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Value vs Reference Types in C# – In Depth Guide

Posted by Code Maze | Updated Date Aug 5, 2023 | 0

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In this article, we will learn about the categories of C# data types. We will deep dive into the differences between value types and reference types, what are they and what’s the behavior of each type when instantiated, compared, or assigned.

It’s important to understand that C# is a strongly-typed language. Each variable has a specific type and each type can either be a value type or a reference type.

Let’s start.

Value Types

Value types variables directly contain their data and all their types are defined using the struct keyword which makes them implicitly sealed and inherit from System.ValueType . .NET comes with several built-in value types:

• Numeric types: int, long, float, double, decimal, short, etc
• bool and char types
• Date types: DateTime, DateOnly, TimeOnly, TimeSpan

Apart from the built-in value types, we can also define custom value types using the struct keyword, they can have both value types or reference types as fields or properties:

We declare a type ValueTypeRectangle using the struct keyword. It has an Area() method to compute the area using the Length and Width  properties and prints their values before returning . It also has a MyShape property that is of type Shape which is a reference type. Shape has only one Name property.

Value Type Assignment

The first behavior that is specific to value types is their assignment:

First, we create a firstRectangle object of the ValueTypeRectangle type and assign 10 to both Length and Width . Then, we declare a secondRectangle which is assigned the firstRectangle value.

After that, we change the firstRectangle ‘s Length and Width to be 20 instead of 10 and we leave secondRectangle as-is. Finally, we print the Area of both rectangles:

As a deduction, when we assign a value type to another variable, we are copying it, and the values of its value type members are copied over to the new object. When we change one of these members in either the original object or the copy, we won’t affect the members of the other one . 

Changing a Reference Type Member

When we change the Shape name in the secondRectangle from Circle to Square , then its name also changes in the original object firstRectangle .

This is because, unlike the value type members, we copy the reference to the object and we are not creating another Shape object in the memory. Both objects reference the same instance. 

In conclusion , when we assign a value type to another variable, we create a new instance of the value type, where all value type members are copied subsequentially. But only references to reference types are copied over.

Value Type Equality

Value types use memberwise comparison to determine equality. When we compare two complex value types, we are comparing the values of their fields and properties, if all of them are equal then the value types are equal to each other, regardless of their references:

Values of both firstRectangle and secondRectangle are the same, since all their respective members have the same value, despite them being two different instances of ValueTypeRectangle .

It’s worth noting that when we define a custom struct type, we can only use the Equals() method to check for equality , if we want to use the == operator then we need to overload it .

Value Type Default Value

The default value of built-in value types: 

• bool: false
• char: ‘\0’
• double: 0.0
• float: 0.0f
• DateTime: 01/01/0001 00:00:00

Value types can’t be null unless they are declared as Nullable value types . We can also use the default operator to set the default value of each type. The default value is a new instance of the value type with all its fields or properties set to their default values.

If we didn’t define a custom parameterless constructor then the implicit default parameterless constructor also creates a value-type object with its default value. We should, however, stick to using default to avoid any surprises. 

Reference Types

Contrary to value types, reference types variables contain a reference to their data. We can think of it as a pointer to the value. C# provides several built-in reference types:

C# also allows declaring of a reference type with the help of several keywords:

Reference Type Assignment

In contrast with ValueTypeRectangle , let’s create ReferenceTypeRectangle class to understand reference types assignment:

The ReferenceTypeRectangle has a Length and Width and an Area() method that computes an area from the current value of Length and Width  properties.

Now, let’s create an instance and see how the assignment behaves:

This time we create an firstRectangle object of  ReferenceTypeRectangle class and assign 10 to both Length and Width . Then, we assign the firstRectangle to a new variable, secondRectangle .

After that, we change the Length and Width of firstRectangle to be 20 and print the Area() of both objects:

As a result, we see that both rectangles have 20 as Length and Width as well as 400 as area.

So, to conclude, when we assign a reference type variable from another one, then we are merely copying the reference over to the new variable, and we are not instantiating any new object . Hence, when we mutate the object from one variable, we mutate the other one as well, since they are two references pointing to the same object in memory. 

Reference Type Equality

When we compare two reference-type variables using the == operator or the Equals() method then the reference of both variables is compared. If both point to the same object in memory, then they are equal else they are not, this is regardless if their data is equal or not:

Both firstRectangle and secondRectangle have the same member values but they are not equal as they don’t reference the same object.

If we want to override this behavior, we can override the equality by overloading the == operator and overriding Equals() and GetHashCode() methods .

Reference Type Default Value

The default value of a reference type variable is null . If we declare a reference type variable without initializing it or if we initialize it calling default , it will have a value of null until we assign an instance to it.

Memory Allocation

In .NET, we have two kinds of memory, the stack, and the heap. All reference types are allocated in the heap , and the only allocation that happens in the stack is the allocation for the variable that holds the reference to the object in the heap. For our ReferenceTypeRectangle example:

In the example, when we declare both the firstRectangle and secondRectangle objects as reference types, then only the space of one object is acquired in a heap and the rest are the references. And e ven though both properties are value types – int , they are allocated in the heap since they are inside a reference type ReferenceTypeRectangle .

The runtime will either store value types in the stack or in the heap, depending on where we declare them. If we declare a value type as a method or class member then it will be allocated in the stack. But if we define it as part of a reference type, or in a collection of objects like a List<int> then it will be allocated in the heap. Thi sis the case with our value-type rectangle example:

In our example, all the memory of both firstRectange and secondRectange is allocated in the stack, except for the MyShape property which is allocated in the heap and referenced in the stack. This is because the Shape type is a class that is a reference type.

It’s also worth mentioning that the MyShape reference for both objects is pointing to the same object in the heap, which explains why when we change the Name of the Shape from one instance of the ValueTypeRectangle  changes for the other one as well.

Value and Reference Types as Method Arguments

Value and reference types behave differently when passed as arguments to methods. When we pass a value type as an argument to the method, then we are passing a copy of it to the method.

Mutating a value-type object inside the called method does not affect the calling method value because the called and calling methods use separate copies of the value-type object.

Let’s define an IncrementRectangleLength method in the RectangleLengthIncrementer class that takes a ValueTypeRectangle and increment its length by 1:

After that, let’s call this method with an instance of ValueTypeRectangle that has 20 as a Length :

As a result, the rect.Length gets incremented to 21 inside the IncrementRectangleLength() method but its value is still 20 in the calling method.

Reference Types as Method Arguments

When we pass a reference type as an argument to a method, then we are passing a copy of its reference to the method. If we mutate the argument inside the called method then we will affect the instance of the calling method.

Let’s define an overload of  IncrementRectangleLength() method that takes a ReferenceTypeRectangle and increases its length by 1:

After that, let’s call this method with an instance of ReferenceTypeRectangle that has 20 as a Length:

As a result, the rect.Length gets incremented to 21 inside the IncrementRectangleLength()  method and the Length of the original object in the calling method is also affected to be 21.  

Performance Implications of Value and Reference Types

There can be a performance difference in the usage of value and reference types.

The runtime instantiation of value types, when they are allocated in the stack memory , is faster than the instantiation of reference types, which is done in the heap memory . On the other hand, since value types are copied over when assigned or when passed as a method argument, having big value-type objects can increase the memory footprint of our code.

Thus, we should be careful to choose between value and reference types depending on our application usage and the performance needs of our code.

Reference Type

This article covers an advanced topic, to understand certain edge-cases better.

It’s not important. Many experienced developers live fine without knowing it. Read on if you want to know how things work under the hood.

A dynamically evaluated method call can lose this .

For instance:

On the last line there is a conditional operator that chooses either user.hi or user.bye . In this case the result is user.hi .

Then the method is immediately called with parentheses () . But it doesn’t work correctly!

As you can see, the call results in an error, because the value of "this" inside the call becomes undefined .

This works (object dot method):

This doesn’t (evaluated method):

Why? If we want to understand why it happens, let’s get under the hood of how obj.method() call works.

Reference type explained

Looking closely, we may notice two operations in obj.method() statement:

• First, the dot '.' retrieves the property obj.method .
• Then parentheses () execute it.

So, how does the information about this get passed from the first part to the second one?

If we put these operations on separate lines, then this will be lost for sure:

Here hi = user.hi puts the function into the variable, and then on the last line it is completely standalone, and so there’s no this .

To make user.hi() calls work, JavaScript uses a trick – the dot '.' returns not a function, but a value of the special Reference Type .

The Reference Type is a “specification type”. We can’t explicitly use it, but it is used internally by the language.

The value of Reference Type is a three-value combination (base, name, strict) , where:

• base is the object.
• name is the property name.
• strict is true if use strict is in effect.

The result of a property access user.hi is not a function, but a value of Reference Type. For user.hi in strict mode it is:

When parentheses () are called on the Reference Type, they receive the full information about the object and its method, and can set the right this ( user in this case).

Reference type is a special “intermediary” internal type, with the purpose to pass information from dot . to calling parentheses () .

Any other operation like assignment hi = user.hi discards the reference type as a whole, takes the value of user.hi (a function) and passes it on. So any further operation “loses” this .

So, as the result, the value of this is only passed the right way if the function is called directly using a dot obj.method() or square brackets obj['method']() syntax (they do the same here). There are various ways to solve this problem such as func.bind() .

Reference Type is an internal type of the language.

Reading a property, such as with dot . in obj.method() returns not exactly the property value, but a special “reference type” value that stores both the property value and the object it was taken from.

That’s for the subsequent method call () to get the object and set this to it.

For all other operations, the reference type automatically becomes the property value (a function in our case).

The whole mechanics is hidden from our eyes. It only matters in subtle cases, such as when a method is obtained dynamically from the object, using an expression.

Syntax check

What is the result of this code?

P.S. There’s a pitfall :)

The error message in most browsers does not give us much of a clue about what went wrong.

