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DNA Replication

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Related Posts

10.1 Cloning and Genetic Engineering

Learning objectives.

• Explain the basic techniques used to manipulate genetic material
• Explain molecular and reproductive cloning

Biotechnology is the use of artificial methods to modify the genetic material of living organisms or cells to produce novel compounds or to perform new functions. Biotechnology has been used for improving livestock and crops since the beginning of agriculture through selective breeding. Since the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, and particularly since the development of tools and methods to manipulate DNA in the 1970s, biotechnology has become synonymous with the manipulation of organisms’ DNA at the molecular level. The primary applications of this technology are in medicine (for the production of vaccines and antibiotics) and in agriculture (for the genetic modification of crops). Biotechnology also has many industrial applications, such as fermentation, the treatment of oil spills, and the production of biofuels, as well as many household applications such as the use of enzymes in laundry detergent.

Manipulating Genetic Material

To accomplish the applications described above, biotechnologists must be able to extract, manipulate, and analyze nucleic acids.

Review of Nucleic Acid Structure

To understand the basic techniques used to work with nucleic acids, remember that nucleic acids are macromolecules made of nucleotides (a sugar, a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base). The phosphate groups on these molecules each have a net negative charge. An entire set of DNA molecules in the nucleus of eukaryotic organisms is called the genome. DNA has two complementary strands linked by hydrogen bonds between the paired bases.

Unlike DNA in eukaryotic cells, RNA molecules leave the nucleus. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is analyzed most frequently because it represents the protein-coding genes that are being expressed in the cell.

Isolation of Nucleic Acids

To study or manipulate nucleic acids, the DNA must first be extracted from cells. Various techniques are used to extract different types of DNA ( Figure 10.2 ). Most nucleic acid extraction techniques involve steps to break open the cell, and then the use of enzymatic reactions to destroy all undesired macromolecules. Cells are broken open using a detergent solution containing buffering compounds. To prevent degradation and contamination, macromolecules such as proteins and RNA are inactivated using enzymes. The DNA is then brought out of solution using alcohol. The resulting DNA, because it is made up of long polymers, forms a gelatinous mass.

RNA is studied to understand gene expression patterns in cells. RNA is naturally very unstable because enzymes that break down RNA are commonly present in nature. Some are even secreted by our own skin and are very difficult to inactivate. Similar to DNA extraction, RNA extraction involves the use of various buffers and enzymes to inactivate other macromolecules and preserve only the RNA.

Gel Electrophoresis

Because nucleic acids are negatively charged ions at neutral or alkaline pH in an aqueous environment, they can be moved by an electric field. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate charged molecules on the basis of size and charge. The nucleic acids can be separated as whole chromosomes or as fragments. The nucleic acids are loaded into a slot at one end of a gel matrix, an electric current is applied, and negatively charged molecules are pulled toward the opposite end of the gel (the end with the positive electrode). Smaller molecules move through the pores in the gel faster than larger molecules; this difference in the rate of migration separates the fragments on the basis of size. The nucleic acids in a gel matrix are invisible until they are stained with a compound that allows them to be seen, such as a dye. Distinct fragments of nucleic acids appear as bands at specific distances from the top of the gel (the negative electrode end) that are based on their size ( Figure 10.3 ). A mixture of many fragments of varying sizes appear as a long smear, whereas uncut genomic DNA is usually too large to run through the gel and forms a single large band at the top of the gel.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

DNA analysis often requires focusing on one or more specific regions of the genome. It also frequently involves situations in which only one or a few copies of a DNA molecule are available for further analysis. These amounts are insufficient for most procedures, such as gel electrophoresis. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used to rapidly increase the number of copies of specific regions of DNA for further analyses ( Figure 10.4 ). PCR uses a special form of DNA polymerase, the enzyme that replicates DNA, and other short nucleotide sequences called primers that base pair to a specific portion of the DNA being replicated. PCR is used for many purposes in laboratories. These include: 1) the identification of the owner of a DNA sample left at a crime scene; 2) paternity analysis; 3) the comparison of small amounts of ancient DNA with modern organisms; and 4) determining the sequence of nucleotides in a specific region.

In general, cloning means the creation of a perfect replica. Typically, the word is used to describe the creation of a genetically identical copy. In biology, the re-creation of a whole organism is referred to as “reproductive cloning.” Long before attempts were made to clone an entire organism, researchers learned how to copy short stretches of DNA—a process that is referred to as molecular cloning. The technique offered methods to create new medicines and to overcome difficulties with existing ones. When Lydia Villa-Komaroff, working in the Gilbert Lab at Harvard, published the first paper outlining the technique for producing synthetic insulin, diabetes researchers and patients received new hope in fighting the disease. Insulin at that time was only produced using pig and cow pancreases, and the life-saving substance was often in short supply. Synthetic insulin, once mass produced, would solve that problem for many patients. These early discoveries led to the "BioTech Boom," and spurred continued research and funding for newer and better ways to improve health.

Molecular Cloning

Cloning allows for the creation of multiple copies of genes, expression of genes, and study of specific genes. To get the DNA fragment into a bacterial cell in a form that will be copied or expressed, the fragment is first inserted into a plasmid. A plasmid (also called a vector in this context) is a small circular DNA molecule that replicates independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria. In cloning, the plasmid molecules can be used to provide a "vehicle" in which to insert a desired DNA fragment. Modified plasmids are usually reintroduced into a bacterial host for replication. As the bacteria divide, they copy their own DNA (including the plasmids). The inserted DNA fragment is copied along with the rest of the bacterial DNA. In a bacterial cell, the fragment of DNA from the human genome (or another organism that is being studied) is referred to as foreign DNA to differentiate it from the DNA of the bacterium (the host DNA).

