets are presented in bold (author’s emphasis) because these three form a meaningful starting point for any observation, and the remaining six provide additional nuance. A diagram can be useful for illustrating the set-up of the space, mapping objects as well as actors. After examining each of these facets of the setting, Spradley recommended creating a descriptive question matrix wherein the researcher integrates observations from two or more of the facets to examine how they might interact. For example, consider how a student who is disabled might interact with a space that is not accessible for mobility. More detail is provided in Table 1 .

Emerson et al. ( 2011 ) also advocated for a wide-angle lens and prioritized the senses in helping to establish initial impressions. They expanded on the facets listed by Spradley, encouraging the researcher to consider physical space and environment in terms of characteristics such as size, space, noise, and layout. It terms of actors in a setting, they also suggested observing such characteristics as perceived race and gender, dress, comportment, and proximity to other actors. Moving beyond these facets, Emerson et al. also advocate that the researcher ask the question “What is significant or unexpected?” in the field. In other words, what seems out of place or out of the expected flow? Such unexpected moments are often of the most interest, and also represent some of the most significant cultural learning for the researcher. For instance, do the actors in the field react as though the same event is unexpected? If not, the researcher will need to examine the event, activities preceding the event, and those following the event to work to understand the significance. It is also important to register one’s own feelings, as the researcher, when observing in the field. Then, in working to understand one’s own reactions, feelings, and biases in comparison to those in the field, one may reveal cultural meanings unique to the context. It is important to note that the researcher should not take their own feelings as findings. Rather, they should move beyond their own reactions toward an analysis of what those in the setting may find significant (Emerson et al., 2011 ).

Focused observation takes place after the researcher has been in the field for some time, and serves to limit the inquiry in a meaningful manner. Whereas in descriptive observation, the research questions were general, in focused observation the researcher engages more structural questions (Spradley, 1980 ). For example: What are all the ways that a teacher asks a student to focus on their work? Focused observations may be conducted as surface or in-depth investigations. According to Spradley, surface investigations examine a number of cultural domains in some depth. In-depth observations are just that, observations where the researcher selects one domain and examines it thoroughly. These cultural domains may be selected based on personal interest, suggestion by informant, theoretical interest, or other strategic reasoning (Spradley, 1980 ). Additionally, this can lead the researcher to a potential taxonomy of events or codes occurring at the site ( selective observation ).

While Spradley’s approach can be useful and meaningful, there is also room to hone the initial general research question of “What is happening here?” to a more structured prompt that does not demand taxonomic reduction. An example of such a prompt engages the significant or unexpected events described by Emerson et al. ( 2011 ). In this case, the researcher might choose to further examine a particular event or occurrence, asking the questions: When this event happens, how does it happen? What else is happening? What changes? This way, the researcher is not limited to types of interaction, but can also consider the means by which these interactions take place and the dynamics that are set into motion.

Recording Field Notes

Field notes are the first phase of documenting happenings as data via observation—a method of inscription or textualization which later serves as a basis for iterative analysis. Further, according to Emerson et al., “Field notes are distinctively a method for capturing and preserving insights and understandings” ( 2011 , p. 14). There is no best way to record field notes, and none approaches a truly objective accounting of the events that occurred. One observer may choose to record significant events or key phrases that another observer does not choose to record. Thus, when conducting research in teams, it is useful to cross-check notes with others who observed the same events. This can be done in formal calibration meetings or informal conversations post-observation. Cross-checking can also be performed as a type of member check with participants, where the researcher might ask if anything was missed. Subjectivity is always implicated, since each observer filters events through their own cultural meanings and understanding of the social world. Yet, researchers observing in social settings are still encouraged to record what they see as concretely as possible. Taking a step back, researchers must decide the appropriate method for recording notes in the field. In the moment, researchers will need some method to record jottings, which are “a brief written record of events and impressions captured in key words and phrases” (Emerson et al., 2011 , p. 29). These quickly written or typed fragments are used to help the researcher as they later create detailed expanded field notes.

A researcher may choose to take notes on paper or another electronic device. When permission is appropriately obtained, the researcher may also create video or audio recordings of the setting. Even when a recording is made, the researcher should still take jottings when possible as a source for both back up and further detail. The choice of paper or electronic device should be made based on the setting and the researcher’s level of participation in the field. In any case, the method used should be as unobtrusive as possible and should not disturb the events taking place. The researcher may choose to take jottings down openly—so that participants can see them writing or typing—or in a hidden manner (Emerson et al., 2011 ). The decision of how to record jottings in the field is also dependent on a number of other factors, including the nature of the research questions, the skill of the researcher, the mobility required by the setting, availability of power or Internet, and the language of the researcher as compared to the participants.

As events in a research setting unfold, the researcher should take down short notes in order to later remember the events when assembling expanded field notes. These jottings may be fragments of interactions, keywords, phrases, or verbatim quotes (when possible). For example:

Music Education Class Participants: 1 Instructor, 8 Students (college-aged), 1 researcher 2:15 p.m . Instructor (Dr. Hart) tells class they are making a chart about assumptions Hope: Learning takes place in a building Hart: So, learning should look a certain way Hope: No! Not what I meant Hart says translating to fit in chart Hope: No, no! (shakes head and looks at me) Me: I think she is saying that learning could happen outdoors, or at home . Hope: Yes!! Hart writes “Learning should look a certain way” on chart, ignoring our protestations Hope frowns scrunches eyebrows together. Looks down at phone . 1

Jottings may also consist of drawings and diagrams that document the space. Jottings should always show time and date, and it is useful to check the clock and record the time every 5–10 minutes or so throughout the observation. This will help later, when considering and analyzing the pace of events. The question of when a researcher should take down jottings is also worth consideration. If the researcher is involved in a conversation, or is an otherwise active participant in the situation or events, they should prioritize this interaction over note-taking. Tact and rapport are vitally important to qualitative observation, and sometimes note-taking may come across as if the researcher is rude or not listening. Wait for breaks or lulls in the conversation to record jottings. If your participation requires that you move around a room or other space, it may be best to use a small notebook or electronic tablet that is easily carried.

Our inclination as educational researchers is often to provide evaluative feedback on the performance of the educator being observed. When recording field notes, it is important to resist this urge. Jottings should include as much detail as possible, using descriptive and concrete language. Emerson et al. ( 2011 ) suggest the following recommendations on how one might document what is observed. First, one should describe all key components of the setting, using concrete sensory details that would help a third-party reader gain a reasonable vision of the actors and events. Rather than stating that a participant looked defeated, for instance, it would be more appropriate to record the details of their bearing that lead you to believe this is the case. In this example, the researcher might record: The participant’s eyes were cast down toward the ground and their shoulders were hunched forward . Additionally, researchers should avoid characterizing events through generalization or summary in field notes, since these represent a form of analysis or judgement. The purpose in avoiding generalization at this phase is to leave the possibility open for alternative interpretation once the full data set is established. It is possible that later events may clarify or alter the meaning of a particular social act.

Feelings and emotions will always be present in a research setting, and should be acknowledged and recorded. Emerson et al. ( 2011 ) noted that it can be informative to describe actors’ emotional expressions and responses to the events occurring throughout the observation. They also recommend that the researcher record their own impressions and feelings about the events. Having recorded these feelings and responses, the researcher can compare their own reactions to those of the participants in order better to understand the cultural and social meanings unique to that setting and those actors. However, the impressions and feelings of the researcher do represent a form of analysis, and should be specifically recorded as such.

In field notes, the researcher should differentiate between the types of information they record so that it will be recognizable when they return to the jottings to expand them into completed field notes. Concrete descriptions of sensory details and verbatim interactions should be recorded in one manner or place, and impressions or personal feelings should be recorded differently. For example, some researchers choose to separate these types of jottings into two columns in their notebook before entering the field. Others use the comment function in word-processing software to separate analytic commentary from notes. These parallel notes can also be recorded using the advanced functionality of apps such as Evernote and MAXApp.

Both types of recording are important, and serve to help the researcher remember what they were seeing and feeling while in the field. These reminders will serve as recall prompts when the researcher goes to expand their field notes into full notes, and later when they use those notes to create analytic memos.

Post-Field or Inter-Field

This domain is dually named to highlight the fact that qualitative participant observers should complete multiple observations over a significant length of time. A single observation is not sufficient for allowing the researcher to understand contextual cultural meanings, and most qualitative methodologists encourage in-depth, long-term engagement in the field. Thus, the inter-field domain name refers to the idea that researchers will likely need to enter and exit the field a number of times. Expanded field notes, notes-on-notes, and memos should be created in between visits to help focus the study. At some point, examination of field notes and other qualitative data (i.e., interviews, documents) will start to seem redundant. In other words, the researcher(s) will begin to see the same phenomena occurring, with nothing new arising in successive observations. In other words, they have reached the point of data saturation (Glesne, 2016 ). There is not a set number of observations, or a pre determined length of field observation, necessary for rigorous qualitative observation. Rather, the researcher(s) must determine this point of theoretical saturation for themselves.

