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Qualitative Research

What is qualitative research.

Qualitative research is the methodology researchers use to gain deep contextual understandings of users via non-numerical means and direct observations. Researchers focus on smaller user samples—e.g., in interviews—to reveal data such as user attitudes, behaviors and hidden factors: insights which guide better designs.

“ There are also unknown unknowns, things we don’t know we don’t know.” — Donald Rumsfeld, Former U.S. Secretary of Defense

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See how you can use qualitative research to expose hidden truths about users and iteratively shape better products.

Qualitative Research Focuses on the “Why”

Qualitative research is a subset of user experience (UX) research and user research . By doing qualitative research, you aim to gain narrowly focused but rich information about why users feel and think the ways they do. Unlike its more statistics-oriented “counterpart”, quantitative research , qualitative research can help expose hidden truths about your users’ motivations, hopes, needs, pain points and more to help you keep your project’s focus on track throughout development. UX design professionals do qualitative research typically from early on in projects because—since the insights they reveal can alter product development dramatically—they can prevent costly design errors from arising later. Compare and contrast qualitative with quantitative research here:

Qualitative research

Quantitative Research

You Aim to Determine

The “why” – to get behind how users approach their problems in their world

The “what”, “where” & “when” of the users’ needs & problems – to help keep your project’s focus on track during development

Loosely structured (e.g., contextual inquiries) – to learn why users behave how they do & explore their opinions

Highly structured (e.g., surveys) – to gather data about what users do & find patterns in large user groups

Number of Representative Users

Often around 5

Ideally 30+

Level of Contact with Users

More direct & less remote (e.g., usability testing to examine users’ stress levels when they use your design)

Less direct & more remote (e.g., analytics)

Statistically

You need to take great care with handling non-numerical data (e.g., opinions), as your own opinions might influence findings

Reliable – given enough test users

Regarding care with opinions, it’s easy to be subjective about qualitative data, which isn’t as comprehensively analyzable as quantitative data. That’s why design teams also apply quantitative research methods, to reinforce the “why” with the “what”.

Qualitative Research Methods You Can Use to Get Behind Your Users

You have a choice of many methods to help gain the clearest insights into your users’ world – which you might want to complement with quantitative research methods. In iterative processes such as user-centered design , you/your design team would use quantitative research to spot design problems, discover the reasons for these with qualitative research, make changes and then test your improved design on users again. The best method/s to pick will depend on the stage of your project and your objectives. Here are some:

Diary studies – You ask users to document their activities, interactions, etc. over a defined period. This empowers users to deliver context-rich information. Although such studies can be subjective—since users will inevitably be influenced by in-the-moment human issues and their emotions—they’re helpful tools to access generally authentic information.

Structured – You ask users specific questions and analyze their responses with other users’.

Semi-structured – You have a more free-flowing conversation with users, but still follow a prepared script loosely.

Ethnographic – You interview users in their own environment to appreciate how they perform tasks and view aspects of tasks.

Usability testing

Moderated – In-person testing in, e.g., a lab.

Unmoderated – Users complete tests remotely: e.g., through a video call.

Guerrilla – “Down-the-hall”/“down-and-dirty” testing on a small group of random users or colleagues.

User observation – You watch users get to grips with your design and note their actions, words and reactions as they attempt to perform tasks.

Qualitative research can be more or less structured depending on the method.

Qualitative Research – How to Get Reliable Results

Some helpful points to remember are:

Participants – Select a number of test users carefully (typically around 5). Observe the finer points such as body language. Remember the difference between what they do and what they say they do.

Moderated vs. unmoderated – You can obtain the richest data from moderated studies, but these can involve considerable time and practice. You can usually conduct unmoderated studies more quickly and cheaply, but you should plan these carefully to ensure instructions are clear, etc.

Types of questions – You’ll learn far more by asking open-ended questions. Avoid leading users’ answers – ask about their experience during, say, the “search for deals” process rather than how easy it was. Try to frame questions so users respond honestly: i.e., so they don’t withhold grievances about their experience because they don’t want to seem impolite. Distorted feedback may also arise in guerrilla testing, as test users may be reluctant to sound negative or to discuss fine details if they lack time.

Location – Think how where users are might affect their performance and responses. If, for example, users’ tasks involve running or traveling on a train, select the appropriate method (e.g., diary studies for them to record aspects of their experience in the environment of a train carriage and the many factors impacting it).

Overall, no single research method can help you answer all your questions. Nevertheless, The Nielsen Norman Group advise that if you only conduct one kind of user research, you should pick qualitative usability testing, since a small sample size can yield many cost- and project-saving insights. Always treat users and their data ethically. Finally, remember the importance of complementing qualitative methods with quantitative ones: You gain insights from the former; you test those using the latter.

Learn More about Qualitative Research

Take our course on User Research to see how to get the most from qualitative research.

Read about the numerous considerations for qualitative research in this in-depth piece.

This blog discusses the importance of qualitative research , with tips.

Explore additional insights into qualitative research here .

Answer a Short Quiz to Earn a Gift

What is the primary focus of qualitative research in user experience?

• To determine statistical significance of user behavior
• To explore user behaviors and motivations in-depth
• To quantify user interaction across multiple platforms

How many participants typically participate in qualitative research studies?

• About 5 to allow in-depth exploration
• Between 30 and 50 for moderate generalization
• Over 100 to guarantee statistical reliability

Which method do researchers often use in qualitative research to understand user experiences in their natural environment?

• Ethnographic interviews
• Laboratory experiments
• Online surveys

What characterizes the analysis of data in qualitative research?