Plasmids occur naturally in bacterial populations (such as Escherichia coli ) and have genes that can contribute favorable traits to the organism, such as antibiotic resistance (the ability to be unaffected by antibiotics). Plasmids have been highly engineered as vectors for molecular cloning and for the subsequent large-scale production of important molecules, such as insulin. A valuable characteristic of plasmid vectors is the ease with which a foreign DNA fragment can be introduced. These plasmid vectors contain many short DNA sequences that can be cut with different commonly available restriction enzymes . Restriction enzymes (also called restriction endonucleases) recognize specific DNA sequences and cut them in a predictable manner; they are naturally produced by bacteria as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA. Many restriction enzymes make staggered cuts in the two strands of DNA, such that the cut ends have a 2- to 4-nucleotide single-stranded overhang. The sequence that is recognized by the restriction enzyme is a four- to eight-nucleotide sequence that is a palindrome. Like with a word palindrome, this means the sequence reads the same forward and backward. In most cases, the sequence reads the same forward on one strand and backward on the complementary strand. When a staggered cut is made in a sequence like this, the overhangs are complementary ( Figure 10.5 ).

Because these overhangs are capable of coming back together by hydrogen bonding with complementary overhangs on a piece of DNA cut with the same restriction enzyme, these are called “sticky ends.” The process of forming hydrogen bonds between complementary sequences on single strands to form double-stranded DNA is called annealing . Addition of an enzyme called DNA ligase, which takes part in DNA replication in cells, permanently joins the DNA fragments when the sticky ends come together. In this way, any DNA fragment can be spliced between the two ends of a plasmid DNA that has been cut with the same restriction enzyme ( Figure 10.6 ).

Plasmids with foreign DNA inserted into them are called recombinant DNA molecules because they contain new combinations of genetic material. Proteins that are produced from recombinant DNA molecules are called recombinant proteins . Not all recombinant plasmids are capable of expressing genes. Plasmids may also be engineered to express proteins only when stimulated by certain environmental factors, so that scientists can control the expression of the recombinant proteins.

Reproductive Cloning

Reproductive cloning is a method used to make a clone or an identical copy of an entire multicellular organism. Most multicellular organisms undergo reproduction by sexual means, which involves the contribution of DNA from two individuals (parents), making it impossible to generate an identical copy or a clone of either parent. Recent advances in biotechnology have made it possible to reproductively clone mammals in the laboratory.

Natural sexual reproduction involves the union, during fertilization, of a sperm and an egg. Each of these gametes is haploid, meaning they contain one set of chromosomes in their nuclei. The resulting cell, or zygote, is then diploid and contains two sets of chromosomes. This cell divides mitotically to produce a multicellular organism. However, the union of just any two cells cannot produce a viable zygote; there are components in the cytoplasm of the egg cell that are essential for the early development of the embryo during its first few cell divisions. Without these provisions, there would be no subsequent development. Therefore, to produce a new individual, both a diploid genetic complement and an egg cytoplasm are required. The approach to producing an artificially cloned individual is to take the egg cell of one individual and to remove the haploid nucleus. Then a diploid nucleus from a body cell of a second individual, the donor, is put into the egg cell. The egg is then stimulated to divide so that development proceeds. This sounds simple, but in fact it takes many attempts before each of the steps is completed successfully.

The first cloned agricultural animal was Dolly, a sheep who was born in 1996. The success rate of reproductive cloning at the time was very low. Dolly lived for six years and died of a lung tumor ( Figure 10.7 ). There was speculation that because the cell DNA that gave rise to Dolly came from an older individual, the age of the DNA may have affected her life expectancy. Since Dolly, several species of animals (such as horses, bulls, and goats) have been successfully cloned.

There have been attempts at producing cloned human embryos as sources of embryonic stem cells. In the procedure, the DNA from an adult human is introduced into a human egg cell, which is then stimulated to divide. The technology is similar to the technology that was used to produce Dolly, but the embryo is never implanted into a surrogate carrier. The cells produced are called embryonic stem cells because they have the capacity to develop into many different kinds of cells, such as muscle or nerve cells. The stem cells could be used to research and ultimately provide therapeutic applications, such as replacing damaged tissues. The benefit of cloning in this instance is that the cells used to regenerate new tissues would be a perfect match to the donor of the original DNA. For example, a leukemia patient would not require a sibling with a tissue match for a bone-marrow transplant. Freda Miller and Elaine Fuchs, working independently, discovered stem cells in different layers of the skin. These cells help the skin repair itself, and their discovery may have applications in treatments of skin disease and potentially other conditions, such as nerve damage.

Visual Connection

Why was Dolly a Finn-Dorset and not a Scottish Blackface sheep?

Genetic Engineering

Using recombinant DNA technology to modify an organism’s DNA to achieve desirable traits is called genetic engineering . Addition of foreign DNA in the form of recombinant DNA vectors that are generated by molecular cloning is the most common method of genetic engineering. An organism that receives the recombinant DNA is called a genetically modified organism (GMO). If the foreign DNA that is introduced comes from a different species, the host organism is called transgenic . Bacteria, plants, and animals have been genetically modified since the early 1970s for academic, medical, agricultural, and industrial purposes. These applications will be examined in more detail in the next module.

