essay on causes of world war 1

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World War I

By: History.com Editors

Updated: August 11, 2023 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War I, also known as the Great War, started in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. His murder catapulted into a war across Europe that lasted until 1918. During the four-year conflict, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire (the Central Powers) fought against Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Canada, Japan and the United States (the Allied Powers). Thanks to new military technologies and the horrors of trench warfare, World War I saw unprecedented levels of carnage and destruction. By the time the war was over and the Allied Powers had won, more than 16 million people—soldiers and civilians alike—were dead.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Tensions had been brewing throughout Europe—especially in the troubled Balkan region of southeast Europe—for years before World War I actually broke out.

A number of alliances involving European powers, the Ottoman Empire , Russia and other parties had existed for years, but political instability in the Balkans (particularly Bosnia, Serbia and Herzegovina) threatened to destroy these agreements.

The spark that ignited World War I was struck in Sarajevo, Bosnia, where Archduke Franz Ferdinand —heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire—was shot to death along with his wife, Sophie, by the Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Princip and other nationalists were struggling to end Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The assassination of Franz Ferdinand set off a rapidly escalating chain of events: Austria-Hungary , like many countries around the world, blamed the Serbian government for the attack and hoped to use the incident as justification for settling the question of Serbian nationalism once and for all.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Because mighty Russia supported Serbia, Austria-Hungary waited to declare war until its leaders received assurance from German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II that Germany would support their cause. Austro-Hungarian leaders feared that a Russian intervention would involve Russia’s ally, France, and possibly Great Britain as well.

On July 5, Kaiser Wilhelm secretly pledged his support, giving Austria-Hungary a so-called carte blanche, or “blank check” assurance of Germany’s backing in the case of war. The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary then sent an ultimatum to Serbia, with such harsh terms as to make it almost impossible to accept.

World War I Begins

Convinced that Austria-Hungary was readying for war, the Serbian government ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers quickly collapsed.

Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun.

The Western Front

According to an aggressive military strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan (named for its mastermind, German Field Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen ), Germany began fighting World War I on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting Russia in the east.

On August 4, 1914, German troops crossed the border into Belgium. In the first battle of World War I, the Germans assaulted the heavily fortified city of Liege , using the most powerful weapons in their arsenal—enormous siege cannons—to capture the city by August 15. The Germans left death and destruction in their wake as they advanced through Belgium toward France, shooting civilians and executing a Belgian priest they had accused of inciting civilian resistance. 

First Battle of the Marne

In the First Battle of the Marne , fought from September 6-9, 1914, French and British forces confronted the invading German army, which had by then penetrated deep into northeastern France, within 30 miles of Paris. The Allied troops checked the German advance and mounted a successful counterattack, driving the Germans back to the north of the Aisne River.

The defeat meant the end of German plans for a quick victory in France. Both sides dug into trenches , and the Western Front was the setting for a hellish war of attrition that would last more than three years.

Particularly long and costly battles in this campaign were fought at Verdun (February-December 1916) and the Battle of the Somme (July-November 1916). German and French troops suffered close to a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone.

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World War I Books and Art

The bloodshed on the battlefields of the Western Front, and the difficulties its soldiers had for years after the fighting had ended, inspired such works of art as “ All Quiet on the Western Front ” by Erich Maria Remarque and “ In Flanders Fields ” by Canadian doctor Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae . In the latter poem, McCrae writes from the perspective of the fallen soldiers:

Published in 1915, the poem inspired the use of the poppy as a symbol of remembrance.

Visual artists like Otto Dix of Germany and British painters Wyndham Lewis, Paul Nash and David Bomberg used their firsthand experience as soldiers in World War I to create their art, capturing the anguish of trench warfare and exploring the themes of technology, violence and landscapes decimated by war.

The Eastern Front

On the Eastern Front of World War I, Russian forces invaded the German-held regions of East Prussia and Poland but were stopped short by German and Austrian forces at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August 1914.

Despite that victory, Russia’s assault forced Germany to move two corps from the Western Front to the Eastern, contributing to the German loss in the Battle of the Marne.

Combined with the fierce Allied resistance in France, the ability of Russia’s huge war machine to mobilize relatively quickly in the east ensured a longer, more grueling conflict instead of the quick victory Germany had hoped to win under the Schlieffen Plan .

Russian Revolution

From 1914 to 1916, Russia’s army mounted several offensives on World War I’s Eastern Front but was unable to break through German lines.

Defeat on the battlefield, combined with economic instability and the scarcity of food and other essentials, led to mounting discontent among the bulk of Russia’s population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants. This increased hostility was directed toward the imperial regime of Czar Nicholas II and his unpopular German-born wife, Alexandra.

Russia’s simmering instability exploded in the Russian Revolution of 1917, spearheaded by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks , which ended czarist rule and brought a halt to Russian participation in World War I.

Russia reached an armistice with the Central Powers in early December 1917, freeing German troops to face the remaining Allies on the Western Front.

America Enters World War I

At the outbreak of fighting in 1914, the United States remained on the sidelines of World War I, adopting the policy of neutrality favored by President Woodrow Wilson while continuing to engage in commerce and shipping with European countries on both sides of the conflict.

Neutrality, however, it was increasingly difficult to maintain in the face of Germany’s unchecked submarine aggression against neutral ships, including those carrying passengers. In 1915, Germany declared the waters surrounding the British Isles to be a war zone, and German U-boats sunk several commercial and passenger vessels, including some U.S. ships.

Widespread protest over the sinking by U-boat of the British ocean liner Lusitania —traveling from New York to Liverpool, England with hundreds of American passengers onboard—in May 1915 helped turn the tide of American public opinion against Germany. In February 1917, Congress passed a $250 million arms appropriations bill intended to make the United States ready for war.

Germany sunk four more U.S. merchant ships the following month, and on April 2 Woodrow Wilson appeared before Congress and called for a declaration of war against Germany.

Gallipoli Campaign

With World War I having effectively settled into a stalemate in Europe, the Allies attempted to score a victory against the Ottoman Empire, which entered the conflict on the side of the Central Powers in late 1914.

After a failed attack on the Dardanelles (the strait linking the Sea of Marmara with the Aegean Sea), Allied forces led by Britain launched a large-scale land invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915. The invasion also proved a dismal failure, and in January 1916 Allied forces staged a full retreat from the shores of the peninsula after suffering 250,000 casualties.

Did you know? The young Winston Churchill, then first lord of the British Admiralty, resigned his command after the failed Gallipoli campaign in 1916, accepting a commission with an infantry battalion in France.

British-led forces also combated the Ottoman Turks in Egypt and Mesopotamia , while in northern Italy, Austrian and Italian troops faced off in a series of 12 battles along the Isonzo River, located at the border between the two nations.

Battle of the Isonzo

The First Battle of the Isonzo took place in the late spring of 1915, soon after Italy’s entrance into the war on the Allied side. In the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, also known as the Battle of Caporetto (October 1917), German reinforcements helped Austria-Hungary win a decisive victory.

After Caporetto, Italy’s allies jumped in to offer increased assistance. British and French—and later, American—troops arrived in the region, and the Allies began to take back the Italian Front.

World War I at Sea

In the years before World War I, the superiority of Britain’s Royal Navy was unchallenged by any other nation’s fleet, but the Imperial German Navy had made substantial strides in closing the gap between the two naval powers. Germany’s strength on the high seas was also aided by its lethal fleet of U-boat submarines.

After the Battle of Dogger Bank in January 1915, in which the British mounted a surprise attack on German ships in the North Sea, the German navy chose not to confront Britain’s mighty Royal Navy in a major battle for more than a year, preferring to rest the bulk of its naval strategy on its U-boats.

The biggest naval engagement of World War I, the Battle of Jutland (May 1916) left British naval superiority on the North Sea intact, and Germany would make no further attempts to break an Allied naval blockade for the remainder of the war.

World War I Planes

World War I was the first major conflict to harness the power of planes. Though not as impactful as the British Royal Navy or Germany’s U-boats, the use of planes in World War I presaged their later, pivotal role in military conflicts around the globe.

