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Mendel’s Law of Segregation

Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, put forward the laws that govern inheritance. He crossed two plants, each having two different alleles for a particular gene (heterozygous). He found that the traits in the offspring did not always match the traits of the parent plants.

From this result, Mendel put forward three laws of inheritance that could define the pattern of inheritance not only in pea plants but also in other organisms. They are the Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation, and Law of Independent Assortment.

Here, we will study the Law of Segregation in detail. The segregation law is also known as Mendel’s First Law of Genetics.

Law of Segregation

The law states that during the formation of a gamete, each gene separates from the other such that each gamete carries one allele for each gene. Thus, according to the law of segregation, the allocation of the gene copies is random.

When an egg and a sperm cell unite during fertilization, they form a new individual whose genotype consists of alleles in the gametes.

Basis of Segregation

The principle of segregation depends on four critical conclusions of Mendel:

A gene can have more than one form or allele
Offspring inherit two alleles for each trait or character
When gametes are produced, allele pairs separate, leaving each cell with a single allele for each trait
When the two allele pairs are different, one is dominant, and the other is recessive

Let us consider Mendel’s experiment with pea plants to reach his conclusion.

Law of Segregation Example

In pea plants, the gene for seed color exists in two forms (alleles). One of the alleles codes for yellow seed color (Y), whereas the other for green seed color (y). The allele for the yellow seed color is dominant over the green seed color, which is recessive.

As we know from Mendel’s monohybrid and dihybrid cross , when the alleles of a pair are different ( heterozygous ), the dominant trait is expressed, while the recessive trait is masked. The steps of the experiment are:

In the parental generation, Mendel crossed a homozygous, dominant pea plant for yellow seed color (YY) with a homozygous, recessive pea plant for green seed color (yy).
Each of the parents produces only one kind of gamete, Y from the YY allele and y from the yy allele.
All the F1 generation offspring are heterozygous, with alleles having genotype Yy. Thus, phenotypically they all express the dominant trait that is yellow.
The heterozygous F1 offspring produces two kinds of gametes, Y and y.
Self- pollination of the F1 offspring produces the F2 generation offspring that are phenotypically in the ratio of 3:1. That is, three of the offspring develop the dominant yellow seed color. At the same time, the remaining shows the green seed color. This result is shown using a Punnett square.

In a Punnett square, all possible gametes from the two parents are arranged, one on the top, the other on the side. After self-fertilization, the same plant is both the parents. All the combinations are then written in the boxes, representing fertilization for making new individuals.

By studying the genotype and phenotype of the F2 offspring, Mendel found that seeds with the genotype of YY or Yy are yellow. In contrast, seeds with genotype yy are green.

The above experiment proves the law of segregation proposed by Mendel. The gametes formed during the parental (step 2) and F1 generation (step 4) carry only one allele for each gene. Furthermore, the outcome of the cross shows that both the parental alleles for the gene for seed color in pea plants have segregated into separate daughter cells or gametes.

Q.1.Which scenario breaks the law of segregation?

Ans . The scenario that breaks the law of segregation is when a gamete produced has two identical alleles after the second round of meiosis .

What Is Mendel’s Law of Segregation? – Thoughtco.com
Principle of Segregation – Nature.com
Mendelian Genetics – Ndsu.edu
Mendel’s Law of Segregation – Bio.libretexts.org

Article was last reviewed on Friday, February 17, 2023

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Genes, Traits and Mendel's Law of Segregation

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How are traits passed from parents to offspring? The answer is by gene transmission. Genes are located on chromosomes and consist of DNA . These are passed from parents to their offspring through reproduction .

The principles that govern heredity were discovered by a monk named Gregor Mendel in the 1860s. One of these principles is now called Mendel's law of segregation , which states that allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization.

There are four main concepts related to this principle:

A gene can exist in more than one form or allele.
Organisms inherit two alleles for each trait.
When sex cells are produced by meiosis, allele pairs separate leaving each cell with a single allele for each trait.
When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant and the other is recessive.

Mendel's Experiments With Pea Plants

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Mendel worked with pea plants and selected seven traits to study that each occurred in two different forms. For instance, one trait he studied was pod color; some pea plants have green pods and others have yellow pods.

Since pea plants are capable of self-fertilization, Mendel was able to produce true-breeding plants. A true-breeding yellow-pod plant, for example, would only produce yellow-pod offspring.

Mendel then began to experiment to find out what would happen if he cross-pollinated a true-breeding yellow pod plant with a true-breeding green pod plant. He referred to the two parental plants as the parental generation (P generation) and the resulting offspring were called the first filial or F1 generation.

When Mendel performed cross-pollination between a true-breeding yellow pod plant and a true-breeding green pod plant, he noticed that all of the resulting offspring, the F1 generation, were green.

The F2 Generation

Mendel then allowed all of the green F1 plants to self-pollinate. He referred to these offspring as the F2 generation.

Mendel noticed a 3:1 ratio in pod color. About 3/4 of the F2 plants had green pods and about 1/4 had yellow pods. From these experiments, Mendel formulated what is now known as Mendel's law of segregation.

The Four Concepts in the Law of Segregation

As mentioned, Mendel's law of segregation states that allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization . While we briefly mentioned the four primary concepts involved in this idea, let's explore them in greater detail.

#1: A Gene Can Have Multiple Forms

A gene can exist in more than one form. For example, the gene that determines pod color can either be (G) for green pod color or (g) for yellow pod color.

#2: Organisms Inherit Two Alleles for Each Trait

For each characteristic or trait, organisms inherit two alternative forms of that gene, one from each parent. These alternative forms of a gene are called alleles .

The F1 plants in Mendel's experiment each received one allele from the green pod parent plant and one allele from the yellow pod parent plant. True-breeding green pod plants have (GG) alleles for pod color, true-breeding yellow pod plants have (gg) alleles, and the resulting F1 plants have (Gg) alleles.

The Law of Segregation Concepts Continued

#3: allele pairs can separate into single alleles.

When gametes (sex cells) are produced, allele pairs separate or segregate leaving them with a single allele for each trait. This means that sex cells contain only half the complement of genes. When gametes join during fertilization the resulting offspring contain two sets of alleles, one set of alleles from each parent.

For example, the sex cell for the green pod plant had a single (G) allele and the sex cell for the yellow pod plant had a single (g) allele. After fertilization, the resulting F1 plants had two alleles (Gg) .

#4: The Different Alleles in a Pair Are Either Dominant or Recessive

When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant and the other is recessive. This means that one trait is expressed or shown, while the other is hidden. This is known as complete dominance.

For example, the F1 plants (Gg) were all green because the allele for green pod color (G) was dominant over the allele for yellow pod color (g) . When the F1 plants were allowed to self-pollinate, 1/4 of the F2 generation plant pods were yellow. This trait had been masked because it is recessive. The alleles for green pod color are (GG) and (Gg) . The alleles for yellow pod color are (gg) .

Genotype and Phenotype

From Mendel's law of segregation, we see that the alleles for a trait separate when gametes are formed (through a type of cell division called meiosis ). These allele pairs are then randomly united at fertilization. If a pair of alleles for a trait are the same, they are called homozygous . If they are different, they are heterozygous .

The F1 generation plants (Figure A) are all heterozygous for the pod color trait. Their genetic makeup or genotype is (Gg) . Their phenotype (expressed physical trait) is green pod color.

The F2 generation pea plants show two different phenotypes (green or yellow) and three different genotypes (GG, Gg, or gg) . The genotype determines which phenotype is expressed.