Link to Learning

Watch this short video explaining how scientists create a transgenic animal.

Although the classic methods of studying the function of genes began with a given phenotype and determined the genetic basis of that phenotype, modern techniques allow researchers to start at the DNA sequence level and ask: "What does this gene or DNA element do?" This technique, called reverse genetics , has resulted in reversing the classical genetic methodology. One example of this method is analogous to damaging a body part to determine its function. An insect that loses a wing cannot fly, which means that the wing’s function is flight. The classic genetic method compares insects that cannot fly with insects that can fly, and observes that the non-flying insects have lost wings. Similarly in a reverse genetics approach, mutating or deleting genes provides researchers with clues about gene function. Alternately, reverse genetics can be used to cause a gene to overexpress itself to determine what phenotypic effects may occur.

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8.8: Genetic engineering

• Last updated
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• Page ID 431342

• Muhammad Arif Malik
• Hampton University, Hampton, VA

Learning Objectives

• Understand recombinant DNA technology and its applications in biomedical technologies.
• Understand PCR and its applications in genetic testing, fingerprinting, and human genome project.

Recombinant DNA

DNA can be isolated from the cell and cut at a specific place using restriction enzymes. Fragments of DNA from different sources, e.g., an insulin gene from a human and a DNA from Escherichia coli (E. coli) cut using the same restriction enzyme, can be combined into a new recombinant DNA . The recombinant DNA can be introduced into the cell, e.g., back into E. coli, where it propagates using the cellular machinery of the host cell. It is then used to produce proteins of interest, e.g., human insulin used to treat diseases like diabetes.

How is recombinant DNA produced?

The DNA of host cells, e.g., small circular plasmids of DNA from E. coli, are isolated first. The host cells are soaked in a detergent solution that disrupts the plasma membrane and releases the plasmids. A restriction enzyme is used to cut the DNA of the host cell at a specific location. The same enzyme is used to cut a piece of donor DNA, e.g., an insulin gene from a human. The cut ends of the DNA are called sticky ends . When the cut donor and host DNA are mixed, they join at the sticky ends, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\). The resultant recombinant DNA is introduced to a new culture of E. Coli. The host cells that have taken up the recombinant DNA are selected and grown. When these bacteria grow and divide, they produce the protein encoded in the inserted gene, i.e., insulin in this example. Insulin is extracted, purified, and used to treat diabetes.

Some applications of recombinant DNA technology

The recombinant DNA technology is used in food production, medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering. Some examples are listed below.

• Chymosin is an enzyme used to manufacture chees. Currently, ~60% of hard cheese is produced in the US using genetically engineered chymosin.
• Insulin is usually synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into E. Coli, or yeast, produces insulin processed and used to treat diabetes.
• Human growth hormone (HGT) is needed for patients whose pituitary glands do not produce sufficient hormones. Recombinant HGT is commonly used for this purpose.
• Blood clotting factor VIII is needed for patients suffering from the bleeding disorder hemophilia. It is produced these days by recombinant DNA technology.
• The Hepatitis B vaccine needed to treat hepatitis B infection is produced by recombinant DNA technology.
• The recombinant HIV protein tests the presence of antibodies that may have been produced in response to an HIV infection.
• Herbicide-resistant crops , including soy, corn, canola, alfalfa, cotton, etc., have been developed that contain recombinant genes resistant to the herbicide glyphosate found in Roundup. It allowed the use of Roundup to control weeds without affecting the crop.
• Insect-resistant corps : Bacillus thuringeiensis is a bacteria that naturally produces a protein with insecticidal properties. Crops containing the recombinant gene from the bacteria hold promise to control insect predators without using an insecticide.
• Interferon produced by recombinant DNA technology is used to treat cancer and viral disease.
• The influenza vaccine is used to prevent influenza.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) quickly produces millions of copies of a DNA segment of interest. The selected DNA is heated to denature and separate the two strands and mixed with DNA polymerase, a short synthetic DNA called primer to select the segment to be amplified, and nucleotides, to produce a complementary strand. The process is repeated several times to make millions of copies of the desired DNA fragment, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\).

Genetic testing

Genetic testing is done in a laboratory to study an individual's DNA to diagnose a defective gene that may cause a congenital disease, ancestry studies, or forensic studies. For example, breast cancer may be related to defects in breast cancer genes BRCA1 and BRCA2. Patients are screened for these defects by using blood or saliva samples to extract the DNA, and the PCR technique is applied to amplify and study the defective genes. Genetic testing is also used to study the DNA of tumors or cancer cases.

Fingerprinting

Fingerprinting is a technique based on PCR that allows determining the nucleotide sequence of some areas of human DNA that are unique to individuals. A small sample from flood, skin, saliva, or semen is used to extract the DNA for amplification by PCR. Fluorescent or radioactive isotopes are incorporated in the amplified DNA for easy monitoring. The DNA is cut into pieces by restriction enzymes, placed on a gel, separated by electrophoresis, and studied to identify the individual, as illustrated in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). This technique is used for paternity tests, criminal investigations, and forensics.

