qualitative research methods anthropology

Anthropology & Archaeology Research Guide : Ethnography & qualitative methods

Qualitative research guide pages.

• Qualitative research guide page This guide is an interdisciplinary resource for individuals who study and use qualitative methods.

Online handbooks for research methods

• SAGE researchmethods SAGE Research Methods is a tool created to help researchers, faculty and students with their research projects. Users can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methods or identify a new method, conduct their research, and write up their findings. Since SAGE Research Methods focuses on methodology rather than disciplines, it can be used across the social sciences, health sciences, and other areas of research.

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Research Methods in Anthropology

Qualitative and quantitative approaches, sixth edition, h. russell bernard.

• A comprehensive research methods text for cultural anthropologists
• Covers research design, data collection and data analysis
• Full coverage of both qualitative and quantitative approaches
• Written in plain language. Turns research methods into fun reading
• A real how-to, hands-on text
• Extensive bibliography on all topics covered in the book

Research methods in anthropology : qualitative and quantitative approaches

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• Contributors

Description

Creators/contributors, contents/summary.

• Preface v About the Author xiii
• 1 Anthropology and the Social Sciences 1 2 The Foundations of Social Research 23 3 Preparing for Research 54 4 Research Design: Experiments and Experimental Thinking 83 5 Sampling I: The Basics 114 6 Sampling II: Theory 131 7 Sampling III: Nonprobability Samples and Choosing Informants 145 8 Interviewing I: Unstructured and Semistructured 163 9 Interviewing II: Questionnaires 195 10 Interviewing III: Relational Data, Cultural Domains and Networks 233 11 Scales and Scaling 254 12 Participant Observation 272 13 Field Notes and Database Management 308 14 Direct and Indirect Observation 323 15 Introduction to Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis 354 16 Cognitive Anthropology I: Analyzing Relational Data, Cultural Domains and Networks 362 17 Cognitive Anthropology II: Decision Modeling, Taxonomies, and Componential Analysis 416 18 Text Analysis I: Interpretive Analysis, Narrative Analysis, Performance Analysis, and Conversation Analysis 437 19 Text Analysis II: Schema Analysis, Grounded Theory, Content Analysis, and Analytic Induction 459 20 Univariate Analysis 491 21 Bivariate Analysis: Testing Relations 527 22 Multivariate Analysis 570
• iv Contents Appendix A: Table of Areas under a Normal Curve 598 Appendix B: Student's t Distribution 601 Appendix C: Chi-Square Distribution Table 602 Appendix D: F Table for the .05 Level of Significance 604 Appendix E: Resources for Fieldworkers 606 References 611 Author Index 000 Subject Index 000.
• (source: Nielsen Book Data)

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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17.3 Theories and Methods

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

• Discuss the importance of cross-cultural comparison and cultural relativism in study of human health.
• Explain why both objectivity and subjectivity are needed in the study of health.
• Discuss ethnographic research methods and their specific applications to the study of human health.
• Summarize the theoretical frameworks that guide medical anthropologists.

The Importance of Cultural Context

Culture is at the center of all human perspectives and shapes all that humans do. Cultural relativism is crucial to medical anthropology. There is a great degree of variety in the symptoms and conditions that cultures note as significant indicators of diminished health. How the sick are treated varies between cultures as well, including the types of treatments prescribed for a particular sickness. Cultural context matters, and health outcomes determined by culture are informed by that culture’s many parts. The United States, for example, relies heavily on biomedicine, treating symptoms of mental and physical illness with medication. This prevalence is not merely an economic, social, or scientific consideration, but all three. A cultural group’s political-economic context and its cultural beliefs, traditions, and values all create the broader context in which a health system exists and all impact individuals on a psychosocial level. Behaviors such as dietary choices and preferences, substance use, and activity level—frequently labeled as lifestyle risk factors—are all heavily influenced by culture and political-economic forces.

While Western cultures rely upon biomedicine, others favor ethnopharmacology and/or ritual healing. Medical anthropologists must attempt to observe and evaluate ethnomedical systems without a bias toward biomedicine. Medical anthropologists must be cautious of tendencies toward ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism in medical anthropology takes the form of using the health system of one’s own culture as a point of comparison, giving it preference when analyzing and evaluating other systems. An American anthropologist who studies ethnomedicine in the Amazon River basin must be careful to limit their bias toward a biomedical approach as much as they can. That is not to say that subjective experience and opinion need be discarded entirely, merely that bias should be acknowledged and where necessary limited. Admitting bias is the first step in combating it. Being aware of one’s own ethnocentrism allows an anthropologist to analyze culture and medicine more truthfully.

Methods of Medical Anthropology

Medical anthropology is a highly intersectional subfield of anthropology. The field addresses both the biological and social dimensions of maladies and their treatments. Medical anthropologists must thus become comfortable with a wide-ranging tool kit, as diverse as health itself. Like all anthropologists, medical anthropologists rely on qualitative methods, such as ethnographic fieldwork, but they also must be able to appropriately use quantitative methods such as biometrics (including blood pressure, glucose levels, nutritional deficiencies, hormone levels, etc.) and medical statistics (such as rates of comorbidities, birth rates, mortality rates, and hospital readmission rates). Medical anthropologists can be found working in a myriad of endeavors: aiding public health initiatives, working in clinical settings, influencing health care policy, tracking the spread of a disease, or working for companies that develop medical technologies. The theories and methods of medical anthropology are invaluable to such endeavors.

Qualitative Methods

Within medical anthropology, a number of qualitative research methods are invaluable tools. Qualitative methods are hands-on, first-person approaches to research. An anthropologist in the room or on the ground writing down field notes based on what they see and recording events as they happen creates valuable data for themselves and for others.

Participant observation is a methodology in which the anthropologist makes first-person observations while participating in a culture. In medical anthropology, participant observation can take many forms. Anthropologists observe and participate in clinical interactions, shamanic rituals, public health initiatives, and faith healing. A form of participant observation, clinical observations allow the anthropologist to see a culture’s healing practices at work. Whether a doctor is treating COVID-19 or a shaman is treating a case of soul loss, the anthropologist observes the dynamics of the treatment and in some cases actually participates as a patient or healer’s apprentice. This extremely hands-on method gives the anthropologist in-depth firsthand experience with a culture’s health system but also poses a risk of inviting personal bias.