The error appears because a semicolon is missing after user = {...} .

JavaScript does not auto-insert a semicolon before a bracket (user.go)() , so it reads the code like:

Then we can also see that such a joint expression is syntactically a call of the object { go: ... } as a function with the argument (user.go) . And that also happens on the same line with let user , so the user object has not yet even been defined, hence the error.

If we insert the semicolon, all is fine:

Please note that parentheses around (user.go) do nothing here. Usually they setup the order of operations, but here the dot . works first anyway, so there’s no effect. Only the semicolon thing matters.

Explain the value of "this"

In the code below we intend to call obj.go() method 4 times in a row.

But calls (1) and (2) works differently from (3) and (4) . Why?

Here’s the explanations.

That’s a regular object method call.

The same, parentheses do not change the order of operations here, the dot is first anyway.

Here we have a more complex call (expression)() . The call works as if it were split into two lines:

Here f() is executed as a function, without this .

The similar thing as (3) , to the left of the parentheses () we have an expression.

To explain the behavior of (3) and (4) we need to recall that property accessors (dot or square brackets) return a value of the Reference Type.

Any operation on it except a method call (like assignment = or || ) turns it into an ordinary value, which does not carry the information allowing to set this .

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Java is a typed language, which essentially means that every variable declared has a certain type associated with it. This type determines the value it can store. For example, an integer type can store non fractional numbers. Also called a data type , this can grossly be divided into two categories: primitive and reference . Primitive types are the most common and form the basis of type declaration and reference types are those which are not primitive types. More on these reference types later in this programming tutorial; but first, a slight detour.

Looking to learn Java in a class or online course environment? Check out our list of the Top Online Courses to Learn Java to help get you started.

What are Static and Dynamic Types in Java?

A language is considered statically typed if the type of a variable declared is known prior to the compilation of code. For some languages, this typically means that the programmer needs to specify the type of the variable in code before using it (eg – Java, C, C++). Others offer a form of type inference that is able to deduce the type of a variable (eg – Kotlin, Scala, Haskell). The advantage of explicit type declaration is that trivial bugs are quickly caught in the early stages.

Dynamic typing , on the other hand, means programmers do not need to declare any type of variable and can just start using them. The type is decided dynamically according to the value it stores. This is a quicker way to code because a variable can store different types of values – for example, numbers and strings – without having to bother with their type declaration (eg – Perl, Ruby, Python, PHP, JavaScript). The type is decided on the go. Most scripting languages have this feature, primarily because there is no compiler to do static type-checking in any case. However, it makes finding a bug a bit difficult, especially if it is a big program, despite the fact that this type of script typically has smaller code, so bugs have fewer places to hide.

There are languages (such as Rascal) that adopt both approaches (static and dynamic). Interestingly, Java 10 has introduced the var keywords. A variable declared as var automatically detects its type according to the value it stores. However, note that, once assigned a value, the compiler designates its type during compilation. Later they are not reusable with another type down the line of code. Here is an example of how to use the var keyword in Java:

What is the Difference Between a Primitive Type and Reference Type in Java?

In Java, since all non-primitive types are reference types, the classes which specify objects as an instance of the class are also deemed as reference types. To compare, here are the typical characteristics of primitive types vis-a-vis reference types:

• It can store values of its declared type.
• When another value is assigned, its initial value is replaced.
• There is a specific limit to its memory occupancy for all primitive types.
• They are initialized by default (numbers with 0 values, boolean with false value)
• They can be explicitly initialized during their declaration ( int tot=10; )
• Local primitive type variables declared are never initialized, hence any attempt to use them prior initialization is not allowed in Java.

Some characteristics of reference types are as follows:

• All other variables except primitives are reference types .
• A reference type stores references or locations of objects in a computer’s memory. Such variables refer to the object in the program.
• An object or concrete instance of a class is created using a new keyword which follows a constructor call. A constructor is a special member function of a class used to create an object by initializing all the variables declared in the class with their respective default values or with values received as constructor arguments.
• A class instance is created by invoking the class constructor and there can be more than one.
• Although an interface reference cannot be instantiated, an instance of a class that extends the interface can be assigned to the references of the interface type.

Read: Best Tools for Remote Developers

Addresses of Variable and Reference Types in Java

Unlike C/C++ where we can get a close look at the memory addresses of a variable and references through pointers , Java is completely silent here. There is no element in the Java language that enables one to get the address of a variable. This is the reason there is no such thing as address-of or a similar operator in the language construct; the language, from the ground up, is designed to work without it. This completely closes the door for pointers in Java.

However, if we are so keen to get close to the memory – or, rather, close to the memory abstraction in Java – use reference types . Reference types are not actually memory addresses but are closely convertible to memory addresses. In any case, they have a similar vibe to pointers and they can be treated like just any other variable.

Interface Reference in Java

In Java, an interface cannot be instantiated. Therefore, it cannot be referenced directly. However, an object of class type, which extends the interface, can be used to assign a reference of that interface type. In the following example, a Professor is derived not only from the Person class, but also from the two interfaces: Teacher and Researcher .

Therefore, according to the statement, the following hierarchy is valid:

As such, the following Java code example will compile just fine:

Here, the four objects of type Professor are assigned to different reference types that also include two interface reference types. Hypothetically, the stack and heap content of the reference types would look something like this:

The following reference is also equally possible:

In such a case, the stack and heap memory would look something like this where one object has multiple references:

But, note that the references must be super types of an assigned object. This means that the following assignment is not valid (and will not compile):

The reason for this is that references are used to call the public methods declared within the class. Therefore, the object that the reference is pointing to must be able to access those methods. Here, the reference professor cannot access a person’s property. As a result, the Java compiler complains about the assignment. Some smart code editors and IDEs are also able to scent the invalidity and flag a message and warn programmers prior to compilation.

One can, however, use explicit conversion to convince the compiler that everything is just fine:

Final Thoughts on Java Reference Types

Reference type instances are by default initialized to value null . The null is a reserved keyword in Java which means that the reference type points to nothing in the memory. One aspect of not having pointers in Java is that reference types can almost be treated just like any other variable in most cases. Pointers have a strange look which many programmers dislike for exactly that reason (some however like it anyway). Lay programmer’s hand off the memory and still have a reference to point to objects in memory – you get Java reference types.

Read more Java programming and software development tutorials .

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Reference List: Common Reference List Examples

Article (with doi).

Alvarez, E., & Tippins, S. (2019). Socialization agents that Puerto Rican college students use to make financial decisions. Journal of Social Change , 11 (1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.5590/JOSC.2019.11.1.07

Laplante, J. P., & Nolin, C. (2014). Consultas and socially responsible investing in Guatemala: A case study examining Maya perspectives on the Indigenous right to free, prior, and informed consent. Society & Natural Resources , 27 , 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2013.861554

Use the DOI number for the source whenever one is available. DOI stands for "digital object identifier," a number specific to the article that can help others locate the source. In APA 7, format the DOI as a web address. Active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list. Also see our Quick Answer FAQ, "Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?"

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

For journal articles that are assigned article numbers rather than page ranges, include the article number in place of the page range.

For more on citing electronic resources, see  Electronic Sources References .

Article (Without DOI)

Found in a common academic research database or in print.

Casler , T. (2020). Improving the graduate nursing experience through support on a social media platform. MEDSURG Nursing , 29 (2), 83–87.

If an article does not have a DOI and you retrieved it from a common academic research database through the university library, there is no need to include any additional electronic retrieval information. The reference list entry looks like the entry for a print copy of the article. (This format differs from APA 6 guidelines that recommended including the URL of a journal's homepage when the DOI was not available.) Note that APA 7 has additional guidance on reference list entries for articles found only in specific databases or archives such as Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, UpToDate, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, and university archives. See APA 7, Section 9.30 for more information.

Found on an Open Access Website

Eaton, T. V., & Akers, M. D. (2007). Whistleblowing and good governance. CPA Journal , 77 (6), 66–71. http://archives.cpajournal.com/2007/607/essentials/p58.htm

Provide the direct web address/URL to a journal article found on the open web, often on an open access journal's website. In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.

Weinstein, J. A. (2010).  Social change  (3rd ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.

If the book has an edition number, include it in parentheses after the title of the book. If the book does not list any edition information, do not include an edition number. The edition number is not italicized.

American Nurses Association. (2015). Nursing: Scope and standards of practice (3rd ed.).

If the author and publisher are the same, only include the author in its regular place and omit the publisher.

Lencioni, P. (2012). The advantage: Why organizational health trumps everything else in business . Jossey-Bass. https://amzn.to/343XPSJ

As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, it is no longer necessary to include the ebook format in the title. However, if you listened to an audiobook and the content differs from the text version (e.g., abridged content) or your discussion highlights elements of the audiobook (e.g., narrator's performance), then note that it is an audiobook in the title element in brackets. For ebooks and online audiobooks, also include the DOI number (if available) or nondatabase URL but leave out the electronic retrieval element if the ebook was found in a common academic research database, as with journal articles. APA 7 allows for the shortening of long DOIs and URLs, as shown in this example. See APA 7, Section 9.36 for more information.

Chapter in an Edited Book

Poe, M. (2017). Reframing race in teaching writing across the curriculum. In F. Condon & V. A. Young (Eds.), Performing antiracist pedagogy in rhetoric, writing, and communication (pp. 87–105). University Press of Colorado.

Include the page numbers of the chapter in parentheses after the book title.

Christensen, L. (2001). For my people: Celebrating community through poetry. In B. Bigelow, B. Harvey, S. Karp, & L. Miller (Eds.), Rethinking our classrooms: Teaching for equity and justice (Vol. 2, pp. 16–17). Rethinking Schools.

Also include the volume number or edition number in the parenthetical information after the book title when relevant.