Human genome

The human genome project meant to study all human DNA (human genome) comprehensively, was launched in October 1990 and completed in April 2003. It shows about 20,000 protein-coding genes in humans, representing only about 1.5% of the human genome. The role of the rest of the genome is still being explored. It is mainly related to regulating genes and serving as a protein recognition site. These studies provide fundamental information to study human biology, defects in DNA that lead to genetic diseases, and find cures for conditions.

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Agricultural Literacy Curriculum Matrix

Lesson plan, grade levels, type of companion resource, content area standards, agricultural literacy outcomes, common core, a recipe for genetics: selective breeding and bioengineering (grades 6-8), grade level.

Students identify technologies that have changed the way humans affect the inheritance of desired traits in organisms; compare and contrast selective breeding methods to bioengineering techniques; and analyze data to determine the best solution for cultivating desired traits in organisms.  Grades 6-8

Estimated Time

Materials needed.

• Save your own copy of this slide deck

Activity 1: A Recipe for DNA

• Recipe cards (1 recipe per group)
• A Recipe for DNA  image

Activity 2: Selective Breeding

• Natural Selection vs Artificial Selection   video
• Selective Breeding station cards ,1-2 sets
• Selective Breeding handout , 1 copy per student

Activity 3: Bioengineering Issues, Solutions, and Results

• Bioengineering Cards , 1 set per group of 4 students
• Venn Diagram Prompts

agriculture: the science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products

animal husbandry: the science of breeding and caring for farm animals

artificial selection: the intentional breeding of plants and animals to produce specific, desirable traits

domesticate: to breed a population of animals or plants to serve the purposes of human beings and to need and accept human care

gene: a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring

genetically engineered (GE): an organism or crop whose characteristics have been deliberately modified by manipulating its genetic material

genetically modified organism (GMO): any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques

selective breeding: process by which humans control the breeding of plants or animals in order to exhibit or eliminate a particular characteristic

transgenic: containing a gene that has been transferred from one organism to another and acts as a synonym for genetically modified

Did You Know?

• Even though the process of artificial selection had been in use for centuries to create livestock and crops with desirable characteristics, Charles Darwin is credited with coining the term "artificial selection" in his book that he wrote upon returning from the Galapagos Islands. 15
• There is no substantiated evidence of a difference in risk to human health between current commercially available genetically modified (GM) crops and conventionally bred crops. 5
• Genetically modified (GM) crops in the United States are regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 6

Background Agricultural Connections

The development of  agriculture , or the intentional production of plants and animals for human use, allowed people to settle in one place and form villages and cities. Approximately 10,000 years ago, the  domestication  of plants and animals for human use began to develop rapidly. As hunter-gatherers became farmers, they learned to select and save seeds from plants that produced the best crops and to breed the animals that were best suited to meet people’s needs. The first steps of domestication probably happened by accident, but soon farmers deliberately practiced  selective breeding  to develop crops and livestock more suited to their needs. 11 Selective breeding was likely the earliest form of agricultural biotechnology used by humans to improve the genetic characteristics of plants and animals. Agricultural biotechnology includes a variety of tools (including traditional breeding techniques) that alter living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve plants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific agricultural uses. 16  

Types of Agricultural Biotechnology

1. Selective Breeding

Selective breeding (also known as  artificial selection ) is a technique still extensively used by crop and livestock producers today. Selective breeding allows producers to select and breed parent organisms with desired traits to produce offspring with more desirable characteristics. This process creates offspring who are genetically superior to the parent organisms, thus improving plants and animals with each generation. The successful results of selective breeding throughout the years can be seen in crop and livestock production today.  

Many crops, including wheat, have been genetically improved through selective breeding. Dr. Norman Borlaug was a research scientist assigned to improve the wheat plant in Mexico. By studying genetics and utilizing selective breeding, he was able to develop short-strawed, disease-resistant wheat that was high yielding. Dr. Borlaug is known as the “Father of the Green Revolution” for his improvement of wheat and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for a lifetime of work to feed a hungry world. 4

In the livestock industry, today’s cattle are also evidence of successful selective breeding. Dairy and beef cattle are both highly efficient animals that produce more milk and meat than in years past. Today, there are only 9 million dairy cows in the United States compared to 25 million cows in 1950; however, today’s dairy cows are producing 60% more milk. 12  In 1944, the average dairy cow produced 548 gallons of milk in one year. The average dairy cow today is able to produce 2,429 gallons of milk in one year. 13  Beef production has seen similar success. Compared to 1977, today’s beef ranchers are producing the same amount of beef with 33%  fewer  cattle. 10  It is important to note that proper nutrition, better health care, and good  animal husbandry  also play a key role in improving genetics.

2. Bioengineering (BE)/Genetic Engineering (GE)/Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) 

Bioengineered (BE), genetically engineered (GE), and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are all terms that can be used interchangeably. A genetically modified crop is a crop that has had its genetic makeup altered in order to produce a more desirable outcome, such as resistance to disease, drought tolerance, or change in size. 1 Bioengineering differs from selective breeding because scientists directly manipulate (introduce, delete, or modify) specific genes within an organism’s DNA. 

Currently, there are a variety of bioengineering methods for crop modification including, transgenesis and gene silencing. Both of these crop modification techniques will be highlighted in this lesson.  