Expanded Field Notes

The process of observation does not stop once the researcher leaves the field. One cannot possibly record every detail of the observation in the moment, so jottings should be re-read and expanded after the fact. In order to preserve detail with the freshest memory, a number of sources recommend that the researcher read over jottings and expand them into fully realized field notes within 24 to 48 hours. This expansion process involves recreating a record of the events and interactions observed in full, rich detail (Geertz, 1973 ). In the field, the researcher may not have had time to record these happenings fully, but the jottings serve to jog the memory so that the researcher can later recall the field more fully. Expanded field notes may take the form of prose (paragraphs), a script of dialogue, figures, or diagrams. Time notations from jottings should be preserved in expanded field notes, and researcher asides or commentaries should also be kept separate from concrete sensory observations. Here is an example of field notes expanded from the jottings provided in the section “ Recording Field Notes ”:

Music Education Class Participants: 1 Instructor, 8 Students (college-aged), 1 researcher 2:15 p.m . The instructor, Dr. Hart asks the students what assumptions we make about learning. Hope, a white woman, raises her hand and says, “We assume that learning takes place in a building.” I feel that I understand what she’s saying and nod in agreement. Though I’ve nodded my head somewhat unconsciously, I notice that Hope has seen me agreeing with her. Dr. Hart says: “Yes, we assume that a school should look a certain way.” She says “No, that’s not what I mean!” and looks at me. Dr. Hart says that he’s going to translate her meaning a bit so that it will fit the chart they’ve been creating, and that, basically, it’s the same meaning anyway [paraphrased]. Hope looks disconcerted, with her eyebrows scrunched together. She is also shaking her head to left and right (as if to disagree) and frowning. She tries to reiterate her point, [paraphrase] “I am saying that learning experiences don’t need to happen in a building.” She again looks at me and I feel compelled to speak up. I say, “I think I know what you’re saying, you mean that you don’t have to be inside a school to learn, that you can learn outdoors, and at home with your family.” She says, “Yes! That’s what I mean!” Dr. Hart says “Oh, Ok!” but then asks John to write-up his original statement of “Schools look a certain way.” Hope slouches in her chair and rounds her shoulders, picks up her phone and begins to type .

In a first visit to a setting, it may be useful to assign pseudonyms or codes to participants to help with de-identifying participant data throughout the field notes. In addition to assigning such codes, the researcher should keep a code book or identifying document, preferably stored separately.

Expanded field notes should include as much detail as possible. Emerson et al. ( 2011 ) elaborated on this descriptive writing strategy that “calls for concrete details rather than abstract generalizations, for sensory imagery rather than evaluative labels, and for immediacy through details presented at close range” (p. 58). By necessity, this means that field notes will be long and labor intensive, with the added pressure that the researcher should record them as soon as possible to avoid losing detail. It is important not to skip this step of the process. It is easy to forget the particularities of the social field over time, and expanded field notes preserve complexity and richness of the data. Additionally, expanded field notes are vital when collaborating with other researchers, as they allow the others to experience a full description of events even if they were not present.

Notes-on-Notes

While writing expanded field notes, the researcher will inevitably begin to develop preliminary commentary and impressions. These impressions should not be considered findings when they arise from a single observation. Rather, they should be noted clearly so that the researcher may confirm or disconfirm their impressions in subsequent observations, interviews, or document analysis. To do this, researchers should create a short memo containing notes-on-notes for each field observation. Such a memo should move beyond impressions and begin to comment or theorize on what is observed. That said, notes-on-notes should not be considered findings until they have been compared to observations and triangulated with other types of data. Notes-on-notes can help to focus and narrow the research questions, and aid in moving the research project from descriptive to focused observation. Additionally, they may help in generating interview guides for focus groups or individual interviews where preliminary findings can be confirmed or ruled out. This is also a place for the researcher to record their own feelings in more detail. For example, if the researcher is experiencing frustration because they are not able to observe interactions between particular participants, they may note this frustration in the notes-on-notes memo. Notes-on-notes need not be lengthy; sometimes a paragraph or two is enough to express whatever should be noted for follow-up or later confirmation.

The process of qualitative observation is cyclical. Expanded field notes, along with the corresponding notes-on-notes, will most often direct the researcher back to the field to gather further information. The requisite information may represent a broadening of perspective, or a narrowing, depending on the setting and participants. Experienced researchers often begin the analytic process immediately upon entering a field of study, parsing out codes and themes in the data that they can further clarify (and sometimes quantify) as the study progresses. Analysis and coding are not included in this article, though the authors cited herein offer great insight on that topic.

Encouragements

One of the most encouraging aspects of observational research in educational settings is the opportunity to build partnerships and rapport with those who are currently working in the field. Very often there is a perceived divide between academics and P–12 teachers who work in classrooms. Again, the importance of developing rapport, basic trust, as well as collegiality cannot be overstated. Meaningful partnerships across these perceived divides are one of the most productive potential sites for educational change and reform to occur. These are the sites where, together, we might exert the most influence over policy, equity, and curriculum.

Rapport building should be genuine. It is not advisable to fake an interest in a site of study or associated stakeholders simply to benefits one’s own research agenda. Such an approach echoes the exploitative measures of early ethnographers, and is considered highly unethical. Thus, a skill that we have not yet explored regarding qualitative observation in educational settings is the ability of the researcher to seek and build meaningful, ethical relationships with those they study. The conundrum here then becomes that when we establish real relationships with participants, our subjectivity is engaged on yet another level. However, the benefits largely outweigh any potential pitfalls.

Moving beyond the stereotypical idea of one observer recording the events of a classroom, another opportunity is that of participatory action research. By engaging stakeholders in the design and execution of the research, the research may address issues that are pressing or of great importance to participants. This serves to generate educational change regarding issues that are of urgent concern to those engaged in the field on a day-to-day basis. A particular arena of possibility here involves engaging students in research.

Final Thoughts

To summarize, observation in educational settings is a detailed and rigorous process. This process involves self-reflection, attention to concrete and sensory details, and, most important, the ability to build rapport with participants. This article has detailed one methodological perspective and approach toward qualitative observation in educational settings. This approach can be used in both traditional and nontraditional educational settings, provided that the researcher maintains flexibility and an introspective approach to observation and, later, analysis. Cornerstone observational studies such as Ladson-Billings’s ( 2009 ) The Dreamkeepers , Lareau’s ( 2011 ) Unequal Childhoods , and Willis’s ( 2017 ) Learning to Labour provide useful examples of the insights that can be gleaned from observation.

The reflective “move between” one’s own subjectivity and that of participants is truly the generative site of observational research (Denzin, 2017 ). When done well, this moving in between can reveal similarities and differences, and can help people to take the time to understand diverse experiences, rather than approaching them from a stance of judgement and evaluation. Truly, observational research is a place where we have the opportunity to focus deeply on the experience of others. This is not just to walk in their shoes, but to understand the forces and meanings that influence their daily lives. These are some of the most exciting moments of potential change that qualitative research has to offer.

Methodological Texts

Emerson, R. M. , Fretz, R. I. , & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Spradley, J. P. (1980). Participant observation . New York, NY: Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston.

Representative Studies

Ladson-Billings, G. (2009). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers of African American children . San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Lareau, A. (2011). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life . Berkeley: University of California Press.
Willis, P. (2017). Learning to labour: How working class kids get working class jobs . New York, NY: Routledge.
Angrosino, M. , & Rosenberg, J. (2011). Observations on observation: Continuities and challenges. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 467–478). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Denzin, N. K. (2017). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods . New York, NY: Routledge.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education . Indianapolis, IN: Kappa Delta Pi.
Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Toward an interpretive theory of culture. The interpretation of cultures (pp. 3–30). New York, NY: Basic Books.
Gershon, W. S. (2013). Vibrational affect: Sound theory and practice in qualitative research. Cultural Studies?↔Critical Methodologies, 13 (4), 257–262.
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.) New York, NY: Pearson.
Lave, J. , & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation . Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
Noblit, G. W. , Flores, S. Y. , & Murillo, E. G. (2004). Postcritical ethnography: Reinscribing critique . Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Pillow, W. (2003). Confession, catharsis, or cure? Rethinking the uses of reflexivity as methodological power in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education , 16 (2), 175–196.
Sensoy, O. , & DiAngelo, R. (2017). Is everyone really equal? An introduction to key concepts in social justice education . New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

1. Expanded field notes from these jottings are included in the section “ Expanded Field Notes .”

Ethnography and Education
Qualitative Design Research Methods
Interviews and Interviewing in the Ethnography of Education
Writing and Managing Multimodal Field Notes
Ethnography Across Borders
Mixed Methods Approaches and Qualitative Methodology for Higher Education Policy Research
Qualitative Data Analysis and the Use of Theory

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date: 04 April 2024

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Educational design research: Portraying, conducting, and enhancing productive scholarship

Susan mckenney.

1 Department of Teacher Development (ELAN), Faculty of Behavioural, Management and Social Sciences, University of Twente, Enschede the Netherlands

Thomas C. Reeves

2 Department of Career and Information Studies, College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens Georgia, USA

Solutionism is the all‐too‐common human propensity to jump to a solution before adequately understanding the nature of a problem. Solutionism has long been prevalent in efforts to improve education at all levels, including medical education.

Educational design research (EDR) is a genre of research that features the gaining of in‐depth understanding of a problem before any prototype solution is designed and tested. It is different from other forms of scientific inquiry because it is committed to the simultaneous development of both theoretical insights and practical solutions, together with stakeholders. This approach is powerful for theory building because it privileges ecologically valid studies that embrace the complexity of investigating learning in authentic (as opposed to laboratory) settings. When conducted well, both the research process and its outcomes generate valuable contributions to practice.

This article constitutes an expository essay on EDR, comprised of three movements. First, the approach is defined, its origins are presented, and its characteristics are described. Second, a generic model for conducting EDR is offered, and illustrated with examples from the field of medical education. Third, pathways towards advancing this form of inquiry are discussed, including ways to address inherent challenges and limitations, as well as recommendations for the medical education community. Although EDR is no panacea, this article illustrates how it can serve medical education research in a wide variety of geographic and disciplinary contexts.

Key message

Educational design research features collaboration between stakeholders (eg, researchers, instructors, clinicians, and medical students) to simultaneously develop both new theoretical insights and practical solutions to serious teaching and learning challenges.

1. INTRODUCTION

Humans have a common tendency to jump to solutions prior to fully understanding the nature of the problem they are trying to solve, thus demonstrating a practice described as ‘solutionism’ by Morozov. 1 Education is not the only field to fall prey to such behaviour, but it has seen its fair share of examples over the course of many decades. For instance, in 1922 Edison promised that films would replace textbooks. 2 Similar predictions continue to be made today as augmented reality and other technologies are put forward as the future of medical education. 3 Despite the fact that critics have revealed that the majority of studies on technological solutions in education yield ‘no significant difference,' 4 the tendency persists. Perhaps this represents the triumph of optimism over experience, or perhaps it is simply naïveté. We posit another explanation, which is that for many years problem solving was not considered serious science. In this contribution to Medical Education ’s special issue on ‘solutionism,' we examine a powerful approach to education research that features productive synergies between problem solving and serious science.