Freud, S. (1961). The ego and the id. In J. Strachey (Ed.),  The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud  (Vol. 19, pp. 3-66). Hogarth Press. (Original work published 1923)

When a text has been republished as part of an anthology collection, after the author’s name include the date of the version that was read. At the end of the entry, place the date of the original publication inside parenthesis along with the note “original work published.” For in-text citations of republished work, use both dates in the parenthetical citation, original date first with a slash separating the years, as in this example: Freud (1923/1961). For more information on reprinted or republished works, see APA 7, Sections 9.40-9.41.

Classroom Resources

Citing classroom resources.

If you need to cite content found in your online classroom, use the author (if there is one listed), the year of publication (if available), the title of the document, and the main URL of Walden classrooms. For example, you are citing study notes titled "Health Effects of Exposure to Forest Fires," but you do not know the author's name, your reference entry will look like this:

Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com

If you do know the author of the document, your reference will look like this:

Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Canvas. https://waldenu.instructure.com  

A few notes on citing course materials:

• [Lecture notes]
• [Course handout]
• [Study notes]
• It can be difficult to determine authorship of classroom documents. If an author is listed on the document, use that. If the resource is clearly a product of Walden (such as the course-based videos), use Walden University as the author. If you are unsure or if no author is indicated, place the title in the author spot, as above.
• If you cannot determine a date of publication, you can use n.d. (for "no date") in place of the year.

Note:  The web location for Walden course materials is not directly retrievable without a password, and therefore, following APA guidelines, use the main URL for the class sites: https://class.waldenu.edu.

Citing Tempo Classroom Resources

Clear author: 

Smith, A. (2005). Health effects of exposure to forest fires [PowerPoint slides]. Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu

Unclear author:

Health effects of exposure to forest fires [Lecture notes]. (2005). Walden University Brightspace. https://mytempo.waldenu.edu

Conference Sessions and Presentations

Feinman, Y. (2018, July 27). Alternative to proctoring in introductory statistics community college courses [Poster presentation]. Walden University Research Symposium, Minneapolis, MN, United States. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/symposium2018/23/

Torgerson, K., Parrill, J., & Haas, A. (2019, April 5-9). Tutoring strategies for online students [Conference session]. The Higher Learning Commission Annual Conference, Chicago, IL, United States. http://onlinewritingcenters.org/scholarship/torgerson-parrill-haas-2019/

Dictionary Entry

Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Leadership. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . Retrieved May 28, 2020, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leadership

When constructing a reference for an entry in a dictionary or other reference work that has no byline (i.e., no named individual authors), use the name of the group—the institution, company, or organization—as author (e.g., Merriam Webster, American Psychological Association, etc.). The name of the entry goes in the title position, followed by "In" and the italicized name of the reference work (e.g., Merriam-Webster.com dictionary , APA dictionary of psychology ). In this instance, APA 7 recommends including a retrieval date as well for this online source since the contents of the page change over time. End the reference entry with the specific URL for the defined word.

Discussion Board Post

Osborne, C. S. (2010, June 29). Re: Environmental responsibility [Discussion post]. Walden University Canvas.  https://waldenu.instructure.com  

Dissertations or Theses

Retrieved From a Database

Nalumango, K. (2019). Perceptions about the asylum-seeking process in the United States after 9/11 (Publication No. 13879844) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.

Retrieved From an Institutional or Personal Website

Evener. J. (2018). Organizational learning in libraries at for-profit colleges and universities [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6606&context=dissertations

Unpublished Dissertation or Thesis

Kirwan, J. G. (2005). An experimental study of the effects of small-group, face-to-face facilitated dialogues on the development of self-actualization levels: A movement towards fully functional persons [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center.

For further examples and information, see APA 7, Section 10.6.

Legal Material

For legal references, APA follows the recommendations of The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation , so if you have any questions beyond the examples provided in APA, seek out that resource as well.

Court Decisions

Reference format:

Name v. Name, Volume Reporter Page (Court Date). URL

Sample reference entry:

Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). https://www.oyez.org/cases/1940-1955/347us483

Sample citation:

In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court ruled racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.

Note: Italicize the case name when it appears in the text of your paper.

Name of Act, Title Source § Section Number (Year). URL

Sample reference entry for a federal statute:

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004). https://www.congress.gov/108/plaws/publ446/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Sample reference entry for a state statute:

Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, Minn. Stat. §§ 148.171 et seq. (2019). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/cite/148.171

Sample citation: Minnesota nurses must maintain current registration in order to practice (Minnesota Nurse Practice Act, 2010).

Note: The § symbol stands for "section." Use §§ for sections (plural). To find this symbol in Microsoft Word, go to "Insert" and click on Symbol." Look in the Latin 1-Supplement subset. Note: U.S.C. stands for "United States Code." Note: The Latin abbreviation " et seq. " means "and what follows" and is used when the act includes the cited section and ones that follow. Note: List the chapter first followed by the section or range of sections.

Unenacted Bills and Resolutions

(Those that did not pass and become law)

Title [if there is one], bill or resolution number, xxx Cong. (year). URL

Sample reference entry for Senate bill:

Anti-Phishing Act, S. 472, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/senate-bill/472

Sample reference entry for House of Representatives resolution:

Anti-Phishing Act, H.R. 1099, 109th Cong. (2005). https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/1099

The Anti-Phishing Act (2005) proposed up to 5 years prison time for people running Internet scams.

These are the three legal areas you may be most apt to cite in your scholarly work. For more examples and explanation, see APA 7, Chapter 11.

Magazine Article

Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor on Psychology , 39 (6). https://www.apa.org/monitor/2008/06/ideology

Note that for citations, include only the year: Clay (2008). For magazine articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For magazine articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print magazine, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Newspaper Article (Retrieved Online)

Baker, A. (2014, May 7). Connecticut students show gains in national tests. New York Times . http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/08/nyregion/national-assessment-of-educational-progress-results-in-Connecticut-and-New-Jersey.html

Include the full date in the format Year, Month Day. Do not include a retrieval date for periodical sources found on websites. Note that for citations, include only the year: Baker (2014). For newspaper articles retrieved from a common academic research database, leave out the URL. For newspaper articles from an online news website that is not an online version of a print newspaper, follow the format for a webpage reference list entry.

Online Video/Webcast

Walden University. (2013).  An overview of learning  [Video]. Walden University Canvas.  https://waldenu.instructure.com  

Use this format for online videos such as Walden videos in classrooms. Most of our classroom videos are produced by Walden University, which will be listed as the author in your reference and citation. Note: Some examples of audiovisual materials in the APA manual show the word “Producer” in parentheses after the producer/author area. In consultation with the editors of the APA manual, we have determined that parenthetical is not necessary for the videos in our courses. The manual itself is unclear on the matter, however, so either approach should be accepted. Note that the speaker in the video does not appear in the reference list entry, but you may want to mention that person in your text. For instance, if you are viewing a video where Tobias Ball is the speaker, you might write the following: Tobias Ball stated that APA guidelines ensure a consistent presentation of information in student papers (Walden University, 2013). For more information on citing the speaker in a video, see our page on Common Citation Errors .

Taylor, R. [taylorphd07]. (2014, February 27). Scales of measurement [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PDsMUlexaMY

Walden University Academic Skills Center. (2020, April 15). One-way ANCOVA: Introduction [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/_XnNDQ5CNW8

For videos from streaming sites, use the person or organization who uploaded the video in the author space to ensure retrievability, whether or not that person is the speaker in the video. A username can be provided in square brackets. As a change from APA 6 to APA 7, include the publisher after the title, and do not use "Retrieved from" before the URL. See APA 7, Section 10.12 for more information and examples.

See also reference list entry formats for TED Talks .

Technical and Research Reports

Edwards, C. (2015). Lighting levels for isolated intersections: Leading to safety improvements (Report No. MnDOT 2015-05). Center for Transportation Studies. http://www.cts.umn.edu/Publications/ResearchReports/reportdetail.html?id=2402

Technical and research reports by governmental agencies and other research institutions usually follow a different publication process than scholarly, peer-reviewed journals. However, they present original research and are often useful for research papers. Sometimes, researchers refer to these types of reports as gray literature , and white papers are a type of this literature. See APA 7, Section 10.4 for more information.

Reference list entires for TED Talks follow the usual guidelines for multimedia content found online. There are two common places to find TED talks online, with slightly different reference list entry formats for each.

TED Talk on the TED website

If you find the TED Talk on the TED website, follow the format for an online video on an organizational website:

Owusu-Kesse, K. (2020, June). 5 needs that any COVID-19 response should meet [Video]. TED Conferences. https://www.ted.com/talks/kwame_owusu_kesse_5_needs_that_any_covid_19_response_should_meet

The speaker is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on the TED website. For citations, use the speaker's surname.

TED Talk on YouTube

If you find the TED Talk on YouTube or another streaming video website, follow the usual format for streaming video sites:

TED. (2021, February 5). The shadow pandemic of domestic violence during COVID-19 | Kemi DaSilvalbru [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PGdID_ICFII

TED is the author in the reference list entry if the video is posted on YouTube since it is the channel on which the video is posted. For citations, use TED as the author.

Walden University Course Catalog

To include the Walden course catalog in your reference list, use this format:

Walden University. (2020). 2019-2020 Walden University catalog . https://catalog.waldenu.edu/index.php

If you cite from a specific portion of the catalog in your paper, indicate the appropriate section and paragraph number in your text:

...which reflects the commitment to social change expressed in Walden University's mission statement (Walden University, 2020, Vision, Mission, and Goals section, para. 2).

And in the reference list:

Walden University. (2020). Vision, mission, and goals. In 2019-2020 Walden University catalog. https://catalog.waldenu.edu/content.php?catoid=172&navoid=59420&hl=vision&returnto=search

Vartan, S. (2018, January 30). Why vacations matter for your health . CNN. https://www.cnn.com/travel/article/why-vacations-matter/index.html

For webpages on the open web, include the author, date, webpage title, organization/site name, and URL. (There is a slight variation for online versions of print newspapers or magazines. For those sources, follow the models in the previous sections of this page.)