At the dawn of World War I, aviation was a relatively new field; the Wright brothers took their first sustained flight just eleven years before, in 1903. Aircraft were initially used primarily for reconnaissance missions. During the First Battle of the Marne, information passed from pilots allowed the allies to exploit weak spots in the German lines, helping the Allies to push Germany out of France.

The first machine guns were successfully mounted on planes in June of 1912 in the United States, but were imperfect; if timed incorrectly, a bullet could easily destroy the propeller of the plane it came from. The Morane-Saulnier L, a French plane, provided a solution: The propeller was armored with deflector wedges that prevented bullets from hitting it. The Morane-Saulnier Type L was used by the French, the British Royal Flying Corps (part of the Army), the British Royal Navy Air Service and the Imperial Russian Air Service. The British Bristol Type 22 was another popular model used for both reconnaissance work and as a fighter plane.

Dutch inventor Anthony Fokker improved upon the French deflector system in 1915. His “interrupter” synchronized the firing of the guns with the plane’s propeller to avoid collisions. Though his most popular plane during WWI was the single-seat Fokker Eindecker, Fokker created over 40 kinds of airplanes for the Germans.

The Allies debuted the Handley-Page HP O/400, the first two-engine bomber, in 1915. As aerial technology progressed, long-range heavy bombers like Germany’s Gotha G.V. (first introduced in 1917) were used to strike cities like London. Their speed and maneuverability proved to be far deadlier than Germany’s earlier Zeppelin raids.

By the war’s end, the Allies were producing five times more aircraft than the Germans. On April 1, 1918, the British created the Royal Air Force, or RAF, the first air force to be a separate military branch independent from the navy or army. 

Second Battle of the Marne

With Germany able to build up its strength on the Western Front after the armistice with Russia, Allied troops struggled to hold off another German offensive until promised reinforcements from the United States were able to arrive.

On July 15, 1918, German troops launched what would become the last German offensive of the war, attacking French forces (joined by 85,000 American troops as well as some of the British Expeditionary Force) in the Second Battle of the Marne . The Allies successfully pushed back the German offensive and launched their own counteroffensive just three days later.

After suffering massive casualties, Germany was forced to call off a planned offensive further north, in the Flanders region stretching between France and Belgium, which was envisioned as Germany’s best hope of victory.

The Second Battle of the Marne turned the tide of war decisively towards the Allies, who were able to regain much of France and Belgium in the months that followed.

The Harlem Hellfighters and Other All-Black Regiments

By the time World War I began, there were four all-Black regiments in the U.S. military: the 24th and 25th Infantry and the 9th and 10th Cavalry. All four regiments comprised of celebrated soldiers who fought in the Spanish-American War and American-Indian Wars , and served in the American territories. But they were not deployed for overseas combat in World War I. 

Blacks serving alongside white soldiers on the front lines in Europe was inconceivable to the U.S. military. Instead, the first African American troops sent overseas served in segregated labor battalions, restricted to menial roles in the Army and Navy, and shutout of the Marines, entirely. Their duties mostly included unloading ships, transporting materials from train depots, bases and ports, digging trenches, cooking and maintenance, removing barbed wire and inoperable equipment, and burying soldiers.

Facing criticism from the Black community and civil rights organizations for its quotas and treatment of African American soldiers in the war effort, the military formed two Black combat units in 1917, the 92nd and 93rd Divisions . Trained separately and inadequately in the United States, the divisions fared differently in the war. The 92nd faced criticism for their performance in the Meuse-Argonne campaign in September 1918. The 93rd Division, however, had more success. 

With dwindling armies, France asked America for reinforcements, and General John Pershing , commander of the American Expeditionary Forces, sent regiments in the 93 Division to over, since France had experience fighting alongside Black soldiers from their Senegalese French Colonial army. The 93 Division’s 369 regiment, nicknamed the Harlem Hellfighters , fought so gallantly, with a total of 191 days on the front lines, longer than any AEF regiment, that France awarded them the Croix de Guerre for their heroism. More than 350,000 African American soldiers would serve in World War I in various capacities.

Toward Armistice

By the fall of 1918, the Central Powers were unraveling on all fronts.

Despite the Turkish victory at Gallipoli, later defeats by invading forces and an Arab revolt that destroyed the Ottoman economy and devastated its land, and the Turks signed a treaty with the Allies in late October 1918.

Austria-Hungary, dissolving from within due to growing nationalist movements among its diverse population, reached an armistice on November 4. Facing dwindling resources on the battlefield, discontent on the homefront and the surrender of its allies, Germany was finally forced to seek an armistice on November 11, 1918, ending World War I.

Treaty of Versailles

At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Allied leaders stated their desire to build a post-war world that would safeguard itself against future conflicts of such a devastating scale.

Some hopeful participants had even begun calling World War I “the War to End All Wars.” But the Treaty of Versailles , signed on June 28, 1919, would not achieve that lofty goal.

Saddled with war guilt, heavy reparations and denied entrance into the League of Nations , Germany felt tricked into signing the treaty, having believed any peace would be a “peace without victory,” as put forward by President Wilson in his famous Fourteen Points speech of January 1918.

As the years passed, hatred of the Versailles treaty and its authors settled into a smoldering resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be counted among the causes of World War II .

World War I Casualties

World War I took the lives of more than 9 million soldiers; 21 million more were wounded. Civilian casualties numbered close to 10 million. The two nations most affected were Germany and France, each of which sent some 80 percent of their male populations between the ages of 15 and 49 into battle.

The political disruption surrounding World War I also contributed to the fall of four venerable imperial dynasties: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey.

Legacy of World War I

World War I brought about massive social upheaval, as millions of women entered the workforce to replace men who went to war and those who never came back. The first global war also helped to spread one of the world’s deadliest global pandemics, the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918, which killed an estimated 20 to 50 million people.

World War I has also been referred to as “the first modern war.” Many of the technologies now associated with military conflict—machine guns, tanks , aerial combat and radio communications—were introduced on a massive scale during World War I.

The severe effects that chemical weapons such as mustard gas and phosgene had on soldiers and civilians during World War I galvanized public and military attitudes against their continued use. The Geneva Convention agreements, signed in 1925, restricted the use of chemical and biological agents in warfare and remain in effect today.

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Home — Essay Samples — History — Imperialism — Main Causes of World War 1: Discussion

Main Causes of World War 1: Discussion

• Categories: Imperialism Nationalism

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Words: 645 |

Updated: 16 November, 2023

Words: 645 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

The essay explores the causes of World War 1, which took place from 1914 to 1918. It begins with a brief overview of the war's timeline and the major countries involved, including the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan, the United States of America, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire. The essay then delves into the four main causes of the war: Militarism, Nationalism, Imperialism, and Alliances.

Militarism is discussed as the policy of maintaining a strong military force and a readiness to use it aggressively for defense. The significant arms buildup and military spending by various countries, including Germany, are highlighted as contributing factors to the outbreak of the war.

Nationalism is described as the strong attachment to one's own nation and culture. It is explained how nationalism led to conflicts, including the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which triggered Austria's desire for revenge.

Imperialism, the expansion of a nation's power by dominating other countries, is presented as a factor due to the competition among European powers over control of African resources and territories.

Lastly, the essay discusses the role of Alliances, where countries formed partnerships to defend each other, often resulting in a domino effect of declarations of war.

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• Causes of World War 1

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Causes o f world war 1, nationalism and imperialism.