A distinction has often been made between basic research to discover new knowledge and applied research to solve practical problems, but this simplistic dichotomy does not adequately represent either how research is actually conducted or the multiple goals pursued by most scholars. 5 Education researchers, including those working in the field of medical education, often have a range of different goals in that their purposes may be descriptive, predictive, interpretivist, or refer to development or action. 4 For researchers interested in contributing to theory alongside development goals, educational design research (EDR) may be a compelling option. 6 We observe that the achieving of complex development goals is rarely feasible through simple, linear or predictable pathways, and this is also the case in medical education.

2. PORTRAYING EDR

‘Educational design research can be defined as a genre of research in which the iterative development of solutions to practical and complex educational problems also provides the context for empirical investigation, which yields theoretical understanding that can inform the work of others.’ 7 Identifying problems amenable to EDR involves finding real‐world challenges that are worthy of investigation and capable of being solved through the EDR process. Specific problems may be identified by practitioners, by researchers, or through the study of literature. 7 For example, a serious problem in medical education refers to helping future physicians develop consistent habits to prevent sepsis. 8 Over a million cases of sepsis occur in United States hospitals every year and 15%‐30% of them result in death. 9 Although antisepsis protocols are well known, research is needed to understand why they are insufficiently adhered to, and to develop additional solutions that can eradicate this problem. 10

When even an obvious serious problem is raised, verification in both literature and practice is necessary to ascertain if it is, indeed, legitimate, researchable and research‐worthy. From the theoretical perspective, the problem is worth studying if doing so would address a clear gap in the existing literature (legitimate), if existing methods will allow it to be studied well enough to warrant the effort (researchable), and if the work will contribute to theory development or scientific understanding related to a widely held, as opposed to idiosyncratic, concern (research‐worthy). 7 From the practical perspective, the problem is worth solving if the real problem, as opposed to a symptom, is identified (legitimate), if it can be identified in accessible contexts (researchable), and if it is severe enough to encourage stakeholders to invest in solving it (research‐worthy). 7 Here is an example situated in a gross anatomy class:

Problem: corpse donors are limited and existing simulations for teaching human anatomy lack sufficient fidelity (the practical side of the problem). The current simulation literature provides insufficient guidance on how to develop high‐quality simulations for mammalian anatomy (the scientific side of the problem).
Practical aim: to develop a high‐quality human dissection simulation that allows students to meet course goals without conducting actual dissection.
Scientific aim: to understand and describe the characteristics of high‐quality simulations for mammals in general and humans in particular.

Research that does not explicitly seek to contribute to both theory and practice by addressing real‐world challenges can certainly be of great value, but it does not constitute EDR.

Undertaken in three movements, the purpose of this paper is to introduce EDR to the medical education community. The remainder of this section further portrays (the origins of) the approach, as well as similar approaches found in medical education research. The second section of this article describes how EDR is conducted and gives examples from the field. The third section considers productive pathways forward, in light of inherent challenges and limitations.

2.1. Theoretical and practical synergies: a brief, non‐comprehensive review

The notion of a linking science connecting theoretical and practical work has been advocated by psychologists for over a century. 11 , 12 In the 1930s and 1940s, major advancements in this direction were made by Lewin and colleagues, through action research, in which hypothesis generation and testing through the discussion of problems followed by group decisions were central. 13 In the 1960s and 1970s, (participatory) action research flourished in the social sciences, practitioner inquiry emerged, and calls for educational research to directly address the problems and needs of education increased. 14 Amongst other things, this set the stage for the rise of ‘action science’ in the 1980s 15 and the notion of ‘use‐inspired basic research,' which gained widespread momentum in the 1990s 5 . Around that time, researchers in the fields of instruction design and curriculum development began to stress the need for more reliable, prescriptive understanding to guide the robust design of educational products, programmes, processes and policies. 16 , 17 , 18 At the same time, researchers in the field of education psychology published landmark papers arguing for how theory informs the design of learning and vice versa, calling for research to be situated in the contexts in which that learning actually takes place, and citing the shortcomings of laboratory settings for understanding learning phenomena. 19 , 20

Across disciplinary lines, such views gained momentum upon the publication of Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation . 5 In this seminal work, Stokes questions the popular assumption that basic research inevitably leads to the development of new technologies, and argues that technological advances often permit the conduct of new types of basic research, thus reversing the direction of the basic to applied model. Moreover, he argues for more research like that of the French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur, who sought fundamental knowledge within the context of solving real‐world problems such as the spoilage of milk and treatment for rabies. In this tradition, EDR is concerned with the solving of existing problems in practice and with the structuring of the inquiry process so that it yields scientific understanding that is ecologically valid and informs the work of others.

2.2. A family of approaches

We use the term 'EDR' to describe a family of approaches that strive towards the dual goals of developing theoretical understanding and also designing and implementing interventions in practice. 21 This family of approaches may, but does not always, include design‐based research, design‐based implementation research, development research, design experiments, formative research, participatory design research, realist evaluation, the Medical Research Council (MRC) framework for evaluating complex interventions, action research and improvement science. The various names are not synonymous, and some authors have extensively described how specific members of this family differ from others. 22 Although a comprehensive overview is beyond the scope of this contribution, we do attempt to situate EDR in relation to other approaches that are frequently used in (medical) education research by way of Table 1 . Though citing the literature upon which it is based, Table 1 summarises the goals and characteristics of each approach in light of that which sets EDR apart from other forms of inquiry: the pursuit of theoretical understanding through the (iterative) development of solutions to problems in practice. Cells with grey shading indicate approaches that inherently yield theoretical and practical outcomes through intervention development, whereas white cells indicate that both theoretical and practical outcomes may be sought through the given approach, but this is not necessarily the case.

Family of approaches seeking practical and scientific synergies, including those that inherently yield theoretical and practical outcomes through intervention development (grey cells), and those that may yield theoretical and practical outcomes, depending on how they are used (white cells)

2.3. Examples of EDR in medical education

Like other research, EDR extends existing theoretical knowledge through data collection and analysis. 23 , 24 , 25 However, unlike many other kinds of research, the EDR process is embedded in the (often cyclic) development of a solution to the problem being tackled. 23 , 24 , 25 Here are three examples:

Hege et al 26 describe the research embedded in the development of a clinical reasoning tool featuring virtual patients. After a framework for software design had been developed based on psychological theories, patient‐centredness, teaching and assessment, learner‐centredness and context, a software tool was developed to be used with virtual patient systems. It specifically supports clinical reasoning skills acquisition and assesses all steps of this complex process. The authors 26 describe the main components of the software, results of usability tests and a pilot study, and indicate directions for further development.
Duitsman et al 27 describe their cyclic approach to improving the functioning of a clinical competency committee. In this project, theoretical principles were distilled from the literature to (re‐)shape clinical competency meetings focused on resident performance in a university children’s hospital. The meetings were evaluated and deemed useful for obtaining a broad indication of resident performance. The design principles and recommendations given are useful for other (research on) residency programmes, and can be adjusted to different contexts.
Baarends et al 28 conducted EDR to foster evidence‐based decision‐making capacity amongst undergraduate occupational therapy students. Their report describes a mixed‐methods study undertaken to generate and pilot test the pedagogic principles underlying a teaching and learning scenario based on principles of cognitive apprenticeship and situated learning. The intervention was well received and the authors 28 make recommendations for subsequent research and development that can help students develop the self‐efficacy, cognitive skills and critical thinking skills required for evidence‐based decision making.

Although brief, these descriptions show how each of these studies developed theoretical understanding and contributed to the improving of practice through the design and testing of interventions.

2.4. Key characteristics

In the same way that engineering design melds creative insights with pragmatic understanding and follows the best available theoretical principles derived from physics, materials science, aesthetics and other disciplines, EDR is a complex and multifaceted endeavour. The simultaneous pursuit of practical and scientific goals is central to the process, which can be characterised by five essential features. Educational design research is 'theorectically oriented' not only because it uses theory to ground design, but also because the design and development work is undertaken to contribute to broader scientific understanding. It is 'interventionist' because it is undertaken to engender productive change in a particular education context. It is 'collaborative' because it requires the expertise of multidisciplinary partnerships, including researchers and practitioners, but also often others (eg, subject matter specialists, software programmers and facilitators). It is 'responsively grounded' because its products are shaped by participant expertise, the literature and, especially, field testing. Finally, it is 'iterative' because it generally evolves through multiple cycles of design, development, testing and revision. Given these characteristics, it will come as no surprise that the overall duration of EDR studies is typically measured in years, rather than months.

Educational design research is not a methodology. This is important to mention because it clarifies that the methodological standards to which it should be held are no different from those of other kinds of research. The methodological rigour of EDR initiatives should therefore be judged using existing criteria for qualitative, quantitative or mixed‐methods studies (eg, reliability, validity, credibility, transferability, dependability, confirmability). Further, EDR leverages existing practices from the fields of design, sociology and education to shape participation and engagement.

3. CONDUCTING EDR

3.1. modelling the process.

The present authors 7 previously surveyed models for EDR, as well as for instruction design and curriculum development (eg, Ejersbo et al, 29 Bannan‐Ritland, 30 Wang and Hannafin 31 ). Based on this analysis, we created a generic model for EDR, shown in Figure 1 . This model shows a single, integrated research and development endeavour. It depicts the core elements of a flexible process that features the three main stages (described below), taking place in interaction with practice and yielding the dual outputs of knowledge and intervention. Each element of the model is discussed and examples are given.