American Federation of Teachers. (n.d.). Community schools . http://www.aft.org/issues/schoolreform/commschools/index.cfm

If there is no specified author, then use the organization’s name as the author. In such a case, there is no need to repeat the organization's name after the title.

In APA 7, active hyperlinks for DOIs and URLs should be used for documents meant for screen reading. Present these hyperlinks in blue and underlined text (the default formatting in Microsoft Word), although plain black text is also acceptable. Be consistent in your formatting choice for DOIs and URLs throughout your reference list.

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APA Citation Guide (7th edition) : Reference List Information, Sample Papers, and Templates

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Sample Paper

This sample paper includes a title page, sample assignment page and references list in APA format. It can be used as a template to set up your assignment.

• APA 7 Sample Research Paper

If your instructor requires you to use APA style headings and sub-headings, this document will show you how they work.

• APA 7 Headings Template

If you are adding an appendix to your paper there are a few rules to follow that comply with APA guidelines:

• The Appendix appears  after  the References list
• If you have more than one appendix you would name the first appendix Appendix A, the second Appendix B, etc.
• The appendices should appear in the order that the information is mentioned in your paper
• Each appendix begins on a new page

APA End of Paper Checklist

Finished your assignment? Use this checklist to be sure you haven't missed any information needed for APA style.

• APA 7 End of Paper Checklist

Quick Rules for an APA Reference List

Your research paper ends with a list of all the sources cited in the text of the paper. Here are nine quick rules for this Reference list.

• Start a new page for your Reference list. Center and bold the title, References, at the top of the page.
• Double-space the list.
• Start the first line of each reference at the left margin; indent each subsequent line five spaces (a hanging indent).
• Put your list in alphabetical order. Alphabetize the list by the first word in the reference. In most cases, the first word will be the author’s last name. Where the author is unknown, alphabetize by the first word in the title, ignoring the words a, an, the.
• For each author, give the last name followed by a comma and the first (and middle, if listed) initials followed by periods.
• Italicize the titles of these works: books, audiovisual material, internet documents and newspapers, and the title and volume number of journals and magazines.
• Do not italicize titles of most parts of works, such as: articles from newspapers, magazines, or journals / essays, poems, short stories or chapter titles from a book / chapters or sections of an Internet document.
• In titles of non-periodicals (books, videotapes, websites, reports, poems, essays, chapters, etc), capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, and all proper nouns (names of people, places, organizations, nationalities).
• For a web source include the internet address in your citation, it can be a live hyperlink. 

Set Up Microsoft Word for Your APA 7 Paper

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Harvard referencing quick guide: Sample assignment

• Introduction
• General guidelines
• Citing and referencing material

Sample assignment

• Referencing software

Citing and reference list example

The text to the right shows how citations and the reference list are typically written in the Harvard referencing style.

Note: the text itself is not designed to be a proper example of academic writing and does not use information from the sources cited; it is for illustrative purposes only.

The purpose of this assignment is to show common elements of the Harvard style of referencing in Dundalk Institute of Technology. It is not intended to be an example of good quality academic writing, and indeed may not make sense in general, but it should show you how citations and a reference list are formed in the Harvard style of referencing (Cameron 2021). If you include a “direct quotation from a book you have read” (Giddens and Sutton 2021, p.117) you should include the relevant page number.

You don’t always have to write the author and year in brackets. Cameron (2021) explains that if the author’s name occurs naturally in the text then the year follows it in brackets. If there are two authors you should include both of them in the citation (Levine and Munsch 2021). If there are three or more authors you don’t have to list all of the names in the citation but you should include them all in the reference list (Robbins et al. 2020). The reference list should appear at the end of your assignment and be in alphabetical order based on the first author’s surname (Bruen 2022) rather than the order in which they appear in your assignment ( Papagiannis  2022). If you are using a citation for a second time you do not need to include it twice in the reference list (Cameron 2021).

Referencing an academic journal that you find online requires more information in the reference list but uses the same format for citing as other sources (Tesseur 2022). If referencing a source from a library database you say from which database you found it (Mayombe 2021).

Don’t forget that websites need to be cited too (Dundalk Institute of Technology 2022). We recommend you look at the full version of DkIT’s Harvard referencing guidelines, and contact the Library if you have any questions. Good luck.

Reference list

Bruen, M. (2020). River flows. In: Kelly-Quinn, M. and Reynolds, J., eds.  Ireland’s rivers . Dublin: University College Dublin Press, pp.39-59.

Cameron, S. (2021). The business student's handbook: skills for study and employment . 7th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

Dundalk Institute of Technology. (2022).  Research support  [online]. Available from: https://www.dkit.ie/research/research-support.html [accessed 25 March 2022].

Giddens, A. and Sutton, P.W. (2021).  Sociology . 9th ed. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Levine, L.E. and Munsch, J. (2021).  Child development: an active learning approach  [online]. 4th ed. London: SAGE Publications. Available from: https://books.google.ie/books?id=zlrZzQEACAAJ&dq [accessed 25 March 2022].

Mayombe, C. (2021). Partnership with stakeholders as innovative model of work-integrated learning for unemployed youths.  Higher Education, Skills and Work-Based Learning  [online], 12(2), pp.309-327. Available from: Emerald Insight [accessed 25 March 2022].

Papagiannis, N. (2020).  Effective SEO and content marketing: the ultimate guide for maximizing free web traffic  [online]. Indianapolis: Wiley. Available from: EBSCOhost eBook Collection [accessed 25 March 2022].

Robbins, S.P., Coulter, M.A. and De Cenzo, D.A. (2020).  Fundamentals of management . 11th ed. Harlow: Pearson.

Tesseur, W. (2022). Translation as inclusion? An analysis of international NGOs’ translation policy documents.  Language Problems and Language Planning  [online], 45(3), pp. 261-283. Available from: https://doras.dcu.ie/26151 [accessed 25 March 2022].

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Referencing in your assignments

In academic work of any kind, effective referencing of your sources will ensure that you:

• show that you are writing from a position of understanding of your topic.
• demonstrate that you have read widely and deeply.
• enable the reader to locate the source of each quote, idea or work/evidence (that was not your own).
• avoid plagiarism and uphold academic honesty.

In order to cite sources correctly in your assignments, you need to understand the essentials of how to reference and follow guidelines for the referencing style you are required to use.

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Citing your sources can help you avoid plagiarism. You may need to submit your assignments through Turnitin, plagiarism detection software. Find out more about Turnitin and how you can use it to check your work before submitting it:

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Why do I need to reference? Find out more

Referencing and empowerment

Karen Gravett & Ian M. Kinchin (2020) Referencing and empowerment: exploring barriers to agency in the higher education student experience, Teaching in Higher Education, 25:1, 84-97

Plagiarism: what is it, whom does it offend, and how does one deal with it?

J D Armstrong, 2nd (1993) Plagiarism: what is it, whom does it offend, and how does one deal with it?, American Journal of Roentgenology, 161:3, 479-484

Teaching Referencing as an Introduction to Epistemological Empowerment

Monica Hendricks & Lynn Quinn (2000) Teaching Referencing as an Introduction to Epistemological Empowerment, Teaching in Higher Education, 5:4, 447-457

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• Harvard Referencing Generator

Free Harvard Referencing Generator

Generate accurate Harvard reference lists quickly and for FREE, with MyBib!

🤔 What is a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator is a tool that automatically generates formatted academic references in the Harvard style.

It takes in relevant details about a source -- usually critical information like author names, article titles, publish dates, and URLs -- and adds the correct punctuation and formatting required by the Harvard referencing style.

The generated references can be copied into a reference list or bibliography, and then collectively appended to the end of an academic assignment. This is the standard way to give credit to sources used in the main body of an assignment.

👩‍🎓 Who uses a Harvard Referencing Generator?

Harvard is the main referencing style at colleges and universities in the United Kingdom and Australia. It is also very popular in other English-speaking countries such as South Africa, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. University-level students in these countries are most likely to use a Harvard generator to aid them with their undergraduate assignments (and often post-graduate too).

🙌 Why should I use a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator solves two problems:

• It provides a way to organise and keep track of the sources referenced in the content of an academic paper.
• It ensures that references are formatted correctly -- inline with the Harvard referencing style -- and it does so considerably faster than writing them out manually.

A well-formatted and broad bibliography can account for up to 20% of the total grade for an undergraduate-level project, and using a generator tool can contribute significantly towards earning them.

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's Harvard Referencing Generator?

Here's how to use our reference generator:

• If citing a book, website, journal, or video: enter the URL or title into the search bar at the top of the page and press the search button.
• Choose the most relevant results from the list of search results.
• Our generator will automatically locate the source details and format them in the correct Harvard format. You can make further changes if required.
• Then either copy the formatted reference directly into your reference list by clicking the 'copy' button, or save it to your MyBib account for later.

MyBib supports the following for Harvard style:

🍏 What other versions of Harvard referencing exist?