The F2 plants that have a genotype of either (GG) or (Gg) are green. The F2 plants that have a genotype of (gg) are yellow. The phenotypic ratio that Mendel observed was 3:1 (3/4 green plants to 1/4 yellow plants). The genotypic ratio, however, was 1:2:1 . The genotypes for the F2 plants were 1/4 homozygous (GG) , 2/4 heterozygous (Gg) , and 1/4 homozygous (gg) .

Key Takeaways

In the 1860s, a monk named Gregor Mendel, discovered principles of heredity described by Mendel's Law of Segregation.
Mendel used pea plants for his experiments as they have traits that occur in two distinct forms. He studied seven of these traits, like pod color, in his experiments.
We now know that genes can exist in more than one form or allele and that progeny inherit two sets of alleles, one set from each parent, for each distinct trait.
In an allele pair, when each allele is different, one is dominant while the other is recessive.
Reece, Jane B., and Neil A. Campbell. Campbell Biology . Benjamin Cummings, 2011.
Introduction to Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Monohybrid Cross: A Genetics Definition
What Is Mendel's Law of Segregation?
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Dihybrid Cross in Genetics
Heterozygous Traits
Incomplete Dominance in Genetics
True-Breeding Plants
How Do Alleles Determine Traits in Genetics?
Phenotype: How a Gene Is Expressed As a Physical Trait
What Is Genetic Dominance and How Does It Work?
Genes and Genetic Inheritance
What Does Homozygous Mean in Genetics?
Law of Multiple Alleles
What Are Traits?
Genotype vs Phenotype

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29.7C: Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment

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Independent assortment allows the calculation of genotypic and phenotypic ratios based on the probability of individual gene combinations.

Learning Objectives

Use the probability or forked line method to calculate the chance of any particular genotype arising from a genetic cross
Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that genes do not influence each other with regard to the sorting of alleles into gametes; every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur.
The calculation of any particular genotypic combination of more than one gene is, therefore, the probability of the desired genotype at the first locus multiplied by the probability of the desired genotype at the other loci.
The forked line method can be used to calculate the chances of all possible genotypic combinations from a cross, while the probability method can be used to calculate the chance of any one particular genotype that might result from that cross.
independent assortment : separate genes for separate traits are passed independently of one another from parents to offspring

Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment states that genes do not influence each other with regard to the sorting of alleles into gametes: every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur. The independent assortment of genes can be illustrated by the dihybrid cross: a cross between two true-breeding parents that express different traits for two characteristics. Consider the characteristics of seed color and seed texture for two pea plants: one that has green, wrinkled seeds (yyrr) and another that has yellow, round seeds (YYRR). Because each parent is homozygous, the law of segregation indicates that the gametes for the green/wrinkled plant all are yr, while the gametes for the yellow/round plant are all YR. Therefore, the F 1 generation of offspring all are YyRr.

For the F2 generation, the law of segregation requires that each gamete receive either an R allele or an r allele along with either a Y allele or a y allele. The law of independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele sorted would be equally likely to contain either a Y allele or a y allele. Thus, there are four equally likely gametes that can be formed when the YyRr heterozygote is self-crossed as follows: YR, Yr, yR, and yr. Arranging these gametes along the top and left of a 4 × 4 Punnett square gives us 16 equally likely genotypic combinations. From these genotypes, we infer a phenotypic ratio of 9 round/yellow:3 round/green:3 wrinkled/yellow:1 wrinkled/green. These are the offspring ratios we would expect, assuming we performed the crosses with a large enough sample size.

Independent assortment of 2 genes : This dihybrid cross of pea plants involves the genes for seed color and texture.

Because of independent assortment and dominance, the 9:3:3:1 dihybrid phenotypic ratio can be collapsed into two 3:1 ratios, characteristic of any monohybrid cross that follows a dominant and recessive pattern. Ignoring seed color and considering only seed texture in the above dihybrid cross, we would expect that three-quarters of the F 2 generation offspring would be round and one-quarter would be wrinkled. Similarly, isolating only seed color, we would assume that three-quarters of the F 2 offspring would be yellow and one-quarter would be green. The sorting of alleles for texture and color are independent events, so we can apply the product rule. Therefore, the proportion of round and yellow F 2 offspring is expected to be (3/4) × (3/4) = 9/16, and the proportion of wrinkled and green offspring is expected to be (1/4) × (1/4) = 1/16. These proportions are identical to those obtained using a Punnett square. Round/green and wrinkled/yellow offspring can also be calculated using the product rule as each of these genotypes includes one dominant and one recessive phenotype. Therefore, the proportion of each is calculated as (3/4) × (1/4) = 3/16.

Forked-Line Method

When more than two genes are being considered, the Punnett-square method becomes unwieldy. For instance, examining a cross involving four genes would require a 16 × 16 grid containing 256 boxes. It would be extremely cumbersome to manually enter each genotype. For more complex crosses, the forked-line and probability methods are preferred.

To prepare a forked-line diagram for a cross between F 1 heterozygotes resulting from a cross between AABBCC and aabbcc parents, we first create rows equal to the number of genes being considered and then segregate the alleles in each row on forked lines according to the probabilities for individual monohybrid crosses. We then multiply the values along each forked path to obtain the F 2 offspring probabilities. Note that this process is a diagrammatic version of the product rule. The values along each forked pathway can be multiplied because each gene assorts independently. For a trihybrid cross, the F 2 phenotypic ratio is 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1.

Independent assortment of 3 genes : The forked-line method can be used to analyze a trihybrid cross. Here, the probability for color in the F2 generation occupies the top row (3 yellow:1 green). The probability for shape occupies the second row (3 round:1 wrinked), and the probability for height occupies the third row (3 tall:1 dwarf). The probability for each possible combination of traits is calculated by multiplying the probability for each individual trait. Thus, the probability of F2 offspring having yellow, round, and tall traits is 3 × 3 × 3, or 27.

Probability Method

While the forked-line method is a diagrammatic approach to keeping track of probabilities in a cross, the probability method gives the proportions of offspring expected to exhibit each phenotype (or genotype) without the added visual assistance.

To fully demonstrate the power of the probability method, however, we can consider specific genetic calculations. For instance, for a tetrahybrid cross between individuals that are heterozygotes for all four genes, and in which all four genes are sorting independently in a dominant and recessive pattern, what proportion of the offspring will be expected to be homozygous recessive for all four alleles? Rather than writing out every possible genotype, we can use the probability method. We know that for each gene the fraction of homozygous recessive offspring will be 1/4. Therefore, multiplying this fraction for each of the four genes, (1/4) × (1/4) × (1/4) × (1/4), we determine that 1/256 of the offspring will be quadruply homozygous recessive.

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Mendel’s Law of Segregation

General objective of this lecture is to present on Mendel’s Law of Segregation. The Principle of Segregation describes how pairs of gene variants are separated into reproductive cells. The segregation of gene variants, called alleles, and their corresponding traits was first observed by Gregor Mendel in 1865. Mendel was studying genetics by performing mating crosses in pea plants. He crossed two heterozygous pea plants, which means that each plant had two different alleles at a particular genetic position.

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Molecular Genetics (Biology): An Overview

Law of Segregation (Mendel): Definition, Explanation & Examples

Gregor Mendel was an Augustinian monk studying inherited characteristics in Austria in the 19th century. He was interested in how an individual's characteristics or traits were passed on through generations. Between 1856 and 1863, he grew and studied thousands of pea plants to find out how heredity worked.

The theory of inheritance, at the time, proposed that the characteristics of an offspring were a mixture of the characteristics of the parents. Inconsistencies such as a blue-eyed child being born to brown-eyed parents raised doubts as to the accuracy of these ideas.

Mendel's work established that traits were the result of the presence or absence of the dominant allele of a gene . Mendel's law of segregation states that the two alleles of a gene that are found on a chromosome pair separate, with the offspring receiving one from the mother and one from the father. According to Mendel's law, the two alleles act in a segregated fashion and do not mix or change each other.