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Generic model for conducting educational design research 7

Although additional information is given in the source publication, 7 three main features bear mention here. First, the squares in Figure 1 denote three core phases, and the arrows between them indicate that the process is both iterative and flexible. During the 'analysis and exploration' phase, collaboration with practitioners is sought in order to shape a better understanding of the problem to be addressed. Research during this phase is typically informed by and contributes to theoretical understanding concerning the problem, context or stakeholders. During 'design and construction,' ideas about how the problem might be addressed tend to start off as rather large and vague, and gradually become refined, pruned and operationalised. Although this phase does not inherently involve empirical work, it does rely on and contribute to theoretical understanding about the (kind of) intervention, including its characteristics and underlying theory of action. During 'evaluation and reflection,' design ideas and prototype solutions are empirically investigated, and the findings are reflected upon, with the aim of refining (theoretical) understanding about if, how and why intervention features work. During this phase, research is shaped by and contributes to theoretical understanding about the (kind of) intervention or the responses it engenders. Across all phases, a blend of rational and creative mindsets is productive.

Second, the dual focus on theory and practice is made explicit through the rectangles, which represent the practical and scientific outputs, respectively. The practical solutions resulting from EDR can be educational products (eg, a multi‐user virtual learning game), processes (eg, a strategy for scaffolding medical student learning in a flipped classroom), programmes (eg, a series of workshops intended to help medical teachers develop more effective questioning strategies), or policies (eg, the designation of a minimum amount of one‐to‐one time for on‐site mentoring of interns). The theoretical understanding resulting from EDR can be used to describe, explain, predict or manipulate education phenomena. As noted previously, the theoretical understanding in design research underpins the design of the intervention, frames the scientific inquiry, and is advanced by findings generated through the empirical testing of the intervention.

Finally, the model demonstrates that attention to practical use through the trapezoid, which represents implementation and spread. It shows that interaction with practice is present from the start of the process, not as an afterthought, and increases over time. The bi‐directional arrows indicate that what happens in practice influences the ongoing core processes, as well as the ultimate outputs, and vice versa. Although not shown here, the professional development of those participating in the study (practitioners and researchers alike) is often a by‐product of the overall process and especially of the implementation work.

3.2. One example spanning all phases

To illustrate how this model comes to life, we briefly describe a previously published 4‐year PhD study, 32 which addressed a problem experienced by the World Health Organization (WHO). Namely, the WHO lacked a scalable, high‐quality training programme on the ‘cold chain’ that applies to the handling of vaccines and other pharmaceutical products that must be kept within the appropriate temperature range during shipping, storage and distribution. During analysis and exploration, Vesper 32 conducted a literature review on relevant learning approaches, field‐based investigation to understand the state of the art of WHO e‐learning programmes, and participant observation of the existing cold chain training programme. During design and construction, Vesper developed and revised multiple training programme prototypes on the basis of the literature and empirical testing (ie, the outcomes of evaluation and reflection). 32 During evaluation and reflection, Vesper 32 used diverse strategies to investigate the various prototypes, including expert appraisal by e‐learning specialists, risk analysis by content experts, and field testing of a mature prototype with target users. From the very first analysis activities through to a final version of the course, attention was given to implementation and spread through close interaction with practitioners. In addition to the practical output (the e‐learning course and underlying design framework), which has subsequently been applied to the design of other online learning environments at the WHO, 33 the scientific output is visible in the form of five journal articles, based on the investigation during analysis and exploration, 34 design and construction, 35 and evaluation and reflection 36 , 37 , 38 phases, respectively. Figure 2 portrays this example in light of the generic model.

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Overview of Vesper’s PhD study 32 in light of the generic model for conducting design research in education 7

3.3. Multiple examples highlighting contributions from different phases

Across the shared characteristics of EDR, differences are also present. Some of the variation stems from the units of analysis, scope of implementation and nature of the subject areas addressed, as well as from the research domains and methodological traditions in which studies originate. The relative emphasis on each goal (solution development, new knowledge or both equally) can also wield strong influence on the design research process.

Here, different research reports 39 , 40 , 41 are used to illustrate the variety of EDR conducted within the field of medical education. For each one, the problem addressed, the intervention developed, the knowledge created and the methods used are summarised in Table 2 .

Three examples demonstrating variations in educational design research

The three examples described here 39 , 40 , 41 illustrate how different types of research reports are published as sub‐components of larger EDR projects. Results from the analysis and exploration phase are highly visible in the article by Subramaniam et al, 39 who used quantitative and qualitative methods in their design research to create, implement and revise HackHealth, an after‐school programme for health literacy that was targeted at adolescents from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds. This particular sub‐study demonstrates how the implementation of the initial, literature‐based prototype provided the context for deeper analysis and exploration of the challenges encountered when completing various health‐related information activities. The findings extend beyond improving the HackHealth programme and hold important implications for working with this population, assessing and improving their health literacy skills, and designing instruction that stands to meet their needs.

The design and construction phase is central in the work of Vandewaetere et al, 40 who describe the steps they took, and especially their underlying reasoning, in the course of building five learning modules for general practice students. Through authentic complex tasks such as caring for elderly people or handling patients with physically undefined symptoms, this work demonstrates how educators can address the development of integrated competencies, such as clinical reasoning, communication and health promotion. The module descriptions illustrate how principles of whole‐task learning and the 4C/ID (four‐component/instructional design) model can be applied, as well as also noting challenges and pitfalls in the educational innovation process, and thus offers guidance to others wishing to tackle similar challenges.

The evaluation and reflection processes and findings are foregrounded in the work of Bok et al, 41 who investigated the implementation of a theory‐based assessment programme for veterinary medicine students. Their programme integrates learning and assessment by motivating and supporting students to seek, accumulate and learn from feedback in the workplace. They used quantitative and qualitative methods to explore the experiences of students and clinical supervisors. Their findings hold implications for revisions to their programme, as well as the development of similar initiatives. For example, peer feedback, social interaction and external guidance are crucial elements in this (kind of) programme, whereas the level of training required for portfolio judges and unintended student perceptions (namely, that even formative assessments are still summative) constitute challenges to be tackled head on.

4. ENHANCING EDR

4.1. challenges and limitations.

Phillips and Dolle, 42 amongst others, have cautioned that the simultaneous pursuit of practical innovation and theory building is extremely ambitious and difficult. This partially stems from the fact that researchers pursuing design research work hand‐in‐hand with practitioners to grapple directly with the complex variation of real‐world education problems. Although it increases complexity, this collaboration can lead to the accomplishment of a third goal of EDR, that of professional development for all those involved. Such an ambitious agenda clearly brings its share of challenges.

Four types of challenges are commonly encountered when conducting EDR, and sensible researchers attempt to address them proactively. Conceptual challenges relate to understanding what EDR is (or is not) and the kinds of goals being pursued. From a methodological standpoint, EDR is challenging because, given the variety in the types of questions asked throughout a project’s lifecycle, it requires that researchers possess well‐rounded skills in a variety of methods. Communicating the processes and outcomes of EDR studies can be challenging because these studies are typically large and complex, and because their value to non‐stakeholders is not always articulated. A fourth set of challenges relates to political dimensions, often stemming from (implementing) the design, such as organisational policies and stakeholder dynamics. Table 3 presents an overview of the four common challenges: a) conceptual; b) methodological; c) communicative, and d) political that arise when conducting EDR. It also offers recommendations for addressing each.

Common challenges and ways to mitigate them

Every research approach has its limitations and EDR is no different in this regard. For those considering EDR, it is important to make informed choices. First, EDR requires close collaboration between (at least) researchers and practitioners. 43 When this is not feasible or desirable, EDR ceases to be a viable option. Second, EDR connects theory, innovation and practice. 44 When the development of one or more of these is not of high priority, EDR is not likely to be useful. Third, because it centres on creating productive change in practice, EDR requires substantial amounts of time. 45 If the time available is measured in weeks (rather than months or years), EDR is not likely to be feasible.

Finally, given that EDR is fairly easy to do poorly and quite difficult to do well, a fourth limitation of EDR has less to do with the approach per se and more to do with the capacity of those conducting it. As with other ideas, the value of EDR lies not in its definition but in its realisation. ‘Design research is constituted within communities of practice that have certain characteristics of innovativeness, responsiveness to evidence, connectivity to basic science, and dedication to continual improvement.’ 46 In these trajectories, researchers must also fulfil the roles of designers and consultants, rendering this a highly challenging endeavour. McKenney and Brand‐Gruwel 47 examined these three roles in light of each sub‐process of design research (analysis and exploration; design and construction; evaluation and reflection; implementation and spread). They articulate four foundational competencies that are required to enact each role, and offer guidelines for developing them. They note that 'empathy' is needed, for example, to explore (un)shared goals or become exposed to the incentives, motives and reward structures in different settings. 'Orchestration' helps to simultaneously attend to research framing, data collection, solution design, implementation, infrastructure woes and stakeholder ownership. Creative and analytical 'flexibility' supports the optimisation of the human and material resources available in ways that remain aligned with the goals of the instruction. Finally, 'social competence' refers to a robust repertoire of the interaction strategies needed to fulfil each role. Thus, conducting EDR is clearly a complex task. If this form of inquiry is to realise its potential contribution to the field of medical education, explicit attention must be given to the holistic development of design researcher capacity. As is the case with other forms of complex learning, this requires engaging with entire authentic design research projects. In deciding whether EDR is an appropriate fit for a given project, scholars are advised to consider the substantial and varied demands placed on researchers undertaking this kind of work.

4.2. CONCLUSIONS

Educational design research is of course no panacea. However, it does put the metaphorical brakes on solutionism because of its heightened attention to clarifying the nature of the problem before an educational intervention or solution is conceived. We believe that medical education faces many challenges that might be best addressed by synergistically pursuing both theoretical and development goals. For example, as Chen and Reeves 48 argue, this approach could be used to:

develop capacities to work effectively in increasingly fluid health care teams;
cultivate skills to communicate in a culturally competent manner with patients and other health care professionals;
prepare health care professionals for practice in a world that is increasingly infused with machine learning algorithms and robots;
improve assessment protocols and feedback practices to promote competency‐based education, and
enhance health care professionals’ clinical reasoning skills.

This article set out to discuss the nature and origins of EDR, how it is conducted, and what is needed to advance this kind of work. First, the approach was introduced, discussed in the light of related developments in the last century, as well as other contemporary approaches that strive towards both practical and theoretical goals, and characterised. Second, a generic model for conducting EDR was described and illustrated with multiple examples. Third, the challenges and limitations of this approach were considered. We conclude this article with a few words about next steps.