• Transgenesis : During transgenesis, scientists take the desirable gene from one organism’s DNA and transfer it to another organism’s DNA, creating a new, stronger product—one that is impossible to produce through traditional breeding. 1 During activity two, examples of transgenetic crops include the rainbow papaya, Bt corn, soybeans, cotton, and golden rice.
• Gene silencing : Whether using RNA interference (RNAi) or Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR), this form of bioengineering can be used to specifically select and silence certain genes. Often times with crops, it is used to mute undesirable components or traits. During activity two, examples of crops modified using a gene silencing technique are the Arctic apple and the Innate potato. 

Currently, there are 13 genetically modified crops that have been approved and are available on the U.S. market: corn, soybeans, cotton, canola, sugar beets, alfalfa, papaya, squash, apples, potatoes, eggplant, AquAdvantage salmon, and pink pineapple. To learn more about the safety and regulatory process of GM crops refer to the  Background Agricultural Connections  section of the lesson plan,   Evaluating GMO Perspectives .

• Project the A Recipe for Genetics slide deck on the board.
• Has our food always looked the same?
• How has food changed over the years?
• Why has food changed?
• Bring students’ attention to the three images on slide 2. Ask students, “What foods are in each of these three images?” 
• Offer a clue by sharing that these foods are all ancient/wild forms of foods we commonly eat today. Allow students to share ideas and guesses. 
• Allow students to compare the ancient or wild versions of corn, carrots, and bananas, to today’s food. (slide 3)
• When students compare the older foods to today’s foods, ask them to point out visible differences including size, shape, color, and the amount of edible flesh. Ask them how they think the taste would compare.
• Ask, “What has caused these traits to change?” (slide 4) Lead students to use their prior knowledge to explain what they can about how humans have influenced the look and taste of bananas, carrots, and corn.  (Through selective breeding.)
• Ask students to think about animal traits. (slide 5) Have humans influenced animal traits and genetics through the years? (Yes, by selecting plants and animals with desired traits and breeding those animals to produce offspring with the desired traits.)
• Explain to students that they will discover two methods used by agriculturists and scientists to improve the genetics and traits of plants and animals. 

Explore and Explain

Activity 1: A Recipe for DNA  

• Divide the class into six groups.
• Note: The class can also be divided into smaller groups and two copies of each recipe can be distributed if smaller groups would be more ideal for your class. Slide 8 of the slide deck can be projected to remind students of the instructions.
• Instruct students to read through the ingredients and baking instructions on their recipe card. Ask, "If you were to follow the instructions on your recipe, what product will you end up with?"  (Each recipe is for a type of cookie.)
• Allow each group to share their recipe guesses with the class.

• Why would each of you end up with a different cookie?” (While each recipe has some similar ingredients, it also includes different ingredients and instructions for mixing and baking resulting in a different type of cookie.)
• Are there any improvements that could be made to your recipes? (Yes, depending on what kind of cookie you want.)
• Could you alter your recipes? ( Yes, ingredients could be substituted with other baking alternatives, ingredients could be taken out due to food allergies or intolerance, or ingredients could be added to obtain a desired outcome of some sort.)
• What is DNA?
• How can the DNA in living organisms relate to a cookie recipe? ( DNA contains “ingredients” and a set of instructions for living organisms. DNA determines the genetic material and outcome of each living organism.)
• Can we improve or alter the DNA of plants and animals? ( Yes, through selective breeding and genetic engineering.)
• Show students the   image,  A Recipe for DNA  (slide 12) and explain that our DNA is made of different “ingredients” including a sugar phosphate backbone, nitrogenous bases, and hydrogen bonds. Explain to students that adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) and cytosine (C) always pairs with guanine (G). The order in which these nitrogenous bases line up acts as a set of instructions for DNA that determines the characteristics and traits in all living organisms.

• Tip: Be sure students recognize that the terms artificial selection and selective breeding are synonymous.
• Set up four different stations around the classroom using the Selective Breeding Station Cards .
• Note: A second set of station cards can be printed so students are in smaller groups.
• Pass out one Selective Breeding handout to each student.
• Explain to students that they will be rotating through 4 stations. They will have approximately 5 minutes at each station to read the station card instructions, background information, and scenario.
• Set a timer. Consider projecting the timer in the classroom to allow students to gauge their time at each station. Adjust the time limit as necessary. After time is up, groups should rotate to the next station until all four stations have been visited.
• Bring the class back together to discuss each of the stations.
• Which animals did they select for breeding purposes?
• How does selective breeding (artificial selection) benefit livestock producers?
• How do these selective breeding scenarios affect us ?
• Which cows did you select and why? ( Ideally, students should have selected the cows 6, 5, 2, and 3)
• How does selective breeding in the dairy industry affect us as consumers? ( Dairy producers are not only selecting healthy livestock but breeding and improving traits that directly affect our food supply. The milk produced on dairies is used to make many products including cheese, yogurt, butter, sour cream, and ice cream.)
• Which Jersey cows did students select to maintain a high butterfat content in the herd? ( Ideally, students should have selected the cows 1, 4, 3, and 2)
• Which Angus bull has a low birthweight for small cows, but high weaning weight? Will some students sacrifice a low birthweight to have a very high weaning weight? Remind students that when beef producers sell the calves in the fall, they are paid by the pound, so high weaning weights mean more money. However, calves born at 90-100 pounds can cause problems at birth for heifers and small cows. Ideally, bull 1 with an 80-pound birthweight will still give producers a large calf at weaning.)
• Which cows should be selected to ensure no offspring have horns? (Cows 3, 4 and 5.  When using a horned bull with a genotype (pp), cows with the genotype (PP) should be selected for breeding. (pp) x (PP) = (Pp) The bull will always pass on a recessive horned gene (p) to his offspring, so if you cross a horned bull (pp) with a heterozygous cow (Pp), there is a chance for horned offspring. Breeding the horned bull (pp) with the horned cow (pp) will give producers a 100% chance of having horned offspring.
• Now ask students what other technologies or management practices can affect desired traits in livestock. Explain that proper care and animal husbandry can help maintain desired traits and genetics. Close monitoring of animal health, proper nutrition, shelter, and waste management all affect livestock production. A calf may be born with superior genetics, but if it is not taken care of properly or fed correctly, inherited traits may be negatively affected.
• To transition into Activity 3 , ask students, “What does it mean if an organism is genetically modified?” Allow students to answer or brainstorm ideas.