Anthropologists observe a myriad of topics, from clinical interactions to shamanic rituals, public health initiatives to faith healing. They carry these firsthand observations with them into their interviews, where they inform the questions they ask. In medical anthropology, interviews can take many forms, from informal chats to highly structured conversations. An example of a highly structured interview is an illness narrative interview. Illness narrative interviews are discussions of a person’s illness that are recorded by anthropologists. These interviews can be remarkably diverse: they can involve formal interviews or informal questioning and can be recorded, written down, or take place electronically via telephone or video conference call. The social construction of sickness and its impact on an individual’s illness experience is deeply personal. Illness narratives almost always focus on the person who is ill but can at times involve their caregivers, family, and immediate network as well.

Another method commonly used in medical anthropology, health decision-making analysis , looks at the choices and considerations that go into deciding how to treat health issues. The anthropologist interviews the decision makers and creates a treatment decision tree, allowing for analysis of the decisions that determine what actions to take. These decisions can come from both the patient and the person providing the treatment. What religious or spiritual choices might make a person opt out of a procedure? What economic issues might they face at different parts of their illness or sickness? Health decision-making analysis is a useful tool for looking at how cultures treat sickness and health, and it highlights a culture’s economic hierarchies, spiritual beliefs, material realities, and social considerations such as caste and gender.

Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods produce numeric data that can be counted, correlated, and evaluated for statistical significance. Anthropologists utilize census data, medical research data, and social statistics. They conduct quantitative surveys, social network analysis that quantifies social relationships, and analysis of biomarkers. Analysis of census data is an easy way for medical anthropologists to understand the demographics of the population they are studying, including birth and death rates. Census data can be broken down to analyze culturally specific demographics, such as ethnicity, religion, and other qualifiers as recorded by the census takers. At times, an anthropologist may have to record this data themselves if the available data is absent or insufficient. This type of analysis is often done as a kind of background research on the group being studying, creating a broader context for more specific analysis to follow.

Also important to medical anthropologists are analyses of medical statistics . The study of medical records helps researchers understand who is getting treated for what sickness, determine the efficacy of specific treatments, and observe complications that arise with statistical significance, among other considerations. Analysis of census data combined with medical statistics allows doctors and other health providers, as well as medical anthropologists, to study a population and apply that data toward policy solutions. Famous examples include the World Health Organization’s work on health crises such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, and COVID-19.

Questionnaires are more personal to the anthropologist, allowing them to ask pointed questions pertinent to their particular research. Surveys make it possible for anthropologists to gather a large quantity of data that can then be used to inform the questions they ask using qualitative methods. Distribution methods for surveys vary and including means such as personally asking the questions, releasing the survey through a health care provider, or offering online surveys that participants choose to answer.

These are the most common methods used by medical anthropologists. Different theories are influential in determining which of the methods a particular research might favor. These theories inform how an anthropologist might interpret their data, how they might compose a study from beginning to end, and how they interact with the people they study. Combined with more general anthropological theory, each anthropologist must craft a composite of theory and method to create their own personalized study of the world of human health.

Theoretical Approaches to Medical Anthropology

Social health.

Biomedicine, the science-based ethnomedical system practiced in the United States, recognizes the impact physical health and mental health have on one another: when one falters, the other does as well. There is an increasing awareness in biomedicine of a third type of health, social health , which has long been recognized by many ethnomedical systems around the world. Each of the theoretical approaches to medical anthropology demonstrates that to develop a holistic understanding of human well-being, it is necessary to include mental, physical, and social health. Social health is driven by a complex set of sociocultural factors that impact an individual or community’s wellness. At a macro level, it includes the cultural and political-economic forces shaping the health of individuals and communities. An individual’s social health also includes the support a person receives from their extended social network, as well as the social pressures or stigma a person may face and the meaning that they ascribe to their experiences. Just as mental and physical health strongly influence one another, when a person’s social health falters, their physical and/or mental health declines as well.

Physical environments—whether they are natural, constructed, or modified environments—shape cultural adaptations and behaviors. People living on islands and people living in deserts inhabit very different environments that inform their cultures and affect their biology. On the other hand, culture often affects how humans interact with their environments. People who work in offices in Los Angeles and hunter-gatherers in the Amazon River basin interact with their environments differently, relying upon very different subsistence patterns and sets of material culture. Culture also informs human biology. Eating a lot of spicy foods changes a person’s biophysiology and health outcomes, as do dietary taboos such as refusing to eat pork. These dietary choices inform biology over generations as well as within a single lifetime.

The Biocultural Approach

The biocultural approach to anthropology acknowledges the links between culture and biology. Biology has informed human development and evolution, including the adaptations that have made culture, language, and social living possible. Culture, in turn, informs choices that can affect our biology. The biocultural approach analyzes the interaction between culture, biology, and health. It focuses on how the environment affects us, and the connections between biological adaptations and sociocultural ones. The biocultural approach draws on biometric and ethnographic data to understand how culture impacts health. The effects of environment on biology and culture are apparent in the treatment of survivors of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident that occurred in 2011 in Japan. Studies regarding the genetic health of survivors focus on the combination of environmental damage and social stigma in Japan due to their potential exposure to radiation.

Symbolic Approach

Other theoretical approaches ask different types of questions. What does it mean to be a patient? What are the social expectations for the behaviors of a person diagnosed as suffering from a particular sickness? Why is it symbolically meaningful for a treatment to be prescribed by a medical doctor? These are questions typically asked by those utilizing a symbolic approach to medical anthropology. The symbolic approach focuses on the symbolic thinking and beliefs of a culture and how those beliefs affect social and especially health outcomes.

A person’s beliefs affect how they perceive treatments and how they experience illness. The most obvious example of the symbolic approach at work is the placebo effect . If a person believes that a treatment will be effective, this belief will affect their health outcome. Often in medical trials, people who believe they are receiving a treatment but are in fact receiving a placebo, such as a sugar pill, will demonstrate physiological responses similar to those receiving an active substance. Accounting for the placebo effect is an important consideration for all medical studies. The opposite of the placebo effect, the nocebo effect, occurs when a person believes they are not receiving an effective medicine or that a treatment is harmful. Common to both phenomena is the importance of meaning-centered responses to health outcomes. One of the most potent examples of this is voodoo death , when psychosomatic effects—that is, physical effects created by social, cultural, and behavioral factors—such as fear brought on by culture and environment cause sudden death. Related to the symbolic approach of medical anthropology is the symbolic interaction approach to health utilized by medical sociologists. Both approaches recognize that health and illness are socially constructed concepts. The symbolic interaction approach to health focuses on the roles of the patient, caregiver, and health care provider and the interactions that take place between people occupying these roles.

Medical Ecology

Another major medical anthropology theory is medical ecology . Pioneered by Paul Baker and based on his work in the Andes and American Samoa in the 1960s and 1970s, medical ecology is a multidisciplinary approach that studies the effects of environment on health outcomes. Examples of these environmental influences include food sources, environmental disasters and damage, and how environmentally informed lifestyles affect health. Whereas the biocultural approach looks at the intersection of biology and culture, medical ecology focuses instead on how environment informs both health and the culture surrounding it.