According to its website, this journal promises its readers ‘practically oriented and theory‐informed papers that emphasise empirical evidence and advancing the field.' As such, it would seem that EDR’s twin pursuits align well with the ambitions of Medical Education . If fluency with the approach has yet to be developed before this community shares its design studies (more), then collaboration with researchers in sister fields, who are more accustomed to design research (eg, those in the learning sciences, instructional design or educational technology) may be worth exploring. In so doing, it seems crucial to seek out like‐minded scholars who prioritise the giving of careful attention to ensuring descriptive and explanatory understanding of problems worth tackling before developing solutions. The contributions to this special issue on solutionism offer multiple starting points for doing just that.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

SMcK and TCR have been collaborating on the articulation of this approach for over a decade. This piece is based on that collaborative effort. SMcK drafted, revised and finalised the present text and figures. TCR edited and revised the present text. Both authors (SMck and TCR) developed the core ideas described in this paper, approved the final manuscript for submission, and agreed to be accountable for the work.

5. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

Not applicable.

6. ETHICAL APPROVAL

Acknowledgements.

The authors would like to thank Professor Diana Dolmans (Faculty of Health Medicine and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, the Netherlands) for encouraging this submission.

McKenney S, Reeves TC. Educational research design: Portraying, conducting, and enhancing productive scholarship . Med Educ . 2020; 55 :82-92. 10.1111/medu.14280 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Educational design research: grappling with methodological fit

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Published: 14 August 2023

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Michele Jacobsen ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0639-7606 1 &
Susan McKenney 2

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Educational Design Research (EDR) employs a diverse range of methods to study learning, teaching, design, and technology—and new ones are shared in this special issue. We contend that a focus on methods inherently requires examination of the questions they are used to answer and the ways in which the resulting findings advance scientific understanding. Specifically, this article focuses on obtaining and guarding methodological fit in EDR. It describes three main orientations to research inherent in EDR trajectories (research for, on, and through interventions), the kinds of questions we ask in each, how our methods evolve accordingly, and challenges to alignment that are often encountered along the way. Thereafter, it offers examples of the three orientations in two different doctoral studies on innovative educational technologies, each of which demonstrates methodological fit as well as relevance for practice despite the phase-related shifts in focus, questions, and methods. The article concludes with a framework for assessing methodological fit both within and across the three orientations to EDR in two studies, along with broader recommendations for conducting EDR in the field of educational technology.

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Schools are using research to try to improve children’s learning – but it’s not working

Senior Research Fellow in the Centre for Teachers and Teaching Research, UCL

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Evidence is obviously a good thing. We take it for granted that evidence from research can help solve the post-lockdown crises in education – from how to keep teachers in the profession to how to improve behaviour in schools, get children back into school and protect the mental health of a generation.

But my research and that of others shows that incorporating strategies that have evidence backing them into teaching doesn’t always yield the results we want.

The Department for Education encourages school leadership teams to cite evidence from research studies when deciding how to spend school funding. Teachers are more frequently required to conduct their own research as part of their professional training than they were a decade ago. Independent consultancies have sprung up to support schools to bring evidence-based methods into their teaching.

This push for evidence to back up teaching methods has become particularly strong in the past ten years. The movement has been driven by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF), a charity set up in 2011 with funding from the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government to provide schools with information about which teaching methods and other approaches to education actually work.

The EEF funds randomised controlled trials – large-scale studies in which students are randomly assigned to an educational initiative or not and then comparisons are then made to see which students perform better. For instance, several of these studies have been carried out in which some children received one-on-one reading sessions with a trained classroom assistant, and their reading progress was compared to children who had not. The cost of one of these trials was around £500,000 over the course of a year.

Trials such as this in education were lobbied for by Ben Goldacre , a doctor and data scientist who wrote a report in 2013 on behalf of the Department for Education. Goldacre suggested that education should follow the lead of medicine in the use of evidence.

Using evidence

In 2023, however, researchers at the University of Warwick pointed out something that should have been obvious for some time but has been very much overlooked – that following the evidence is not resulting in the progress we might expect.

Reading is the most heavily supported area of the EEF’s research, accounting for more than 40% of projects . Most schools have implemented reading programmes with significant amounts of evidence behind them. But, despite this, reading abilities have not changed much in the UK for decades.

This flatlining of test scores is a global phenomenon . If reading programmes worked as the evidence says they do, reading abilities should be better.

Man and boy reading from tablet in library

And the evidence is coming back with unexpected results. A series of randomised controlled trials, including one looking at how to improve literacy through evidence , have suggested that schools that use methods based on research are not performing better than schools that do not.

In fact, research by a team at Sheffield Hallam University have demonstrated that on average, these kinds of education initiatives have very little to no impact .

My work has shown that when the findings of different research studies are brought together and synthesised, teachers may end up implementing these findings in contradictory ways. Research messages are frequently too vague to be effective because the skills and expertise of teaching are difficult to transfer.

It is also becoming apparent that the gains in education are usually very small, perhaps because learning is the sum total of trillions of interactions. It is possible that the research trials we really need in education would be so vast that they are currently too impractical to do.

It seems that evidence is much harder to tame and to apply sensibly in education than elsewhere. In my view, it was inevitable and necessary that educators had to follow medicine in our search for answers. But we now need to think harder about the peculiarities of how evidence works in education.

Right now, we don’t have enough evidence to be confident that evidence should always be our first port of call.

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Mindfulness exercises

See how mindfulness helps you live in the moment.

If you've heard of or read about mindfulness meditation — also known as mindfulness — you might be curious about how to practice it. Find out how to do mindfulness exercises and how they might benefit you.

What is mindfulness?

Mindfulness is a type of meditation in which you focus on being intensely aware of what you're sensing and feeling in the moment, without interpretation or judgment. Practicing mindfulness involves breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.

Spending too much time planning, problem-solving, daydreaming, or thinking negative or random thoughts can be draining. It can also make you more likely to experience stress, anxiety and symptoms of depression. Practicing mindfulness exercises can help you direct your attention away from this kind of thinking and engage with the world around you.

What are the benefits of meditation?

Meditation has been studied in many clinical trials. The overall evidence supports the effectiveness of meditation for various conditions, including:

High blood pressure (hypertension)

Preliminary research indicates that meditation can also help people with asthma and fibromyalgia.

Meditation can help you experience thoughts and emotions with greater balance and acceptance. Meditation also has been shown to:

Improve attention
Decrease job burnout
Improve sleep
Improve diabetes control

What are some examples of mindfulness exercises?

There are many simple ways to practice mindfulness. Some examples include:

Pay attention. It's hard to slow down and notice things in a busy world. Try to take the time to experience your environment with all of your senses — touch, sound, sight, smell and taste. For example, when you eat a favorite food, take the time to smell, taste and truly enjoy it.
Live in the moment. Try to intentionally bring an open, accepting and discerning attention to everything you do. Find joy in simple pleasures.
Accept yourself. Treat yourself the way you would treat a good friend.
Focus on your breathing. When you have negative thoughts, try to sit down, take a deep breath and close your eyes. Focus on your breath as it moves in and out of your body. Sitting and breathing for even just a minute can help.

You can also try more structured mindfulness exercises, such as:

Body scan meditation. Lie on your back with your legs extended and arms at your sides, palms facing up. Focus your attention slowly and deliberately on each part of your body, in order, from toe to head or head to toe. Be aware of any sensations, emotions or thoughts associated with each part of your body.
Sitting meditation. Sit comfortably with your back straight, feet flat on the floor and hands in your lap. Breathing through your nose, focus on your breath moving in and out of your body. If physical sensations or thoughts interrupt your meditation, note the experience and then return your focus to your breath.
Walking meditation. Find a quiet place 10 to 20 feet in length, and begin to walk slowly. Focus on the experience of walking, being aware of the sensations of standing and the subtle movements that keep your balance. When you reach the end of your path, turn and continue walking, maintaining awareness of your sensations.

When and how often should I practice mindfulness exercises?

It depends on what kind of mindfulness exercise you plan to do.

Simple mindfulness exercises can be practiced anywhere and anytime. Research indicates that engaging your senses outdoors is especially beneficial.

For more structured mindfulness exercises, such as body scan meditation or sitting meditation, you'll need to set aside time when you can be in a quiet place without distractions or interruptions. You might choose to practice this type of exercise early in the morning before you begin your daily routine.

Aim to practice mindfulness every day for about six months. Over time, you might find that mindfulness becomes effortless. Think of it as a commitment to reconnecting with and nurturing yourself.

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Bystritsky A. Complementary and alternative treatments for anxiety symptoms and disorders: Physical, cognitive, and spiritual interventions. https://uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed June 14, 2018.
Seaward BL. Meditation and mindfulness. In: Managing Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health and Well-being. 9th ed. Burlington, Mass.: Jones & Bartlett Learning; 2018.
Shapiro SL, et al. The Art and Science of Mindfulness: Integrating Mindfulness into Psychology and the Helping Professions. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association; 2017.
Lymeus F, et al. Building mindfulness bottom-up: Meditation in natural settings supports open monitoring and attention restoration. Consciousness and Cognition. 2018;59:40.
Blanck P, et al. Effects of mindfulness exercises as stand-alone interventions on symptoms of anxiety and depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2018;102:25.
AskMayoExpert. Meditation. Rochester, Minn.: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2018.
Khoury B, et al. Mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 2015;78:519.
Practice mindfulness and relaxation. Springboard Beyond Cancer. https://survivorship.cancer.gov/springboard/stress-mood/practice-mindfulness. Accessed June 14, 2018.