• Simple tabulation of numeric responses
• Statistical analysis of large data sets
• Thematic analysis of detailed descriptions

What is a common challenge researchers face when they conduct qualitative research?

• The ability to obtain a large enough sample size for statistical analysis.
• The ability to remain objective and avoid bias in data interpretation.
• The ability to use advanced statistical tools to analyze data.

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Literature on Qualitative Research

Here’s the entire UX literature on Qualitative Research by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Qualitative Research

Take a deep dive into Qualitative Research with our course User Research – Methods and Best Practices .

How do you plan to design a product or service that your users will love , if you don't know what they want in the first place? As a user experience designer, you shouldn't leave it to chance to design something outstanding; you should make the effort to understand your users and build on that knowledge from the outset. User research is the way to do this, and it can therefore be thought of as the largest part of user experience design .

In fact, user research is often the first step of a UX design process—after all, you cannot begin to design a product or service without first understanding what your users want! As you gain the skills required, and learn about the best practices in user research, you’ll get first-hand knowledge of your users and be able to design the optimal product—one that’s truly relevant for your users and, subsequently, outperforms your competitors’ .

This course will give you insights into the most essential qualitative research methods around and will teach you how to put them into practice in your design work. You’ll also have the opportunity to embark on three practical projects where you can apply what you’ve learned to carry out user research in the real world . You’ll learn details about how to plan user research projects and fit them into your own work processes in a way that maximizes the impact your research can have on your designs. On top of that, you’ll gain practice with different methods that will help you analyze the results of your research and communicate your findings to your clients and stakeholders—workshops, user journeys and personas, just to name a few!

By the end of the course, you’ll have not only a Course Certificate but also three case studies to add to your portfolio. And remember, a portfolio with engaging case studies is invaluable if you are looking to break into a career in UX design or user research!

We believe you should learn from the best, so we’ve gathered a team of experts to help teach this course alongside our own course instructors. That means you’ll meet a new instructor in each of the lessons on research methods who is an expert in their field—we hope you enjoy what they have in store for you!

All open-source articles on Qualitative Research

How to do a thematic analysis of user interviews.

• 1.2k shares
• 3 years ago

How to Visualize Your Qualitative User Research Results for Maximum Impact

Creating Personas from User Research Results

Best Practices for Qualitative User Research

Card Sorting

Contextual Interviews and How to Handle Them

Understand the User’s Perspective through Research for Mobile UX

• 11 mths ago

Ethnography

7 simple ways to get better results from ethnographic research.

• 2 years ago

Semi-structured qualitative studies

Pros and cons of conducting user interviews.

Workshops to Establish Empathy and Understanding from User Research Results

How to Moderate User Interviews

• 4 years ago

Question Everything

Adding Quality to Your Design Research with an SSQS Checklist

• 8 years ago

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Qualitative Research Methods: Types, Analysis + Examples

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses. The interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience makes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication .

This method is about “what” people think and “why” they think so. For example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation concludes that more men are visiting this store. One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is conducting an in-depth interview method with potential customers.

For example, after successfully interviewing female customers and visiting nearby stores and malls, the researchers selected participants through random sampling . As a result, it was discovered that the store didn’t have enough items for women.

So fewer women were visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and understanding why they didn’t visit the store because there were more male products than female ones.

Gather research insights

Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behavior and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are different types of qualitative research methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research that are usually used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive, and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the obtained data .

Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral research sciences. Today, our world is more complicated, and it is difficult to understand what people think and perceive. Online research methods make it easier to understand that as it is a more communicative and descriptive analysis .

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also, read about qualitative research examples :

1. One-on-one interview

Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time. This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in depth from the respondent.

One of the advantages of this method is that it provides a great opportunity to gather precise data about what people believe and their motivations . If the researcher is well experienced, asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful data. If they should need more information, the researchers should ask such follow-up questions that will help them collect more information.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on the phone and usually can last between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is conducted face to face, it gives a better opportunity to read the respondents’ body language and match the responses.

2. Focus groups

A focus group is also a commonly used qualitative research method used in data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market.

The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why, ” “what,” and “how” questions. One advantage of focus groups is you don’t necessarily need to interact with the group in person. Nowadays, focus groups can be sent an online survey on various devices, and responses can be collected at the click of a button.

Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to other online qualitative research methods. Typically, they are used to explain complex processes. This method is very useful for market research on new products and testing new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational research method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments, which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here, geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience the natural settings firsthand.

This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and time-consuming method and solely depends on the researcher’s expertise to analyze, observe, and infer the data.

4. Case study research

T he case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a valuable quality research method. As the name suggests, it is used for explaining an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social sciences, and similar. This method may look difficult to operate; however , it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping

This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research. This is similar to going to a library. There, one can go over books and other reference material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data. Since the focus on qualitative observation is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead characteristics.

Explore Insightfully Contextual Inquiry in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research: data collection and analysis

A. qualitative data collection.

Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and findings to emerge through careful analysis.

• Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one aspect is very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods of collecting and recording the data.

For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can begin.

• As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues. Many researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data collected.
• In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes, they are helpful in maintaining comments, environmental contexts, environmental analysis , nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the video recordings or the audio tapes.

B. Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text analysis.

Text analysis is a  data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the participants in the research study and decode the words, actions, etc. 

There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained supreme popularity.

Characteristics of qualitative research methods

• Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the participants are experiencing issues or research problems . These are real-time data and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect information.
• Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source .
• This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and understood by all.
• Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.

Qualitative research method case study

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked and the questions were answered by them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.

By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in further quantitative research , which provides remedies.