A Good Hook Examples for WWI Essay

• A Glimpse into the Trenches: Step back in time and experience the chilling reality of life in the trenches of World War I. In this essay, we’ll immerse ourselves in the harrowing tales of soldiers who faced the horrors of the Great War.
• The War to End All Wars: Explore the monumental impact of World War I on global history. In this essay, we’ll dissect the events that led to the war, the key players, and the lasting consequences that continue to shape our world today.
• The Poetry of Conflict: World War I inspired a generation of poets to capture the raw emotions of battle. Join us as we analyze the powerful verses and poignant imagery that emerged from the trenches.
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• Strachan, H. (2014). The First World War: To Arms. Oxford University Press.
• MacMillan, M. (2013). The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914. Random House.
• Fay, S. B. (1928). The Origins of the World War (Vol. 1). The Macmillan Company.
• Gildea, R. (2003). Children of the Revolution: The French, 1799-1914. Harvard University Press.
• Kennedy, P. M. (1980). The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism, 1860-1914. Allen & Unwin.

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5 Key Causes of World War I

Illustration by Hugo Lin. ThoughtCo.

• M.A., History, University of Florida
• B.A., History, University of Florida

World War I, known as the "war to end all wars," occurred between July 1914 and November 11, 1918. By the end of the war, over 17 million people had been killed, including over 100,000 American troops. While the causes of the war are infinitely more complicated than a simple timeline of events, and are still debated and discussed to this day, the list below provides an overview of the most frequently-cited events that led to war. 

Watch Now: 5 Causes of World War I

Mutual defense alliances.

Countries throughout the world have always made mutual defense agreements with their neighbors, treaties that could pull them into battle. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, the allied countries were bound to defend them. Before World War 1 began, the following alliances existed:

• Russia and Serbia
• Germany and Austria-Hungary
• France and Russia
• Britain and France and Belgium
• Japan and Britain

When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany, seeing that Russia was mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France by marching through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan entered the war to support its British allies. Later, Italy and the United States would enter on the side of the Allies (Britain, France, Russia, etc.).

Imperialism

Imperialism is when a country increases their power and wealth by bringing additional territories under their control, usually without outright colonizing or resettling them. Before World War I, several European countries had made competing imperialistic claims in Africa and parts of Asia, making them points of contention. Because of the raw materials these areas could provide, tensions around which country had the right to exploit these areas ran high. The increasing competition and desire for greater empires led to an increase in confrontation that helped push the world into World War I.

As the world entered the 20th century, an arms race had begun, primarily over the number of each country's warships, and the increasing size of their armies—countries began training more and more of their young men to be prepared for battle. The warships themselves increased in size, number of guns, speed, method of propulsion, and quality armor, beginning in 1906 with Britain's HMS Dreadnought . Dreadnought   was soon out-classed as the Royal Navy and Kaiserliche Marine quickly expanded their ranks with increasingly modern and powerful warships. 

By 1914, Germany had nearly 100 warships and two million trained soldiers. Great Britain and Germany both greatly increased their navies in this time period. Further, in Germany and Russia particularly, the military establishment began to have a greater influence on public policy. This increase in militarism helped push the countries involved into war.

Nationalism

Much of the origin of the war was based on the desire of the Slavic peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina to no longer be part of Austria-Hungary but instead be part of Serbia. This specific essentially nationalistic and ethnic revolt led directly to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand , which was the event that tipped the scales to war.

But more generally, nationalism in many of the countries throughout Europe contributed not only to the beginning but to the extension of the war across Europe and into Asia. As each country tried to prove their dominance and power, the war became more complicated and prolonged.

Immediate Cause: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The immediate cause of World War I that made the aforementioned items come into play (alliances, imperialism, militarism, and nationalism) was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand  of Austria-Hungary. In June 1914, a Serbian-nationalist terrorist group called the Black Hand sent groups to assassinate the Archduke. Their first attempt failed when a driver avoided a grenade thrown at their car. However, later that day a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo Princip shot the Archduke and his wife while they were driving through Sarajevo, Bosnia which was part of Austria-Hungary. They died of their wounds.

The assassination was in protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this region: Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The assassination of Ferdinand led to Austria-Hungary declaring war on Serbia. When Russia began to mobilize to defend its alliance with Serbia, Germany declared war on Russia. Thus began the expansion of the war to include all those involved in the mutual defense alliances.

The War to End All Wars

World War I saw a change in warfare, from the hand-to-hand style of older wars to the inclusion of weapons that used technology and removed the individual from close combat. The war had extremely high casualties over 15 million dead and 20 million injured. The face of warfare would never be the same again.

• Causes of World War I and the Rise of Germany
• The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, 1914
• World War I Timeline From 1914 to 1919
• Biography of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria
• The Causes and War Aims of World War One
• World War I Timeline: 1914, The War Begins
• World War I Introduction and Overview
• World War 1: A Short Timeline Pre-1914
• The Major Alliances of World War I
• World War I: Opening Campaigns
• The First Battle of the Marne
• The Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson's Plan for Peace
• Key Historical Figures of World War I
• The Black Hand: Serbian Terrorists Spark WWI
• The Consequences of World War I

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• 20th Century

The 4 M-A-I-N Causes of World War One

Alex Browne

28 sep 2021.

It’s possibly the single most pondered question in history – what caused World War One? It wasn’t, like in World War Two, a case of a single belligerent pushing others to take a military stand. It didn’t have the moral vindication of resisting a tyrant.

Rather, a delicate but toxic balance of structural forces created a dry tinder that was lit by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo . That event precipitated the July Crisis, which saw the major European powers hurtle toward open conflict.

The M-A-I-N acronym – militarism, alliances, imperialism and nationalism – is often used to analyse the war, and each of these reasons are cited to be the 4 main causes of World War One. It’s simplistic but provides a useful framework.

The late nineteenth century was an era of military competition, particularly between the major European powers. The policy of building a stronger military was judged relative to neighbours, creating a culture of paranoia that heightened the search for alliances. It was fed by the cultural belief that war is good for nations.

Germany in particular looked to expand its navy. However, the ‘naval race’ was never a real contest – the British always s maintained naval superiority.  But the British obsession with naval dominance was strong. Government rhetoric exaggerated military expansionism.  A simple naivety in the potential scale and bloodshed of a European war prevented several governments from checking their aggression.

A web of alliances developed in Europe between 1870 and 1914 , effectively creating two camps bound by commitments to maintain sovereignty or intervene militarily – the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance.

• The Triple Alliance of 1882 linked Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
• The Triple Entente of 1907 linked France, Britain and Russia.

A historic point of conflict between Austria Hungary and Russia was over their incompatible Balkan interests, and France had a deep suspicion of Germany rooted in their defeat in the 1870 war.

The alliance system primarily came about because after 1870 Germany, under Bismarck, set a precedent by playing its neighbours’ imperial endeavours off one another, in order to maintain a balance of power within Europe

‘Hark! hark! the dogs do bark!’, satirical map of Europe. 1914

Image Credit: Paul K, CC BY 2.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Imperialism

Imperial competition also pushed the countries towards adopting alliances. Colonies were units of exchange that could be bargained without significantly affecting the metro-pole. They also brought nations who would otherwise not interact into conflict and agreement. For example, the Russo-Japanese War (1905) over aspirations in China, helped bring the Triple Entente into being.

It has been suggested that Germany was motivated by imperial ambitions to invade Belgium and France. Certainly the expansion of the British and French empires, fired by the rise of industrialism and the pursuit of new markets, caused some resentment in Germany, and the pursuit of a short, aborted imperial policy in the late nineteenth century.

However the suggestion that Germany wanted to create a European empire in 1914 is not supported by the pre-war rhetoric and strategy.

Nationalism

Nationalism was also a new and powerful source of tension in Europe. It was tied to militarism, and clashed with the interests of the imperial powers in Europe. Nationalism created new areas of interest over which nations could compete.

For example, The Habsburg empire was tottering agglomeration of 11 different nationalities, with large slavic populations in Galicia and the Balkans whose nationalist aspirations ran counter to imperial cohesion. Nationalism in the Balkan’s also piqued Russia’s historic interest in the region.

Indeed, Serbian nationalism created the trigger cause of the conflict – the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

The spark: the assassination

Ferdinand and his wife were murdered in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Bosnian Serbian nationalist terrorist organization the ‘Black Hand Gang.’ Ferdinand’s death, which was interpreted as a product of official Serbian policy, created the July Crisis – a month of diplomatic and governmental miscalculations that saw a domino effect of war declarations initiated.