A popular example of these connections can be observed in what are termed Blue Zones , certain locations around the world where a significant number of people regularly live exceptionally long lives, many over a century. These communities can be found in the United States, Japan, Columbia, Italy, and Greece. Common links between people who live in these places include a high-vegetable, low-animal-product diet (eggs and fish are the exception), a lively social life and regular activity, and a strong sense of cultural identity.

A negative example of the links between environment and health can be viewed in the Flint, Michigan, water crisis. In this case, pollution of the city water system negatively affected health outcomes due to high exposure to lead and Legionnaires’ disease. Studies, including a long-term study by the National Institutes of Health, confirm that the water, central to the larger environment of Flint, negatively affected citizens of all ages, with particular harm caused to children and the elderly.

Cultural Systems Model

Culture is a chief consideration in another theory, the cultural systems model . Cross-cultural comparison is a core methodology for anthropology at large, and the cultural systems model is ideal for cross-cultural comparison of health systems and health outcomes. Cultures are made of various systems, which are informed by sociocultural, political-economic, and historical considerations. These systems can include health care systems, religious institutions and spiritual entities, economic organizations, and political and cultural groupings, among many others. Different cultures prioritize different systems and place greater or less value on different aspects of their culture and society. The cultural systems model analyzes the ways in which different cultures give preference to certain types of medical knowledge over others. And, using the cultural systems model, different cultures can be compared to one another.

An example of the cultural systems model at work is Tsipy Ivry ’s Embodying Culture: Pregnancy in Japan and Israel (2009), which examines pregnancy and birth in Israel and Japan. A particular focus is how state-controlled regulation of pregnancy and cultural attitudes about pregnancy affect women differently in each society. Despite both societies having socialized medicine, each prioritizes the treatment of pregnant women and the infant differently.

In the Israeli cultural model for pregnancy, life begins at a child’s first breath, which is when a woman becomes a mother. Ivry describes a cultural model that is deeply impacted by anxiety regarding fetal medical conditions that are deemed outside the mother’s and doctor’s control. As every pregnancy is treated as high risk, personhood and attachment are delayed until birth. The state of Israel is concerned with creating a safe and healthy gene pool and seeks to eliminate genes that may be harmful to offspring; thus, the national health care system pressures women to undergo extensive diagnostic testing and terminate pregnancies that pass on genes that are linked to disorders like Tay-Sachs disease.

Japan, facing decreasing birthrates, pressures women to maximize health outcomes and forgo their own desires for the sake of the national birth rate. The cultural model for pregnancy in Japan emphasizes the importance of the mother’s body as a fetal environment. From conception, it is a mother’s responsibility to create a perfect environment for her child to grow. Mothers closely monitor their bodies, food intake, weight gain, and stressful interactions. In Japan, working during pregnancy is strongly discouraged. Ivry noted that many women even quit work in preparation for becoming pregnant, whereas in Israel mothers work right up to delivery.

The cultural systems model also allows medical anthropologists to study how medical systems evolve when they come into contact with different cultures. An examination of the treatment of mental illness is a good way of highlighting this. While in the United States mental illness is treated with clinical therapy and pharmaceutical drugs, other countries treat mental illness differently. In Thailand, schizophrenia and gender dysmorphia are understood in the framework of culture. Instead of stigmatizing these conditions as illnesses, they are understood as gifts that serve much-needed roles in society. Conversely, in Japan, where psychological diagnoses have become mainstream in the last few decades and pharmaceutical treatment is more prominent than it once was, psychological treatment is stigmatized. Junko Kitanaka ’s work on depression in Japan highlights how people with depression are expected to suffer privately and in silence. She links this socially enforced silence to Japan’s high stress rates and high suicide rates (2015). The cultural systems model offers an effective way to evaluate these three approaches toward mental illness, giving a basis of comparison between the United States, Thailand, and Japan. Assigning ethnomedicine the same value as biomedicine rather than giving one primacy over the other, this important comparative model is central to the theoretical outlook of many medical anthropologists.

The cultural systems model encompasses a myriad of cross-disciplinary techniques and theories. In many cultures, certain phrases, actions, or displays, such as clothing or amulets, are recognized as communicating a level of distress to the larger community. Examples include the practices of hanging “the evil eye” in Greece and tying a yellow ribbon around an oak tree during World War II in the United States. These practices are termed idioms of distress , indirect ways of expressing distress within a certain cultural context. A more psychologically driven consideration is the cause of people’s behaviors, known as causal attributions . Causal attributions focus on both personal and situational causes of unexpected behaviors. A causal attribution for unusual behavior such as wandering the streets haplessly could be spirit possession within the context of Haitian Vodou, while in the United States behaviors such as sneezing and blowing one’s nose might be attributed to someone not taking care of themselves.

Causal attributions can be important to one’s own illness. Anthropologist and psychiatrist Arthur Kleinman has concluded that if doctors and caregivers were to ask their patients what they think is wrong with them, these explanations might provide valuable information on treatment decisions. One patient might think that their epilepsy is caused by a spirit possession. Another might suggest that their developing diabetes in inevitable because of their culture and diet. These beliefs and explanations can guide a doctor to develop effective and appropriate treatments. The approach recommended by Kleinman is known as the explanatory model. The explanatory model encourages health care providers to ask probing questions of the patient to better understand their culture, their worldview, and their understanding of their own health.

Political Economic Medical Anthropology

Another medical anthropology approach is critical medical anthropology (CMA) , which is sometimes referred to as political economic medical anthropology (PEMA) . Critical medical anthropology has a specific interest in the inequalities of health outcomes caused by political and economic hierarchies. Critical medical anthropology advocates for community involvement and health care advocacy as ethical obligations. Defining biomedicine as capitalist medicine, this approach is critical of the social conditions that cause disease and health inequalities and of biomedicine’s role in perpetuating these systemic inequalities. CMA is also interested in the medicalization of social distress, a process that has led to a wide range of social problems and life circumstances being treated as medical problems under the purview of biomedicine.

Systemic racism and structural violence create many negative health outcomes. Structural violence refers to the way in which social institutions, intentionally or otherwise, harm members of some groups within the larger society. Structural violence can affect things such as life expectancy, disability, or pregnancy outcomes and can lead to distrust of medical systems. The Tuskegee syphilis study, a decades-long “experiment” that studied the long-term effects of syphilis in Black men under the guise of medical treatment, is a prime example of structural violence at work within the United States medical system. Black men involved in the study were not told they had syphilis and were denied medical treatment for decades, with most dying of the disease. The government’s internal mechanisms for halting unethical studies failed to stop this experiment. It was only when public awareness of what was happening resulted in an outcry against the study that the experiments were stopped.