When to use qualitative research

Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some examples of when to use qualitative research.

• Developing a new product or generating an idea.
• Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
• To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
• Understanding purchase behavior.
• To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other communications.
• Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer care groups.
• Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

LEARN ABOUT: Steps in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods

The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods are simple and straightforward. They differ in:

• Their analytical objectives
• Types of questions asked
• Types of data collection instruments
• Forms of data they produce
• Degree of flexibility

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Qualitative Research: An Overview

• First Online: 24 April 2019

Cite this chapter

• Yanto Chandra 3 &
• Liang Shang 4  

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Qualitative research is one of the most commonly used types of research and methodology in the social sciences. Unfortunately, qualitative research is commonly misunderstood. In this chapter, we describe and explain the misconceptions surrounding qualitative research enterprise, why researchers need to care about when using qualitative research, the characteristics of qualitative research, and review the paradigms in qualitative research.

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Qualitative research is defined as the practice used to study things –– individuals and organizations and their reasons, opinions, and motivations, beliefs in their natural settings. It involves an observer (a researcher) who is located in the field , who transforms the world into a series of representations such as fieldnotes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos (Denzin and Lincoln 2011 ). Many researchers employ qualitative research for exploratory purpose while others use it for ‘quasi’ theory testing approach. Qualitative research is a broad umbrella of research methodologies that encompasses grounded theory (Glaser and Strauss 2017 ; Strauss and Corbin 1990 ), case study (Flyvbjerg 2006 ; Yin 2003 ), phenomenology (Sanders 1982 ), discourse analysis (Fairclough 2003 ; Wodak and Meyer 2009 ), ethnography (Geertz 1973 ; Garfinkel 1967 ), and netnography (Kozinets 2002 ), among others. Qualitative research is often synonymous with ‘case study research’ because ‘case study’ primarily uses (but not always) qualitative data.

The quality standards or evaluation criteria of qualitative research comprises: (1) credibility (that a researcher can provide confidence in his/her findings), (2) transferability (that results are more plausible when transported to a highly similar contexts), (3) dependability (that errors have been minimized, proper documentation is provided), and (4) confirmability (that conclusions are internally consistent and supported by data) (see Lincoln and Guba 1985 ).

We classify research into a continuum of theory building — >   theory elaboration — >   theory testing . Theory building is also known as theory exploration. Theory elaboration refers to the use of qualitative data and a method to seek “confirmation” of the relationships among variables or processes or mechanisms of a social reality (Bartunek and Rynes 2015 ).

In the context of qualitative research, theory/ies usually refer(s) to conceptual model(s) or framework(s) that explain the relationships among a set of variables or processes that explain a social phenomenon. Theory or theories could also refer to general ideas or frameworks (e.g., institutional theory, emancipation theory, or identity theory) that are reviewed as background knowledge prior to the commencement of a qualitative research project.

For example, a qualitative research can ask the following question: “How can institutional change succeed in social contexts that are dominated by organized crime?” (Vaccaro and Palazzo 2015 ).

We have witnessed numerous cases in which committed positivist methodologists were asked to review qualitative papers, and they used a survey approach to assess the quality of an interpretivist work. This reviewers’ fallacy is dangerous and hampers the progress of a field of research. Editors must be cognizant of such fallacy and avoid it.

A social enterprises (SE) is an organization that combines social welfare and commercial logics (Doherty et al. 2014 ), or that uses business principles to address social problems (Mair and Marti 2006 ); thus, qualitative research that reports that ‘social impact’ is important for SEs is too descriptive and, arguably, tautological. It is not uncommon to see authors submitting purely descriptive papers to scholarly journals.

Some qualitative researchers have conducted qualitative work using primarily a checklist (ticking the boxes) to show the presence or absence of variables, as if it were a survey-based study. This is utterly inappropriate for a qualitative work. A qualitative work needs to show the richness and depth of qualitative findings. Nevertheless, it is acceptable to use such checklists as supplementary data if a study involves too many informants or variables of interest, or the data is too complex due to its longitudinal nature (e.g., a study that involves 15 cases observed and involving 59 interviews with 33 informants within a 7-year fieldwork used an excel sheet to tabulate the number of events that occurred as supplementary data to the main analysis; see Chandra 2017a , b ).

As mentioned earlier, there are different types of qualitative research. Thus, a qualitative researcher will customize the data collection process to fit the type of research being conducted. For example, for researchers using ethnography, the primary data will be in the form of photos and/or videos and interviews; for those using netnography, the primary data will be internet-based textual data. Interview data is perhaps the most common type of data used across all types of qualitative research designs and is often synonymous with qualitative research.

The purpose of qualitative research is to provide an explanation , not merely a description and certainly not a prediction (which is the realm of quantitative research). However, description is needed to illustrate qualitative data collected, and usually researchers describe their qualitative data by inserting a number of important “informant quotes” in the body of a qualitative research report.

We advise qualitative researchers to adhere to one approach to avoid any epistemological and ontological mismatch that may arise among different camps in qualitative research. For instance, mixing a positivist with a constructivist approach in qualitative research frequently leads to unnecessary criticism and even rejection from journal editors and reviewers; it shows a lack of methodological competence or awareness of one’s epistemological position.

Analytical generalization is not generalization to some defined population that has been sampled, but to a “theory” of the phenomenon being studied, a theory that may have much wider applicability than the particular case studied (Yin 2003 ).

There are different types of contributions. Typically, a researcher is expected to clearly articulate the theoretical contributions for a qualitative work submitted to a scholarly journal. Other types of contributions are practical (or managerial ), common for business/management journals, and policy , common for policy related journals.