The historical dialogue on this issue is vast and distorted by substantial biases. Vague and undefined schemes of reckless expansion were imputed to the German leadership in the immediate aftermath of the war with the ‘war-guilt’ clause. The notion that Germany was bursting with newfound strength, proud of her abilities and eager to showcase them, was overplayed.

The first page of the edition of the ‘Domenica del Corriere’, an Italian paper, with a drawing by Achille Beltrame depicting Gavrilo Princip killing Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in Sarajevo

Image Credit: Achille Beltrame, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The almost laughable rationalization of British imperial power as ‘necessary’ or ‘civilizing’ didn’t translate to German imperialism, which was ‘aggressive’ and ‘expansionist.’ There is an on-going historical discussion on who if anyone was most culpable.

Blame has been directed at every single combatant at one point or another, and some have said that all the major governments considered a golden opportunity for increasing popularity at home.

The Schlieffen plan could be blamed for bringing Britain into the war, the scale of the war could be blamed on Russia as the first big country to mobilise, inherent rivalries between imperialism and capitalism could be blamed for polarising the combatants. AJP Taylor’s ‘timetable theory’ emphasises the delicate, highly complex plans involved in mobilization which prompted ostensibly aggressive military preparations.

Every point has some merit, but in the end what proved most devastating was the combination of an alliance network with the widespread, misguided belief that war is good for nations, and that the best way to fight a modern war was to attack. That the war was inevitable is questionable, but certainly the notion of glorious war, of war as a good for nation-building, was strong pre-1914. By the end of the war, it was dead.

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World History Project - Origins to the Present

Course: world history project - origins to the present   >   unit 7, read: what caused the first world war.

• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Britain and World War I
• WATCH: Britain and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• WATCH: Southeast Asia and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: The Middle East and World War I
• WATCH: The Middle East and World War I
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: How World War I Started
• WATCH: How World War I Started
• READ: The First World War as a Global War
• READ: World War I — A Total War
• READ: The Mexican Revolution
• READ: The Power of One — The Russian Revolution
• BEFORE YOU WATCH: Armenian Genocide
• WATCH: Armenian Genocide
• READ: Capitalism and World War I
• World War 1

First read: preview and skimming for gist

Second read: key ideas and understanding content.

• Who killed Franz Ferdinand? Why did they kill him?
• How did the European alliance system help start the war?
• How did imperialism help start the war?
• Why does the author argue that industrialization made the war inevitable once preparations were started?
• How might the First World War have happened on accident?

Third read: evaluating and corroborating

• This article gives several examples of how transformations in the nineteenth century led to the war. Things like nationalism (communities frame), industrialization (production and distribution frame), and outdated diplomatic technology (networks frame) are blamed for the war. Can you think of any transformations during the nineteenth century that might have helped prevent war?

What Caused the First World War?

World war why, one shot: the assassination of archduke franz ferdinand, deeper trends: help me help you help me, accidental war: missed the memo, hit the target.

• Yes, these terms can get confusing. Nationalism was introduced to you as the idea that a state should govern itself, and not have some empire as its boss. But at some point, that feeling that you should get to govern yourself can turn into the idea that you are better than other nations, and becomes a kind of extreme patriotism. We call that nationalism as well. As we will see, nationalism is a pretty flexible thing, and it can be used for lots of different purposes.
• Top map by Joe Mabel, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_German_Empire_-_1914.PNG
• Bottom map by Andrew0921, CC BY-SA 3.0. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Empire_in_1914.png

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The Causes and Effects of World War I Essay

Introduction.

The effects of World War I can be seen around the world even now, more than one hundred years after its end; however, there is still no consensus as to its cause. In the words of Alfred Korzybski, “the destruction was brought about by nationalism, entangled alliances, narrow ethnic concerns, and desires for political gain – forces that are still with people today.” (cited in Levinson, 2014). Even though the majority of United States citizens did not have the direct experience of the terrific upset that the war caused in Europe, it can be argued that the country’s concern with championing democracy around the globe is one of its products (Levinson, 2014).

Many historians agree that an atmosphere of twentieth-century Europe was conducive to the creation of a complex mixture of economic, social, and political reasons that translated into powerful forces of imperialistic, nationalistic, and militaristic movements leading to the diplomatic crises of 1914 (Donaldson, 2014). Therefore, it can be said that the blame for the war could not be assigned to any individual country or a group of countries.

Nonetheless, the issue of responsibility was the main focus of the world in the years following the Armistice of 1918 (Donaldson, 2014). To this end, the Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and the Enforcement of Penalties met in Paris in 1919 (Donaldson, 2014). The investigation conducted by the commission showed that Germany and Austria, along with Turkey and Bulgaria as their allies, were responsible for the aggressive foreign policy tactics that led to the precipitation of the war (Donaldson, 2014).

The start of World War I was precipitated by the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, on June 28, 1914 (Mulligan, 2010) The elimination of the high-standing official was carried out by the group of secret society members called Black Hand and directed by Bosnian Serb Danilo Ilić (Storey, 2009). The political objective of the murder was to separate Austria-Hungary’s South Slav provinces to combine them into Yugoslavia (Storey, 2009).

In response to the killing of their official, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia that commanded its government to prosecute the assassins. The objective of the ultimatum was to make its terms so strict that Serbia would be forced to reject it, thereby giving an excuse for launching a small war against it (Storey, 2009). Taking into consideration that Serbia had diplomatic relationships with Russia strengthened by their shared Slavic ties, the Austro-Hungarian government decided to take precautions against the two countries declaring war on it and allied with Germany. It is agreed that Germany was not opposed to Austro-Hungarian bellicosity, but rather supported and encouraged it, thus providing one more reason for the precipitation of the Great War (Levinson, 2014).

Even though Serbia’s response to the ultimatum was placating, Austria-Hungary decided to take aggressive action and declare war. It is argued that the main reason for World War I was the web of entangling alliances among the countries having an interest in the conflict between Austro-Hungary and Serbia (Storey, 2009). Following the Austro-Hungarian declaration of war, the Russian monarch mobilized his army because of the binding commitment of the treaty signed by the two countries.

As a result, on August 3, 1914, Germany declared war on the Russian Empire (Levinson, 2014). France was bound by treaty to Russia, and, therefore, had to start a war on Austria-Hungary and Germany. Even though a treaty tying France and Britain was loosely worded, the latter country had “a moral obligation” to defend the former (Levinson, 2014). Therefore, Britain and its allies Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand, Japan, and the Union of South Africa also took a bellicose stance against Germany and offered their assistance in the military action against the country (Levinson, 2014). Thus, a gigantic web of entangling alliances pushed numerous countries to the precipice of war over what was intended to be a small-scale conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.

Numerous other reasons led to World War I. The conflicting political interests of Russia and Japan over Manchuria and Korea resulted in a military defeat of Russia (Levinson, 2014). Therefore, the country wanted to restore its dignity by a victorious war. During the same period, a lot of small nations were seething with discontent over the Turkish and Austro-Hungarian rule, thereby providing an opportunity for the Russian Empire further to stir resentment by firing up nationalistic zeal under a pretense of pan-Slavic narrative (Levinson, 2014).

Austria-Hungary, on the other hand, sought an opportunity to establish its influence over a vast territory of mixed nations; the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne provided them with a perfect excuse for the initiation of the war. Political clashes in Germany were a reason for the country’s government to resort to the military conflict as a way of “averting civil unrest” (Levinson, 2014). Another factor that caused World War I was the desire of France to revenge a military defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1871 (Levinson, 2014).

It is impossible to name a single reason for the initiation of World War I. However, it is clear that the entangling web of alliances among numerous parties participating in the war, as well as complicated plots of governments and empires, led the small-scale dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia escalating into a military conflict that swept the entire world.

Donaldson, P. (2014). Interpreting the origins of the First World War. Teaching History , 155 (4), 32-33.

Levinson, M. (2014). Ten cautionary GS lessons from World War I. Et Cetera, 71 (1), 41-48.