There isn't "one true way" to do Harvard referencing, and many universities have their own slightly different guidelines for the style. Our generator can adapt to handle the following list of different Harvard styles:

• Cite Them Right
• Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU)
• University of the West of England (UWE)

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

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Resolve nullable warnings

• 5 contributors

This article covers the following compiler warnings:

• CS8597 - Thrown value may be null.
• CS8600 - Converting null literal or possible null value to non-nullable type.
• CS8601 - Possible null reference assignment.
• CS8602 - Dereference of a possibly null reference.
• CS8603 - Possible null reference return.
• CS8604 - Possible null reference argument for parameter.
• CS8605 - Unboxing a possibly null value.
• CS8607 - A possible null value may not be used for a type marked with [NotNull] or [DisallowNull]
• CS8608 - Nullability of reference types in type doesn't match overridden member.
• CS8609 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match overridden member.
• CS8610 - Nullability of reference types in type parameter doesn't match overridden member.
• CS8611 - Nullability of reference types in type parameter doesn't match partial method declaration.
• CS8612 - Nullability of reference types in type doesn't match implicitly implemented member.
• CS8613 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match implicitly implemented member.
• CS8614 - Nullability of reference types in type of parameter doesn't match implicitly implemented member.
• CS8615 - Nullability of reference types in type doesn't match implemented member.
• CS8616 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match implemented member.
• CS8617 - Nullability of reference types in type of parameter doesn't match implemented member.
• CS8618 - Non-nullable variable must contain a non-null value when exiting constructor. Consider declaring it as nullable.
• CS8619 - Nullability of reference types in value doesn't match target type.
• CS8620 - Argument cannot be used for parameter due to differences in the nullability of reference types.
• CS8621 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match the target delegate (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8622 - Nullability of reference types in type of parameter doesn't match the target delegate (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8624 - Argument cannot be used as an output due to differences in the nullability of reference types.
• CS8625 - Cannot convert null literal to non-nullable reference type.
• CS8629 - Nullable value type may be null.
• CS8631 - The type cannot be used as type parameter in the generic type or method. Nullability of type argument doesn't match constraint type.
• CS8633 - Nullability in constraints for type parameter of method doesn't match the constraints for type parameter of interface method. Consider using an explicit interface implementation instead.
• CS8634 - The type cannot be used as type parameter in the generic type or method. Nullability of type argument doesn't match 'class' constraint.
• CS8643 - Nullability of reference types in explicit interface specifier doesn't match interface implemented by the type.
• CS8644 - Type does not implement interface member. Nullability of reference types in interface implemented by the base type doesn't match.
• CS8645 - Member is already listed in the interface list on type with different nullability of reference types.
• CS8655 - The switch expression does not handle some null inputs (it is not exhaustive).
• CS8667 - Partial method declarations have inconsistent nullability in constraints for type parameter.
• CS8670 - Object or collection initializer implicitly dereferences possibly null member.
• CS8714 - The type cannot be used as type parameter in the generic type or method. Nullability of type argument doesn't match 'notnull' constraint.
• CS8762 - Parameter must have a non-null value when exiting.
• CS8763 - A method marked [DoesNotReturn] should not return.
• CS8764 - Nullability of return type doesn't match overridden member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8765 - Nullability of type of parameter doesn't match overridden member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8766 - Nullability of reference types in return type of doesn't match implicitly implemented member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8767 - Nullability of reference types in type of parameter of doesn't match implicitly implemented member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8768 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match implemented member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8769 - Nullability of reference types in type of parameter doesn't match implemented member (possibly because of nullability attributes).
• CS8770 - Method lacks [DoesNotReturn] annotation to match implemented or overridden member.
• CS8774 - Member must have a non-null value when exiting.
• CS8776 - Member cannot be used in this attribute.
• CS8775 - Member must have a non-null value when exiting.
• CS8777 - Parameter must have a non-null value when exiting.
• CS8819 - Nullability of reference types in return type doesn't match partial method declaration.
• CS8824 - Parameter must have a non-null value when exiting because parameter is non-null.
• CS8825 - Return value must be non-null because parameter is non-null.
• CS8847 - The switch expression does not handle some null inputs (it is not exhaustive). However, a pattern with a 'when' clause might successfully match this value.

The purpose of nullable warnings is to minimize the chance that your application throws a System.NullReferenceException when run. To achieve this goal, the compiler uses static analysis and issues warnings when your code has constructs that may lead to null reference exceptions. You provide the compiler with information for its static analysis by applying type annotations and attributes. These annotations and attributes describe the nullability of arguments, parameters, and members of your types. In this article, you'll learn different techniques to address the nullable warnings the compiler generates from its static analysis. The techniques described here are for general C# code. Learn to work with nullable reference types and Entity Framework core in Working with nullable reference types .

You'll address almost all warnings using one of four techniques:

• Adding necessary null checks.
• Adding ? or ! nullable annotations.
• Adding attributes that describe null semantics.
• Initializing variables correctly.

Possible dereference of null

This set of warnings alerts you that you're dereferencing a variable whose null-state is maybe-null . These warnings are:

The following code demonstrates one example of each of the preceding warnings:

In the example above, the warning is because the Container , c , may have a null value for the States property. Assigning new states to a collection that might be null causes the warning.

To remove these warnings, you need to add code to change that variable's null-state to not-null before dereferencing it. The collection initializer warning may be harder to spot. The compiler detects that the collection maybe-null when the initializer adds elements to it.

In many instances, you can fix these warnings by checking that a variable isn't null before dereferencing it. Consider the following that adds a null check before dereferencing the message parameter:

The following example initializes the backing storage for the States and removes the set accessor. Consumers of the class can modify the contents of the collection, and the storage for the collection is never null :

Other instances when you get these warnings may be false positive. You may have a private utility method that tests for null. The compiler doesn't know that the method provides a null check. Consider the following example that uses a private utility method, IsNotNull :

The compiler warns that you may be dereferencing null when you write the property message.Length because its static analysis determines that message may be null . You may know that IsNotNull provides a null check, and when it returns true , the null-state of message should be not-null . You must tell the compiler those facts. One way is to use the null forgiving operator, ! . You can change the WriteLine statement to match the following code:

The null forgiving operator makes the expression not-null even if it was maybe-null without the ! applied. In this example, a better solution is to add an attribute to the signature of IsNotNull :

The System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis.NotNullWhenAttribute informs the compiler that the argument used for the obj parameter is not-null when the method returns true . When the method returns false , the argument has the same null-state it had before the method was called.

There's a rich set of attributes you can use to describe how your methods and properties affect null-state . You can learn about them in the language reference article on Nullable static analysis attributes .

Fixing a warning for dereferencing a maybe-null variable involves one of three techniques:

• Add a missing null check.
• Add null analysis attributes on APIs to affect the compiler's null-state static analysis. These attributes inform the compiler when a return value or argument should be maybe-null or not-null after calling the method.
• Apply the null forgiving operator ! to the expression to force the state to not-null .

Possible null assigned to a nonnullable reference

This set of warnings alerts you that you're assigning a variable whose type is nonnullable to an expression whose null-state is maybe-null . These warnings are:

The compiler emits these warnings when you attempt to assign an expression that is maybe-null to a variable that is nonnullable. For example:

The different warnings indicate provide details about the code, such as assignment, unboxing assignment, return statements, arguments to methods, and throw expressions.

You can take one of three actions to address these warnings. One is to add the ? annotation to make the variable a nullable reference type. That change may cause other warnings. Changing a variable from a non-nullable reference to a nullable reference changes its default null-state from not-null to maybe-null . The compiler's static analysis may find instances where you dereference a variable that is maybe-null .

The other actions instruct the compiler that the right-hand-side of the assignment is not-null . The expression on the right-hand-side could be null-checked before assignment, as shown in the following example:

The previous examples demonstrate assignment of the return value of a method. You may annotate the method (or property) to indicate when a method returns a not-null value. The System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis.NotNullIfNotNullAttribute often specifies that a return value is not-null when an input argument is not-null . Another alternative is to add the null forgiving operator, ! to the right-hand side:

Fixing a warning for assigning a maybe-null expression to a not-null variable involves one of four techniques:

• Change the left side of the assignment to a nullable type. This action may introduce new warnings when you dereference that variable.
• Provide a null-check before the assignment.
• Annotate the API that produces the right-hand side of the assignment.
• Add the null forgiving operator to the right-hand side of the assignment.

Nonnullable reference not initialized

This set of warnings alerts you that you're assigning a variable whose type is non-nullable to an expression whose null-state is maybe-null . These warnings are:

Consider the following class as an example:

Neither FirstName nor LastName are guaranteed initialized. If this code is new, consider changing the public interface. The above example could be updated as follows:

If you require creating a Person object before setting the name, you can initialize the properties using a default non-null value:

Another alternative may be to change those members to nullable reference types. The Person class could be defined as follows if null should be allowed for the name:

Existing code may require other changes to inform the compiler about the null semantics for those members. You may have created multiple constructors, and your class may have a private helper method that initializes one or more members. You can move the initialization code into a single constructor and ensure all constructors call the one with the common initialization code. Or, you can use the System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis.MemberNotNullAttribute and System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis.MemberNotNullWhenAttribute attributes. These attributes inform the compiler that a member is not-null after the method has been called. The following code shows an example of each. The Person class uses a common constructor called by all other constructors. The Student class has a helper method annotated with the System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis.MemberNotNullAttribute attribute:

Finally, you can use the null forgiving operator to indicate that a member is initialized in other code. For another example, consider the following classes representing an Entity Framework Core model:

The DbSet property is initialized to null! . That tells the compiler that the property is set to a not-null value. In fact, the base DbContext performs the initialization of the set. The compiler's static analysis doesn't pick that up. For more information on working with nullable reference types and Entity Framework Core, see the article on Working with Nullable Reference Types in EF Core .

Fixing a warning for not initializing a nonnullable member involves one of four techniques:

• Change the constructors or field initializers to ensure all nonnullable members are initialized.
• Change one or more members to be nullable types.
• Annotate any helper methods to indicate which members are assigned.
• Add an initializer to null! to indicate that the member is initialized in other code.

Mismatch in nullability declaration

Many warnings indicate nullability mismatches between signatures for methods, delegates, or type parameters.

The following code demonstrates CS8764 :

The preceding example shows a virtual method in a base class and an override with different nullability. The base class returns a non-nullable string, but the derived class returns a nullable string. If the string and string? are reversed, it would be allowed because the derived class is more restrictive. Similarly, parameter declarations should match. Parameters in the override method can allow null even when the base class doesn't.