Gregor Mendel's Law of Segregation Explanation

Mendel studied the traits of pea plants and how observable characteristics were passed on from parents to offspring. He raised plants whose parents had the same traits and contrasted that with offspring whose parents had different traits.

The characteristics he studied included the following:

Flower color
Flower position on stem
Stem length

From his studies, he concluded that each parent had two versions of a gene . Advanced organisms have two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. A chromosome pair would have the two versions of the gene, called alleles. Various combinations of the alleles resulted in the different traits of the pea plants.

Law of Segregation Examples: Pea Plant Pollination

Pea plants can self-pollinate, or they can be pollinated by placing pollen from the stamens of a parent plant on the pistil of another plant.

Since Mendel was interested in the offspring of two plants with different traits, he removed the pollen-bearing tops of the stamens from some plants and pollinated their pistils with pollen from specific plants. This process allowed him to control plant breeding .

Mendel started by focusing on flower color . He worked with pea plants that had the same characteristics except for one trait and pollinated them in a monohybrid cross . His experiments included the following steps:

Cross-pollinated true-breeding plants, some with purple and some with white flowers.
Observed that the first generation or the F1 generation was all purple.
Cross-pollinated members of the F1 generation.
Observed that three quarters of the second generation or F2 generation was purple and one quarter was white.

From these experiments he was able to deduce that each one of the pair of alleles for a specific gene was either dominant or recessive . Plants with one or two dominant alleles exhibited the dominant trait. Plants with two recessive alleles exhibited the recessive trait. Plants could have the following combination of alleles:

Purple/purple for purple flowers.
Purple/white for purple flowers.
White purple for purple flowers.
White/white for white flowers.

Purple was the dominant allele and the possible combinations formed the basis for the 3:1 ratio of purple to white flowers.

Law of Segregation Definition: Supported by Model of Heritability

In Mendelian inheritance , the interaction between dominant and recessive alleles produce the organism phenotype, or the collection of observable characteristics. An organism that has two identical alleles is called homozygous .

Two different alleles, meaning a dominant and a recessive one, produce a heterozygous organism with respect to that gene. The genotype, or the collection of genes and alleles of the organism, is the basis for the organism phenotype.

The Mendelian law of segregation states that organisms randomly contribute an independent assortment of one of their two alleles to the offspring.

Each allele stays segregated from the other, but dominant alleles, when present, act to produce the dominant trait in the organism. When no dominant allele is present, the two recessive alleles produce the recessive trait.

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Law of Independent Assortment (Mendel): Definition, Explanation, Example

What is the genotypic ratio in the f2 generation if two f1 hybrids are crossed.

Laws of Inheritance

Gregor Johann Mendel was a scientist who is recognized as the Father and Founder of genetics . Mendel conducted many experiments on the pea plant (Pisum sativum) between 1856 and 1863. He studied the results of the experiments and deducted many observations. Thus, laws of inheritance or Mendel’s laws of inheritance came into existence. Before learning about Mendel’s laws of inheritance, it is important to understand what the experiments performed by Mendel were.

Mendel’s Experiments on Pea Plant

Mendel after carefully study selected the pea plant for many reasons:

The pea plants were easy to grow and maintain
It has many clearly distinct and contrasting characters.
The pea plant is an annual plant and so many generations of the plant can be studied in a short period of time.
Peas are naturally self-pollinating but can also be cross-pollinated.

Mendel made a list of contrasting characters which he studied:

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Mendel structured his experiments in a way that he would observe one pair of contrasting characters at one time. He began his experiments using purebred lines for contrasting characters.

He cross-pollinated two pure lines for contrasting characters and the resultant offsprings were called F1 generation(also called the first filial generation). The F1 generations were then self-pollinated which gave rise to the F2 generation of second filial generation.

Browse more Topics under Principles Of Inheritance And Variations

Introduction to Genetics
Linkage and Recombination
Mutation and Chromosomal Disorder
Sex Determination

Understand the concept of Genetics here in detail .

Results of Mendel’s Experiments

Let us look at the results of Mendel’s experiments on crossing a pure tall pea plant with a pure short pea plant.

In the F1 generation, Mendel observed that all plants were tall. there were no dwarf plants.
In the F2 generation, Mendel observed that 3 of the offsprings were tall whereas 1 was dwarf.
Similar results were found when Mendel studied other characters.
Mendel observed that in the F1 generation, the characters of only one parent appeared whereas, in the F2 generation, the characters of the other parent also appeared.
The characters that appear in the F1 generation are called dominant traits and those that appear for the first time in the F2 generation are called recessive traits.

Learn more about Linkage and Recombination here in detail

Conclusions

The genes that are passed from the parents to the offsprings exist in pairs. These pairs are called alleles.
When the two alleles are the same, they are called homozygous. When both the alleles are different, they are called as heterozygous.
Dominant characters are described using capital letters and recessive using small letters. For example, the dominant genes for tallness in a pea plant are written as TT and recessive genes as tt. The heterozygous genes are written as Tt where the plant appears tall has the recessive gene which might express itself in the future generations.
The appearance of the plant is known as the phenotype whereas the genetic makeup of the plant is called the genotype. So, a plant with Tt genes appears tall phenotypically but has a recessive gene.
During gametogenesis, when the chromosomes become half in the gametes, there is a 50% chance of either of the alleles to fuse with that of the other parent to form a zygote.

Understand the concept of Sex Determination here in detail.

Based on these observations, Mendel proposed three laws.

Mendel proposed three laws:

Law of Dominance

The Law of Segregation
Law of independent assortment

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This law states that in a heterozygous condition , the allele whose characters are expressed over the other allele is called the dominant allele and the characters of this dominant allele are called dominant characters. The characters that appear in the F1 generation are called as dominant characters. The recessive characters appear in the F2 generation.

Law of Segregation

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This law states that when two traits come together in one hybrid pair, the two characters do not mix with each other and are independent of each other. Each gamete receives one of the two alleles during meiosis of the chromosome.

Mendel’s law of segregations supports the phenotypic ratio of 3:1 i.e. the homozygous dominant and heterozygous offsprings show dominant traits while the homozygous recessive shows the recessive trait .

Law of Independent Assortment

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This means that at the time of gamete formation , the two genes segregate independently of each other as well as of other traits. Law of independent assortment emphasizes that there are separate genes for separate traits and characters and they influence and sort themselves independently of the other genes.

This law also says that at the time of gamete and zygote formation, the genes are independently passed on from the parents to the offspring.

Solved Example for You

Q1: What is the genotype of an individual?

Physical appearance
Genetic makeup
Nature of the individual
Blended characteristics of the individual

Sol. The correct answer is the option ”b”. The genetic makeup of the individual is known as the genotype whereas the physical appearance of the individual is known as the phenotype.

FAQ’s for You

Q1. State the three Mendel’s laws of inheritance

Answer: Mendel’s Laws of inheritance can be described as; 1. The Law of Dominance: The offspring always exhibits a dominant trait. From the two alleles received from parents, the only dominant allele is expressed. 2. The Law of Segregation: The two copies of each chromosome will be separated from each other, causing the two distinct alleles located on those chromosomes to segregate from one another. 3. The Law of Independent Assortment: The traits inherited through one gene will be inherited independently of the traits inherited through another gene because the genes reside on different chromosomes that are independently assorted into daughter cells during meiosis.

Q2. Enlist Mendel’s law of Inheritance.

