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Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial

• Basic Computer Instructions
• What is Computer
• Issues in Computer Design
• Difference between assembly language and high level language
• Addressing Modes
• Difference between Memory based and Register based Addressing Modes
• Computer Organization | Von Neumann architecture
• Harvard Architecture
• Interaction of a Program with Hardware
• Simplified Instructional Computer (SIC)
• Instruction Set used in simplified instructional Computer (SIC)
• Instruction Set used in SIC/XE
• RISC and CISC in Computer Organization
• Vector processor classification
• Essential Registers for Instruction Execution
• Introduction of Single Accumulator based CPU organization
• Introduction of Stack based CPU Organization
• Machine Control Instructions in Microprocessor
• Very Long Instruction Word (VLIW) Architecture
• Input and Output Systems
• Computer Organization | Different Instruction Cycles
• Machine Instructions
• Computer Organization | Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)
• Difference between 2-address instruction and 1-address instructions
• Difference between 3-address instruction and 0-address instruction
• Register content and Flag status after Instructions
• Debugging a machine level program
• Vector Instruction Format in Vector Processors
• Vector instruction types
• Instruction Design and Format
• Introduction of ALU and Data Path
• Computer Arithmetic | Set - 1
• Computer Arithmetic | Set - 2
• Difference between 1's Complement representation and 2's Complement representation Technique
• Restoring Division Algorithm For Unsigned Integer
• Non-Restoring Division For Unsigned Integer
• Computer Organization | Booth's Algorithm
• How the negative numbers are stored in memory?
• Microprogrammed Control
• Computer Organization | Micro-Operation
• Microarchitecture and Instruction Set Architecture
• Types of Program Control Instructions
• Difference between CALL and JUMP instructions
• Computer Organization | Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control Unit
• Implementation of Micro Instructions Sequencer
• Performance of Computer in Computer Organization
• Introduction of Control Unit and its Design
• Computer Organization | Amdahl's law and its proof
• Subroutine, Subroutine nesting and Stack memory
• Different Types of RAM (Random Access Memory )
• Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)
• 2D and 2.5D Memory organization

Input and Output Organization

• Priority Interrupts | (S/W Polling and Daisy Chaining)
• I/O Interface (Interrupt and DMA Mode)
• Direct memory access with DMA controller 8257/8237
• Computer Organization | Asynchronous input output synchronization
• Programmable peripheral interface 8255
• Synchronous Data Transfer in Computer Organization
• Introduction of Input-Output Processor
• MPU Communication in Computer Organization
• Memory mapped I/O and Isolated I/O
• Memory Organization
• Introduction to memory and memory units
• Memory Hierarchy Design and its Characteristics
• Register Allocations in Code Generation
• Cache Memory
• Cache Organization | Set 1 (Introduction)
• Multilevel Cache Organisation
• Difference between RAM and ROM
• What's difference between CPU Cache and TLB?
• Introduction to Solid-State Drive (SSD)
• Read and Write operations in Memory
• Instruction Level Parallelism
• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 1 (Execution, Stages and Throughput)
• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 3 (Types and Stalling)
• Computer Organization and Architecture | Pipelining | Set 2 (Dependencies and Data Hazard)
• Last Minute Notes Computer Organization

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Computer Organization and Architecture is used to design computer systems. Computer Architecture is considered to be those attributes of a system that are visible to the user like addressing techniques, instruction sets, and bits used for data, and have a direct impact on the logic execution of a program, It defines the system in an abstract manner, It deals with What does the system do.

Whereas, Computer Organization is the way in which a system has to structure and It is operational units and the interconnections between them that achieve the architectural specifications, It is the realization of the abstract model, and It deals with How to implement the system.

In this Computer Organization and Architecture Tutorial, you’ll learn all the basic to advanced concepts like pipelining, microprogrammed control, computer architecture, instruction design, and format.