Other situations can generate these warnings. You may have a mismatch in an interface method declaration and the implementation of that method. Or a delegate type and the expression for that delegate may differ. A type parameter and the type argument may differ in nullability.

To fix these warnings, update the appropriate declaration.

Code doesn't match attribute declaration

The preceding sections have discussed how you can use Attributes for nullable static analysis to inform the compiler about the null semantics of your code. The compiler warns you if the code doesn't adhere to the promises of that attribute:

Consider the following method:

The compiler produces a warning because the message parameter is assigned null and the method returns true . The NotNullWhen attribute indicates that shouldn't happen.

To address these warnings, update your code so it matches the expectations of the attributes you've applied. You may change the attributes, or the algorithm.

Exhaustive switch expression

Switch expressions must be exhaustive , meaning that all input values must be handled. Even for non-nullable reference types, the null value must be accounted for. The compiler issues warnings when the null value isn't handled:

The following example code demonstrates this condition:

The input expression is a string , not a string? . The compiler still generates this warning. The { } pattern handles all non-null values, but doesn't match null . To address these errors, you can either add an explicit null case, or replace the { } with the _ (discard) pattern. The discard pattern matches null as well as any other value.

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Types of Assignments

Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington

Introduction

As discussed in the previous chapter, assignments are a common method of assessment at university. You may encounter many assignments over your years of study, yet some will look quite different from others. By recognising different types of assignments and understanding the purpose of the task, you can direct your writing skills effectively to meet task requirements. This chapter draws on the skills from the previous chapter, and extends the discussion, showing you where to aim with different types of assignments.

The chapter begins by exploring the popular essay assignment, with its two common categories, analytical and argumentative essays. It then examines assignments requiring case study responses , as often encountered in fields such as health or business. This is followed by a discussion of assignments seeking a report (such as a scientific report) and reflective writing assignments, common in nursing, education and human services. The chapter concludes with an examination of annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of  your assignment writing skills.

Different Types of Written Assignments

At university, an essay is a common form of assessment. In the previous chapter Writing Assignments we discussed what was meant by showing academic writing in your assignments. It is important that you consider these aspects of structure, tone and language when writing an essay.

Components of an essay

Essays should use formal but reader friendly language and have a clear and logical structure. They must include research from credible academic sources such as peer reviewed journal articles and textbooks. This research should be referenced throughout your essay to support your ideas (See the chapter Working with Information ).

If you have never written an essay before, you may feel unsure about how to start.  Breaking your essay into sections and allocating words accordingly will make this process more manageable and will make planning the overall essay structure much easier.

• An essay requires an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• Generally, an introduction and conclusion are approximately 10% each of the total word count.
• The remaining words can then be divided into sections and a paragraph allowed for each area of content you need to cover.
• Use your task and criteria sheet to decide what content needs to be in your plan

An effective essay introduction needs to inform your reader by doing four basic things:

Table 20.1 An effective essay

An effective essay body paragraph needs to:

An effective essay conclusion needs to:

Common types of essays

You may be required to write different types of essays, depending on your study area and topic. Two of the most commonly used essays are analytical and argumentative .  The task analysis process discussed in the previous chapter Writing Assignments will help you determine the type of essay required. For example, if your assignment question uses task words such as analyse, examine, discuss, determine or explore, you would be writing an analytical essay . If your assignment question has task words such as argue, evaluate, justify or assess, you would be writing an argumentative essay . Despite the type of essay, your ability to analyse and think critically is important and common across genres.  

Analytical essays

These essays usually provide some background description of the relevant theory, situation, problem, case, image, etcetera that is your topic. Being analytical requires you to look carefully at various components or sections of your topic in a methodical and logical way to create understanding.

The purpose of the analytical essay is to demonstrate your ability to examine the topic thoroughly. This requires you to go deeper than description by considering different sides of the situation, comparing and contrasting a variety of theories and the positives and negatives of the topic. Although in an analytical essay your position on the topic may be clear, it is not necessarily a requirement that you explicitly identify this with a thesis statement, as is the case with an argumentative essay. If you are unsure whether you are required to take a position, and provide a thesis statement, it is best to check with your tutor.

Argumentative essays

These essays require you to take a position on the assignment topic. This is expressed through your thesis statement in your introduction. You must then present and develop your arguments throughout the body of your assignment using logically structured paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs needs a topic sentence that relates to the thesis statement. In an argumentative essay, you must reach a conclusion based on the evidence you have presented.

Case Study Responses

Case studies are a common form of assignment in many study areas and students can underperform in this genre for a number of key reasons.

Students typically lose marks for not:

• Relating their answer sufficiently to the case details
• Applying critical thinking
• Writing with clear structure
• Using appropriate or sufficient sources
• Using accurate referencing

When structuring your response to a case study, remember to refer to the case. Structure your paragraphs similarly to an essay paragraph structure but include examples and data from the case as additional evidence to support your points (see Figure 20.5 ). The colours in the sample paragraph below show the function of each component.

The Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia (NMBA) Code of Conduct and Nursing Standards (2018) play a crucial role in determining the scope of practice for nurses and midwives. A key component discussed in the code is the provision of person-centred care and the formation of therapeutic relationships between nurses and patients (NMBA, 2018). This ensures patient safety and promotes health and wellbeing (NMBA, 2018). The standards also discuss the importance of partnership and shared decision-making in the delivery of care (NMBA, 2018, 4). Boyd and Dare (2014) argue that good communication skills are vital for building therapeutic relationships and trust between patients and care givers. This will help ensure the patient is treated with dignity and respect and improve their overall hospital experience. In the case, the therapeutic relationship with the client has been compromised in several ways. Firstly, the nurse did not conform adequately to the guidelines for seeking informed consent before performing the examination as outlined in principle 2.3 (NMBA, 2018). Although she explained the procedure, she failed to give the patient appropriate choices regarding her health care. 

Topic sentence | Explanations using paraphrased evidence including in-text references | Critical thinking (asks the so what? question to demonstrate your student voice). | Relating the theory back to the specifics of the case. The case becomes a source of examples as extra evidence to support the points you are making.

Reports are a common form of assessment at university and are also used widely in many professions. It is a common form of writing in business, government, scientific, and technical occupations.

Reports can take many different structures. A report is normally written to present information in a structured manner, which may include explaining laboratory experiments, technical information, or a business case.  Reports may be written for different audiences including clients, your manager, technical staff, or senior leadership within an organisation. The structure of reports can vary, and it is important to consider what format is required. The choice of structure will depend upon professional requirements and the ultimate aims of the report. Consider some of the options in the table below (see Table 20.2 ).

Table 20.2 Explanations of different types of reports

Reflective writing.

Reflective writing is a popular method of assessment at university. It is used to help you explore feelings, experiences, opinions, events or new information to gain a clearer and deeper understanding of your learning. A reflective writing task requires more than a description or summary.  It requires you to analyse a situation, problem or experience, consider what you may have learnt and evaluate how this may impact your thinking and actions in the future. This requires critical thinking, analysis, and usually the application of good quality research, to demonstrate your understanding or learning from a situation. Essentially, reflective practice is the process of looking back on past experiences and engaging with them in a thoughtful way and drawing conclusions to inform future experiences. The reflection skills you develop at university will be vital in the workplace to assist you to use feedback for growth and continuous improvement. There are numerous models of reflective writing and you should refer to your subject guidelines for your expected format. If there is no specific framework, a simple model to help frame your thinking is What? So what? Now what?   (Rolfe et al., 2001).

Table 20.3 What? So What? Now What? Explained.

The Gibbs’ Reflective Cycle

The Gibbs’ Cycle of reflection encourages you to consider your feelings as part of the reflective process. There are six specific steps to work through. Following this model carefully and being clear of the requirements of each stage, will help you focus your thinking and reflect more deeply. This model is popular in Health.

The 4 R’s of reflective thinking

This model (Ryan and Ryan, 2013) was designed specifically for university students engaged in experiential learning.  Experiential learning includes any ‘real-world’ activities including practice led activities, placements and internships.  Experiential learning, and the use of reflective practice to heighten this learning, is common in Creative Arts, Health and Education.

Annotated Bibliography

What is it.

An annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of appropriate sources (books, journals or websites) on a topic, accompanied by a brief summary, evaluation and sometimes an explanation or reflection on their usefulness or relevance to your topic. Its purpose is to teach you to research carefully, evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. An annotated bibliography may be one part of a larger assessment item or a stand-alone assessment piece. Check your task guidelines for the number of sources you are required to annotate and the word limit for each entry.

How do I know what to include?

When choosing sources for your annotated bibliography it is important to determine:

• The topic you are investigating and if there is a specific question to answer
• The type of sources on which you need to focus
• Whether they are reputable and of high quality

What do I say?

Important considerations include:

• Is the work current?
• Is the work relevant to your topic?
• Is the author credible/reliable?
• Is there any author bias?
• The strength and limitations (this may include an evaluation of research methodology).

Literature Reviews

It is easy to get confused by the terminology used for literature reviews. Some tasks may be described as a systematic literature review when actually the requirement is simpler; to review the literature on the topic but do it in a systematic way. There is a distinct difference (see Table 20.4 ). As a commencing undergraduate student, it is unlikely you would be expected to complete a systematic literature review as this is a complex and more advanced research task. It is important to check with your lecturer or tutor if you are unsure of the requirements.

Table 20.4 Comparison of Literature Reviews

Generally, you are required to establish the main ideas that have been written on your chosen topic. You may also be expected to identify gaps in the research. A literature review does not summarise and evaluate each resource you find (this is what you would do in an annotated bibliography). You are expected to analyse and synthesise or organise common ideas from multiple texts into key themes which are relevant to your topic (see Figure 20.10 ). Use a table or a spreadsheet, if you know how, to organise the information you find. Record the full reference details of the sources as this will save you time later when compiling your reference list (see Table 20.5 ).