Mulligan, W. (2010). The origins of the First World War . Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Storey, W. (2009). The First World War . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

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IvyPanda. (2020, October 9). The Causes and Effects of World War I. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-causes-and-effects-of-world-war-i/

"The Causes and Effects of World War I." IvyPanda , 9 Oct. 2020, ivypanda.com/essays/the-causes-and-effects-of-world-war-i/.

IvyPanda . (2020) 'The Causes and Effects of World War I'. 9 October.

IvyPanda . 2020. "The Causes and Effects of World War I." October 9, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-causes-and-effects-of-world-war-i/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Causes and Effects of World War I." October 9, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-causes-and-effects-of-world-war-i/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Causes and Effects of World War I." October 9, 2020. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-causes-and-effects-of-world-war-i/.

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Essay on World War 1

Students are often asked to write an essay on World War 1 in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on World War 1

Introduction.

World War 1, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that started in 1914 and ended in 1918. It involved many world powers and caused significant changes globally.

Causes of the War

The war began due to various reasons including nationalism, imperialism, militarism, and a complex system of alliances. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary triggered the war.

Major Battles

Key battles included the Battle of the Somme and the Battle of Verdun. These battles caused heavy casualties and marked turning points in the war.

End of the War

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. This treaty held Germany responsible for the war and imposed heavy penalties.

Impact of the War

World War 1 had significant impacts. It led to the fall of empires, redrew the world map, and set the stage for World War 2.

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• 10 Lines on World War 1

250 Words Essay on World War 1

Origins of world war 1.

World War 1, also known as the Great War, began in 1914, triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary. An intricate web of alliances across Europe, coupled with nationalistic fervor, propelled the continent into war.

The Central and Allied Powers

The war was fought between the Central Powers, led by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, and the Allied Powers, comprising France, Russia, and the United Kingdom. The United States initially maintained neutrality but joined the Allies in 1917.

The Nature of Warfare

World War 1 marked a shift from conventional to trench warfare, characterized by its static nature and high casualty rates. The war also saw the introduction of new technology, including tanks, aircraft, and chemical weapons, which further escalated its devastating impact.

Impact and Aftermath

The war resulted in significant geopolitical changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, ended the war but sowed the seeds for future conflicts, including World War 2. The war also marked the beginning of significant shifts in global power.

Legacy of World War 1

World War 1 had profound effects on the course of the 20th century. It led to the fall of empires, redrew the world map, and set the stage for the rise of the United States and the Soviet Union as global superpowers. Its legacy continues to shape contemporary global politics.

500 Words Essay on World War 1

World War I, often referred to as the Great War, was a global conflict that commenced on July 28, 1914, and lasted until November 11, 1918. This war, unprecedented in the annals of history, brought significant changes to the political, social, and economic spheres of the world.

The inception of World War I can be attributed to a complex interplay of factors. Nationalism, militarism, and imperialism were the undercurrents that fueled the war. However, the immediate catalyst was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary, by a Serbian nationalist in June 1914. This event led to a diplomatic crisis, and the entangled web of alliances among European powers escalated the situation into a full-scale war.

The War Fronts and Strategies

World War I was characterized by trench warfare, where soldiers fought from deep trenches, making the conflict a war of attrition. The Western and Eastern Fronts were the primary battlefields. The Western Front, a series of trenches stretching from the English Channel to the Swiss border, witnessed brutal warfare. The Eastern Front, though larger and less fortified, was equally deadly.

Major Events

Key events of World War I include the Battle of the Marne, where the German advance was halted, marking the end of mobile warfare on the Western Front. The Gallipoli Campaign was another significant event, where the Allies’ failed attempt to control the sea route from Europe to Russia resulted in heavy casualties. The sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania by a German submarine, which resulted in American deaths, was instrumental in bringing the United States into the war in 1917.

Technological Advancements

World War I was a crucible for technological innovation. The war saw the first use of chemical weapons, tanks, and aircraft in combat. Submarines became a significant naval weapon, and machine guns became a ubiquitous feature on the battlefield. These advancements changed the face of warfare, making it more lethal and mechanized.

Conclusion: The Aftermath

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which held Germany responsible for the war and imposed hefty reparations. The aftermath of World War I saw the dissolution of empires, redrawing of boundaries, and the emergence of new nations. The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but it failed to prevent another devastating conflict – World War II. The social and economic upheavals caused by the war also set the stage for significant political changes, including the Russian Revolution and the rise of Fascism.

World War I was a watershed event in human history, leaving an indelible mark on the world’s political, social, and economic landscape. Its repercussions are still felt today, making it a pivotal study in understanding the dynamics of global conflicts.

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Best selling cars of all time, from each car maker

Posted: March 1, 2024 | Last updated: April 10, 2024

We all have a pretty good idea of what the best selling cars of today are.

But what about individual brands’ biggest-selling cars of all time? So we reached for our calculator and started digging – some of the information was easy to find, others less so. And some of the results were surprising – many marques' best-sellers were last sold a long time ago, so join us on an intriguing and varied journey. For this list we have focused on nameplates, rather than distinct models.

We didn’t have data for every brand , and some of the numbers listed will still be growing, fast, but for the one’s we do have we’ve ranked them from the smallest selling through to the largest:

Bugatti – Type 40, 1926-30: 807

One of the smallest total sales volumes you’ll find for a single model, but that would have been a successful number for a niche manufacturer like Bugatti.

In second place, with 685 sales, is the Type 57. No two 57 is alike – they are superbly diverse thanks to the variety of coachwork built on its chassis. From swoopy tourers and roadsters to the lithe, aircraft-inspired Atlantic, every 57 made imparted far more glamour than its modern Veyron and Chiron descendants could ever hope for.

In case you’re wondering, production of the Veyron totalled 450 cars, and 500 for the Chiron.

TVR – Chimaera, 1993-2003: 6500

TVR is a specialist British sports car maker, and in its own terms, the Chimaera was a runaway success and it helped fund the development of later models such as the Cerbera and Tuscan ranges. All Chimaeras were powered by the Buick-derived Rover V8 engine, used in a variety of capacities and power outputs.

As a measure of its popularity, the Chimaera sold more in its 12-year run than TVR had managed with all its models in the previous 25 years.

De Tomaso – Pantera, 1971-1991: 7260

For a car with such an exotic name, looks and performance, the Pantera notched up decent sales figures. Partly this was down to sales lasting 20 years and also because it cleverly used a rugged, easily tuned Ford V8 motor . That made it a popular alternative to other European supercars in the USA, where it remains a popular classic choice.

Elvis Presley was one of many notable owners – once, he was so enraged when his Pantera failed to start, he shot it.

Morgan – 4/4, 1936-2018: 10,000

The total number of Morgan 4/4s sold to date may be relatively small, but this British sports car can lay claim to the longest continuous-running name in automotive history. That accounts for its sales outweighing any other product from the firm, but it was also always the most popular choice for buyers thanks to its blend of looks, performance and rugged usability. In 2020 it was replaced by a new Plus Four .

Alpine – A110, 2018-present: 17,000+

Across 14 years of production only 7500 original A110s were sold, a figure that the new A110 had beaten in just its first three years on sale. On that front alone, Alpine and its parent company Renault, should mark the new one a success . Interestingly, until the reincarnation of the A110, the lesser-known A310 was the firm's best-selling model, having shifted 11,616 of them over 13 years.

Ferrari – 458, 2009-2015: 24,000

Ferrari is very candid about figures for production, for example, we can only give an estimate that around 24,000 458s were made (15,000 Italias, 3000 Speciales and 6000 Spiders). That’s quite a bit more than the previous record holder, the 430 , of which 17,499 were built.

The 458’s successor, the 488, almost matched the 458's total, despite not having been built for as long. But if any Ferrari is going to beat the sales of the 458, it is likely to be the new Purosangue SUV, even if Ferrari promises to limit it to a 20% share of total sales.