There is ongoing debate on whether a template for qualitative research is desirable or necessary, with one camp of scholars (the pluralistic critical realists) that advocates a pluralistic approaches to qualitative research (“qualitative research should not follow a particular template or be prescriptive in its process”) and the other camps are advocating for some form of consensus via the use of particular approaches (e.g., the Eisenhardt or Gioia Approach, etc.). However, as shown in Table 1.1 , even the pluralistic critical realism in itself is a template and advocates an alternative form of consensus through the use of diverse and pluralistic approaches in doing qualitative research.

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Chandra, Y. (2017a). A time-based process model of international entrepreneurial opportunity evaluation. Journal of International Business Studies, 48 (4), 423–451.

Chandra, Y. (2017b). Social entrepreneurship as emancipatory work. Journal of Business Venturing, 32 (6), 657–673.

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Qualitative Research : Definition

Qualitative research is the naturalistic study of social meanings and processes, using interviews, observations, and the analysis of texts and images.  In contrast to quantitative researchers, whose statistical methods enable broad generalizations about populations (for example, comparisons of the percentages of U.S. demographic groups who vote in particular ways), qualitative researchers use in-depth studies of the social world to analyze how and why groups think and act in particular ways (for instance, case studies of the experiences that shape political views).   

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Qualitative Research 101: Everything you need to know

How to choose the right software for qualitative research

What does psychology say about qualitative research via webcam?

Which is better - online or face-to-face qual (according to psychology)?

If you are keen on learning more about qualitative research, it can be hard to find an overview of all the key things you need to know, and how to apply everything that is available in the qualitative research sphere to your particular needs. This article has been designed to be that overview - a "pillar page" that will provide everything you need to know before spreading your search further into specific areas that interest you or that directly relate to what you are trying to achieve using the latest qualitative research tools and methods.

In this article you will discover:

The difference between qualitative and quantitative research The difference between online and offline qualitative research Common qualitative research methodologies The powerful market research trend towards video that is changing the qualitative research landscape Modern approaches to qualitative data analysis How to choose qualitative research software

When talking about research methods, there are generally two distinct styles of research that need to be considered - qualitative and quantitative. Any discussion about qualitative research, what it is, and how it can be used inevitably must also consider how it is different from quantitative research - so that is where we will begin!

Qualitative vs quantitative research

Quantitative research: all about the numbers.

Quantitative research is most often associated with the social sciences, natural sciences, and business administration. It often involves measuring the impact of certain events on a population. Specifically, it is research that measures something with numbers.

For example, in medicine, a researcher might investigate the efficacy of a new vaccine on patients by conducting a quantitative research study. A simpler example might be finding out how many people have heard of a particular brand, and how many like the brand.

Data collection for quantitative studies is often through running Web surveys, and there are a large number of platforms available to create such surveys, ranging from the relatively cheap Survey Monkey through to Confirmit and Qualtrics at the high end.

Due to the nature of quantitative research - the collection and analysis of numbers - research is heavily biased towards online methods, and data analysis takes advantage of all the intrinsic benefits of computers ("crunching" large amounts of data, performing analytics to uncover trends and producing digestible summaries of big data sets).

Qualitative research: Analysis of non-numerical data

Qualitative research is literally everything quantitative research is not. It involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, audio). Rather than resulting in "statistics", it results in "insights" (i.e. it helps to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences). The goal is often to delve into what problems exist or to generate new ideas for research.

The purpose of qualitative research is to "explain rather than describe". Qualitative research projects are often exploratory rather than explanatory, aiming to explore phenomenon rather than test a hypothesis. As such, the research may be used to generate or contribute evidence towards new hypotheses.

One of the biggest concerns when conducting qualitative research is sampling. Because most studies aim to understand a larger group through intensive observation (e.g. ethnography), samples are typically smaller than in quantitative research where random sampling is more common. Sampling may also be more purposive rather than random. Participants may be selected by convenience, snowball, or judgemental methods, which raises concerns that findings cannot be generalised beyond the sample.

An effort is usually made to avoid this problem by collecting data from multiple, diverse sources and triangulating findings so that different perspectives are considered at the same time. Rather than looking for statistical significance in the results, "thematic findings" are what is important in qualitative research.

Factors to determine your sample size for qualitative research

Qualitative research is often overshadowed by quantitative research due to the sheer size of the quantitative research industry, and the ease with which the benefits of quantitative methods can be understood and applied. The broadness of qualitative research is both a strength and a weakness. While it provides insights that are impossible to get through numbers, the broadness of approaches and the ever-improving suite of tools and technologies available can make it harder to understand (and keep up with).

Gaining an understanding of qualitative research methods and approaches and applying them to your clients can distinguish you from your competitors, so it is certainly worth the effort to understand what is possible. Providing something different, and better, that results in deeper insights is always going to be of greater value than a "quant only" offering.

The best way to expand your quant-based research firm is to move into qual and provide a hybrid approach that gives clients the best of both worlds. Because of the more open-ended and emergent nature of the qualitative inquiry, the field is more amenable to using mixed-methods approaches. For instance, researchers can use a qualitative methodology such as ethnography to guide the focus of a larger, quantitative survey.

How to conduct qualitative market research successfully

Online vs. offline qualitative research

The qualitative research methods being used most commonly today fall into two distinct "camps" - online and offline. Online qualitative research is defined as research where the qualitative data is collected "digitally" - usually over the Internet. Offline research is where more traditional data collection methods are used involving physical contact between moderators and participants.