Answer: Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological inheritance that follows the laws originally proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900. Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 5,000 pea plants. From these experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel’s Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. Mendel discovered that, when he crossed purebred white flower and purple flower pea plants (the parental or P generation), the result was not a blend. Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring (known as the F1 generation) was purple-flowered. When Mendel self-fertilized the F1 generation pea plants, he obtained a purple flower to white flower ratio in the F2 generation of 3 to 1. Mendel’s law of inheritance are as follows: Law of segregation: During gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Law of independent assortment: Genes for different traits can segregate independently during the formation of gametes. Law of dominance: Some alleles are dominant while others are recessive; an organism with at least one dominant allele will display the effect of the dominant allele.

Q3. Short / Long answer type questions. Discuss Mendels laws of inheritance. Which one of these laws you consider the most important and why?

Answer: Mendel during his study on pea plants stated three laws of inheritance. These were: 1. Law of dominance: A dominant gene will express itself over the recessive gene. 2. Law of segregation: Parental genes are randomly separated to the germ cells such that each germ cell receives only one gene from each pair. 3. Law of independent assortment: Genes for different traits are sorted separately from one another such that the inheritance of one trait is not dependent on the inheritance of the other trait. Out of these three laws, the law of segregation is the most important law because it has no exceptions and is universally accepted.

Q4. Mendel’s law of inheritance composed of?

Answer: Mendel proposed the law of inheritance of traits from the first generation to the next generation. Law of inheritance is made up of three laws: Law of segregation, law of independent assortment and law of dominance.

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12.3E: Genetic Linkage and Violation of the Law of Independent Assortment

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Learning Objectives

Describe how recombination can separate linked genes

Linked Genes Violate the Law of Independent Assortment

Although all of Mendel’s pea characteristics behaved according to the law of independent assortment, we now know that some allele combinations are not inherited independently of each other. Genes that are located on separate non-homologous chromosomes will always sort independently. However, each chromosome contains hundreds or thousands of genes organized linearly on chromosomes like beads on a string. The segregation of alleles into gametes can be influenced by linkage, in which genes that are located physically close to each other on the same chromosome are more likely to be inherited as a pair. However, because of the process of recombination, or “crossover,” it is possible for two genes on the same chromosome to behave independently, or as if they are not linked. To understand this, let’s consider the biological basis of gene linkage and recombination.

Homologous chromosomes possess the same genes in the same linear order. The alleles may differ on homologous chromosome pairs, but the genes to which they correspond do not. In preparation for the first division of meiosis, homologous chromosomes replicate and synapse. Like genes on the homologs align with each other. At this stage, segments of homologous chromosomes exchange linear segments of genetic material. This process is called recombination, or crossover, and it is a common genetic process. Because the genes are aligned during recombination, the gene order is not altered. Instead, the result of recombination is that maternal and paternal alleles are combined onto the same chromosome. Across a given chromosome, several recombination events may occur, causing extensive shuffling of alleles.

When two genes are located in close proximity on the same chromosome, they are considered linked, and their alleles tend to be transmitted through meiosis together. To exemplify this, imagine a dihybrid cross involving flower color and plant height in which the genes are next to each other on the chromosome. If one homologous chromosome has alleles for tall plants and red flowers, and the other chromosome has genes for short plants and yellow flowers, then when the gametes are formed, the tall and red alleles will go together into a gamete and the short and yellow alleles will go into other gametes. These are called the parental genotypes because they have been inherited intact from the parents of the individual producing gametes. But unlike if the genes were on different chromosomes, there will be no gametes with tall and yellow alleles and no gametes with short and red alleles. If you create the Punnett square with these gametes, you will see that the classical Mendelian prediction of a 9:3:3:1 outcome of a dihybrid cross would not apply. As the distance between two genes increases, the probability of one or more crossovers between them increases, and the genes behave more like they are on separate chromosomes. Geneticists have used the proportion of recombinant gametes (the ones not like the parents) as a measure of how far apart genes are on a chromosome. Using this information, they have constructed elaborate maps of genes on chromosomes for well-studied organisms, including humans.

Mendel’s seminal publication makes no mention of linkage, and many researchers have questioned whether he encountered linkage, but chose not to publish those crosses out of concern that they would invalidate his independent assortment postulate. The garden pea has seven chromosomes and some have suggested that his choice of seven characteristics was not a coincidence. However, even if the genes he examined were not located on separate chromosomes, it is possible that he simply did not observe linkage because of the extensive shuffling effects of recombination.

Two genes close together on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together and are said to be linked.
Linked genes can be separated by recombination in which homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information during meiosis; this results in parental, or nonrecombinant genotypes, as well as a smaller proportion of recombinant genotypes.
Geneticists can use the amount of recombination between genes to estimate the distance between them on a chromosome.
linkage : the property of genes of being inherited together
recombination : the formation of genetic combinations in offspring that are not present in the parents

AGB 121: Principles of Animal Genetics and Population Genetics (2+1)

Law of segregation.

Results of Mendel ’s’ First Experiment on Seven pairs of characteristics in the Garden Pea.
After a careful study of his experimental results Mendel formulated what is now known as Mendel 's law of segregation.
There must be two hereditary units in the body cells of a mature organism (he called them as factors, we now call them genes or alleles), which were responsible for the transmission of characteristics.
The pair of alleles of each parent separated into gametes during reproduction. Equal numbers of gametes were produced that contained each allele.
Both parents contributed equally to the factors of heredity in the offspring.
Gametes randomly unite at fertilization.
When the two alleles of a pair are different (hybrid), one is dominant and the other is recessive.
Due to non-mixing of alleles in the hybrid, the masked recessive trait reappears in the next generation.
Mendel ’s first principle, the law of segregation, referring to the non-mixing of alleles in the hybrid and their subsequent segregation or separation in the gametes in equal frequencies, may be considered as the most important contribution of Mendel to heredity, since there no contrary experimental evidence as to the prevalence of any mixing of alleles in the hybrids.
So Mendel ’s first law is universally applicable.

Current course

Principles of Animal Genetics and Population Genetics

Microbiology Notes

Mendel’s Law of Segregation – Definition, Principle, Examples, Limitations

Table of Contents

What is Mendel’s Law of Segregation?

Mendel’s Law of Segregation, a foundational principle in genetics, elucidates the behavior of alleles, the different forms of a gene, during the process of inheritance. Put simply, this law states that in the hybrids or heterozygotes of the first generation (F1 generation), when there are two contrasting characters – one dominant and one recessive – the alleles for these characters, though initially paired together, remain distinct and separate during the formation of gametes. This separation ensures that each gamete carries only one allele for a given trait, either dominant or recessive.

To break it down, the law emphasizes that only a single copy of a gene, inherited from one parent, is transmitted to a gamete. The allocation of these gene copies into gametes is a random process, ensuring genetic diversity and variability in subsequent generations.

Mendel’s law of segregation is built upon several crucial concepts:

Allelic Forms: A gene exists in multiple variations, known as alleles. These alleles can have distinct traits or characteristics.
Separation During Gametogenesis: When gametes are formed, the allelic pair of a gene segregates, or separates, so that each resulting gamete contains only one allele.
Inheritance of Two Alleles: Organisms inherit two alleles for each genetic trait, one from each parent.
Dominance and Recessiveness: The two alleles inherited for a trait are different in nature, where one is dominant and masks the expression of the other recessive allele.

Mendel’s law of segregation is instrumental in using Punnett squares for predicting the genotypes resulting from genetic crosses. This tool is based on the assumption of equal segregation of alleles during gametogenesis, allowing scientists to anticipate the potential outcomes of mating between organisms with known genotypes.

This law holds significant importance as it introduced the concept that hereditary factors, or alleles, remain distinct entities even when present alongside other similar entities. This concept debunked the idea of blending inheritance, a prevalent theory at the time, by demonstrating that traits encoded by recessive alleles could reappear in the F1 generation. In essence, Mendel’s experiments and his law of segregation laid the groundwork for our modern understanding of genetics and inheritance patterns, forming the cornerstone of genetic research and advancements.