Lamborghini – Urus, 2018-present: 25,000+

If you’ve been into central London recently, this probably doesn’t come as a surprise, even if it is a bit of a disappointment. That’s not to say Lamborghini’s sports cars have been slacking, before the Urus the Gallardo was the best seller, with 14,022 sold. The Huracan that came after it has also beaten that number and was almost at 20,000 sales before it was discontinued in 2023.

Aston Martin – Vantage, 2005-present: 25,000+

Often referred to as the car that saved Aston Martin, the DB7 was for many years Aston’s best-selling model. But it wasn’t long before it was overtaken by its replacement (along with the DB9). As of 2021, just under 24,700 V8 Vantages (confusingly including the V12) had been sold over two generations, and you can be sure that figure is now above 25,000. However, will it be long before it is overtaken by the new Aston on the block, the DBX?

Rolls-Royce – Silver Shadow, 1965-1980: 29,030

For a car aimed at anyone but the common herd, there were rather a lot of Silver Shadows built during its 15-year tenure as Rolls-Royce’s mainstay model. Arriving during the 1960s when a cultural revolution was taking place could have been a disaster for this most venerable of establishment brands, but the Shadow instantly found favour with style leaders of the period.

It remains Rolls’ best-selling model, but that is likely to change with the continuously increasing popularity of the ‘entry-level’ Ghost saloon and Cullinan SUV .

Lotus – Elise, 1996-2021: 35,124

In a roll call of significant models from Lotus, the Elise more than any other deserves its place at the top of the list. Not only did it keep the firm from buckling financially, it introduced a whole new generation to the delights of lightweight, deft-footed sports car ownership.

However, considering Lotus expects to be selling 150,000 cars every year by 2028, it's safe to say it won't be long until the Electre SUV eclipses that figure.

Bentley – Continental GT, 2003-present: 90,000+

Bentley only made around 800 cars in the year before the Continental GT was launched, so even it was caught off guard by the runaway success of the sleek coupe. A convertible joined the range in 2006 to further expand sales and Bentley has never looked back since. Even the addition of the Bentayga SUV to the Bentley lineup in 2015 has yet to threaten the total sales supremacy of the Continental.

Maserati – Levante, 2016-present: 100,000+

Before the Ghibli saloon and slightly more successful Levante SUV came along, Maserati’s best-seller had been the Biturbo , at 36,373 sales . The Biturbo is often scoffed as the bargain basement Maserati, but this model proliferated throughout the 1980s and kept the Trident badge from going under during that decade.

The Levante and Ghibli duo have only just managed that in the second decade of the 21 st century, and now it’s the turn of the smaller Grecale SUV to try and outsell the Levante and keep the famous trident alive.

Rover – 800, 1986-1999: 317,126

Rover was in desperate need of a sales hitter when it launched the 800. The previous SD1 was a clever design but marred by quality issues, so basing the 800 on the Honda Legend was sound thinking. It may have lacked the avant-garde appeal of its predecessor, but the middle managers of Britain loved it enough for more than 300,000 to roll out of showrooms.

The model was branded Sterling in the USA but was much less of a success in that market, and the Coupe (pictured) – designed for America, though it never got there - was and remains a rare and quite enticing oddity.

Triumph – Herald, 1959-1970: 464,238

Launched in the same year as the innovative Mini, the Triumph Herald was a far more conventional machine with a separate chassis and engine derived from an existing Standard unit. However, its sharp styling chimed with buyers and there were coupe, estate and convertible options, as well as a van . Most numerous of the range was the 1200 saloon which accounted for 201,142 units.

Jaguar – XJ, 1968-2019: 1 million

The XJ has been a constant in Jaguar’s line-up since it was first launched to huge acclaim in 1968. Back then, it was regarded as the best saloon in the world, which was backed up further when the 5.3-litre V12 motor was installed. Through ups and downs of ownership, the XJ has kept putting in the sales with even the short-lived X300 model managing 86,909 sales in three years.

Alfa Romeo – Alfasud, 1972-1989: 1.02 million

A gem of a front-wheel drive hatch that was a capable rival for the Volkswagen Golf, although suspect build quality and poor rust-prevention hampered consumer confidence. More power arrived with the 95bhp Veloce and the delectable Sprint Coupe could be had with a 117bhp 1.7-litre version of the flat-four motor. Deservedly Alfa’s biggest seller.

MG – ZS, 2017-present: 1 million +

No, not the short-lived rebadged Rover 45 hatchback, the ZS we’re talking about is the one that has snuck into the top 10 best-selling cars in the UK repeatedly over the last couple of years. Its low price has found it enough willing buyers in the UK, and especially in China, for it to have eclipsed the total sales of the MG B over its near 30-year lifetime ( 513,272 units). The B can still hold its head up high as one of the best-selling sports cars ever.

Porsche – 911, 1963-present: 1.2 million +

There’s an Irish Green 991-generation Porsche 911 that marks a very important point in 911 history: it’s the one millionth produced of this famous sports car. Longevity helped the 911 reach this mark in early 2017, with another 30,000 or so being added to that number each year , but its enduring appeal is as a machine with supercar pace that you can drive all day, every day.

Saab – 900, 1978-1998: 1.2 million

Saab is well known for its unique design choices that made its owners fiercely loyal to the end of its life. That was evident nowhere more obviously than with the 900 range that was launched in 1978 and racked up more than 900,00 sales for the first model and 273,568 for the 1993 New Generation version.

While safety, space and comfort were big draws, performance was another Saab speciality and almost a quarter of 900 sales went to the Turbo models.

Chrysler – Newport, 1961-81: 1.9 million

The Newport may not be the first model to pop into your head when thinking about Chrysler’s back catalogue, but it’s the best seller for the US firm. Marketed as an affordable saloon or estate, it found favour with suburban customers for 20 years. Styling-wise, it’s at its best in crisp-lined mid-1960s guise, while the 1980s versions were bland and that was reflected in rapidly dwindling sales.

In case you’re wondering, 1.2 million of the 2004-2023 300s were built, and if you're looking for a Chrysler minivan in the top position, since 1988 over 15 million (and counting) have been built - but they have been sold under many different names, so the individual figures don’t add up. 

Tesla – Model 3, 2017-present: 2 million +

By the time Model 3 production started 500,000 people had already put reservations down for one. That impressive number foreshadowed the success of the Model 3, which has no sign of slowing down as electric car sales only increase, and Tesla’s improve in build quality and efficiency. Before the Model 3 came along the Model S was the best seller - it continues to clock up sales , and is now past 250,000 units sold since its launch in 2012. 

Smart – Fortwo, 1998-2024: 2.1 million

Like so many revolutionary cars, the Smart Fortwo had a difficult route to production reality. First Volkswagen pulled out of a deal and then there were senior management disputes about the use of electric and hybrid power.

In the end, it arrived with a 599c three-cylinder petrol engine and the ability to park nose-in to normal spaces thanks to its 2.5m overall length. Being small hasn’t stopped the Fortwo notching up more than 2 million sales so far for the Mercedes-owned marque, but waning popularity means production won’t go beyond 2024.

Land Rover – Defender (including Series’), 1948-present: 2.2 million +

Is an original Land Rover the same 4x4 as a Defender? The definitive Land Rover changed a great deal during its 67-year run, but the essence remained the same throughout, so yes, we think so. That ethos was for a simple, rugged and multi-configurable off-roader capable of tackling conditions few others could.

Along the way, Land Rover offered a wide variety of engines and options, but all comes back to the core premise of being able to go anywhere. It was a popular package that sold 2 million cars until it was discontinued in 2016 – the new Defender, introduced in 2020, is adding to that tally quickly, with current sales of around 100,000 per year.

Saturn – S-Series, 1991-2002: 2.25 million

Part of the General Motors family, the Saturn S-Series was notable for its extended proboscis front end that hinted at sporting prowess. That was unlikely with the 1.9-litre engine used in the first generation, but it did stand out for using plastic body panels hung from a spaceframe-style chassis.

Saturn also turned out 450 right-hand drive versions in 1999 specifically for the United States Postal Service so the driver could exit on the kerbside for deliveries.