Online research methods are on the rise

Online research is on the rise because it enables fast and wide-scale access to participants (e.g. through social media recruitment) without needing any specific fieldwork abilities (e.g. recruiting on the street). Furthermore, it enables researchers to be more flexible with whom they can communicate with (e.g. online focus groups that involve geographically remote participants).

Advantages of online research: Why you should move your project online

Due to these advantages, more and more researchers are embracing digital technologies for at least some of their qualitative research data collection. Lastly, it can be argued that digital research not only enhances but also move beyond traditional qualitative methods such as interviews and observations.

As with any form of research, it is important to take all of the key advantages and disadvantages of going online into account before making a final decision about which way to take a particular project.

The top 7 advantages of online research

Data can be collected from anywhere in the world (e.g., recruitment through social media) Approach participants quickly and with minimal costs (e.g., data is crowd-sourced) Data can be analyzed automatically (e.g., using an online platform that analyses textual data such as words and phrases used or frequency of self-reported emotions). Enables researchers to be more flexible with whom they can communicate with (e.g., online focus groups) Allows researchers to easily create their own coding schemes when using specific platforms for data collection. Data provides insight into unmeasured or under-researched phenomena that are not typically covered by traditional qualitative methods (e.g., consumer loyalty) The ability to protect anonymity and confidentiality of respondents due to its largely distance-based nature

Offline qualitative research methods are still important

Online research is never going to completely replace offline methods. Regardless of any other reasons, online methods are simply not right for every circumstance.

Critics of online research believe that the main disadvantages in collecting qualitative data digitally are related to the quality and reliability of the data being collected. Some of their specific concerns are:

That without in-depth knowledge about how these platforms work, researchers might not be able to prevent participants from breaking their anonymity rules for example. In some cases it is difficult if not impossible for researchers to identify who exactly is behind a certain set of data. Data which is collected online will most likely only give one interpretation, since there is no way to verify what respondents mean/intend by their responses . Because of the lack of control over study participants (e.g. drop out rates), drawing definitive conclusions about phenomena becomes harder.

What is interesting about all of these concerns is they all appear to be the result of poor platform choice, platform training, or project management. For researchers who what to take the lead into online research, a key point from all of these concerns is going online requires both careful research and personal commitment to make these online research methods work.

How to choose qualitative research software

The reason offline qualitative research will continue to be important has nothing really to do with pitfalls of going online that can be avoided with the right platform and training. It has much more to do with the simple fact that offline will always be better in certain circumstances . An example would be a taste test or a group trial of a physical product where initial reactions are key.

Common qualitative research methodologies

Qualitative research methods are designed to discover what people "think" about a particular topic. It can involve looking at how they behave, and what their perceptions are. While there are many different types of research that can be classed as "qualitative research" - including things like document analysis - here we will focus on the main types of research requested from market research professionals by their clients.

In-depth interviews

These are known by various names - including one-on-one interviews and "IDIs". This method involves directly asking research participants questions in order to gain their opinions on specific subjects.

Focus groups

Focus groups are one of the more commonly used qualitative research methods, and they play an important role in many qualitative research projects. A focus group usually includes a relatively small group of respondents (usually between 6-10) who will meet together either (i.e. in a "group") in person or virtually on a zoom call or through an online platform.

The use of a focus group has some benefits and some disadvantages when compared to one-on-one interviews as discussed below.

Advantages over in-depth interviews

Focus groups allow for more people to be covered in a shorter period of time so you can reach more people outside your group faster than you could with just one-on-one interviews Because multiple people are involved it's easier to see how certain people may affect others' thoughts and opinions It allows for a much faster response time because all of your information is being collected from multiple sources at once.

Disadvantages to in-depth interviews

Much can be lost in translation when trying to interpret everyone's answers Much depends on the quality and experience of the moderator It may be difficult for people who are interacting with other people to remain completely unbiased.

Taking focus groups online is one of the key "battlegrounds" between online and offline research methods. There is a lot to consider when deciding if taking your next project online is a good option.

Online consumer research panels: Are they the right method for your next project?

Ethnography

Another common method of qualitative research is known as "Ethnography". This type of research involves immersing yourself within a group or culture for an extended period of time.

For example, you might want to learn about the daily life of teenagers living on their own or what it's like to be a stay-at-home mom.

Online-specific research methodologies

The research methodologies that we have discussed above all have a common trait - they existed before online research was even an option. There is a long history of these research methods being used, and the move to online for all of these methodologies does not change their fundamental structure and purpose.

For example, video groups on Zoom and other video-based platforms can replicate focus groups and one-on-one interviews. These are still essentially the same "methodologies" - they are just conducted online rather than offline.

New online methodologies

The rise of online research has led to the creation of a whole series of new online tools that have created opportunities for completely new methodologies that have no equivalent in the offline research world. Since they have been designed specifically for online, they provide an optimised digital experience for participants.

Online discussions

Online discussions can have many different names, including bulletin boards, forums and short-term communities. Regardless of what they are called, they all have the same traits:

They generally have between 10-60 participants (though they can have more)

The discussion is run over a few days of weeks

Generally there will be a couple of activities each day to complete

A moderator will probe participants for further information or engage with them in other ways to help get deeper insights

Participants may be able to engage with each other to give more of a "community feel" to a particular activity.

Advanced activities - like ideations - may provide specific functionality for certain types of research that can be conducted within a wider discussion project.

Online discussions can be accessed on any modern device - including mobile phones, tablets and laptops - making access easy regardless of where a participant is at any particular time. This makes them perfect for longer term research that will need participants to be involved for multiple days or weeks. Such involvement would be impossible in the "real world" because the amount of time that would have to be allocated to performing activities in person would be impossibly high.