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Research Methods In Education – New Updated

Research Methods In Education

Research methods in education refer to the systematic processes and techniques used to investigate, gather, analyze, and interpret information related to educational issues. Conducting research in education helps educators, policymakers, and researchers gain insights into various aspects of the educational system, teaching and learning processes, and educational outcomes. Here is an overview of common research methods used in education:

Quantitative Research

Surveys and Questionnaires: These involve collecting data from a large number of respondents through standardized questions. Surveys can be used to gather information about attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and demographics.
Experiments: Experimental designs involve manipulating variables to observe their effects on educational outcomes. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are a common type of experimental design.
Statistical Analysis: Quantitative researchers use statistical methods to analyze numerical data. Common statistical techniques include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, regression analysis, and analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Qualitative Research

Interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews to explore the perspectives, experiences, and attitudes of participants. These interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
Focus Groups: A group of participants is brought together to discuss and share their opinions on a specific topic. Focus groups are useful for exploring diverse viewpoints.
Observation: Researchers observe and document behaviors, interactions, and settings in natural or controlled environments. Participant observation involves the researcher actively participating in the setting being studied.
Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or situation is conducted to gain a comprehensive understanding of the subject.

Mixed Methods Research

This approach combines both quantitative and qualitative research methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. Researchers collect and analyze both numerical data and narrative information.
Researchers may use sequential designs (quantitative followed by qualitative or vice versa) or concurrent designs (simultaneous collection and analysis of both types of data).

Action Research

This approach involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners, often educators, to identify and solve practical problems in real educational settings. The goal is to improve teaching practices and educational outcomes.

Ethnographic Research

Ethnography involves in-depth study and description of a particular culture or social group. In education, ethnographic research may focus on understanding the culture of a school or classroom.

Historical Research

Researchers study historical documents, records, and artifacts to understand past educational practices, policies, and trends. This type of research can provide insights into the evolution of educational systems.

Survey Research

Surveys involve collecting data from a representative sample of participants using standardized questionnaires. This method is often used to gather information on a wide range of educational issues, including student attitudes, teacher practices, and school policies.

Longitudinal Research

This involves studying a group of participants over an extended period to track changes and developments. Longitudinal research is valuable for understanding the long-term effects of educational interventions or experiences.

Content Analysis

Researchers analyze written, visual, or audio content to identify patterns, themes, or trends. Content analysis can be used to study educational materials, media representations, or student work.

Experimental Research

Experimental designs involve manipulating variables and measuring their effects on educational outcomes. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are a common experimental approach in education research.

When conducting education research , it is essential to carefully select the most appropriate method. Or a combination of methods based on the research questions, objectives, and nature of the phenomena under investigation. Researchers must also consider ethical considerations, data validity, and reliability throughout the research process.

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Examining Laboratory Assessment: Science Teachers’ Strategies and Tools in Focus

Zuraimi Zakaria Faculty of Education, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)
Nur Atiqah Md Jaafar
Zulinda Ayu Zulkipli

Laboratory assessments in science education involves authentic and complex tasks that align with the goals of contemporary educational objectives. However, there is a notable dearth of studies specifically addressing teachers' practices in laboratory-oriented assessment, particularly in comparison to the extensive research conducted on other facets of the science curriculum. Consequently, this paper presents a study that examines the laboratory-focused assessment methods of science teachers, focusing on the adoption of formal assessment tasks, informal assessment strategies, and scoring tools for evaluating laboratory-related knowledge and skills. Utilizing a quantitative design, 114 secondary school teachers from three urban educational districts in Selangor, a state in Malaysia, participated in a survey. The findings revealed that science teachers predominantly embraced teacher-centric assessment approaches, rather than methods that promoted student engagement and peer learning. Furthermore, the findings highlighted a significant reliance on traditional, cognitively-oriented assessment tasks and the integration of real-time informal assessment strategies that provided immediate feedback for corrective actions. In contrast, time-intensive and cumulative assessment formats were less frequently adopted. The frequent use of checklists and rubrics indicated a structured approach to scoring. These findings emphasized the need for a more diverse and holistic assessment approach, one that extends beyond traditional methods to incorporate strategies that enhance critical thinking, practical skills, and student engagement. The implications of these findings are profound, affecting professional development and training as well as the provision of adequate resources and support, which are crucial for advancing the quality of science education.

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Patricio D. Cruz y Celis Peniche

Position Title Graduate Student

[email protected]
2021 - M.A. Evolutionary Anthropology, University of California, Davis
2017 - B.A. Indigenous Development Studies (Gestión y Autodesarrollo Indígena), Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas, Mexico
2015 - Exchange semester, Anthropology department, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque

I was trained in applied and cultural anthropology, and I’m now interested in incorporating evolutionary theory and mixed methods to understand human behavioral and cultural diversity.

I am broadly interested in how modernization is influencing the behavioral strategies and cultural dynamics of rural and indigenous populations in Latin America.

Advisor: Dr. Cristina Moya

Research Focus

Specific research interests include edible insect foraging traditions among agricultural and horticultural groups, and dynamics of cooperation and religious conversion among Catholic and Protestant groups.

Most of my field experience has been among Tsotsil and Tseltal Mayan communities from the Highlands of Chiapas, Mexico.

Research lines: Human behavioral ecology, optimal foraging theory, entomophagy (insects as food); cultural transmission theory, cultural evolution of religion, religious conversions in Latin America.

Publications

Cruz y Celis Peniche, P. (2021). Drivers of insect consumption across human populations. Evolutionary Anthropology, Vol. 31 (1): 45-59. [ LINK ]

Moya, C., Cruz y Celis Peniche, P., Kline, M.A., & Smaldino, P.E. (2020). Dynamics of behavior change in the COVID world. American Journal of Human Biology, Vol. 32 (3): e23485. [ LINK ].

Cruz y Celis Peniche, P. (2018). La domesticación y crianza de insectos comestibles (Edible insect domestication and farming). Folia Entomológica Mexicana (Nueva Serie), Vol. 4 (2): 66-79. [ LINK ].

2022 - NSF Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant [National Science Foundation]

2021 - NSF 'Cultural Anthropology Methods Program' (CAMP) F ellowship [National Science Foundation]

2021 - H. Russel Bernard Graduate Student Paper Prize [Society for Anthropological Sciences]

2020 - Graduate Student Fellowship, Consequences of Formal Education for Science and Religion / Culture of Schooling Meta-Project [Issachar Fund / University of Texas, Austin]

2019 - Provost's Fellowship in the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences [University of California, Davis]

2019 - Fulbright-García Robles Scholarship [The U.S. - Mexico Commission for Educational & Cultural Exchange]

Open access
Published: 04 April 2024

Developing a responsive model to societal needs in medical education

Hooman Khanpoor 1 ,
Mohammad Amerzadeh 2 ,
Ahad Alizadeh 2 ,
Omid Khosravizadeh 2 &
Sima Rafiei 2

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 370 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Responsiveness is relevant in the context of treatment and the provision of medical services. However, if we delve deeper into the subject, we must establish and develop responsiveness within the medical sciences education system. This study aims to identify the dimensions that significantly impact responsiveness in the medical education system based on a comprehensive review and expert opinions in healthcare.

The present research is descriptive-analytical in terms of its objective and follows a mixed-method approach. This study was conducted in three stages. Initially, we utilized relevant keywords related to education in databases, such as Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, OVID, CINHAL, EBSCO, Google Scholar, Iranmedex, SID, and Irandoc. Subsequently, in the expert panel session stage, the factors influencing responsiveness were identified in the comprehensive review stage, and with this thematic background, they were conceptualized. Finally, the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) technique was employed to coherently examine the relationships between variables and present the final model.

We obtained 32 articles from the comprehensive review of studies. Four components in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and intersectoral cooperation were identified based on expert panel opinions. Based on the standardized coefficients, the components of research-based educational planning, community-oriented education evaluation indicators, and utilization of modern educational methods are statistically significant.

The establishment and development of responsiveness in the medical sciences education system involve training specialized and responsive human resources through innovative educational methods that have sufficient familiarity with the multidimensional concepts of health and how to achieve them. This approach allows for practical and responsible steps toward training competent and committed physicians in line with the needs of society. On the other hand, responsiveness in the medical sciences education system can be improved by enhancing research-based educational planning and developing community-oriented evaluation indicators that can assess the number of revised educational programs based on societal needs. Therefore, understanding the critical elements in revising medical education programs, which play the most significant role in addressing societal needs and responding to changing disease patterns and new health priorities, is both a necessity and an important priority.

Peer Review reports

Given rapid changes in the healthcare needs of societies and the need to improve population health, there is an increasing need to enhance the responsiveness of healthcare systems as a critical element in achieving health equity and meeting individuals’ health needs [ 1 ]. Many European countries have recognized that the future of healthcare systems relies on their ability to respond more effectively to society’s rapidly changing needs and make informed decisions to improve their multi-dimensional needs [ 2 ]. Responsiveness is not confined to the context of treatment and the provision of healthcare services; instead, it expands its applicability to other service domains, including health, medical education, and related research [ 3 ]. According to the definition given by the World Health Organization (WHO), medical schools have an essential responsibility to direct their education, research, and service provision in line with the community health priorities [ 4 ]. Active engagement in responding to the population’s social needs is a critical social accountability that medical schools must follow [ 4 ]. There are different priorities for social responsiveness in the medical education system that mainly concentrate on teaching a necessary skill set to trainees in order to enable them to meet population health, integrate Social Determinants of Health (SDH) in educational planning, and address health inequalities in the society [ 5 , 6 ]. Furthermore, ensuring a supportive learning and working environment that enables the provision of adequate teaching while providing safe care to service recipients in settings where trainees can learn and provide healthcare services simultaneously is another critical priority [ 7 ]. Social accountability is essential for all human beings to enjoy the four values of justice in education, educational quality, effective interactions between the provision of healthcare services and the field of education, and finally, creating maximum efficiency in the provision of health and treatment services, which can bring many beneficial effects for the society and their wellbeing [ 8 ].