Lincoln – Town Car, 1981-2011: 2.45 million

Parent company Ford’s intentions for this Lincoln were clear when it decided on the Town Car name. The Lincoln lived up to the name thanks to its generous proportions and fully laden interior specification. Some early models even included a digital dash and keypad entry system, though later models grew more conservative in design.

It also spawned a host of genuine limo versions so beloved of tourists and night parties.

Dodge – Charger, 1966-2023: 2.6 million

The Charger is a model that has taken three distinct forms over three distinct periods. The 1966-1978 run was a proper American muscle coupe . The 1982-1987 generation was a front-wheel drive economy hatchback . Between 2006 and 2023 it had been a muscle four-door saloon. Now it will return as an electric coupe . The Charger only recently overtook the Coronet nameplate’s figures, which was built between 1949 and 1976 and clocked up 2.5 million sales.

Volvo – 200, 1974-1993: 2.86 million

If ever a car maker was defined by a single car, it has to be Volvo and its 200 range of saloons and, especially, estates. Styled with a set square , it didn’t stop them from selling more than 2.8 million over 19 years. If you wanted something a bit more flash, there was the 262C coupe with vinyl roof and V6 engine, which managed to chalk up 5622 sales.

Mercury – Grand Marquis. 1975-2011: 2.96 million

Aimed at the mid-size US market, the Grand Marquis was Ford’s way of tackling the likes of the Buick Le Sabre using the Mercury brand. Offered in saloon and coupe shapes, the Grand Marquis stuck with V8 engines throughout its lifespan.

Sadly, the styling wilted from the original car’s sharply creased lines to an amorphous rounded saloon shape by the time of its demise in 2011; the Mercury marque died with it. Alternatively, the Cougar has sold such a similar number of cars to the Grand Marquis, that it is impossible to accurately call which was more popular, as Ford has not confirmed.

Lancia – Ypsilon, 1996-present: 3.1 million +

Lancia is a name that’s slipped from most markets around the world, yet the Ypsilon carries on flying the flag for this once revered company, albeit now only in Italy . Sadly, ingenious design and top-spec engineering have given way to an awkwardly styled small hatch that has also been badged as a Chrysler. But that hasn’t stopped Lancia from outselling Alfa Romeo between 2019 and 2023, despite just having one model for sale in one market. 

Holden – Commodore, 1978-2020: 3.2 million

Holden was Australia’s homegrown car maker and, until very recently, made its cars on home turf. The Commodore has always been based on General Motor’s large car platforms, but Holden has gone its own way with styling and engines. This has resulted in some very potent V8-powered models and the Commodore has been a mainstay of Aussie V8 saloon car racing alongside its great rival, the Ford Falcon .

Plymouth – Fury, 1956-1978: 3.68 million

The Fury started life as a derivative of the Belvedere , but it soon gained its own identity in the fins and chrome extravagance of the late 1950s. Sales soared thanks to the choice of saloon, wagon, coupe and convertible models, and this success rolled into the 1960s.

During its final seventh generation, Plymouth shrunk the Fury to a mid-size car and that signalled the end of the road for this strong-selling range. The Chrysler-owned marque itself died in 2001 .

Lexus – RX, 1998-present: 3.7 million +

The RX has been around far longer than many of its large SUV rivals , which has helped production numbers. It’s further aided by the option of a hybrid model that accounts for around a third of all Lexus petrol-electric models sold each year, with this model especially popular in the US .

Citroen – 2CV, 1948-1990: 3.9 million

An enduring fondness for the 2CV means that many of Citroen’s near-4 million utilitarian hacks are still going strong. Conceived before the Second World War, the project was kept hidden from France’s German occupiers and then launched in 1948. It was built everywhere from Slough in the UK to Montevideo , Uruguay, and of course in France.

Cadillac – de Ville, 1959-2005: 3.9 million

Starting out a decade beforehand as a trim option, the de Ville became a model in its own right in 1959 with huge fins and the best of everything. Although its size might hint otherwise, it was always intended as a town car, though Cadillac’s view of this was to offer premium luxury rather than nimble handling or anything approaching decent fuel economy. None of that put off 3.9 million buyers, almost all of them in the USA .

Hindustan – Ambassador, 1958-2014: 4 million

Take one already-dated British design and export it to India where there’s a need for cheap, rugged transport and, hey presto, you have the Hindustan Ambassador. Developed from the Morris Oxford Series 3, the Ambassador is still a common sight on India’s roads as a taxi.

Its simple mechanicals mean it can cope with vast amounts of abuse and miles . Some were even re-imported to the UK in the 1990s until emissions and safety legislation put paid to that.

Pontiac – Grand Am, 1973-2006: 4 million

The Grand Am was perhaps not as alluring as the Pontiac Trans Am, which had ‘Smokey and the Bandit’ cool on its side, but the Grand lived up to its name by being the bigger seller. In its 33-year stint in showrooms, it shifted 4 million. That started in the heyday of big motors and you could have a Grand Am with a 455cu in (7.5-litres) V8 , though production ended in 2006 with a whimpering 2.2-litre four-pot.

The Pontiac marque itself was axed in the wake of the Great Recession, in 2010.

Subaru – Legacy, 1988-present: 5 million +

For all the chutzpah of the rally-inspired Impreza models, it’s the more mature Legacy that has been the sales foundation for Subaru over the last 30 years. Of course, this saloon and estate range had its moment on the forest stages, famously with Colin McRae at the wheel.

However, it’s more at home as a family wagon and capable tow car and it now routinely sells around 200,000 units every year, a big chunk of those in the American market .

Jeep – Wrangler, 1987-present: 5.1 million +

Running its Cherokee stablemate close on the sales front, the Wrangler just takes the honours here as it continues to rack up the numbers. Replacing the CJ in 1987, the Wrangler has enjoyed steady sales throughout its life thanks to a faithful fanbase who love it for its go-anywhere skills and open-top body.

Buick – Le Sabre, 1959-2005: 6 million

When Buick launched the first Le Sabre at the height of the fins and chrome era in the late 1950s USA, it was every inch of its considerable length a rival for Cadillac . It remained a sharp-suited choice through the 1960s, but the ’70s onwards were not kind to it and by the time its demise came about, the Le Sabre was bloated and ungainly. The upside is it had added 6 million sales to GM’s bottom line.

SEAT – Ibiza, 1984-present: 6.5 million +

The SEAT Ibiza was launched with considerable pedigree thanks to input to the design from Porsche , Karmann and ItalDesign . That helped sales reach 1.3 million before Volkswagen took the reins of the Spanish firm and the 1993 second generation model became based on the Polo platform - it was another sales success. 152,300 Ibizas rolled off the Martorell line near Barcelona in 2017.

Kia – Sportage, 1993-present: 7 million +

Life didn’t look that promising for the Sportage when it first went on sale in 1993. Sales were slower than expected and its poor ride and handling didn’t help matters. Then Hyundai bought Kia and re-launched the Sportage in 2004. While not the last word in style, it caught the crest of the SUV sales wave and that led to the sleek 2010 model which completed Kia’s arrival as a major force.

Mitsubishi – Lancer, 1973-2023: 7.3 million

Who says sex sells? Not Mitsubishi, that’s for sure, as the Lancer has only ever raised the pulse in its most extreme rally-bred versions . While those Evo models garner the headlines, it’s the mainstream Lancer models that make up the huge majority of its 7.3 million and counting sales.

Usually sold in sedan form, there have been hatches and estates, and production in China only stopped recently.

Suzuki – Wagon R, 1993-present: 7.5 million +

The Suzuki Wagon R has been a regular winner of Japan’s best-selling car during its lifetime and it notched up 3 million sales by 2008 . Much of this success is because it meets its home country’s strict ‘kei’ car rules for size.

By maximising the cabin space within this restricted footprint, the Wagon R offers room for the family without clogging up city streets. The latest models now come with hybrid power to make them even more urban friendly.