The technologies available to you to complete online discussions is extensive, with a number of platforms offering suites of 15 or more activity types for all types of data collection. These collection methods can be mixed and matched to create a more engaging experience for the people taking part - perhaps a video and a quick poll today, followed by a pin task and some picture taking tomorrow.

Long-term communities

For many years, long-term communities were simply "panels". They existed mainly as a pool of people that could be used as respondents to Web surveys. Qualitative research wasn't part of the research process, and these panels were just a means to get the people required to collect quantitative data.

Over the years, as qualitative research grew online, qualitative researchers started see whether they could run a qualitative study as a semi structured project directly from within these panels. What they found was using a new research method with people who were used to Web surveys meant they didn't always get the quality of results they expected.

This has led to the growth of something designed to be used in qualitative research from the very start - smaller panels of people (as small as a few hundred up to a thousand people in total) specifically recruited to provide valuable qualitative insights for a long period of time.

Long-term communities differ from short-term communities (i.e. discussions) in a number of ways:

Discussions tend to be very structured - e.g. three days of activities, with four activities on each day. Long-term communities are much less structured - "add a task whenever needed" is a common approach. Clients often use a long-term community as an easily accessible pool of people to ask opinions of at a moment's notice. Discussions are very "ad-hoc" - it's all over in a matter of days or weeks. Long-term communities are much more of a commitment for participants. They feel more like their own Web site, and things like logins, ongoing rewards and additional content like blogs are much more common. Discussions are quicker to set up and recruit for, but once they are done, the recruits are gone. Each discussion usually needs to be recruited for all over again. Long-term communities require more set up including theming and various content pages, but once set up and recruited for you don't necessarily have to recruit again - you keep going back to the same pool of people.

From a qualitative research perspective, the thing that is the same regardless of whether you are doing a short-term or long-term community is the suite of activities available to you.

The powerful market research trend towards video

We live in a world right now, however, where the speed of change is being forced upon a market research professional is much faster than normal. Remote working has become much more common, and all manner of research (for example - tracking a customer journey) has had to be adjusted to consider new restrictions on practical aspects of conducting market research - particularly in terms of how data collection will need to be done.

Online research has primarily grown through the use of technology to add to the existing research methods in ways that can not be replicated in the "real world". Huge scale, the ability to leverage social media, and the ability to crunch a lot of data are just some of the things that have made certain online research methods so important for literally decades.

As an increasing slice of new projects moves online, the replacement for "in-person" will primarily be "on video". It will be easier to get participants (because being in the vicinity of a central location is no longer necessary, and attending virtually is less of a "hassle"), and moderator location is also unimportant. Incentives can be less, and some costs - like the cost of a group room - will disappear completely.

Understanding the bigger picture by including video as part of any research project is considered to be extremely important by clients who want to make informed decisions, understand the biggest trends and get a better understanding of what various different types of people think - regardless of whether they are looking at consumers online through, people using social media, employees of many companies or anyone else. Video is almost always a powerful tool to go beyond text-based responses.

As the amount of video being collected grows, and the level of analysis and quality of expected outputs also becomes higher - this all begs the question... how is this even achievable? Watching hours and hours of video and trying to make sense of it all is extremely time-consuming, so manually solving this problem is expensive at best, and near-impossible at worst.

Fortunately, analysis of the ever-growing amount of video being collected is made feasibly through the use of automated "video analytics". Harnessing these new technologies has been made possible by taking the capabilities of Google, Microsoft, Amazon and others, and using them as building blocks to create a solution that is specific to market research.

The 3 Market Research Trends taking the industry by storm

Modern approaches to qualitative data analysis

The process of analyzing data and your research findings is critical when it comes to making decisions; this is why it's vital you make the process of analysing qualitative data as easy and as simple as possible.

Traditional analysis is undertaken by researchers while in the room with focus groups or conducting the interviews - benefiting from the social context of being able to read and individuals emotions and keep participants from straying off course. The quality of the analysis is directly related to the skill and experience of the researchers themselves, which can be a limiting factor.

Online approaches to qualitative study help foster creativity and ingenuity - with researchers always looking for new ways of engaging with participants. The great thing about modern online data analysis is that sky is indeed the limit in terms of developing new ideas and methodologies when collecting data and how to analyse it.

Qualitative analysis does not need to take up your time - modern approaches enable you to receive responses in real-time so that you can start to analyze data right from the get-go. As part of any campaign, you should be given access to a dashboard that provides you with the tools to start your data analysis.

Your dashboard is the start of your qualitative data analysis and shows you how your sample is responding or engaging to your research questions; it'll display all data collected and the level of engagement from your sample.

The modern approach of using a dedicated platform empowers the researcher to track respondent behaviour and the wider community.

How to make qualitative data analysis easy and simple

Any venture into the world of online qualitative research necessitates to use of a platform to create and run your projects. Finding the right platform can be a daunting task, but there are a few basic things to consider when taking this journey of discovery.

Avoid lock-in to untried solutions

Unfortunately, we live in a world where "subscriptions are king" and locking you into a particular platform - preferably for a few years - is the end goal of many platform providers. Big promises linked to a long-term commitment or large upfront costs are quite common.

There is no need to lock into anything, ever, if you don't want to . A number of providers will offer very reasonable per-project pricing that will not only suit your existing project but will also let you try the platform, set up your project design, and show your client a preview of what they will be getting before making you pay for anything. Providers who are happy to back their platform and show you everything you need to make an informed decision without trying to first lock you in are the ones to look for.