Activity 3: Bioengineering Issues, Solutions, and Results

• Divide the class into groups of four students.
• Start by passing out a set of Bioengineering Issues C ards  (page 1) to each group.
• Instruct groups to read through each of the cards. Explain that each card describes a challenge.
• Are you familiar with any of these issues related to the production of our food and fiber?
• What are the negative impacts of these issues? (food waste, malnutrition, inefficient use of natural resources like water and soil nutrients, reduced production of food and fiber that humans need.)
• Who is affected by these issues? ( Farmers and consumers, so everyone.)
• Can any of the issues be resolved? (Yes.)
• Ask students to brainstorm possible solutions. Prompt students to think about what they have learned about selective breeding. What limitations would selective breeding present?
• Next, pass out the  Bioengineering Solutions Cards  (page 2) to each group of students.
• Instruct students to read through the solutions and match each of the solutions to an issue.
• Pass out the  Bioengineering Results cards  (page 3) to each group of students. (This will be their third and final set of cards.)
• Instruct students to match each of the results to the issues and solutions cards. Each match should include one GMO issue, solution, and result.
• Discuss each of the Bioengineering cards. Explain that there are currently 11 genetically modified crops available on the U.S. market.

• Summarize by explaining that bioengineered seed varieties (GMOs) are created using a scientific process called transgenesis which refers to the process of transferring a gene from one organism to another with the intent of acquiring a new genetic trait.

Selective breeding and transgenics (a specific form of bioengineering) are just two breeding techniques. Use the  Crop Modification Techniques infographic to introduce more.

• After conducting these activities students should be able to identify similarities and differences between selective breeding and bioengineering methods. Draw a Venn Diagram on the board labeling one circle "Selective Breeding" and the other circle "Bioengineering."
• Pass out the Venn Diagram Prompts to various students in the class and have them add the strip of paper to the correct portion of the diagram. Discuss and provide clarification as needed. 
• DNA makes up the instructions for all living things.
• Humans can influence the inheritance of traits by selecting only parents that have desired traits through a process called selective breeding (also known as artificial selection).
• Technology can increase our ability to select and perpetuate helpful genetic traits in the plants and animals that provide our food. Transgenics is one example.

• https://gmoanswers.com/current-gmo-crops
• https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2014/06/19/how-your-food-would-look-if-not-genetically-modified-over-millennia/
• https://www.crops.org/about-crop-science/crop-breeding
• https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/dr_norman_e_borlaug/about_norman_borlaug/
• http://www8.nationalacademies.org/onpinews/newsitem.aspx?RecordID=23395
• https://fas.org/biosecurity/education/dualuse-agriculture/2.-agricultural-biotechnology/us-regulation-of-genetically-engineered-crops.html
• http://www.cmhipmuseum.org/dairy-farm.html
• https://www.dairyherd.com/article/how-wisconsin-dairy-raised-top-milk-producing-cow-world
• https://www.northcountrypublicradio.org/news/story/33822/20170522/north-country-at-work-how-bob-thompson-apos-s-holsteins-ended-up-across-the-globe
• https://www.beefitswhatsfordinner.com/resources/infographic-library
• https://www.agclassroom.org/matrix/lesson/418/
• https://www.alltech.com/features-podcast-blog/frank-mitloehner-cattle-climate-change-and-methane-myth
• https://cals.cornell.edu/news/periodicals/charting-new-yorks-milky-way/
• https://selectsiresbeef.com/lineup/
• https://www.thoughtco.com/about-artificial-selection-1224495
• https://www.usda.gov/topics/biotechnology/biotechnology-glossary
• https://www.fda.gov/food/agricultural-biotechnology/gmo-crops-animal-food-and-beyond

Acknowledgements

Activity 2 designed by Chrissy Dittmer from Iowa Agriculture in the Classroom

Recommended Companion Resources

• CRISPR: A Word Processor for Editing the Genome Video
• Crop Modification Techniques
• GMO Answers
• Genetic Science Learning Center
• Genetically Modified Food: Good, Bad, Ugly
• How Mendel's Pea Plants Helped Us Understand Genetics
• Making a New Apple Cultivar
• Modeling Selective Breeding with Starburst®
• Natural GMO? Sweet Potato Genetically Modified 8,000 Years Ago
• Selectively Breeding Sheep: Punnet Square Practice
• Why are GMOs Bad?