Another area of interest to medical anthropologists working with a CMA approach is how medical systems might be inherently biased toward or against certain segments of society. The research of anthropologist Leith Mullings demonstrated a lifelong focus on structures of inequality and resistance. Her work in Ghana examined traditional medicine and religious practice through a postcolonial lens, which was critical of the colonial legacy of structural inequality she observed. Her work in the United States also focused on health inequalities, with a special interest in the intersection of race, class, and gender for Black women in urban areas. It has been documented that some doctors in the United States regularly ignore the pain of women, and this is especially true in cases where the doctor displays racial bias. This tendency has been cited in several studies, including a study in The New England Journal of Medicine that found that women are more likely to be misdiagnosed for coronary heart disease based on the symptoms they give and pain levels reported (Nubel 2000). Another study in the Journal of Pain found that women on average reported pain 20 percent more of the time than men and at a higher intensity (Ruau et al. 2012). Another example of research that takes a CMA approach is Khiara Bridges ’s 2011 Reproducing Race , which brings a critical lens to pregnancy as a site of racialization through her ethnography of a large New York City hospital. This medical racism contributes to the higher rates of African American infant and maternal mortality.

Merrill Singer has done work on the role of social inequalities in drug addiction and in cycles of violence. This work has led to his development of the concept of syndemics , the social intersection of health comorbidities , or two health conditions that often occur together. For example, Japan’s hibakusha , or atomic bomb survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, do not live as long as Japan’s normally long-lived population and are more likely to develop multiple types of cancer and other diseases tied to their exposure to nuclear radiation. In addition to these health risks, they face heavy discrimination from the larger Japanese population due to misinformation regarding nuclear radiation and radiation contamination. This discrimination carries over to the descendants of hibakusha , who have a higher rate of cancer than the average Japanese population despite having no detectable genetic damage from the atomic bombings. Studies are ongoing as to the cultural, economic, and genetic causes of this cancer. Syndemics is highlighted in the near-century-long struggle for numerous conditions caused by the atomic bombings to be recognized as related to the atomic bombings and thus treated by the Japanese government.

Critical theories of health are an applied method, analyzing medical systems and applying critical theory, often with the goal of improving the system or improving policy. Recommendations for improvements often come out of research but may also be the starting point of a research project, as part of a data-finding mission to highlight disparity in health outcomes. Whether it is systemic racism in biomedical treatment or power discrepancies in ethnomedical rituals, critical theories of health are a key part of exploring medicine in action and understanding real medical consequences. From birth to the grave, social inequalities shape health outcomes, life expectancy, and unnecessary human suffering. Critical medical anthropology scholarship demonstrates the social forces shaping disease and health, from drug addiction to the impacts of climate change. This work becomes a self-evident call of action. It is medical anthropology in action.

Profiles in Anthropology

Angela garcia 1971-.

Personal History: Angela Garcia comes from a small town along the Mexican border with New Mexico. She credits her background and upbringing with inspiring much of her later work in anthropology. Her early experiences have led her to focus on places where political and cultural spheres combine, resulting in inequality and violence. Within this framework, she has focused on medicine, postcolonial theory, and feminism. She first attended the University of California, Berkeley, and then earned a PhD from Harvard University in 2007, shortly thereafter publishing her first book, The Pastoral Clinic: Addiction and Dispossession along the Rio Grande .

Area of Anthropology: medical anthropology, feminist anthropology

Accomplishments in the Field: The Pastoral Clinic analyzes heroin addiction among Hispanic populations in New Mexico’s Rio Grande region. Garcia’s work focuses on the political and social realities that contribute to addiction and treatment, with dispossession as a central theme. The degradation of the surrounding environment and the economic decline of the Great Recession have been important factors in determining people’s life choices. Also influential has been a political reality that denies many participation or power. Garcia describes addiction as a recurring reality in the lives of many, leading them in and out of rehab in an endless cycle. Garcia also describes the damaging effects of addiction on relationships within families and communities.

Garcia joined the Department of Anthropology at Stanford University in 2016. Her work has shifted to Mexico City, where she studies coercive rehabilitation centers run by the poor. She is particularly interested in political and criminal violence and in how informal centers like these exemplify the political and social climate within the larger Mexican nation. As much as these centers embody these realities, they also try to shift power away from pathways that lead to and encourage violence. In addition to this work, Garcia has also started examining addiction and mental illness in both Mexico and the United States Latinx (Latina/o) population.

Importance of Their Work: Garcia publishes and presents frequently in preparation for books she is currently writing. Her work is crucial to understanding dispossession and power dynamics within the United States and Mexico, including how immigration and migration affect access to health care and shape identity.

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Research methods.

Social science involves the study of people. Social research methods are based on a systematic approach to studying social phenomena. Social sciences include anthropology, sociology, economics, psychology, political science, communications, and history. Researchers in each of these disciplines are interested in pursuing explanations for human social behavior. Sociologists and anthropologists, in particular, are interested in the empirical study of human behavior from a cultural and societal perspective. Oftentimes, social scientists are critiqued for their lack of a vigorous set of research standards that tend to be more apparent in the natural science disciplines. However, social scientists adopt both quantitative and qualitative methodologies by following a measurement process that helps to ensure both reliability and validity in their work. In addition, researchers develop studies that focus on exploratory, descriptive, and explanatory societal questions.

Research Design and Measurement in Social Research

Dimensions of research design include exploration, description, and explanation. Each design supports different fundamental research goals. Exploratory research is used when the goal is to become familiar with basic facts, people, and concerns. Researchers are often able to develop a well-grounded mental picture of the social situation that is unfolding. Researchers also generate main ideas and develop tentative theories, determine the feasibility of doing additional research, formulate questions and issues for further inquiry, and develop techniques and a sense of direction for research.

Descriptive research is used to provide an accurate profile of a group as well as describe processes, mechanisms, or relationships. In addition, descriptive research gives a verbal or numerical picture of a social setting. Researchers use the descriptive approach to find information to stimulate new explanations; present basic background information or context; create a set of categories and classify types; and clarify a sequence, set of stages, or steps.

Researchers carry out explanatory research when they are interested in solving a problem or establishing an explanation for why something exists as it does. A further goal of explanatory research is to determine the accuracy of a principle or theory. Explanatory research can also be used to find out which competing explanation is better and advance knowledge about an underlying process or social relationship. Explanatory research is especially useful to build or elaborate on a theory so it is more complete, extend a theory or principle into new areas or issues, and provide evidence to support or refute an explanation.