Overall, this chapter has provided an introduction to the types of assignments you can expect to complete at university, as well as outlined some tips and strategies with examples and templates for completing them. First, the chapter investigated essay assignments, including analytical and argumentative essays. It then examined case study assignments, followed by a discussion of the report format. Reflective writing , popular in nursing, education and human services, was also considered. Finally, the chapter briefly addressed annotated bibliographies and literature reviews. The chapter also has a selection of templates and examples throughout to enhance your understanding and improve the efficacy of your assignment writing skills.

• Not all assignments at university are the same. Understanding the requirements of different types of assignments will assist in meeting the criteria more effectively.
• There are many different types of assignments. Most will require an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
• An essay should have a clear and logical structure and use formal but reader friendly language.
• Breaking your assignment into manageable chunks makes it easier to approach.
• Effective body paragraphs contain a topic sentence.
• A case study structure is similar to an essay, but you must remember to provide examples from the case or scenario to demonstrate your points.
• The type of report you may be required to write will depend on its purpose and audience. A report requires structured writing and uses headings.
• Reflective writing is popular in many disciplines and is used to explore feelings, experiences, opinions or events to discover what learning or understanding has occurred. Reflective writing requires more than description. You need to be analytical, consider what has been learnt and evaluate the impact of this on future actions.
• Annotated bibliographies teach you to research and evaluate sources and systematically organise your notes. They may be part of a larger assignment.
• Literature reviews require you to look across the literature and analyse and synthesise the information you find into themes.

Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford.

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001). Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user’s guide . Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Ryan, M. & Ryan, M. (2013). Theorising a model for teaching and assessing reflective learning in higher education.  Higher Education Research & Development , 32(2), 244-257. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2012.661704

Academic Success Copyright © 2021 by Cristy Bartlett and Kate Derrington is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Man or bear? Hypothetical question sparks conversation about women's safety

Women explain why they would feel safer encountering a bear in the forest than a man they didn't know. the hypothetical has sparked a broader discussion about why women fear men..

If you were alone in the woods, would you rather encounter a bear or a man? Answers to that hypothetical question have sparked a debate about why the vast majority say they would feel more comfortable choosing a bear.

The topic has been hotly discussed for weeks as men and women chimed in with their thoughts all over social media.

Screenshot HQ , a TikTok account, started the conversation, asking a group of women whether they would rather run into a man they didn't know or a bear in the forest. Out of the seven women interviewed for the piece, only one picked a man.

"Bear. Man is scary," one of the women responds.

A number of women echoed the responses given in the original video, writing in the comments that they, too, would pick a bear over a man. The hypothetical has people split, with some expressing their sadness over the state of the world and others cracking jokes. Some men were flabbergasted.

Here's what we know.

A bear is the safer choice, no doubt about it, many say

There were a lot of responses, more than 65,000, under the original post. Many wrote that they understood why the women would choose a bear.

"No one’s gonna ask me if I led the bear on or give me a pamphlet on bear attack prevention tips," @celestiallystunning wrote.

@Brennduhh wrote: "When I die leave my body in the woods, the wolves will be gentler than any man."

"I know a bear's intentions," another woman wrote. "I don't know a man's intentions. no matter how nice they are."

Other TikTok users took it one step further, posing the hypothetical question to loved ones. Meredith Steele, who goes by @babiesofsteele , asked her husband last week whether he would rather have their daughter encounter a bear or a man in the woods. Her husband said he "didn't like either option" but said he was leaning toward the bear.

"Maybe it's a friendly bear," he says.

Diana, another TikTok user , asked her sister-in-law what she would choose and was left speechless.

"I asked her the question, you know, just for giggles. She was like, 'You know, I would rather it be a bear because if the bear attacks me, and I make it out of the woods, everybody’s gonna believe me and have sympathy for me," she said. "But if a man attacks me and I make it out, I’m gonna spend my whole life trying to get people to believe me and have sympathy for me.'"

Bear vs. man debate stirs the pot, woman and some men at odds

The hypothetical has caused some tension, with some women arguing that men will never truly understand what it's like to be a woman or the inherent dangers at play.

Social media users answered this question for themselves, producing memes, spoken word poetry and skits in the days and weeks since.

So, what would you choose?

• Implementing Global Human Resources

Document Types and Categories

You use document records to create and manage documents such as medical certificates, licenses, and visas. You can create your own document types to supplement the predefined document types, categories, and subcategories.

Use the Document Records task from Quick Actions, person spotlight, My Team work area, or person smart navigation to create and maintain document records for a person.

The system document type displays on the setup page after you create the document type. Here are the attributes you can configure for a document type:

Use these tabs to configure other information for the document type:

Document Record Preferences - includes document record attributes, settings for restricting and archiving, and flexfield preferences.

• Archive Criteria Basis: By default this LoV is blank. You can select either the Creation Date, From Date, To Date, or Issued On.
• Archive After Days: By default this field is blank. It’s a mandatory field where you enter a number that’s greater than 0 and less than or equal to 18000. For example, if you enter 2, the document records will be archived 2 days after the date selected for Archive Criteria Basis .
• Purge After Days: By default this field is blank. It’s a mandatory field where you enter a number that’s greater than 0 and less than or equal to 18000. For example, if you enter 2, the document records will be purged 2 days after the archive date.
• The configuration for the context attributes of the document record flexfield is optional.
• By default, the context attributes of the document record flexfield have a value of null.
• The context attribute fields of the document record flexfield are displayed as read-only or are hidden based on the configuration done for the document type in the Add Document Records and View Document Records pages.
• It is recommended that you don’t make the context attribute of the document record flexfield as mandatory if you set it as Hide or Read only . Else, the user will see an error message when adding or editing a document record.
• The context preferences of the document record flexfield are applicable only when adding or editing a document record from the UI. They don’t apply when adding or editing document records using HCM Data Loader or HCM Spreadsheet Data Loader.
• The existing page Composer customizations always take precedence. You need to remove the existing customizations and configure the document record flexfield preferences accordingly.
• It’s recommended that you configure the document record flexfield preferences instead of using page composer personalization.
• You can export and import the context attributes of the document record flexfield by using Functional Setup Manager (FSM).
• Additional Information - includes flexfield information, if configured.

Document Delivery Preferences - includes delivery preferences, if enabled.

Attachments - includes reference files for a document type that workers can use when creating a document record of that type. You can optionally add titles for the document type attachments that you upload in the Reference Info section when you add or edit a document record. The URL or file name that you enter is defaulted in the Title field, you can change the title. These are some points to consider when you add a title:

• The title won't be displayed in the Reference Info section of the document record when viewed on a mobile device.
• Titles are not supported for attachments that are added as part of a document record. For such attachments, only the file name or URL is displayed.
• The Title field has a limit of 80 characters. If the file name is more than 30 characters, the first 30 characters are defaulted in the Title field. You can manually update the document title up to 80 characters.

For more information, see these documents on Customer Connect:

Document Records - Frequently Asked Questions and Troubleshooting Guide (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630975)

Document Records - How to Store BI Report Output as DOR Using HCM Extracts (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630994)

Document Records - Controlling Security of Document Records (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630973)

Document Records - Generate Letter from Document Record for Specific Doc Type (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630980)

• Document Records - Document Records Approvals - Frequently Asked Questions (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630977)
• Document Records - Personalization-Frequently Asked Questions and Troubleshooting Guide (https://community.oracle.com/customerconnect/discussion/630979)

Related Topics

• Restrict Management of Document Records
• Document Type Descriptive Flexfields
• How You Set Preferences for Document Delivery
• Document Type Security Profiles

Watch CBS News

Minnesota state Sen. Nicole Mitchell removed from committees, caucus meetings amid burglary investigations

By Anthony Bettin , Jonah Kaplan , WCCO Staff

Updated on: April 29, 2024 / 5:25 PM CDT / CBS Minnesota

ST. PAUL, Minn. — Embattled Minnesota state Sen. Nicole Mitchell will be removed from her committee assignments and caucus meetings while burglary allegations against her play out in both a Senate and legal investigation, the Senate majority leader announced Sunday.

"This is a tragic situation, and there are still questions that need to be answered," Sen. Erin Murphy, DFL-St. Paul, said. "The legal investigation is ongoing, and last week, we referred her case to the Senate Subcommittee on Ethical Conduct. While the case is under review both in the Senate and in the courts, Senator Mitchell will be relieved of her committee assignments and removed from caucus meetings."     

On Monday, Mitchell proved to be the deciding vote in her own defense, defeating a GOP-led effort to strip her of her voting powers.

"We have a fundamental value at stake, that people of every Senate district are entitled to be represented," Sen. Scott Dibble (DFL-Minneapolis) said during the hours-long debate.

Mitchell, a Democrat who represents part of the eastern Twin Cities, was charged with burglary last week . She was found dressed in all black in the basement of her stepmother's home in Detroit Lakes, according to a criminal complaint. Authorities allege she confessed to breaking into the home to retrieve her father's ashes and other sentimental items after her stepmother stopped speaking to her. On social media, Mitchell denied the allegations, saying she was at the house to check on a family member with Alzheimer's. 

In another statement , she said she was "extremely disappointed that the complaint lacks the complete information of the incident including important context, for example that I have known the other person involved in this incident since I was four years old and deeply care about her."

Detroit Lakes Police Chief Steven Todd told WCCO the alleged burglary and Mitchell's arrest were caught on body cameras. He said he has seen the bodycam footage, but is prohibited from releasing it by state law.    

Senate Republicans  filed an ethics complaint against Mitchell after she was charged, and some have called for her resignation, including Senate Minority Leader Mark Johnson, R-East Grand Forks. The Ethics Subcommittee is set to meet May 7 to discuss the complaint against Mitchell.