Ensure you will get the support you need

Even the best qualitative research platforms can fall down due to poor support - particularly when you are new to the platform. Confirm what support is provided - and if it costs extra factor this into your costs. Online research often requires quick support response times - particularly when you are dealing with real-time research like a live group.

There are various levels of support available, but some of the things to look out for:

You may be able to get free setup included for your first project - some suppliers offer this to help make this first experience as smooth as possible, and to help you get the most out of the platform from day one.

Some platforms give you instant access to the support team through an online chat. Often this is also a great way to get quick access to their knowledgebase.

When looking at testimonials for a platform, pay particular attention to what is said about support - the quality and level of support is hard to gauge prior to getting involved in a project (it's easy to promise good support - harder to confirm the promises).

Try to discover the true capabilities of a platform

At first glance, all platforms can seem very similar. Same promise about how great they are. Similar list of qualitative research methods is available to you. Similar indications that they would be perfect for "you". The trick is to look around the edges of all these claims to determine whether what you need is truly available. Examples of things to consider are:

Does the platform use an app on phones and tablets? A few years ago apps were necessary to support some of the more advanced activities, however advances in browsers make them redundant nowadays, so all you are left with is their limitations. If they don't install as expected or crash when running, fixing the specific issue with a specific device is near impossible. Completely browser-based solutions can be used by participants on any device from a single link. Access is instant, and if a device is playing up, simply move to another one. Does the platform do what you want with videos? This point leads on from what we discussed earlier in this article - the rise of video in qualitative research. If you don't need video, or you just want to collect the video and deal with it yourself this is not a big issue - all platforms will do that. If, however, the idea of video analytics excites you (and more importantly your clients) make sure you pick a platform with powerful analytics features. All platforms will offer some sort of text transcription - the question is whether they go beyond that to identify sentiment and themes, and whether they help you build showreels (often also known as highlight reels). Does the platform cost rise steeply as the number of participants or days rise? Platforms can often appear to be around the same price, but always make sure you get a final price based on your exact needs. So of the pricing offered by platforms is for as few as 10 participants, while other platforms provide the same price all the way to 200 participants. If you have a discussion with 50 participants, the final cost between these platforms is likely to be substantial.

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What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a process of naturalistic inquiry that seeks an in-depth understanding of social phenomena within their natural setting. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives. Rather than by logical and statistical procedures, qualitative researchers use multiple systems of inquiry for the study of human phenomena including biography, case study, historical analysis, discourse analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, and phenomenology.

University of Utah College of Nursing, (n.d.). What is qualitative research? [Guide] Retrieved from  https://nursing.utah.edu/research/qualitative-research/what-is-qualitative-research.php#what 

The following video will explain the fundamentals of qualitative research.

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Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Contents in the Article

अनुसंधान का अर्थ ( Meaning of Research)

अनुसंधान के द्वारा उन मौलिक प्रश्नों के उत्तर देने के प्रयास किया जाता है जिनका उत्तर अभी तक उपलब्ध नहीं हो सका है। यह उत्तर मानवीय प्रयासों पर आधारित होता है इस प्रत्यय को चन्द्रमा के एक उदाहरण से स्पष्ट किया जा सकता है। कुछ वर्ष पहले जब तक मनुष्य चन्द्रमा पर नहीं पहुँचा था, चन्द्रमा वास्तव में क्या हैं ? इस सम्बन्ध में सही जानकारी नहीं थी। यह एक समस्या भी थी जिसका कोई समाधान भी नहीं था। मनुष्य को चन्द्रमा के सम्बन्ध में मात्र आवधारणाएं ही थी, शुद्ध ज्ञान नहीं था। परन्तु मनुष्य अपने प्रयास से चन्द्रमा पर पहुंच गया है। इस प्रकार शोध कार्यों द्वारा उन प्रश्नों का उत्तर खोजने का प्रयास किया जाता है जिनका उत्तर साहित्य में उपलब्ध नहीं है अथवा मनुष्य की जानकारी में नहीं है। उन समस्याओं का समाधान खोजने का प्रयत्न किया जाता है जिसका समाधान उपलब्ध नहीं है और न ही मनुष्य की जानकारी में है।

अनुसंधान की परिभाषा ( Definition of Research)

अनेक परिभाषाएं अनुसन्धान की गई है प्रमुख परिभाषा इस प्रकार हैं-

रेडमेन एवं मोरी के अनुसार- “नवीन ज्ञान की प्राप्ति के लिए व्यावस्थित प्रयास ही अनुसंधान हैं।”

पी० एम० कुक के अनुसार- ‘अनुसंधान किसी समस्या के प्रति ईमानदारी, एवं व्यापक रूप में समझदारी के साथ की गई खोज है। जिसमें तथ्यों, सिद्धान्तों तथा अर्थों की जानकारी की जाती है। अनुसंधान की उपलिब्ध तथा निष्कर्ष प्रामाणिक तथा पुष्टि करने योग्य होते हैं। जिससे ज्ञान में वृद्धि होती है।

उद्देश्य ( Objectives of Research)

शोध समस्याओं की विविधता अधिक है इसके चार प्रमुख उद्देश्य होते हैं- सैद्धान्तिक उद्देश्य, तथ्यात्मक उद्देश्य, सत्यात्मक उद्देश्य तथा व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य इनका संक्षिप्त विवरण इस प्रकार है-