Literature affirms that the curriculum of many study fields should move towards responsive education to provide a suitable condition for increasing the compatibility between theory and practice [ 9 ]. Studies also highlighted that adding courses on SDH to the medical curriculum can improve students’ knowledge and awareness regarding the relevant concepts and consequently provide more comprehensive services [ 10 ]. A literature review shows that the Iranian education system lacks determined strategies for developing trainees based on society’s needs and SDH. In addition, the system is facing the challenge of educating capable graduates who should respond to the health needs and current challenges of society in an effective manner. In some cases, there is no mechanism to improve their knowledge, awareness, and motivation to focus on the needs assessment of the community [ 8 ]. Thus, integrating medical education into the provision of healthcare services was considered one of the most practical strategies for the responsiveness of healthcare systems [ 11 ]. Accordingly, the medical curriculum needs to be revised to provide beneficial opportunities for trainees to learn the required skills to provide high-quality care and support.To this end, the recognition of essential elements in the revision of medical education programs in such a way that it plays the most significant role in addressing societal needs and responding to changing disease patterns and new health priorities has become both a necessity and a crucial priority [ 11 , 12 ].

In other words, to establish a responsive medical education system, especially from the social aspect, institutions must engage in the training of specialized and skilled human resources who can actively cooperate with communities, the government, health systems, and social entities to deal with healthcare inequalities in an effective way [ 12 ]. The primary mission of social accountability is to obtain the maximum possible points for the accreditation of educational organizations, acquire necessary licenses and certificates, establish competency-based training systems and continuous professional development, comply with the principles of differentiation of expertise in medical education, raise standards in teaching and learning, move towards more creativity in educational methods and respond to societal needs more effectively. Through these strategies, the goal of educating graduates who are aware of the social needs of society can be realized [ 13 ]. In addition, social accountability criteria are still being formed and tested to enable medical schools to guide education in a targeted way and in relation to the social determinants of health [ 14 ]. Our study aims to identify a comprehensive set of features that significantly impact the responsiveness of the medical education system based on a mixed-method study. The study also focuses on identifying and conceptualizing these dimensions within the framework of the final model.

Study design and participants

This mixed-method study uses quantitative and qualitative methods to develop a responsive model in medical education. A literature review was conducted in the initial phase of the study to gain a comprehensive understanding of different domains regarding medical education. Afterward, researchers set up an expert panel to finalize the domains from the viewpoints of informed individuals. Finally, in the quantitative phase, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was applied to examine the relationships between variables coherently and present the final model. Different study phases are explained in detail as follows.

Phase 1: literature review

We used relevant keywords, including “responsiveness,” “health system,” “modeling,” “education,” “medicine,” and “healthcare organization,” in searching for relevant documents in databases such as Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, Iranmedex, SID, and Irandoc. We used a uniform data collection form to reduce probable bias and maintain the content’s integrity, reliability, and validity. Based on the research questions, retrieved data was tabulated to contain information such as study title, authors’ names, publication year, research type, study location, and a summary of the results. The main question for the review was to determine a comprehensive set of characteristics for responsive medical education. As a result, the extracted factors were categorized into different domains and organized in a proper format to be presented to the members of an expert panel.

Phase 2: Expert Panel

In this phase, researchers aimed to identify the features influencing medical education responsiveness. Therefore, extracted features from the literature review were assessed by expert panel members for transparency, applicability, and compatibility with the country’s educational system. Accordingly, some of them were omitted or revised to comply with the existing condition. Members of the expert panel were selected among individuals with sufficient knowledge and experience in planning and policy-making in different fields, including healthcare management, medical education, and curriculum development. Panel composition based on the individual’s expertise and affiliated organization is depicted in Table 1 .

Before commencing the sessions, pre-session coordination was conducted, and after providing necessary explanations regarding research objectives, participants’ viewpoints were recorded only after obtaining their informed consent. The initial model formulation and relationships between study dimensions were based on the participant’s understanding of the subject and their opinions in the expert panel. Furthermore, efforts were made to include the most significant components in the conceptual model to ensure that the modeling process could yield desirable results by maintaining a manageable sample size. Ultimately, the themes and concepts of the literature review were compiled and categorized by experts. Figure 1 depicts a conceptual model of the study, resulting from a comprehensive analysis of existing literature and conceptualization by an expert panel.

Components of responsive in healthcare in education

Based on the literature, we suggested the following hypotheses:

H1: Alignment of curriculum with the health needs of the community has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H2: Education of research has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H3: Education for sustainable development has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H4: Change in attitudes towards community-oriented approaches has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H5: Skill Empowerment with a social perspective on health has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H6: Modern educational methods have a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H7: Developing community-oriented education indicators has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H8: Creating motivations to enhance community-oriented teaching strategies has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H9: Regulation has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H10: Cross-organizational project management has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

H11: University-community interaction has a significant impact on the responsiveness of medical education.

Phase 3: quantitative study

This analytical phase of the study uses collected data from previous study stages. A questionnaire was developed using a literature review and the experts’ opinion, and its face validity was assessed. CFA also employed a content validity assessment. The questionnaire consisted of two parts, including demographic information and features of a responsive education system. In the second part, 11 questions were designed in 4 dimensions: planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and intra-sectoral communication. We analyzed the importance of the factors influencing the responsiveness of a medical education system with a five-point Likert scale (very low, low, medium, high, and very high). In this study phase, participants consisted of all employees working in educational deputies of the university, affiliated faculties, and hospitals with necessary knowledge and expertise in the field of education, compiling and revising educational curricula, evaluating the effectiveness of education in different faculties and hospital departments, especially those engaged in the educational accreditation program. The most common sampling method in studies that employ structural equation modeling is considering the sample size 5 to 15 times greater than the number of components (15*11 = 165). Accordingly, the final sample size of 205 was achieved after considering an attrition rate of 25% [ 15 ]. The CFA technique was employed to coherently examine the relationships between variables and present the final model. This technique consists of five stages, including the formulation of an initial model, estimation of the model involving data collection and construction of variable matrices, and ultimately, evaluation of the model fit, which entails an overall assessment of the model’s goodness-of-fit, testability, and the need for modifications. Finally, using the data from this stage, a validated research model, including its dimensions and predictive components, was presented [ 16 ].

Data Analysis

In the quantitative phase, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was used in software R version 3.2.4 at a significance level of 0.05. CFA is a multivariate statistical method that establishes a specific relationship among a set of seemingly unrelated variables under a hypothetical model [ 17 ].

Regarding the 32 articles from the literature review, the following features were identified (Table 2 ). The characteristics included equality in education, efficiency, communication, active participation in health system development, and strengthening standards and effectiveness in educational programs.

The fitness model was applied to examine the consistency and compatibility of the model. To do so, we evaluated the reliability and validity of the model. Likewise, the significance of the relationship between the responsiveness of an education system and its factors was investigated (Fig. 2 ).

The impact of health system responsiveness components in the education domain

Based on study findings, standard estimation coefficients of the model were at a significant level for three components: innovative educational methods, developing evaluation indicators for community-oriented education, and research-based educational planning (Table 3 ).

As Table 3 shows, the three mentioned components had the highest positive impact on the responsiveness of medical education. This implies that holding other conditions constant, an increase of one standard deviation in each of these components will increase system responsiveness.

Furthermore, the values calculated for indices like chi-square to degrees of freedom, GFI, NFI, and RMSEA were in the defined range, confirming that the model fitted enough (Table 4 ).

This study aimed to identify a comprehensive set of features that significantly impact the responsiveness of the medical education system based on a mixed-method study to propose a framework for the final model. Based on the findings and reports, the practical components of responsiveness in education have been categorized into four dimensions: planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and intersectoral collaboration. Among these, research-based educational planning and fulfilling an educational role, similar to therapeutic and research roles, require scientific evidence, as decisions based on personal opinions and beliefs can lead to educational deviations. Responsive education in the medical sciences represents planning based on understanding and responding to the community’s health needs and preparing students for work and service provision to the community. This finding is consistent with various studies, including those by Amir Esmaeili et al. [ 18 ] and Yaman et al. [ 12 ]. In explaining the findings, it can be said that responsive education directs all educational activities toward the training of professionals capable of meeting the health needs of the target community, and this is achieved through direct and continuous engagement of students with the community at various levels. However, since there is a gap between the current state and the desired state in the medical education system, and the clinical skills and competencies of graduates alone are not sufficient to meet the needs and expectations of the target community, universities can, by aligning with national and regional priorities, improve educational planning and enhance the quality of education and professional competencies of graduates, create an opportunity to respond to the expectations and needs of the general public, and foster greater interaction between universities and the community [ 19 ]. A study by Mullan et al. found that effective educational planning is crucial in addressing the community’s health needs. The study emphasized the importance of evidence-based educational planning to ensure that educational programs align with the specific needs and priorities of the target population [ 20 ]. A research study by Grol et al. highlighted the significance of implementation in responsive education. The study emphasized the need for effective implementation strategies to translate educational plans into action and ensure that educational interventions are delivered in a manner that effectively addresses the identified health needs [ 21 ]. Monitoring and evaluation are essential components of responsive education. A study by De Allegri et al. demonstrated that continuous monitoring and evaluation of educational programs help identify areas for improvement and ensure that the education provided is responsive to the community’s health needs [ 22 ]. Intersectoral collaboration has been recognized as a critical element of responsive education. A study by Atun et al. found that collaboration between educational institutions, healthcare providers, and other relevant sectors enhances the effectiveness of educational interventions and promotes a holistic approach to addressing health needs [ 23 ]. These studies further strengthen the argument that the four dimensions of planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and intersectoral collaboration are vital components of responsive education in the medical sciences.