Mendel’s Law of Segregation Definition

Mendel’s Law of Segregation states that alleles for a trait separate during gamete formation, ensuring each gamete carries only one allele, randomly inherited from the parent.

What is segregation?

Segregation refers to the fundamental genetic process in which pairs of alleles, representing different traits of the same gene, are separated and distributed into separate gametes during meiosis. This process ensures that each gamete carries only one allele for a particular trait.
Meiosis is a specialized cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing organisms. During meiosis, the homologous chromosomes, which carry genes that determine various traits, align and then segregate into distinct daughter cells. This segregation of alleles guarantees genetic diversity among offspring.
The significance of segregation lies in its contribution to genetic variation and inheritance patterns. By ensuring that each gamete receives only one allele from each gene pair, segregation allows for different combinations of alleles to be passed down to the next generation. This variation is essential for the adaptability and survival of species over time.
In summary, segregation is a fundamental genetic principle that ensures the separation of allele pairs during meiosis, leading to the inheritance of diverse genetic traits among offspring.

Principle of Segregation and its Importance

The principle of segregation is a fundamental concept in genetics that plays a pivotal role in explaining the inheritance of genetic traits. This principle, proposed by Gregor Mendel, states that individuals possess two alleles for a specific characteristic, and during the formation of gametes, these alleles segregate or separate from each other. As a result, only one allele is present in each gamete.
In simpler terms, if an individual carries two different alleles for a particular trait (heterozygous), such as one allele for brown eyes and another for blue eyes, these alleles separate during the formation of gametes. As a consequence, each gamete carries only one allele for that trait, either the allele for brown eyes or the allele for blue eyes.
The importance of the principle of segregation lies in its role in shaping the genetic diversity within populations and the inheritance patterns observed in offspring. By ensuring that each gamete contains only one allele from each gene pair, segregation contributes to the random assortment of alleles during fertilization. This random assortment generates a wide array of genetic combinations, leading to the diversity of traits in subsequent generations.
Furthermore, the principle of segregation is the foundation for understanding genotypic ratios and predicting the outcomes of genetic crosses. It enables scientists to use tools like Punnett squares to estimate the potential genotypes of offspring resulting from various mating scenarios.
In summary, the principle of segregation elucidates how alleles separate during gamete formation, leading to the presence of only one allele in each gamete. This process contributes to genetic diversity and is essential for understanding inheritance patterns, genotypic ratios, and the overall mechanism of genetic variation within populations.

Characteristics of Mendel’s Law of Segregation

Mendel’s Law of Segregation is characterized by its association with the initial stage of meiotic cell division, wherein homologous chromosomes carrying two copies of the same gene are separated into distinct daughter nuclei. This separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis is responsible for the segregation of alleles at gene loci, leading to the formation of diverse gametes.

This mechanism becomes clearer through the example of a monohybrid cross involving tall and dwarf pea plants. For instance, if we consider a homozygous tall pea plant with the alleles RR and a short pea plant with the alleles rr:

The parent with RR alleles produces gametes containing a single R allele.
The parent with rr alleles produces gametes containing a single r allele.
Each gamete carries only one chromosome of the homologous pair, thereby carrying a single allele.

Upon fertilization, the fusion of gametes results in a heterozygous or hybrid plant with Rr alleles, incorporating both dominant and recessive alleles. Due to incomplete dominance, the dominant R allele partially manifests itself in the first-generation hybrid, while the recessive allele remains unexpressed.

Importantly, in heterozygous individuals, both alleles persist together without influencing each other. In the context of the monohybrid cross, the combination of gametes yields three potential diploid genotypes: RR, Rr, and rr. This showcases how Mendel’s Law of Segregation operates to distribute alleles independently during gamete formation, resulting in the inheritance patterns observed in subsequent generations.

Characteristics of Mendel’s Law of Segregation

Examples of Mendel’s Law of Segregation

1. albinism in humans.

Albinism in humans is another illustrative example of Mendel’s Law of Segregation in action. Albinism is a genetic condition characterized by the absence of pigment production, resulting from the presence of an abnormal recessive trait.
In the context of albinism, the dominant allele responsible for the absence of the condition is represented as ‘A,’ while the recessive allele leading to albinism is represented as ‘a.’
When a cross takes place between a homozygous individual with alleles AA (non-albino) and aa (albino), the process of genetic segregation becomes evident. The resulting gametes are of two types: A and a.
Upon the fusion of these gametes, hybrid offspring with Aa alleles are produced. In this situation, the dominant allele ‘A’ is expressed, leading to the absence of albinism in the phenotype.
However, if subsequent crosses occur, resulting in hybrids with genotypes AA and aa, the ‘aa’ alleles become particularly significant. Individuals with ‘aa’ alleles exhibit albinism, as these alleles lead to the lack of production of the enzyme tyrosinase, which is essential for the synthesis of melanin, the pigment responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
The example of albinism serves as a compelling demonstration of the workings of Mendel’s Law of Segregation, where alleles segregate during gamete formation and unite in various combinations during fertilization, ultimately determining the observable traits in offspring.

2. Morgan’s work on Drosophila

T.H. Morgan’s groundbreaking work with Drosophila, a type of fruit fly, proved instrumental in advancing our understanding of genetics. He conducted experiments involving the crossbreeding of homozygous long-winged Drosophila with homozygous vestigial-winged Drosophila, leading to significant insights into the process of genetic segregation.
In this experiment, let’s assume that the long-winged Drosophila carries a pair of v+v+ alleles responsible for long wings, while the vestigial-winged Drosophila possesses vv alleles linked to vestigial wings.
As the crossbreeding takes place, the principle of Mendel’s Law of Segregation becomes evident. The long-winged Drosophila generates gametes with a single v+ allele, and the vestigial-winged Drosophila produces gametes carrying a single v allele.
Upon fusion of these gametes, hybrid offspring with v+v alleles emerge. Despite carrying both alleles, phenotypically they exhibit the long-winged trait, as the v+ allele is dominant over v. This example beautifully demonstrates the separation of alleles during gamete formation and their subsequent combination to give rise to three distinct genotypes in the hybrids.
Morgan’s work with Drosophila not only provided practical evidence of Mendelian inheritance in action but also laid the foundation for understanding gene linkage and the concept of genetic mapping. His innovative research paved the way for the study of complex genetic phenomena and established Drosophila as a powerful model organism for genetic research.

‌Why is Mendel’s Law of Segregation defined as the purity law of gametes?

Mendel’s Law of Segregation, also known as the First Law of Mendel, is often referred to as the “purity law of gametes” because it describes how alleles for a single trait segregate (or separate) so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene. Here’s a breakdown of why it’s called the purity law:

Alleles and Homozygous/Heterozygous Conditions : Genes come in different versions called alleles. An organism can either have two of the same alleles (homozygous) or two different alleles (heterozygous) for a given gene.
Formation of Gametes : During the formation of gametes (sperm and egg cells in animals, pollen and ovules in plants), the two alleles for each gene separate from each other. This process occurs during meiosis, a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half.
Purity of Gametes : As a result of this separation, each gamete receives only one allele for each gene. This ensures that gametes are “pure” in terms of their genetic information for a particular gene. For example, if an organism is heterozygous (Aa) for a gene, its gametes will either carry the A allele or the a allele, but not both.
Fertilization : When two gametes fuse during fertilization, the resulting offspring will have two alleles for each gene—one from each parent. This restores the diploid number of chromosomes in the offspring.