• सैद्धान्तिक उद्देश्य ( Theoretical Objectives)- अनुसंधान में वैज्ञानिक शोध कार्य द्वारा नये सिद्धान्तों तथा नये नियमों का प्रतिपादन किया जाता है। इस प्रकार के शोध कार्य में अर्थापन होता है। इसमें चरों के सम्बन्धों को प्रगट किया जाता है और उनके सम्बन्ध में सामान्यीकरण किया जाता है। इससे नवीन ज्ञान की वृद्धि होती है, जिनका उपयोग शिक्षण तथा निर्देशन की प्रक्रिया को प्रभावशाली बनाता है।
• तथ्यात्मक उद्देश्य ( Factual Objectives)- शिक्षा के अन्तर्गत ऐतिहासिक शोध-कार्यो। द्वारा नये तथ्यों की खोज की जाती है। इनके आधार पर वर्तमान को समझने में सहायता मिलती है। इन उद्देश्यों की प्रकृति वर्णनात्मक होती है। क्योंकि तथ्यों की खोज करके, उनका अथवा घटनाओं का वर्णन किया जाता है। नवीन तथ्यों की खोज शिक्षा-प्रक्रिया के विकास तथा सुधार में सहायक होती है, निर्देशन प्रक्रिया का विकास तथा सुधार किया जाता है।
• सत्यात्मक उद्देश्य ( Establishment of Truth Objective)- दार्शनिक शोध कार्यों द्वारा नवीन सत्यों का प्रतिपादन किया जाता है। इनकी प्राप्ति अन्तिम प्रश्नों के उत्तरों से की जाती है। दार्शनिक शोध-कार्यों द्वारा शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों, सिद्धान्तों तथा शिक्षण विधियों तथा पाठ्यक्रम की रचना की जाती है। शिक्षा की प्रक्रिया के अनुभवों का चिन्तन बौद्धिक स्तर पर किया जाता है। जिससे नवीन सत्यों तथा मूल्यों को प्रतिपादन किया जा सकता है।
• व्यावहारिक उद्देश्य ( Application Objectives)- शैक्षिक अनुसंधा निष्कर्षों का व्यावहारिक प्रयोग होना चाहिए। परन्तु कुछ शोध-कार्यों में केवल इन्हें विकासात्मक अनुसन्धान भी कहते है। क्रियात्मक अनुसन्धान से शिक्षा की प्रक्रिया में सुधार तथा विकास किया जाता है अर्थात् इनका उद्देश्य व्यावहारिक होता है। स्थानीय समस्या के समाधान से इसका उपयोग अधिक होता है। स्थानीय समस्या के समाधान से भी इस उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति की जाती है। निर्देशन में इसकी उपयोगिता अधिक होती है।

अनुसन्धान का वर्गीकरण (Classification of Research)

अनुसन्धान के उद्देश्यों से यह स्पष्ट है कि अनुसन्धानों का वर्गीकरण कई प्रकार से किया जा सकता है। प्रमुख वर्गीकरण मानदण्ड पर आधारित है-

योगदान की दृष्टि से (Contribution Point of View)

शोध कार्यों के योगदान की दृष्टि से शैक्षिक अनुसन्धानों को दो भागों में विभाजित कर सकते हैं-

मौलिक अनुसंधान ( Basic or Fundamental Research)- इन शोध कार्यों द्वारा नवीन ज्ञान की वृद्धि की जाती है-नवीन सिद्धान्तों का प्रतिपादन नवीन तथ्यों की खोज, नवीन तथ्यों का प्रतिपादन होता है। मौलिक-अनुसन्धानों से ज्ञान के क्षेत्र में वृद्धि की जाती है। इन्हें उद्देश्यों की दृष्टि से तीन भागों में बाँटा जा सकता है-

• प्रयोगात्मक शोध-कार्यों से नवीन सिद्धान्तों तथा नियमों का प्रतिपादन किया जाता है। सर्पक्षण शोध से इसी प्रकार का योगदान होता है।
• ऐतिहासिक शोध कार्यो से नवीन तथ्यों की खोज की जाती है। जिनमें अतीत का अध्ययन किया जाता है और उनके आधार पर वर्तमान को समझने का प्रयास किया जाता है।
• दार्शनिक शोध कार्यों से नवीन सत्यों एवं मूल्यों का प्रतिपादन किया जाता है। शिक्षा का सैद्धान्तिक दार्शनिक अनुसन्धानों से विकसित किया जा सकता है।

महत्वपूर्ण लिंक

• निर्देशन (Guidance)- अर्थ, परिभाषा एवं विशेषतायें, शिक्षा तथा निर्देशन में सम्बन्ध
• सूक्ष्म-शिक्षण- प्रकृति, प्रमुख सिद्धान्त, महत्त्व, परिसीमाएँ
• निर्देशन के उद्देश्य (Aims of Guidance in Hindi)
• शैक्षिक निर्देशन (Educational Guidance)-परिभाषा, विशेषताएँ, सिद्धान्त
• शैक्षिक निर्देशन-उद्देश्य एवं आवश्यकता (Objectives & Need)
• व्यावसायिक निर्देशन (Vocational guidance)- अर्थ, उद्देश्य, शिक्षा का व्यावसायीकरण
• परामर्श (Counselling)- परिभाषा, प्रकार, उद्देश्य, विशेषताएँ
• विशेष शिक्षा की आवश्यकता | Need for Special Education
• New Education Policy- Characteristics & Objectives in Hindi
• राष्ट्रीय शिक्षा नीति-1992 की संकल्पनाएँ या विशेषताएँ- NPE 1992
• सूक्ष्म शिक्षण- परिभाषा, सूक्ष्म शिक्षण प्रक्रिया, प्रतिमान, पद
• व्यावसायिक निर्देशन- आवश्यकता एवं उद्देश्य (Need & Objectives)

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