"Members, are we really going to let a member who is accused of such a serious crime, be the deciding vote on these bills passing through this body," Sen. Karin Housley, a Republican from Stillwater, countered.

Mitchell, who has also been a TV meteorologist and a commander with the Air National Guard, was elected in 2022 and is in the midst of her first term.  

Separate from her criminal case, lawmakers in St. Paul have filed an ethics complaint against Mitchell. A committee will meet to consider the complaint on May 7.

• Woodbury News
• Minnesota Legislature
• Detroit Lakes

Anthony Bettin is a web producer at WCCO. He primarily covers breaking news and sports, with a focus on the Minnesota Vikings.

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The 10 cheapest cars to drive per mile in 2024

Iseecars study shows hybrids provide the lowest cost per mile.

Automakers are increasingly stepping back from EV-only product roadmaps in favor of more hybrids and PHEVs, and recent driving cost data between November 2022 and April 2023 from iSeeCars shows that this might be good for buyers in more ways than one. While electric vehicles can save money on gas, they cost more and are driven less, which makes the cost per mile much higher than that of other fuel types. Hybrids were found to be much less expensive to drive, dominating the list of the cheapest cars to drive per mile.

The 10 cheapest cars to drive per mile

The Honda Insight was the least expensive in the iSeeCars study, at $1,463 per 1,000 miles, or $1.46 per mile. Other vehicles on the list include:

• Honda Insight Hybrid: $1.46 per mile ($1,463/1,000 miles)
• Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid : $1.81 per mile
• Toyota Corolla Hybrid : $1.86 per mile
• Toyota Prius : $1.88 per mile
• Hyundai Elantra Hybrid: $2.18 per mile
• Chrysler Pacifica Plug-Hybrid: $2.32 per mile
• Ford Escape Hybrid : $2.40 per mile
• Toyota Camry Hybrid : $2.40 per mile
• Hyundai Sonata Hybrid : $2.60 per mile
• Honda Accord Hybrid : $2.60 per mile

Hybrid vehicle pricing continues to fall, making them more comparable with gas models. Those more reasonable purchase prices, combined with in-town fuel savings, make them appealing for buyers looking to put some miles on the clock, driving down their average cost per mile. Only one PHEV made the top 10 list, with two in the top 15, including the Toyota Prius Prime in 12th place at $2.71 per mile.

EVs are more expensive to buy than other fuel types, and high-end models tend to be driven less, giving them some of the highest per-mile costs in the study . The Porsche Taycan was the priciest vehicle in the study, at $22.02 per mile. The Porsche Cayenne PHEV, with its six-figure average purchase price, was second most expensive at $14.68. iSeeCars attributes many of the higher prices to the cars’ extreme average purchase prices, all of which exceeded $48,000. The BMW i3 was the cheapest, while the Taycan was the most expensive, at almost $140,000 on average.

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Dusty 'Cat's Paw Nebula' contains a type of molecule never seen in space — and it's one of the largest ever found

Scientists have detected a new, unusually large molecule never seen in space before. The 13-atom molecule, called 2-methoxyethanol, was detected in the Cat's Paw Nebula.

Researchers have detected an unusually large, previously undetected molecule in the Cat's Paw Nebula, a star-forming region about 5,500 light-years from Earth. At 13 atoms, the compound, called 2-methoxyethanol, is one of the largest molecules ever identified outside our solar system , the scientists reported April 12 in The Astrophysical Journal Letters .

We often think of space as a yawning chasm of nothingness between stars, but this apparent emptiness is alive with chemistry as atoms come together and break apart to create stars and planets over millions of years. Understanding how simple organic molecules such as methane , ethanol and formaldehyde form helps scientists build a picture of not only how stars and galaxies are born but also how life began.

However, detecting these basic building blocks of life is no mean feat. Every molecule possesses a unique energy "barcode" — a collection of specific wavelengths of light that the molecule can absorb. At a quantum level, each absorbed wavelength corresponds to a transition between one rotational energy level and another, and every molecule has a different-but-well-defined set of energy levels where these transitions may occur. This barcode of energy transitions is easily measured for samples in the lab, but astrochemists must then hunt out this same energy signature in space.

"When we observe interstellar sources with radio telescopes, we can collect the rotational signal from the gaseous molecules in these regions of space," first study author Zachary Fried , an astrochemist at MIT, told Live Science in an email "Because the molecules in space obey the same quantum mechanical laws as those on Earth, the rotational transitions observed in the telescope data should line up with those measured in the lab."

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This approach is exactly how Fried and colleagues — part of a research team led by Brett McGuire , an assistant professor of chemistry at MIT — detected 2-methoxyethanol, a 13-atom molecule in which one of the hydrogen atoms of ethanol is replaced with a more complex methoxy (O–CH3) group. This level of complexity is particularly unusual outside the solar system , with only six "species" larger than 13 atoms ever detected. 

"These molecules are typically much less abundant than smaller hydrocarbons that have simpler formation routes," Fried said. "Additionally, the spectral signals of these molecules are distributed over a greater number of transitions, thus making the individual spectral peaks weaker and more difficult to observe."

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But it wasn't simply luck that led the team to this discovery; they also used artificial intelligence . The team had previously developed a machine-learning method to model the abundance of different molecular species in different regions of space. "Using these trained models, we can predict which undetected molecules may be highly abundant, and thus strong detection candidates," Fried said.

Methoxy-containing species had previously been detected in a part of the Cat's Paw Nebula, also called NGC 63341, and in IRAS 16293, a binary system in the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex , located 457 light-years from Earth. As such, the team had a good idea of where to look for the new molecule.

Fried began by measuring the rotational spectrum of 2-methoxyethanol samples in the lab; he recorded a total of 2,172 possible energy signals for the molecule. Then, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA), a set of 66 radio telescopes in Chile, the team collected readings from both the Cat's Paw Nebula and IRAS 16293 and analyzed the signals for the distinct energy signature of 2-methoxyethanol.

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While no corresponding energy traces were detected in IRAS 16293, the team ultimately identified 25 matching signals from the Cat's Paw Nebula and confirmed the presence of 2-methoxyethanol in this star-forming region. 

"This enabled us to investigate how the differing physical conditions of these sources may be affecting the chemistry that can occur," Fried said. "We hypothesized several causes of this chemical differentiation, including variations in the radiation field strength, along with different dust temperatures in these two sources [at different stages] of star formation."

The team hopes the findings may inform future studies to identify other as-yet-undetected molecules in space. 

"The feasibility and efficiency of these pathways can be closely tied to the physical conditions of the interstellar source," Fried said. "By investigating which other species are involved in the formation and destruction of the detected molecules, we can determine other species that may be candidates for detection."

Victoria Atkinson is a freelance science journalist, specializing in chemistry and its interface with the natural and human-made worlds. Currently based in York (UK), she formerly worked as a science content developer at the University of Oxford, and later as a member of the Chemistry World editorial team. Since becoming a freelancer, Victoria has expanded her focus to explore topics from across the sciences and has also worked with Chemistry Review, Neon Squid Publishing and the Open University, amongst others. She has a DPhil in organic chemistry from the University of Oxford.

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IGNOU June 2024 TEE Assignment Submission Deadline Extended Till May 15

Published By : Suramya Sunilraj

Trending Desk

Last Updated: May 04, 2024, 11:41 IST

New Delhi, India

The term-end exams for the June 2024 session will start on June 7 and end on July 13, this year (Representational/ PTI Photo)

IGNOU June 2024 TEE: The deadline to submit the projects, practical files, dissertations, and internship reports is May 15

The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) has extended the last date for submission of assignments for ODL and online programmes for the June 2024 Term End Examination (TEE). As per an official notice, the deadline to submit the assignment is till May 15. Students who are enrolled in the ODL, online courses, GOAL and EVBB for the June 2024 TEE can now submit their dissertations, projects, practical files, and internship reports on the official website of IGNOU at ignou.ac.in.

“With the approval of the competent authority, the last date for submission of assignments (both in hard copy and soft copy) for term end examination, June 2024 for both ODL and online programmes, GOAL and EVBB has been extended up to May 15,” reads the official notification.

The assignment submission last date is extended up to 15.05.2024 for June 2024 TEE. pic.twitter.com/NzYq4Nmz5U — IGNOU (@OfficialIGNOU) May 2, 2024

Candidates must include a copy of the fee receipt with their project report whether submitting it in hard form or uploading it to the online portal. Earlier, the submission deadline was till April 30.

Candidates can check the status of their assignments by going to ignou.ac.in after they submit them. The assignment submission status is normally displayed on the official website 30 days after it is physically submitted at the allotted study centre. To check the IGNOU assignment submission status, candidates must provide login credentials such as their IGNOU enrollment number and the IGNOU programme code.

IGNOU June TEE 2024: Check How To Submit Assignment

Step 1: Visit the official website of IGNOU at ignou.ac.in

Step 2: Look for and click on the June TEE 2024 assignment submission link, available on the homepage.

Step 3: Then log in using the credential in the designated space.

Step 4: Upload the scanned assignment with the respective code and click on submit.

Step 5: Take a screenshot of the June TEE 2024 assignment submission receipt for further reference.

IGNOU had extended not just the deadline for submitting assignments but also the date for submitting examination forms. The deadline to apply for TEE June 2024 with a Rs 1,100 late fee was May 2. According to the official notice provided by IGNOU, term-end examinations for the June 2024 session will begin on June 7, 2024, and end on July 13, 2024. The exams will be held in two shifts – from 10 am to 1 pm (morning shift) and from 2 pm to 5 pm (evening shift).

Stay Informed With Live Updates On Gujarat HSC Science Result 2024 . Get Latest Updates On Date And Time Of CBSE Results 2024 & ICSE Result 2024 on our website. Stay ahead with all the exam results updates on News18 Website .

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