In addition to considering the type of design in social research, researchers must be able to develop measurement standards to establish consistency and accuracy in their concepts. Measurement involves developing a set of clearly defined variables that can be compared and analyzed as precise data points. In order to develop clear, well-defined concepts, researchers must conceptualize and operationalize their variables. Conceptualization involves developing a precise definition of the idea being studied. This definition serves as the standard for empirical measurement in the social world. Without this step, it would be difficult to develop a standard for the concepts being observed. The standard helps to ensure that the measure is observed consistently and accurately throughout the research study.

A second step in the measurement process is operationalization. Researchers operationalize concepts by specifically outlining how the measure will be tested empirically. In this process, it is imperative that researchers outline data collection steps. How do we capture the concept empirically? Whether we plan to test our concepts using surveys, participant observation, in-depth interviews, archival research, or experiments, we need to clearly establish guidelines for collecting data.

Proposing Research

Developing a strong research study requires a strong research proposal. Effort spent in this process helps the researcher outline a research agenda that combines both a discussion of relevant past research and proposed contributions to the field. A proposal should include the following sections: a clear and well-defined research question or problem, a discussion of relevant literature and past research studies, a description of how data will be collected including a discussion of how variables have been conceptualized and operationalized, and a conclusion that includes ethical issues and points for further discussion.

The proposal creates a map   of  sorts   for the researcher to follow. With a well-defined plan of study, the researcher can enter his or her study process with a clear idea of the overall agenda.

Specific Research Designs

Traditionally, social science researchers work with both quantitative and qualitative frameworks. Over time, emphasis has been placed on one research design or the other. However, more recently, there has been a push for collaboration among research designs. Different levels of depth, detail, and understanding can be accomplished through a combination of designs. For example, a field researcher concentrating on participant observation can collect rich, detailed descriptions of what she sees in the field, but may not have the data in a format that allows for any quantification for comparison. By including a survey tool, she can then compare basic demographic characteristics or other data that suits her research needs. Triangulation of methods has become accepted practice. Most social scientists agree that a combination of methods assists in helping to ensure validity and reliability.

Because of the nature of the data that is collected, most research methods are inherently quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative methods include survey research, secondary analysis, existing statistical analysis, and experiments. Qualitative methods include field research, historical comparative research, and natural experiments. Focus groups, case studies, and content analysis can be used as either quantitative or qualitative depending on how they are employed and the suitability of the research question.

Consistently increasing in the use since the 1930s and the development of George Gallup’s Gallup Poll, survey research is one of the most popular means of collecting data in the social sciences. If they are directed to a representative target population, surveys have shown to be useful in measuring popular opinion. Surveys are also used to measure attitude, behavior, knowledge, and consumer preference. Popular tools across the social sciences, surveys provide large amounts of data that can be gathered quickly, are relatively inexpensive to collect, and are easily quantified to be used for statistical analysis.

However, there are drawbacks to this method as well. Because most surveys consist of close-ended questions, the depth and breadth of the response is limited. Respondents may be choosing the ‘best’ response, though it may not truly represent their feelings or ideas. In addition, survey analysts have to account for a standard margin of error that can be derived from analyzing cases of missing responses, deceit, or simply misunderstanding the nature of the question.

Two additional quantitative methods that are often used in conjunction are secondary analysis and existing statistics. Each method relies on past collection of data. Secondary analysis is used when a researcher is interested in re-analyzing a study that has already been carried out. This occurs to offer a test of reliability of the study but can also serve as a means to test other cause-and-effect relationships or theoretical explanations of the variables.

Using existing statistics is slightly different. In this method, researchers are not collecting the data first hand either, but instead develop their own analytic schemata for data that has been compiled by another source. For example, researchers use U.S. Census data to analyze educational attainment by neighborhood by using zip code aggregate data and educational attainment rates by high school.

The experimental method is used most often in psychology but has been used to isolate causal factors in both sociology and anthropology. Used to isolate factors of cause-and-effect relationships, experiments are highly detailed in their design and rely on the researcher’s ability to test for validity through control of the experiment conditions. Most experiments in the social sciences rely on a controlled, simulated environment, where participants are observed before and after a change to the independent variable.

Qualitative methods differ in that the form of data is not numeric but highly detailed and relies on an incorporation of thematic analysis and empirical observation. Examples of data include, but are not limited to, interview transcriptions, maps, photographs, diaries or journals, oral histories, and document analysis. Common qualitative methods include field research, historical comparative research, and natural experiments.

Field research is based on techniques of observation and analysis in a natural setting. The goal of field research is to capture a real picture of human social behavior. In order to do this, researchers study groups and individuals in their natural social settings. Researchers can take on numerous roles in the field. Roles are categorized by four distinctions: participant observer, complete participant, complete observer, and observer participant. As participant observer, the researcher acts as a pseudomember of the group. Members are aware of the researcher’s role and recognize the duality of their responsibility as participant and observer. When the researcher acts as a complete participant she acts as a member of the group, keeping her identity as a researcher hidden from the group. There is some question as to what level of deception is acceptable. As a complete observer, the researcher remains undetected and unnoticed, reporting observations. The fourth role the researcher assumes is the observer as participant. In this situation, the researcher is a known, overt observer, however she has limited contact with members. She remains slightly detached from the group, which some argue allows for greater objectivity.

Two issues emerge in terms of validity of field research data. Researchers need to consider internal consistency, or whether the data are plausible given all that is known about a person, group, or event, not considering forms of human deception. External consistency, or whether observations and data can be verified or cross-checked with other sources of data, needs to be considered as well. Both of these issues rest with the research design and operationalization of the research question.

Historical comparative research is another form of qualitative research. Sources for this data include archives, library collections, and memory studies. Historical comparative researchers look for three things in their evidence: implicit conceptual framework, particular details, and empirical generalizations. The conceptual framework should include an implicit understanding of assumptions and perspective of the person reporting events. Researchers need to take careful consideration of times, dates, events, chronology, people involved, and locations. It is essential that researchers try to verify information by focusing on factual statements on which there is agreement. However, consideration must be taken to ensure that data is valid and not simply the result of a hidden historical agenda. The researcher is also interested in interpretations of evidence and the “silences” or cases where the evidence fails to address a particular event, topic, or issue.

Ethical Issues

Researchers need to be aware of their own cultural biases. Without this awareness, judgments of other cultures may be made that jeopardize the validity of the data. Even though it is difficult at times, one way to do this is to defocus before entering the field. This step involves figuratively removing oneself from the primary focus of the research paradigm. The goal is to remain open to everything one may encounter and to not take occurrences for granted but to acknowledge everything as potentially important and meaningful.