Skoda – Octavia, 1998-present: 7.5 million +

Skoda was once the butt of jokes, but who’s laughing now? That’ll be the VW-owned Czech firm as it goes to the bank with the profits generated by more than the 6 million Octavias it’s made since the car was launched in 1998. The Octavia remains the most popular car in several European countries and features in many top 10 best-selling lists.

That’s easy to comprehend when you know the Octavia accounts for a third of Skoda sales , making up 418,800 cars from Skoda’s total of 1.2 million cars built in 2017.

Audi – A4, 1998-present, 8 million +

It’s hard to imagine the roadscape without the Audi A4 now, yet it was launched relatively recently compared to its arch-rival, the BMW 3 Series. Even so, A4 sales have increased year on year , helped by its reputation for solidity and all-wheel drive on most models.

Fiat – Uno, 1983- 1994: 8.8 million

Given Fiat has produced the original 500 and the modern retro version, it’s perhaps a surprise to learn its biggest ever seller is the boxy Uno. Yet we shouldn’t underestimate the importance of this supermini in its heyday when it sold like cold gelato on a summer’s day. However, the Uno should watch its heels, the Panda and 500 nameplates are close behind and catching fast, the Panda on over 8 million and the 500 on 7 million.

Mazda – Familia, 1963-2003: 10 million

Mazda may be famous for making the world’s most popular sports car in the MX-5 , but it’s the more humdrum Familia that is still its overall best-seller – known in Europe as the 323 most recently. The Mazda 3 has picked up the baton now, and is doing well so far, with 4 million sales in just over 20 years – already four times as many as the popular MX-5.

Peugeot – 206, 1998-2023: 10 million

The 206 brought back some of the pep that had made Peugeot’s 205 such a success. Attractive styling and a range of frugal engines were allied to three- and five-door hatch bodies. In time, there followed the CC with its folding metal roof and an estate version. All proved popular and, when European sales ended with the arrival of the 207 in 2006, the 206 carried on in other less developed markets , eventually concluding in 2023 with the end of Iranian production .

MINI – Hatch, 1959-present: 10 million +

Issigonis’ original Mini in its simplest two-door form sold more than 5.3 million, including the rapid Cooper models. BMW took a risk reviving the MINI brand in 2001 with its modern interpretation of the much-loved classic small car (pictured). It was a gamble that has paid off handsomely thanks to more than 5 million sales to date of the new hatch models (including convertible, electric and five-door versions).

Agile handling, sharp steering and great looks all contribute, and just like the original, the feisty Cooper versions rack up plenty of sales.

Oldsmobile – Cutlass, 1961-1999: 11.9 million

The Cutlass brings back fond memories for many of its 11.9 million new buyers thanks to the good looks of earlier generations. Later models went on to offer decent performance and good handling, even if the looks became blander .

The original 1961 car is also notable for using a certain all-aluminium 3.5-litre V8 that went on to greater fame in a number of Rover and Land Rover vehicles. The Oldsmobile badge died on new cars in April 2004.

Hyundai – Elantra, 1990-present: 14.5 million +

If asked to name one of the biggest-selling cars in history, the Elantra would most likely be overlooked by all but the keenest Hyundai fan. Part of this car’s success has been to appear inoffensive while delivering low-cost, reliable transport. That’s found favour in countries across the globe, sometimes badged as an i30 or Lantra .

Mercedes-Benz – E-Class, 1953-present: 15 million +

Affectionately called the Ponton, the W120 mid-size Mercedes was arguably the first E-Class, although the E-Class would not be badged as such until 1993. If you don’t believe this counts, look to the C-Class as Mercedes’ best-seller, which has shifted over 11 million units since its introduction in 1993 – it looks like it won't be long until it overtakes its bigger brother anyway.

Renault – Clio, 1991-present: 16.1 million +

More than 16 million Clios have found homes. It’s been a huge hit for Renault and the Clio is a global success story thanks to various different versions being sold in different markets. That worldwide appeal is what pushes this supermini into the upper reaches of car sales. A fifth generation arrived in 2019. Renault declares it the best-selling French car of all time .

BMW – 3 Series, 1975-present: 16.5 million +

The 3 Series has come to define every era it's sold through, from funky 1970s saloons through to chisel-jawed 1980s estates and convertibles, and into the clean-cut noughties. This evolution has been entirely planned, sometimes with bold steps forward and occasionally with gentle revisions.

It’s kept the 3 Series at the forefront of its class for sales and driver appeal.

Chevrolet – Impala, 1957-2020: 16.8 million

Always aimed at buyers of full-size cars, the Impala has been a staple of the US market for six decades which has helped sales top 16 million. Early on, Chevrolet offered it with performance upgrades to take on the muscle cars of the 1960s, while in later life it has erred more towards economy than speed.

Consumer habits have moved away from large saloons to SUVs, so don’t expect a revival to add to the nameplates’ sales tally. The smaller Malibu saloon is still just about for sale, but it's unlikely to catch up, even if it is closing in on 11 million sales. The big Silverado pickup, despite only being introduced in 1998, is snapping on its heels with over 13 million sales.

Lada – Riva, 1980-2015: 18 million

The Lada Riva – also known as the VAZ 2105 and Nova – has had a lengthy life, and it started before that as the Fiat 124 , first seen in 1966. Cold War needs on the eastern side of the Iron Curtain demanded a cheap, rugged machine that could deal with poor roads and fuel, and the Riva managed.

Don’t expect much in the way of comfort or driving dynamics if you take the plunge into ownership as 18 million drivers can be wrong .

Nissan – Sunny, 1966-present: 20 million +

The Sunny might be a familiar name to those who remember its success in Europe in the 1990s. but, while it is still called the Sunny in Japan, in Europe it has also been known as the Almera and Pulsar , and in North America the Sentra .

The Qashqai (known as  Rogue Sport in the US) is doing its best to catch up, clocking over 4 million sales in far fewer years - it’s been a big hit and more than half a million second-generation models rolled off the northeast of England production line in just 21 months after it was launched. That equates to a new car leaving the factory every 62 seconds.

Opel/Vauxhall – Corsa, 1982-present: 20 million +

The Corsa name first arrived in 1982 for continental European buyers. In Britain, the car was known as the Nova and sold more than half a million between 1982 and 1993 when the Brits adopted the Corsa name for the second generation of this supermini. From there, sales soared further and it continues to feature in the top three best sellers in many countries across Europe. The Opel/Vauxhall share of sales stands at about 75/25 .

Honda – Civic, 1972-present: 28 million +

The swoopy, scoopy looks of the present Honda Civic are some way off from the basic hatch that started this multi-million selling dynasty. Yet the Civic has always majored on delivering great value for money , generous specification and engines aimed at good fuel consumption . The Type R models don’t worry so much about that latter point, but they’ve played their part in building the legend of the Civic.

Volkswagen – Golf, 1974-present: 36 million +

Think of Volkswagen’s best seller and many will mention the Beetle , but the Golf has long since surpassed its famous ancestor’s total of 21.5 million. In 2013, VW built its 30 millionth Golf, which was a 1.6 TDI BlueMotion model.

Now past the 36 million marker, this prototypical small hatch is built at a rate of 2000 per day every day of the year.

Ford – F-Series, 1948-present: 43 million +

The post-war USA has been built on the back of the Ford F-Series that comes in all manner of shapes, sizes and guises. It remains the most popular vehicle in the US , routinely outselling more frugal, comfortable passenger cars. What’s the appeal? Simple, rugged build allied to a low price and huge loyalty from customers who want, need or just plain like what this pick-up offers. Perhaps more impressive was the 15 million Model Ts sold when many couldn’t afford a car, even the cheapest one on the market.

Toyota – Corolla, 1966-present: 51 million +

By a very large margin, the Toyota Corolla is the world’s biggest selling car , a position it achieved after just eight years in production to unseat the Volkswagen Beetle . So, the Corolla is king and remains the most popular choice in many countries. A long production life also helps its grip on the title and that’s resulted in Toyota popping one into the world every 15 seconds.

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