Mendel derived this law from his experiments with pea plants. He observed that when he crossed plants with two different traits (e.g., yellow seeds vs. green seeds), the first generation (F1) showed only one of the traits (e.g., all yellow seeds). However, when he allowed the F1 generation to self-fertilize, the second generation (F2) showed a 3:1 ratio of the traits (e.g., 3 yellow seeds for every 1 green seed). This indicated that the alleles had separated during gamete formation in the F1 plants, leading to the reappearance of the green seed trait in the F2 generation.

In summary, Mendel’s Law of Segregation is termed the “purity law of gametes” because it explains how alleles separate during gamete formation, ensuring that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, maintaining the “purity” of genetic information.

Mendelian traits have alleles that can be dominant or recessive, which are inherited from parents to offspring. In plants, the flower’s color is determined by the inherited allele. Each parent contributes one allele to the offspring. The combination of alleles in the offspring results from the union of two gametes’ chromosomes during fertilization. These chromosomes are randomly separated during gamete formation, with meiosis playing a role in the process.

Where does the law of segregation occur in meiosis?

The Law of Segregation is observed during the process of meiosis, specifically during the first division of meiosis, known as meiosis I. Here’s a breakdown of where and how the Law of Segregation occurs in meiosis:

Prophase I : During this phase, homologous chromosomes (each consisting of two sister chromatids) pair up in a process called synapsis. This pairing forms structures called tetrads. While the Law of Segregation is not directly observed in this phase, the pairing of homologous chromosomes sets the stage for their separation in the next phases.
Metaphase I : The tetrads align at the metaphase plate in the middle of the cell. The orientation of each homologous pair is random, which leads to genetic variation due to independent assortment. However, the Law of Segregation is still not directly observed here.
Anaphase I : This is the critical phase where the Law of Segregation is observed. The homologous chromosomes are pulled apart and move to opposite poles of the cell. Importantly, each homologous chromosome carries one allele of a gene, ensuring that the two alleles of a gene present in a diploid cell are separated.
Telophase I and Cytokinesis : The cell divides into two daughter cells, each with half the original chromosome number (haploid). Each daughter cell contains one chromosome (and therefore one allele) from each homologous pair.
Meiosis II : This is the second division of meiosis, and it resembles mitosis. The sister chromatids of each chromosome are separated. However, the Law of Segregation primarily pertains to the separation of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I, not the separation of sister chromatids in meiosis II.

In summary, the Law of Segregation is most directly observed during anaphase I of meiosis, when the homologous chromosomes, each carrying one of the two alleles of a gene, are separated and move to opposite poles of the cell. This ensures that each resulting gamete contains only one allele for each gene.

Why is the Law of Segregation universally accepted?

The Law of Segregation is universally accepted for several reasons:

Empirical Evidence : Gregor Mendel’s experiments with pea plants provided clear and repeatable evidence supporting the Law of Segregation. Mendel’s meticulous work and statistical analysis showed consistent patterns of inheritance that could be explained by the separation of alleles during gamete formation.
Consistency Across Organisms : After Mendel’s findings were rediscovered at the turn of the 20th century, other researchers observed similar patterns of inheritance in various organisms, from fruit flies to humans. The consistency of these observations across diverse species reinforced the universality of the Law of Segregation.
Molecular Biology Confirmation : With the advent of molecular biology and genetics in the 20th century, the physical basis of Mendel’s laws became clear. The structure and behavior of chromosomes during meiosis directly supported Mendel’s postulates. The discovery of the processes of DNA replication, transcription, and translation further solidified the understanding of genetic inheritance and confirmed Mendel’s findings at the molecular level.
Predictive Power : The Law of Segregation, along with Mendel’s other laws, provides a robust framework for predicting the outcomes of genetic crosses. This predictive power has been utilized in various fields, from agriculture to medicine, to achieve desired genetic outcomes or understand genetic disorders.
Integration with Other Genetic Principles : The Law of Segregation integrates seamlessly with other genetic principles and laws, such as the Law of Independent Assortment and the concept of linkage. This integration has allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of genetics and inheritance.
Challenges and Refinements : While Mendel’s laws provide a foundational understanding of inheritance, they are not without exceptions. Over time, as exceptions and complexities (like linkage, incomplete dominance, and epistasis) were discovered, they didn’t invalidate the Law of Segregation. Instead, they added layers of complexity to our understanding of genetics. The fact that the law held true despite these refinements and challenges further solidified its acceptance.

In summary, the universal acceptance of the Law of Segregation is due to its empirical foundation, consistency across organisms, molecular confirmation, predictive power, and its ability to integrate with and withstand challenges from other genetic findings.

Limitations of Mendel’s Law of Segregation

While Mendel’s Law of Segregation stands as a cornerstone in genetics, there are certain limitations that must be acknowledged within its scope. These limitations include:

Applicability to Diploid Organisms: The law is primarily relevant to diploid organisms, which are formed from haploid gametes during sexual reproduction. It doesn’t address scenarios involving haploid organisms or those that reproduce asexually.
Incomplete Dominance or Codominance: The law does not hold true when dealing with alleles that display incomplete dominance or codominance. In such cases, the heterozygous condition results in a phenotype that is an intermediate blend of the two alleles or a distinct expression of both alleles, respectively.
Limited to Gene Pairs with Dominant-Recessive Alleles: Mendel’s Law of Segregation is applicable only to traits governed by gene pairs where one allele is dominant over the other. It doesn’t account for more complex inheritance patterns or interactions.
Non-Applicability to Collaborative Genes: The law is not valid for genes that collaborate or interact to influence a trait’s expression. It’s also unsuitable for genes that may exhibit variable expressions based on their interaction with other genes.
Inadequate for Complementary Genes: Mendel’s law does not extend to traits determined by complementary gene pairs, where the presence of both dominant alleles is required for a specific phenotype to manifest.
Not Suitable for Multifactorial Traits: The law is not applicable to traits that are governed by more than one gene pair. Many traits, such as height or skin color, are influenced by multiple genes, and Mendel’s law oversimplifies the inheritance of such traits.

In essence, while Mendel’s Law of Segregation provides a foundational understanding of genetic inheritance, it has limitations in explaining the complexities of gene interactions, multiple gene contributions, and non-dominant inheritance patterns. These limitations have driven further research and exploration in genetics to develop a more comprehensive understanding of inheritance and genetic variation.

Mendel’s Law of Segregation Mindmap

Mendel’s Law of Segregation Infograph

It is one of the fundamental principles of genetics that states that the two alleles for each gene segregate (separate) during gamete formation, and each gamete carries only one allele for each gene.

Who proposed the Law of Segregation?

The Law of Segregation was proposed by Gregor Mendel, a 19th-century Austrian monk and scientist, based on his experiments with pea plants.

How did Mendel discover this law?

Mendel discovered the law through his breeding experiments with pea plants, where he observed the inheritance patterns of single traits like seed color and flower color.

Why is it called the “Law of Segregation”?

It’s called the “Law of Segregation” because the two alleles for a gene segregate or separate from each other during the formation of gametes.

How does the Law of Segregation relate to meiosis?

During meiosis, the process by which gametes are formed, the paired alleles for each gene segregate so that each gamete receives only one allele.

What happens if an organism is heterozygous for a trait?

If an organism is heterozygous for a trait, it possesses two different alleles for that gene. According to the Law of Segregation, these alleles will separate during gamete formation.

How does the Law of Segregation explain genetic variation?

The law explains genetic variation by stating that offspring inherit a combination of alleles from both parents, leading to diverse genetic makeup.

Is the Law of Segregation always true?

While Mendel’s Law of Segregation applies to many genes, there are exceptions due to phenomena like linkage, where genes located close together on a chromosome tend to be inherited together.

How does the Law of Segregation differ from the Law of Independent Assortment?