Social research methods allow us to provide explanations of human social behavior. Through a systematic approach, researchers can begin to make sense of the social world. Although some disciplines focus on particular methods over others (psychology: experiments; sociology: surveys; anthropology: field research), each takes into account the goals of the discipline in an effort to collect the most reliable and valid results possible.

References:

• Babbie, E. (2002). The basics of social research (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Creswell, J. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Neuman, L. (2003). Social research methods: Quantitative and qualitative approaches (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• Wysocki, D. K. (2004). Readings in social research methods. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

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Research Methods in Anthropology

Anthropological researchers often use  ethnographic  and observational methods as well as  visual methods . Learning how to conduct fieldwork is important for anthropologists. To find out more about conducting fieldwork, try SAGE’s   Little Blue Book  series on qualitative methods.

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Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches Sixth Edition

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• A comprehensive research methods text for cultural anthropologists
• Covers research design, data collection and data analysis
• Full coverage of both qualitative and quantitative approaches
• Written in plain language. Turns research methods into fun reading
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• Extensive bibliography on all topics covered in the book
• ISBN-10 1442268883
• ISBN-13 978-1442268883
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Rowman & Littlefield Publishers; Sixth edition (November 17, 2017)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
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• #321 in Social Sciences Methodology
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• Xu, Jing. 2023. Re-discovering "the Child": A Re-interpretation of Arthur & Margery Wolf's Classic Fieldnotes. Sociological Review of China , no.9: 65-88. In Chinese.
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• Mohamed, Sumaya Bashir. “Rag Waa Shaah, Dumarna Waa Sheeko: Men Are Like Tea, Women Are Like Conversation: Culturally Congruent Somali Perinatal Care in Seattle, WA: A Feasibility Study.” ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2022.
• Paula M. Kett, Ph.D., Marieke S. van Eijk, Ph.D., Grace A. Guenther, Susan Skillman. “’ This work that we’re doing is bigger than ourselves:’ Experiences and Labor Conditions of Doulas Working in Underserved Communities in the United States.” Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health
• Chapman, R. R., Raige, H., Abdulahi, A., Mohamed, S., & Osman, M. (2021). Decolonising the global to local movement: Time for a new paradigm.  Global Public Health , 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2021.1986736
• Dimas Iqbal Romadhon (2020) A critical comparative ethnographic study of courtesy stigma in two leprosy-impacted communities in Indonesia, Global Public Health, DOI: 10.1080/17441692.2020.1718734
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• Xu, Jing. 2019. Learning "Merit" in a Chinese Preschool: Bringing the Anthropological Perspective to Understanding Moral Development. American Anthropologist. doi: 10.1111/aman.13269
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• O'Hare AM, C Richards, J Szarka, LV McFarland, W Showalter, EK Vig, R Sudore, ST Crowley, R Trivedi, and JS Taylor. 2018. "Emotional Impact of Illness and Care on Patients with Advanced Kidney Disease." Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 13(xx):xxx-xxx. doi: https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.14261217
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Research Methods in Anthropology

by Bastis Consultores | Jul 6, 2020 | Methodology | 8 comments

The distinctive aspect of research in anthropology is the exploration of the complexity and nuances of human interactivity, as well as its culture. As a research discipline, anthropology combines humanistic and social science strategies. During their research, anthropologists make observations and pursue perspectives from various angles and in various ways. They observe and speak with people from different social categories. They have different relationships with the phenomena under study and conceptualize and respond to those phenomena.

The Ethnographic Method in Research in Anthropology

In this regard, the method that differentiates anthropology from other disciplines is ethnography, defined as the qualitative process of exploring in depth the why and how of culture, behavior and human expression. Using the ethnographic method, anthropologists can discover unexpected ideas that are best obtained by studying the subject over time and from various perspectives. In this way, the ethnographic method uses multiple data collection techniques.

These include participant observation, interviews, focus groups and textual analysis to build a holistic and contextual vision of the phenomena under study. Anthropologists immerse themselves in the rich largely qualitative dataset that results from their research and iterative analysis to identify emerging issues and gain insight into the meaning of the data. The goal of the anthropological approach is the credible interpretation of the data, to provide valuable and replicable information.

Data Collection Methods in Anthropology

Generally, an anthropological approach uses multiple qualitative methods as well as complementary quantitative data in a mixed methods study. The qualitative anthropological data collection methods are: participant observation, in-depth observation, interviews, focus groups and textual analysis.

Participant observation

Participant observation is the method of fieldwork par excellence in anthropology. Anthropologists use various degrees of participant observation, from full participation in ongoing activities to passive observation in places of interest. Participant observation is useful in multiple stages of an evaluation:

• Initially, to identify problems that need to be explored with other data collection methods;
• In the course of evaluating the process
• To follow other types of data, to triangulate previous findings and directly observe specific phenomena.

Participant observation allows the researcher to assess real behavior in real time. Information collected in this way can strengthen the interpretation of information collected through interviews. Large projects that employ multiple observers can use an observation template. This allows observers to be guided in taking notes on central phenomena and allowing them to add notes on other phenomena. It is important to ensure that observations from any location are made at different times of the day and week to identify patterns and differences.

In-depth individual interviews

In-depth interviews using open-ended questions aim to capture the informant’s mental and experiential world. Individual interviews allow participants to tell their stories in a detailed and consistent way. Also, without worrying about what their classmates may think. A semi-structured interview uses an interview guide with a central list of open-ended questions as well as advance follow-up questions. This allows researchers to ensure that all participants are asked a minimum set of identical questions.

In this way, they can collect reliable and comparable qualitative data. Additionally, this interview technique allows researchers to ask spontaneous questions to investigate clarification of participant responses. Therefore, they can follow new and relevant topics raised by the participants. Semi-structured interviews should be conducted by someone trained in qualitative interviews and who is comfortable using open-ended questions. In this way they can encourage participants to expose their thoughts. The duration of the interviews can vary and the evaluators can record audio and transcribe them.

Focus Group

Focus group is a useful group interview method for obtaining information on relatively new topics. Researchers choose focus groups rather than one-on-one interviews when data acquisition will benefit from the dynamics that are created through the discussion group. The discussion often generates information and ideas that might not come from an individual interview, including the colloquial ways in which participants speak. The following factors are critical to the success of the focus groups:

• Thoughtful creation of a list of open-ended questions designed to attract participants to discussion on desired topics.
• Careful attention to recruiting participants who have the desired characteristics and experiences. Also taking into account that they are comfortable with non-hierarchical group discussion.
• The presence of an observer who keeps notes on the process, operates the recording equipment and assists the moderator as needed.