Bekka Israelsen

Organization

Utah Agriculture in the Classroom

Science, Technology, Engineering & Math

• Discuss how technology has changed over time to help farmers/ranchers provide more food to more people (T4.6-8.d)
• Describe the process of development from hunting and gathering to farming (T4.6-8.c)
• Provide examples of science and technology used in agricultural systems (e.g., GPS, artificial insemination, biotechnology, soil testing, ethanol production, etc.); explain how they meet our basic needs, and detail their social, economic, and environmental impacts (T4.6-8.i)
• Describe how biological processes influence and are leveraged in agricultural production and processing (e.g., photosynthesis, fermentation, cell division, heredity/genetics, nitrogen fixation) (T4.6-8.b)

Education Content Standards

Science (science).

MS-LS4 Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity

• MS-LS4-5    Gather and synthesize information about technologies that have changed the way humans influence the inheritance of desired traits in organisms.

Common Core Connections

Anchor standards: reading.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.R.1 Read closely to determine what the text says explicitly and to make logical inferences from it; cite specific textual evidence when writing or speaking to support conclusions drawn from the text.

Anchor Standards: Speaking and Listening

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.SL.2 Integrate and evaluate information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally.

CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.CCRA.SL.3 Evaluate a speaker’s point of view, reasoning, and use of evidence and rhetoric.

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NEW AQA GCSE Trilogy (2016) Biology - Selective Breeding & Genetic Engineering Homework

Subject: Biology

Age range: 14-16

Resource type: Worksheet/Activity

Last updated

27 October 2023

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his task is designed for the NEW AQA Trilogy Biology GCSE, particularly the 'Inheritance, variation & evolution’ SoW.

For more resources designed to meet specification points for the NEW AQA Trilogy specifications for Biology, Chemistry and Physics please see my shop: https://www.tes.com/teaching-resources/shop/SWiftScience

This activity contains a set of differentiated questions worth 20 marks in total, it also includes additional extra challenge tasks for higher ability students to complete. This worksheet could be used as a homework or as an extension or revision activity in class.

I have included a comprehensive mark scheme for teacher or self-assessment of the work, there are also details of grade boundaries which I use to RAG pupils work against their target grades, a full explanation of how I do this is included.

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NEW AQA GCSE Biology - 'Inheritance, Variation & Evolution' lessons

This bundle of resources contains 12 lessons which meet all learning outcomes within the 'Inheritance, Variation & Evolution’ unit for the NEW AQA Biology Specification. Visit https://www.swyftresources.com/ for discounted bundles, and a huge range of FREE science resources! Lessons include: 1. Types of reproduction 2. Variation 3. Meiosis 4. Selective Breeding 5. Genetic Engineering 6. Inherited Disorders 7. Gene Expression & Inheritance 8. DNA & Protein Synthesis 9. Ethics of gene technologies 10. Evolution by natural selection 11. Evidence of evolution 12. Evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria 13. Evolution & Extinction The lessons contain a mix of differentiated activities, progress checks, extra challenge questions and exam questions plus more than one opportunity, per lesson, for self/peer red-pen assessment of tasks.

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3.10: Genetic Engineering

• Last updated
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• Page ID 96231

Genetic Engineering

Andrea bierema.

Learning Objectives

Students will be able to

• Define DNA sequencing.
• Describe examples and mechanisms of genetic engineering.
• Define genetically modified organisms (i.e., GMO).
• Explain how CRISPR is used.
• Describe the role of Cas9 and the guide RNA in CRISPR.
• Identify key steps and their variations in CRISPR.

A variety of biotechnologies exist including cloning organisms , sequencing DNA, and modifying DNA. Although there is a wide range of molecular biotechnologies, this chapter first introduces DNA sequencing and then describes changes to the genome, which results in changes in proteins or protein synthesis: genetic engineering .

DNA Sequencing

The main theme of this chapter is genetic engineering, but before, we can change the DNA, we must first sequence it. Therefore, this chapter begins with an introduction to DNA sequencing.

DNA sequencing is the process of working out the exact order of the four bases, A, C, T, and G in a strand of DNA.

Human chromosomes range in size from about 50,000,000 to 300,000,000 base pairs and each human being has 46 (23 pairs) of these chromosomes. This means we have approximately 3.2 billion bases of DNA in total!

At present, we can’t sequence a genome, or even a single chromosome, from start to finish. We have to break it up into smaller, more manageable chunks, or fragments. The order and number of bases in these fragments of DNA are then identified through techniques that label each base individually (in modern techniques the bases are labeled with different colors). From this information, scientists are able to work out the sequence of the DNA and find out lots of other interesting things about our genetic makeup.

Early DNA sequencing was technically challenging and slow. Resources were expensive, and the reactions required complex conditions to work. It, therefore, took several years to sequence just one or two genes!

Over the last decade, DNA sequencing technologies have developed rapidly. We can now sequence an entire human genome, all 3.2 billion letters, in a matter of hours and for much less money.

Introduction to Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way. This may mean changing one base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing an additional copy of a gene. It may also mean extracting DNA from another organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA of that individual. It has been used by scientists to enhance or modify the characteristics of an individual organism from a virus to sheep, to possibly humans. For example, genetic engineering can be used to produce plants that have a higher nutritional value or can tolerate exposure to herbicides.

We can change an organism’s characteristics by introducing new pieces of DNA into their genomes. This could be:

• DNA from the same species.
• DNA from a different species.
• DNA made synthetically in the lab.