The Law of Segregation deals with the separation of alleles for a single gene, while the Law of Independent Assortment refers to the independent inheritance of two or more genes located on different chromosomes.

Why is Mendel’s Law of Segregation important in genetics?

The law forms the foundation of genetic inheritance and provides a basic understanding of how traits are passed from one generation to the next, making it fundamental to the study of genetics.

References

Genetics Generation. (2012). Genetics Generation. https://knowgenetics.org/mendelian-genetics/
O’Neil, D. (2012). “Basic Principles of Genetics: Mendel’s Genetics.” Basic Principles of Genetics: Mendel’s Genetics. http://anthro.palomar.edu/mendel/mendel_1.htm
Hartwell, L. H., Goldberg, M. L., Fischer, J. A., & Hood, L. (2017). Genetics: From genes to the genome. Columbus: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Pierce, B. A. (2017). Genetics: A conceptual approach. New York: W.H. Freeman. Snustad, D. P., & Simmons, M. J. (2015). Principles of genetics. New Jersey: Wiley.
Watson, J. D., Baker, T. A., Stephen, P. B., Alexander, G., Michael, L., & Richard, L. (2013). Molecular biology of the gene. London: Pearson
Bailey, Regina. “The 4 Concepts Related to Mendel’s Law of Segregation.” ThoughtCo. N.p., n.d. Web. Available here. 10 Aug. 2017. “Mendels Law of Independent Assortment – Boundless Open Textbook.” Boundless. N.p., 26 May 2016. Web. Available here. 10 Aug. 2017.
An Overview on Law Of Segregation and Law Of Dominance. (2020), from https://byjus.com/biology/law-of-segregation-law-of-dominance/

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Law of Segregation vs Law of Independent Assortment: Difference and Comparison

If you look really closely, science can be found almost anywhere. Science offers an answer for everything, from the appearance of tears while chopping an onion to the growth of a tiny seed into a fully formed tree. Various notable scientists and ideologists have offered their thoughts and interpretations on a wide range of scientific topics from time to time.

Gregor John Mendel was one of these scientists who, in the 18th century, provided the world with three genetic principles. The Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment are two of these laws. While these two are related, there are considerable differences between them.

Key Takeaways The Law of Segregation states that each parent passes on only one of their two alleles for each trait to their offspring. The Law of Independent Assortment explains that one trait’s inheritance doesn’t influence another trait’s inheritance. Both laws, proposed by Gregor Mendel, serve as foundational principles of modern genetics.

Law of Segregation vs Law of Independent Assortment

The law of segregation is one of the fundamental principles of genetics. It explains that during gamete formation, alleles separate from each other. Dependent assortment, which is also a principle of genetics, states that genes are inherited independently of each other.

The law of Segregation outlines that when reproduction takes place, each of the parents passes on one trait to their offspring. This trait is not passed by the original gene but by the copies of that gene, popularly known as an allele . These copies are separated before being passed on, and it occurs so that no trait is repeated or so that only one allele is carried on further in the offspring. These copies are then said to reunite after fertilization.

On the other hand, the Law of Independent Assortment signifies that the genes independently pass on to the offspring without prior segregation into copies. According to this law, different genes related to different traits can be passed on to the end result.

Comparison Table

What is law of segregation .

The Law of Segregation outlines that when reproduction occurs, the copies of particular genes separate from one another and appear again after fertilization. This can better be understood by looking at the experiment Mendel conducted.

He chose two plants having different genes for a similar trait, such as a plant with red flowers and a plant with yellow flowers.
After choosing these plants, he made them reproduce with one another and waited for a few days.
After a few days, the flowers which took birth out of these two parental plants had red color only.
But after these plants, which had a red color, were fertilized by themselves, the end result plants had both white and red colors in them.
The ratio of plants having these two colors was roughly 3:1.

Based on this theory, Mendel stated that in the first generation of offspring, the less dominant trait, i.e., the white color disappeared and came back in the second generation. Segregation of genes in this manner paved the way for the conceptualization of the Law of Segregation.

What is Law of Independent Assortment?

This particular law states that two or more different traits having different genes can come together as a unit and will be selected randomly and independently after fertilization. This can better be explained by the following example-

He chose two plants, one with pink color and tall height while one with blue color and dwarf height.
When these were made fertilized, the first generation appeared to be all having pink colors and tall height. This proved that pink as color and tall as height were dominant traits and suppressed the other traits.
But when this first generation was left to fertilize, the second-generation plants showed all traits in different ratios.
There were pink plants with tall height, pink plants with dwarf height, blue plants with tall height, and blue plants with dwarf height.

A similar experiment was carried out by Mendel, which led him to believe in the Law of Independent Assortment.

Main Differences Between Law of Segregation and Law of Independent Assortment

The Law of Segregation stands as the third rule of inheritance propounded by Mendel, while the Law of Independent Assortment stands as the second rule of inheritance.
The Law of Segregation states that the alleles of a gene get separated from the original gene and get passed on to the offspring by way of reproduction, while the Law of Independent assortment states that a gene can pass on more than one allele to the offspring by way of reproduction.
The ratio of offspring in the former happens to be 3:1, while in the latter, this ratio happens to be 9:3:3:1.
The law of Segregation talks about the separation of alleles, while the Law of Independent Assortment talks about the behavior that these alleles show after reaching an offspring.
In the law of Segregation, only one copy of one gene can be passed on, while in the Law of Independent Assortment, many copies can be passed on.
http://v3r.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/holdings/v/hdv-00.pdf
https://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=csu1611776149127827

Last Updated : 20 July, 2023

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18 thoughts on “law of segregation vs law of independent assortment: difference and comparison”.

Excellent article. Thank you for providing a clear and detailed explanation of the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.

I couldn’t agree more. The Mendel experiment was integral in understanding how the laws work.

The comparison table is highly informative and well-structured. It makes the differentiation between the two laws much clearer.

Thank you for adding the comparison table. It was a highly useful visual aid.

Completely agree. The parameters of comparison provide a comprehensive understanding of the differences between the laws.

An exceptional article that delves into the intricate details of genetics. The explanations are both comprehensive and enlightening.

Absolutely, the article provides a remarkably thorough understanding of Mendel’s genetic principles.

This is a fascinating read. It’s amazing to see how Mendel’s work laid the foundation for modern genetics.

Absolutely, the Law of Independent Assortment and the Law of Segregation are indispensable in the field of genetics.

This truly showcases the significance of understanding how genetics function. Fantastic explanations of the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment.

Couldn’t have put it better myself. The explanations are remarkable in clarity and depth.

The article presents an intellectually engaging discussion of Mendel’s laws, providing profound insights into inheritance patterns.

I’m in complete agreement. The depth of information in this article is truly commendable.

Couldn’t have said it better. The article is exceptionally insightful and thought-provoking.

The real-life examples used to explain the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment are truly enlightening.

I completely agree. The examples helped in grasping the concept better.

I appreciate the breakdown of the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment. It’s intriguing to see how genetic principles operate.

I couldn’t agree more. Understanding these laws provides remarkable insights into genetics.

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When considering how to make a substantial gift to a charitable corporation, one should not rule out making it indirectly via assignment to an independent trustee. First, an independent trusteeship facilitates proper asset segregation. Second, an independent discretionary trusteeship can lawfully thwart the charitable corporation’s contract and tort creditors. Third, if securing donor intent is a concern, a truly independent discretionary trusteeship, assuming all goes well, should give the charity no choice but to take donor intent seriously. Checks and balances and all that. Care, of course, should be taken to have the terms of the trust comply with the Private Foundation Rules. See the Internal Revenue Code. A link to the full content of this posting may be found below.