Focus groups generally include 6 to 12 participants and last 1 to 2 hours. Moderators should strive to facilitate openness and dynamic dialogue between participants to allow opportunities for creative idea generation.

Textual analysis

The practices produce a wide range of documents that provide valuable windows to their operations, values and mechanisms. Anthropological methods can be used to examine underlying themes and patterns in documents. These may be mission statements, information brochures, and procedure manuals. Thus, to understand the context, researchers can carry out a systematic review of the textual materials produced by practice. In this way, evaluators can obtain valuable information about beliefs, motivations and beliefs not articulated. If individuals and groups build their own narrative practice, record their practice stories, as part of the transformation process, this technique can be really helpful.

Digital Anthropology

Digital anthropology is the anthropological study of the relationship between humans and technology in the digital age. The field is new and therefore has a variety of names with a variety of emphasis. These include Techno Anthropology, Digital Ethnography, Cyber ​​Anthropology, Anthropology of Cyberspace, and Virtual Anthropology. Most anthropologists who use the phrase “digital anthropology” refer specifically to online technology and the Internet.

The study of the relationship of humans with a broader range of technology may fall into other subfields of anthropological study. An example of this is cyborg anthropology, a discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology, specifically Artificial Intelligence and Post-Humanism. One of the pioneering associations in this field is the Digital Anthropology Group (DANG) is an interest group inserted in the American Anthropological Association. DANG’s mission includes promoting the use of digital technology as an anthropological research tool. It also encourages anthropologists to share research using digital platforms and describe ways for anthropologists to study digital communities.

The Field of Digital Anthropology

Cyberspace itself can serve as a field research site for anthropologists. It allows the observation, analysis and interpretation of the sociocultural phenomena that arise and take place in any interactive space. National and transnational communities, enabled by digital technology, establish a set of social norms, practices, traditions, history and associated collective memory.

Likewise, they are related to periods of migration, internal and external conflicts and potentially subconscious language characteristics. In the same way, they work with memetic dialects comparable to those of traditional, geographically confined communities. This includes the various communities created around free and open source software. Likewise, it refers to online platforms like 4chan and Reddit and their respective subsites, and politically motivated groups like Anonymous, WikiLeaks or the Occupy movement.

What is observation and what is it for quantitative research?

Digital Anthropology and Virtual Environments

Various academic anthropologists have conducted traditional virtual world ethnographies, such as Bonnie Nardi’s World of Warcraft study or Tom Boellstorff’s Second Life study. Academician Gabriella Coleman has done ethnographic work in the Debian software community and on the anonymous hacktivist network. Many digital anthropologists who study online communities use traditional methods of anthropological research. They participate in these online communities to learn about their customs and worldviews. In the same way, they support their observations with private interviews, historical research, and quantitative data.

The method (and therefore the product) is ethnography, a qualitative description of your experience. In terms of method, there is disagreement on whether it is possible to conduct an investigation exclusively online or if the investigation will only be completed when the subjects are studied comprehensively, both online and offline. Tom Boellstorff, who conducted a three-year investigation as an avatar in the Second Life virtual world, defends the first approach, stating that it is not only possible, but necessary to engage with subjects “on their own terms.” Others, like Daniel Miller, have argued that ethnographic research should not exclude learning about the subject’s life off the Internet.

The inevitability of digital technology as an anthropology tool

Anthropological research can help designers adapt and improve technology. Australian anthropologist Genevieve Bell conducted extensive user experience research at Intel that informed the company’s approach to its technology, users, and market. The American Anthropological Association offers an online guide for students who use digital technology to store and share data. They can be loaded into digital databases to be stored, shared and interpreted. Numerical and text analysis software can help produce metadata, while a codebook helps organize the data. Other anthropologists and social scientists have done research that emphasizes data collected by websites and servers. However, academics often have trouble accessing user data on the same scale as social media corporations like Facebook and data mining companies like Acxiom (Today called Live Ramp).

Conclusions

Anthropology is known as a holistic science, incorporating knowledge and skills from fields as diverse as language arts, biology, chemistry, history, economics, visual and performing arts, statistics, psychology, epidemiology, and more. As the most scientific of the humanities and the most humanistic of the sciences, anthropology offers an eclectic box of qualitative and quantitative research method tools. Anthropologists are trained to combine insightful powers of observation, compelling forms of expression, and scientific verification of their theories to illuminate the complex relationships between culture and nature.

Bibliographic References

Bradley EH, Curry LA, Devers KJ. Qualitative data analysis for health services research: developing taxonomy, themes, and theory. Health Serv Res 2007; 42(4):1758–72.

Cohen DJ, Crabtree BF. Evaluative criteria for qualitative research in health care: controversies and recommendations. Ann Fam Med 2008; 6(4):331–9. Mays N,

Pope C. Qualitative research: observational methods in health care settings. BMJ 1995; 311:182–4

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Quantitative Data

• Last Updated: Jun 21, 2023

Quantitative data has long been a core component of anthropological research. Since the advent of cultural anthropology during the early 20th century, numerical and statistical methods have been employed to further our understanding of human cultures , behaviors, and societies [1] .

Overview of Quantitative Data in Anthropology

In anthropology , quantitative data involves the collection and analysis of numerical information to reveal patterns, trends, correlations, or generalizations about the human condition. This can be gleaned from various sources such as population censuses, health records, economic indicators, or surveys.

For instance, an anthropologist studying dietary practices across cultures might employ quantitative methods to measure and compare food intake or nutritional indices. A seminal work in this regard is Murdock’s [2] . Ethnographic Atlas, which compiled quantitative data on a variety of cultural traits across hundreds of societies, providing invaluable insights into cross-cultural patterns and diversities.

While quantitative data provides rigorous, generalizable insights, it’s important to recognize that it is often complemented by qualitative data, offering a holistic understanding of human experiences [1] .

Methodology

Research design.

In anthropological research, design is instrumental to the structure and execution of a study. A common research design is the cross-sectional study, where data is collected from a sample population at a specific point in time [1] . This is often employed in cultural anthropology to assess variations across different cultural groups or regions.

Data Collection Techniques

• Surveys: Surveys are standard instruments for collecting quantitative data. Anthropologists often use structured interviews or standardized questionnaires to gather information about beliefs, behaviors, and social practices.
• Questionnaires: Questionnaires, either self-administered or researcher-administered, are used to gather standardized data. In an anthropological study examining social networks, questionnaire items might include queries about respondents’ relationships and interactions.
• Experiments: Experimental methods are used less frequently in anthropology but can offer valuable insights. Laboratory or field experiments, for instance, can help determine causal relationships or test hypotheses about human behavior.
• Archival Research: Anthropologists may use archival data, such as historical documents, census data, or institutional records, to gather quantitative information.