There are several techniques that can be used to modify a genome, including:

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-124

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

Genetically modified (GM) organisms are organisms that have had their genomes changed in a way that does not happen naturally. By changing an organism’s genome, we change the resulting proteins, which change their characteristics. Any organism can be genetically modified, but laws restrict the creation of genetically modified humans, and the production and distribution of other GMOs are tightly regulated.

Learn more about the process of creating GMOs by going through Connecting Concepts’ Interactive lesson on developing a genetically modified canola plant .

The first genetically modified organism was created in 1973 and was a bacterium. Then in 1974, the same techniques were applied to mice. The first genetically-modified foods were made available in 1994.

What is not a GMO? The genomes of organisms change naturally over time, and these natural changes are not classified as GMO (otherwise, everything would be classified as a GMO). Examples of natural changes include:

• when organisms mate, offspring get bits of DNA from both parents
• mutations arise as a result of mistakes when DNA is copied
• environmental factors like UV radiation can create changes in DNA.

The following video describes how genetically modified plants are made and which qualities may be desired.

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140

What does it look like when a needle is inserted into a cell?

If you are curious how a cell reacts to a needle, then watch the quick video below!

Time-lapse movie (sped up 10x) of a glass microneedle being inserted into an egg cell. The object in the cell being moved is a metaphase spindle. The spindle is made visible by the use of polarizing optics. Video created by Inoue, S. is licensed CC BY-NC-SA. doi:10.7295/W9CIL11958

An Example of Genetic Engineering: Insulin Production

Normally, insulin is produced in the pancreas, but in people with type 1 diabetes, there is a problem with insulin production. People with diabetes, therefore, have to inject insulin to control their blood sugar levels. Genetic engineering has been used to produce a type of insulin in yeast and in bacteria like E. coli that is very similar to our own. This genetically modified insulin, Humulin was licensed for human use in 1982.

To produce genetically-engineered insulin, a small, circular DNA called a plasmid is extracted from the bacteria or yeast cell. A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction enzymes that act as “molecular scissors.” The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid, creating a genetically modified plasmid.

This genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a new bacteria or yeast cell. This cell divides rapidly and starts making insulin. To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or yeast are grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The more the cells divide, the more insulin is produced. When fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin. The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for distribution to patients with diabetes.

Mosquitos and the Lethal Gene

For another example of genetic engineering, check out HHMI Biointeractive ‘s “ Genetically Modified Mosquitos ” video.

CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome-editing tool that is creating a buzz in the science world. It is faster, cheaper, and more accurate than previous techniques of editing DNA and has a wide range of potential applications. It can remove, add, and alter sections of the DNA sequence.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system consists of two key molecules that introduce a mutation into the DNA. These are:

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-125

Watch the following videos to learn about the CRISPR-Cas9 process.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-126

For closed captioning or to view the full transcript of the above video, click on the “YouTube” link in the video (or click here ) and view the video on YouTube.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-127

In addition to the videos above, HHMI Biointeractive CRISPR Cas-9 Mechanism and Applications interactive is a great illustration!

The following is an overview of the different ways in which DNA is edited:

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-128

Check your understanding of the CRISPR process!

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/isb202/?p=140#h5p-129

Want to learn more about what this looks like in a laboratory? Check out this simulation and this scrolling interactive from LabXchange!

Attributions

This chapter is a modified derivative of the following articles:

“ What is CRISPR-Cas9 ?” by yourgenome, Genome Research Limited, 2021, CC-BY 4.0.

“ What is DNA sequencing ?” by yourgenome, Genome Research Limited, 2021, CC-BY 4.0.

“ What is a GMO? ” by yourgenome, Genome Research Limited, 2017, CC-BY 4.0.

“ What is genetic engineering? ” by yourgenome, Genome Research Limited, 2017, CC-BY 4.0.

Development and application of biological technologies in fish genetic breeding

• Special Topic: Fish biology and biotechnology
• Open access
• Published: 16 January 2015
• Volume 58 , pages 187–201, ( 2015 )

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• Kang Xu 1 ,
• Wei Duan 1 ,
• Jun Xiao 1 ,
• Min Tao 1 ,
• Chun Zhang 1 ,
• Yun Liu 1 &
• ShaoJun Liu 1  

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Fish genetic breeding is a process that remolds heritable traits to obtain neotype and improved varieties. For the purpose of genetic improvement, researchers can select for desirable genetic traits, integrate a suite of traits from different donors, or alter the innate genetic traits of a species. These improved varieties have, in many cases, facilitated the development of the aquaculture industry by lowering costs and increasing both quality and yield. In this review, we present the pertinent literatures and summarize the biological bases and application of selection breeding technologies (containing traditional selective breeding, molecular marker-assisted breeding, genome-wide selective breeding and breeding by controlling single-sex groups), integration breeding technologies (containing cross breeding, nuclear transplantation, germline stem cells and germ cells transplantation, artificial gynogenesis, artificial androgenesis and polyploid breeding) and modification breeding technologies (represented by transgenic breeding) in fish genetic breeding. Additionally, we discuss the progress our laboratory has made in the field of chromosomal ploidy breeding of fish, including distant hybridization, gynogenesis, and androgenesis. Finally, we systematically summarize the research status and known problems associated with each technology.

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Xu, K., Duan, W., Xiao, J. et al. Development and application of biological technologies in fish genetic breeding. Sci. China Life Sci. 58 , 187–201 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-015-4798-3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11427-015-4798-3

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