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IMAGES

Law of Segregation
Mendel's Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation And Law of Dominance
12.3C: Mendel’s Law of Segregation
Law Of Segregation And Law Of Independent Assortment Meiosis
Mendel's Law of Segregation- Definition, Examples, Limitations

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Mendel's law of segregation
A key point of the law of segregation is that a parent's two gene copies are randomly distributed to its gametes. Thus, for a Yy heterozygote, Y and y gametes are equally likely to be made: 50% of the sperm and eggs will have a Y allele, 50% will have a y allele, and the same will be true for eggs.
12.3C: Mendel's Law of Segregation
Figure 12.3C. 1 12.3 C. 1: The Law of Segregation states that alleles segregate randomly into gametes: When gametes are formed, each allele of one parent segregates randomly into the gametes, such that half of the parent's gametes carry each allele. For the F 2 generation of a monohybrid cross, the following three possible combinations of ...
1.5: The law of segregation
For that, we need Mendel's law of segregation. According to the law of segregation, only one of the two gene copies present in an organism is distributed to each gamete (egg or sperm cell) that it makes, and the allocation of the gene copies is random. When an egg and a sperm join in fertilization, they form a new organism, whose genotype ...
Mendel's Law of Segregation
The law of segregation ensures that a parent, with two copies of each gene, can pass on either allele. Both alleles will have the same chance of ending up in a zygote. In sexually reproducing organsisms, the genome is carried in two identical copies. A copy was inherited from each parent, in the form of a gamete.
Law of Segregation
Law of Segregation. The law states that during the formation of a gamete, each gene separates from the other such that each gamete carries one allele for each gene. Thus, according to the law of segregation, the allocation of the gene copies is random. When an egg and a sperm cell unite during fertilization, they form a new individual whose ...
Mendel's 3 Laws (Segregation, Independent Assortment, Dominance)
Mendel's Law of Dominance (the "Third Law") The genotype of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses. An individual's physical appearance, or phenotype, is determined by its alleles as well as by its environment. The presence of an allele does not mean that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it.
12.3A: Mendel's Laws of Heredity
The capital A represents the dominant factor while the lowercase a represents the recessive. Figure 12.3A. 1 12.3 A. 1: Mendel's Pea Plants: In one of his experiments on inheritance patterns, Mendel crossed plants that were true-breeding for violet flower color with plants true-breeding for white flower color (the P generation).
Genes, Traits and Mendel's Law of Segregation
In the 1860s, a monk named Gregor Mendel, discovered principles of heredity described by Mendel's Law of Segregation. Mendel used pea plants for his experiments as they have traits that occur in two distinct forms. He studied seven of these traits, like pod color, in his experiments. We now know that genes can exist in more than one form or ...
29.7C: Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
For the F2 generation, the law of segregation requires that each gamete receive either an R allele or an r allele along with either a Y allele or a y allele. The law of independent assortment states that a gamete into which an r allele sorted would be equally likely to contain either a Y allele or a y allele. Thus, there are four equally likely ...
Law of Segregation vs. Law of Independent Assortment
The law of segregation states that the parental genes must separate randomly and equally into gametes during meiosis so there is an equal chance of the offspring inheriting either allele. No allele is favored or has an advantage over another. Mendel observed segregation in his experiments when parental pea plants with two traits produced ...
Dihybrid cross and the law of independent assortment
Now, we've already talked about the law of segregation. The gamete is randomly going to get one copy of each gene. Now, Mendel also has the law of independent assortment, which tells us the alleles of different genes segregate independently. So for this parent here, whether it contributes a capital Y or a lowercase y is independent of whether ...
Mendel's Law of Segregation
The Principle of Segregation describes how pairs of gene variants are separated into reproductive cells. The segregation of gene variants, called alleles, and their corresponding traits was first observed by Gregor Mendel in 1865. Mendel was studying genetics by performing mating crosses in pea plants. He crossed two heterozygous pea plants ...
Law of Segregation (Mendel): Definition, Explanation & Examples
Mendel's work established that traits were the result of the presence or absence of the dominant allele of a gene.Mendel's law of segregation states that the two alleles of a gene that are found on a chromosome pair separate, with the offspring receiving one from the mother and one from the father. According to Mendel's law, the two alleles act in a segregated fashion and do not mix or change ...
Law of Segregation and Independent Assortment ( Video )
This lecture explains about the Gregor Mendel's law of segregation and law of independent assortment. These are two rules of genetics that explains the segregation of maternal and paternal gene during the gametogenesis. ... Quick Assignments! You can directly assign a modality to your classes and set a due date for each class. OK. Create ...
Laws of Inheritance: Dominance, Segregation, Independent ...
Answer: Mendel during his study on pea plants stated three laws of inheritance. These were: 1. Law of dominance: A dominant gene will express itself over the recessive gene. 2. Law of segregation: Parental genes are randomly separated to the germ cells such that each germ cell receives only one gene from each pair. 3.
The Law of Segregation
a process of cell division where the cell divides twice into four haploid cells; important in forming gametes during sexual reproduction
12.3E: Genetic Linkage and Violation of the Law of Independent
To understand this, let's consider the biological basis of gene linkage and recombination. Figure 12.3E. 1 12.3 E. 1: Unlinked genes assort independently: This figure shows all possible combinations of offspring resulting from a dihybrid cross of pea plants that are heterozygous for the tall/dwarf and inflated/constricted alleles.
Principles of Animal Genetics and Population Genetics: Law of segregation
The law of segregation or the law of purity of gametes. It states that when a pair of factors / allelomorphs (alleles) is brought together in a hybrid (F 1) they remain together without contaminating each other and they separate or segregate from each other into a gamete in a complete and pure form during the formation of gametes.
Law of Independent Assortment
To understand when independent assortment occurs, you must also understand the Law of Segregation. This law states that during meiosis, the two different copies of every gene are sorted into different gamete cells. The law of independent assortment, on the other hand, deals with the maternal and paternal sources of DNA being separated at random.
Mendel's Law of Segregation
Examples of Mendel's Law of Segregation. 1. Albinism in humans. Albinism in humans is another illustrative example of Mendel's Law of Segregation in action. Albinism is a genetic condition characterized by the absence of pigment production, resulting from the presence of an abnormal recessive trait. In the context of albinism, the dominant ...
Primary Source Set Jim Crow and Segregation
By 1890, when Mississippi added a disfranchisement provision to its state constitution, the legalization of Jim Crow had begun. Jim Crow was not enacted as a universal, written law of the land. Instead, a patchwork of state and local laws, codes, and agreements enforced segregation to different degrees and in different ways across the nation.
Law of Segregation vs Law of Independent Assortment: Difference and
The Law of Segregation states that the alleles of a gene get separated from the original gene and get passed on to the offspring by way of reproduction, while the Law of Independent assortment states that a gene can pass on more than one allele to the offspring by way of reproduction. The ratio of offspring in the former happens to be 3:1 ...
The Case For Making Substantial Unrestricted Gifts To A Charitable
First, an independent trusteeship facilitates proper asset segregation. Second, an independent discretionary trusteeship can lawfully thwart the charitable corporation's contract and tort creditors.
FTX Controversy Derails Top Law Firm's Bid for Binance Role
The Department of Justice is retreating from picking an elite New York law firm for a key assignment overseeing cryptocurrency exchange Binance Holdings Ltd. because of its work for FTX, according to people with knowledge of the matter. ... Learn About Bloomberg Law . AI-powered legal analytics, workflow tools and premium legal & business news ...
FTX Controversy Derails Top Law Firm's Bid for Binance Role
The Department of Justice is retreating from picking an elite New York law firm for a key assignment overseeing cryptocurrency exchange Binance Holdings Ltd. because of its work for FTX, according ...

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Law of Segregation vs Law of Independent Assortment: Difference and Comparison

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