According to the findings, responsiveness in the medical education system, similar to other domains, has been recognized as a key objective at the global level. One tangible aspect of this responsiveness is the utilization of innovative teaching methods in this field, aiming to train competent and committed physicians who are responsive to the needs of society. This social responsiveness strives to ensure equitable access to education, quality of education, effective interactions between clinical practice and educational settings, and ultimately, maximizing the efficiency of healthcare services provision. In this regard, responsiveness in the education sector serves as a criterion for evaluating and measuring the responsiveness of educational institutions to the needs of the community. It is a social responsibility for universities and educational groups to pay attention to the needs and expectations of the community, and they should actively participate in the development of the healthcare system by adhering to fundamental principles and employing innovative teaching methods that focus on improving individuals’ rational behavior with new and novel ideas. These findings are consistent with the studies conducted by Bolen et al. [ 24 ] in a similar context. A study by Chen et al. (2017) emphasized the significance of social responsiveness in medical education. It highlighted the need for medical schools to incorporate social accountability principles to ensure that graduates are trained to meet the population’s healthcare needs and address health disparities [ 25 ]. In a research article by Dornan et al., the authors discussed the role of innovative teaching methods in medical education. The study highlighted the benefits of incorporating active learning approaches, such as problem-based learning and simulation-based training, to enhance students’ clinical reasoning skills and ability to respond effectively to real-world healthcare challenges [ 26 ]. Burch et al. conducted a study that explored the community engagement’s impact on medical education. The findings revealed that the active involvement of students in community-based projects and interactions with diverse populations contributed to their understanding of societal health issues and fostered a sense of social responsibility [ 15 ]. A systematic review by Li et al. examined the effectiveness of innovative teaching methods in medical education. The study found that incorporating technology-enhanced learning, such as virtual patient simulations and online resources, improved students’ clinical knowledge, skills, and responsiveness to patient needs [ 27 ]. These studies emphasize that responsiveness in the medical education system involves utilizing innovative teaching methods to train competent and socially responsive physicians who can effectively address the community’s healthcare needs.

Based on the findings of this research, healthcare system responsiveness in the education sector should be designed and developed in a way that pays special attention to the design and formulation of educational programs based on health needs and in line with strengthening curricula. This attention should be focused on indicators that measure the number of revised educational programs based on community needs. Responsiveness to the community’s needs is a logical, continuous, and sustainable demand resulting from the dynamic interaction between education and society. These findings are consistent with the studies conducted by Moazzami et al. [ 28 ] in a similar context. Additionally, Razavian examined various dimensions of medical faculties’ responsiveness to society and concluded that a responsive medical faculty prioritizes the revision of educational, research, and service content based on the community’s health needs and in accordance with ethical principles and standards [ 29 ]. This finding aligns with the central focus of this research. In line with our findings, a study by Frenk et al. emphasized the need for educational healthcare programs to be responsive to the changing health needs of the population. The study highlighted the importance of aligning curricula with current health challenges and ensuring that graduates are equipped with the necessary skills and knowledge to address these needs effectively [ 30 ]. In a research article by Cullen et al., the authors discussed the importance of community needs assessment in designing educational programs in healthcare. The study emphasized that understanding the community’ specific health needs and priorities is crucial for developing responsive educational curricula and ensuring that graduates are prepared to meet those needs [ 31 ]. A study by Frankish et al. explored the concept of sustainable responsiveness in healthcare. The findings highlighted the importance of ongoing assessment and adaptation of educational programs to address emerging health issues, promote innovation, and ensure the sustainability of healthcare system responsiveness [ 32 ]. In a systematic review by O’Neill et al., the authors examined approaches to developing responsive healthcare curricula. The study identified the inclusion of community needs assessments and the continuous evaluation and revision of educational programs as key elements in promoting responsiveness in healthcare education [ 33 ]. These findings support the argument that healthcare system responsiveness in the education sector should focus on designing educational programs based on health needs and strengthening curricula to ensure graduates are prepared to address the evolving health challenges of the community.

The healthcare system of the Islamic Republic of Iran is recognized, based on existing top-level documents, particularly overarching policies, as the responsible authority for the education and training of human resources in the health sector. With the considerable expansion of medical universities and higher education institutions in the country’s health sector, suitable infrastructure exists for the quantitative and qualitative improvement of higher education in health. To benefit from this infrastructure, developing a clear roadmap based on evidence and top-level documents is necessary. In this regard, the comprehensive Higher Education Plan of the healthcare system, aligned with the goals of the Healthcare Transformation Program, is a strategic document based on top-level documents, including Iran Vision 1404, the comprehensive scientific map of the country, the comprehensive scientific health map, and the healthcare system transformation program. On this basis, the Ministry of Health, Treatment, and Medical Education has presented transformation and innovation packages for medical education to be responsive. One of the key aspects highlighted is that education should be responsive and justice-oriented, ensuring that higher education programs in the health sector align with the needs of society. This will create a conducive environment for the growth and development of students with diverse scientific, cultural, and social abilities. Another essential aspect presented is the design of a system that creates appropriate sensitivity and motivation for policymakers, stakeholders, faculty members, students, and service providers to meet the real needs of the community better. These findings are consistent with the results of this study [ 34 ]. A study by Jaspers et al. emphasized the need for higher education programs in the health sector to be responsive to societal needs and promote social justice. The authors discussed the importance of aligning educational goals, content, and teaching methods with the principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion [ 35 ]. In a research article by Barry et al., the authors highlighted the significance of creating an inclusive learning environment in medical education. The study emphasized acknowledging and valuing students’ diverse backgrounds, abilities, and perspectives to promote a socially just and responsive educational experience [ 36 ]. A study by Mann et al. explored the role of policymakers in promoting responsive medical education. The findings emphasized the importance of engaging policymakers in the educational process and fostering their understanding of the community’s specific health needs and priorities to drive meaningful reforms [ 37 ]. These studies highlight that education in the health sector should be responsive, justice-oriented, and aligned with the needs of society. It highlights the importance of creating an inclusive learning environment and fostering collaboration among policymakers, stakeholders, faculty members, students, and service providers to ensure the educational system effectively addresses the community’s real needs.

Establishing and developing responsiveness in the medical sciences education system requires implementing innovative educational methods that train specialized and responsive healthcare professionals. These professionals need to comprehensively understand multidimensional health concepts and effective strategies for achieving them. By doing so, the education system can take practical and responsible steps towards training competent and committed physicians who align with the needs of society. To further enhance responsiveness, it is crucial to prioritize research-based educational planning and the development of community-oriented evaluation indicators. These indicators are vital in assessing the number of revised educational programs that address societal needs. By incorporating research findings and feedback from the community, the medical sciences education system can continually improve its responsiveness and adapt to evolving healthcare requirements. Curriculum development emerges as a critical factor in ensuring the training of graduates who can provide high-quality services and meet defined standards. By focusing on the key elements in revising medical education programs, the education system can effectively address societal needs and respond to changing disease patterns and emerging health priorities. Understanding and prioritizing these elements is essential to fostering a responsive medical education system.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. The entire dataset is in Farsi language. The Data can be available in English language for the readers and make available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all stakeholders, health care providers, and individuals who participated in this study..

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Khanpoor, H., Amerzadeh, M., Alizadeh, A. et al. Developing a responsive model to societal needs in medical education. BMC Med Educ 24 , 370 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05355-9

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Schools are using research to try to improve children's learning
Research messages are frequently too vague to be effective because the skills and expertise of teaching are difficult to transfer. It is also becoming apparent that the gains in education are ...
Improving preservice teachers' use of instructional practices using
The purpose of this research project was to investigate the influence of rehearsing five instructional practices in a mixed reality simulation environment. A convergent mixed methods approach was employed with 16 nontraditional preservice teachers enrolled in an 8-week undergraduate special education methods course.
Mindfulness exercises
Mindfulness is a type of meditation in which you focus on being intensely aware of what you're sensing and feeling in the moment, without interpretation or judgment. Practicing mindfulness involves breathing methods, guided imagery, and other practices to relax the body and mind and help reduce stress.
Research Methods In Education
Research Methods In Education. Research methods in education refer to the systematic processes and techniques used to investigate, gather, analyze, and interpret information related to educational issues. Conducting research in education helps educators, policymakers, and researchers gain insights into various aspects of the educational system, teaching and learning processes, and educational ...
Education Sciences
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children is characterized by difficulties in social communication and restricted repetitive behavior patterns. Music therapy appears to have beneficial effects in the area of social interaction and communication. The aim of this systematic literature review is to investigate the effectiveness of music therapy programs on the development of social communication ...
Examining Laboratory Assessment: Science Teachers' Strategies and Tools
Laboratory assessments in science education involves authentic and complex tasks that align with the goals of contemporary educational objectives. However, there is a notable dearth of studies specifically addressing teachers' practices in laboratory-oriented assessment, particularly in comparison to the extensive research conducted on other facets of the science curriculum.
Patricio D. Cruz y Celis Peniche
Education 2021 - M.A. Evolutionary Anthropology, University of California, Davis 2017 - B.A. Indigenous Development Studies (Gestión y Autodesarrollo Indígena), Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas, Mexico 2015 - Exchange semester, Anthropology department, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque AboutI was trained in applied and cultural anthropology, and I'm now interested in incorporating ...
Developing a responsive model to societal needs in medical education
Background Responsiveness is relevant in the context of treatment and the provision of medical services. However, if we delve deeper into the subject, we must establish and develop responsiveness within the medical sciences education system. This study aims to identify the dimensions that significantly impact responsiveness in the medical education system based on a comprehensive review and ...

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Methodologies for Conducting Education Research by Marisa Cannata LAST REVIEWED: 19 August 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0061

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Research Methods in Education

Sample Materials & Chapters

Article contents

Introduction

The Interpretivist Paradigm

Methodological Cycles of Observation

Prior-to-Field

What Should the Researcher Look For?

Table 1. Spradley’s Descriptive Question Matrix

Recording Field Notes

Post-Field or Inter-Field

Expanded Field Notes

Notes-on-Notes

Encouragements

Final Thoughts

Methodological Texts

Representative Studies

Related Articles

Educational design research: Portraying, conducting, and enhancing productive scholarship

Thomas C. Reeves

Key message

1. INTRODUCTION

2. PORTRAYING EDR

2.1. Theoretical and practical synergies: a brief, non‐comprehensive review

2.2. A family of approaches

2.3. Examples of EDR in medical education

2.4. Key characteristics

3. CONDUCTING EDR

3.2. One example spanning all phases

3.3. Multiple examples highlighting contributions from different phases

4. ENHANCING EDR

4.2. CONCLUSIONS

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

5. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

6. ETHICAL APPROVAL

Educational design research: grappling with methodological fit

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Schools are using research to try to improve children’s learning – but it’s not working

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