Sampling Techniques

There are two types of sampling techniques in research: Probability Sampling Methods and Non-Probability Methods.

Probability sampling methods ensure each member of a population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected , facilitating the collection of unbiased, representative data. These techniques offer more precise and generalizable findings. Here are several types of probability sampling methods:

• Simple Random Sampling (SRS): In SRS, each individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of being chosen for the sample. This method ensures a high level of representativeness, and conclusions drawn from the sample can be generalized to the population. However, it requires an exhaustive list of all members in the population, which may not always be feasible.
• Systematic Sampling: This involves selecting a random starting point from the population list and then picking every nth element. The key benefit is its simplicity. But, the order of the list may introduce bias if there’s a pattern that coincides with the chosen interval.
• Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into homogeneous subgroups, or strata, and random samples are drawn from each stratum. This technique ensures representation of all key groups within the population and can increase the efficiency and precision of the estimate.
• Cluster Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into clusters, usually geographically. Random clusters are then chosen and all individuals within these clusters are included in the sample. This method can save time and resources when the population is geographically dispersed but might be less precise than simple random or stratified sampling.

Non-probability sampling techniques don’t give each member of a population a known chance of being included in the sample. These methods are often used when it’s not feasible to conduct probability sampling, and while they can be easier and cheaper to implement, they don’t allow for statistical inference about the entire population.

• Convenience Sampling: This is the most straightforward type of non-probability sampling, where participants are selected based on their availability or ease of access. It’s used when a random sample isn’t necessary or when it isn’t feasible to choose a random sample. However, the results may not be representative of the broader population.
• Snowball Sampling: Also known as referral sampling, this method is often used when it’s difficult to identify members of a desired population. Researchers start with a small pool of initial informants, then each of those informants provides referrals to other participants, creating a ‘snowball’ effect. This method is particularly useful when studying hidden or hard-to-reach populations.
• Quota Sampling: This method is the non-probability counterpart of stratified sampling. Researchers divide the population into specific groups based on relevant characteristics and then non-randomly select individuals from each group until the quotas are filled. The proportion of participants in each quota matches their proportion in the population.
• Purposive Sampling: In this method, researchers use their judgment to select participants who are most able to contribute useful data. For example, if conducting research on specialized practices within a culture, anthropologists might use purposive sampling to select individuals who are considered experts in those practices.

Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics.

Descriptive statistics summarize and describe the main features of a dataset. Anthropologists use them to provide a clear and concise summary of their data.

• Measures of Central Tendency: These include the mean (average), median (middle value), and mode (most frequent value). For instance, an anthropologist studying age at marriage in a community might use the mean age to describe the central tendency of their data.
• Measures of Dispersion: These describe the spread or variability of the data, including range, variance, and standard deviation. For instance, studying income distribution in a society, the range of incomes and the standard deviation can help understand economic inequality.

Inferential Statistics

Inferential statistics allow researchers to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample. They form the backbone of hypothesis testing in anthropological research.

• Hypothesis Testing: Hypothesis testing involves proposing a claim about a population parameter and then using sample data to test the claim. For instance, an anthropologist might hypothesize that there is a significant difference in fertility rates between two cultural groups.
• Confidence Intervals: These provide a range of values within which the population parameter is likely to fall. An anthropologist estimating the average number of children per woman in a community might report it as a range, giving a confidence interval.
• Correlation Analysis: This measures the relationship between two variables. For instance, an anthropologist might analyze the correlation between education level and income within a society.
• Regression Analysis: This allows researchers to predict the value of one variable based on the value of another. An anthropologist could use regression analysis to predict a community member’s social status based on variables like age, education, and occupation.

Comparisons with Qualitative Data

Advantages of quantitative data.

Quantitative data provide numeric evidence that can be analyzed statistically to support or refute hypotheses about a population. The results are replicable, allowing for generalizability of findings. For instance, anthropologists might use quantitative data to measure the prevalence of a certain cultural practice in different societies.

Limitations of Quantitative Data

Despite its strengths, quantitative data isn’t well-suited to explore all research questions. It often fails to capture the richness and complexity of human experiences and doesn’t illuminate the meanings or interpretations people assign to their experiences. It also requires a larger sample size to be statistically significant and might oversimplify complex social phenomena.

Complementary Relationship between Quantitative and Qualitative Data

Qualitative and quantitative data serve complementary roles in anthropological research. While quantitative data can illustrate patterns and trends across a population, qualitative data can provide a deep, nuanced understanding of the cultural context and individual perspectives. For instance, an anthropologist might combine a quantitative survey of marriage patterns in a community with qualitative interviews to understand the underlying beliefs and norms influencing these patterns.

Summary of the Article’s Main Points

This article has comprehensively covered the concept, methodologies, analysis, and comparison of quantitative data in anthropological research. Quantitative data provides numerical evidence that facilitates a statistical understanding of phenomena, such as cultural practices or societal trends. Key methodologies discussed include research design, data collection, and sampling techniques, both probability and non-probability. The use of descriptive and inferential statistics in analyzing quantitative data has also been outlined, from measures of central tendency and dispersion to hypothesis testing and regression analysis. The advantages and limitations of quantitative data were considered alongside qualitative data, illuminating their complementary relationship in anthropological research.

Implications for Anthropology and Future Research

Quantitative data plays a crucial role in anthropology, providing a foundation for testing hypotheses and making generalizable conclusions. Yet, the importance of blending these approaches with qualitative methods to obtain a richer, more nuanced understanding of cultural phenomena has been highlighted. For future research, embracing a mixed-methods approach will continue to strengthen the anthropological understanding of human societies and cultures. As we navigate the evolving landscapes of research, the refinement of data collection techniques, alongside advancements in data analysis tools, will further enhance the application and utility of quantitative data in anthropology.

References:

[1] Bernard, H. R. (2011). Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. AltaMira Press.  https://ds.amu.edu.et/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/11396/Russel-Research-Method-in-Anthropology.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[2] Murdock, G. P. (1967). Ethnographic Atlas. University of Pittsburgh Press.

Vasundhra, an anthropologist, embarks on a captivating journey to decode the enigmatic tapestry of human society. Fueled by an insatiable curiosity, she unravels the intricacies of social phenomena, immersing herself in the lived experiences of diverse cultures. Armed with an unwavering passion for understanding the very essence of our existence, Vasundhra fearlessly navigates the labyrinth of genetic and social complexities that shape our collective identity. Her recent publication unveils the story of the Ancient DNA field, illuminating the pervasive global North-South divide. With an irresistible blend of eloquence and scientific rigor, Vasundhra effortlessly captivates audiences, transporting them to the frontiers of anthropological exploration.

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