Recent Articles on Computer Organisation

• Computer Arithmetic
• Miscellaneous
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Basic Computer Instructions :

• A simple understanding of Computer
• Computer System Level Hierarchy
• Computer Architecture and Computer Organization
• Timing diagram of MOV Instruction in Microprocessor
• Assembly language and High level language
• Memory based Vs Register based addressing modes
• Von Neumann architecture
• Data Transfer instructions in AVR microcontroller
• Arithmetic instructions in AVR microcontroller
• Conditional Branch Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• CALL Instructions and Stack in AVR Microcontroller
• Branch Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• Logical Instructions in AVR Microcontroller
• Data Manipulation Instructions

Instruction Design and Format :

• Different Instruction Cycles
• Instruction Formats (Zero, One, Two and Three Address Instruction)
• 2-address instruction and 1-address instructions
• 3-address instruction and 0-address instruction
• 3-address instruction and 2-address instructions

Computer Arithmetic :

• Computer Arithmetic | ALU and Data Path
• Computer Arithmetic | Set 1
• Computer Arithmetic | Set 2
• Difference between 1’s complement and 2’s complement
• Booth’s Algorithm

Microprogrammed Control :

• Micro-Operation
• Hardwired v/s Micro-programmed Control Unit

Memory Organization :

• What’s difference between CPU Cache and TLB?
• Different Types of RAM
• Types of computer memory (RAM and ROM)
• Introduction to solid-state drive (SSD)

Input and Output Systems :

• Asynchronous input output synchronization

Pipelining :

• Execution, Stages and Throughput
• Types and Stalling
• Dependencies and Data Hazard

IEEE Number Statndards

Miscellaneous :

• Generations of computer
• Introduction to quantum computing
• Conventional Computing vs Quantum Computing
• Flynn’s taxonomy
• Clusters In Computer Organisation
• Program for Binary To Decimal Conversion
• Program for Decimal to Binary Conversion
• Program for decimal to octal conversion
• Program for octal to decimal conversion
• Program for hexadecimal to decimal

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What Is Computer Architecture? Components, Types, and Examples

Computer architecture determines how a computer’s components exchange electronic signals to enable input, processing, and output.

• Computer architecture is defined as the end-to-end structure of a computer system that determines how its components interact with each other in helping execute the machine’s purpose (i.e., processing data).
• This article explains the components of computer architecture and its key types and gives a few notable examples.

Table of Contents

What is computer architecture.

Components of Computer Architecture

Types of Computer Architecture

Examples of Computer Architecture

Computer architecture refers to the end-to-end structure of a computer system that determines how its components interact with each other in helping to execute the machine’s purpose (i.e., processing data), often avoiding any reference to the actual technical implementation.

Examples of Computer Architecture: Von Neumann Architecture (a) and Harvard Architecture (b)

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Computers are an integral element of any organization’s infrastructure, from the equipment employees use at the office to the cell phones and wearables they use to work from home. All computers, regardless of their size, are founded on a set of principles describing how hardware and software connect to make them function. This is what constitutes computer architecture.

Computer architecture is the arrangement of the components that comprise a computer system and the engine at the core of the processes that drive its functioning. It specifies the machine interface for which programming languages and associated processors are designed.

Complex instruction set computer (CISC) and reduced instruction set computer (RISC) are the two predominant approaches to the architecture that influence how computer processors function.

CISC processors have one processing unit, auxiliary memory, and a tiny register set containing hundreds of unique commands. These processors execute a task with a single instruction, making a programmer’s work simpler since fewer lines of code are required to complete the operation. This method utilizes less memory but may need more time to execute instructions.

A reassessment led to the creation of high-performance computers based on the RISC architecture. The hardware is designed to be as basic and swift as possible, and sophisticated instructions can be executed with simpler ones.

How does computer architecture work?

Computer architecture allows a computer to compute, retain, and retrieve information. This data can be digits in a spreadsheet, lines of text in a file, dots of color in an image, sound patterns, or the status of a system such as a flash drive.

• Purpose of computer architecture: Everything a system performs, from online surfing to printing, involves the transmission and processing of numbers. A computer’s architecture is merely a mathematical system intended to collect, transmit, and interpret numbers.
• Data in numbers: The computer stores all data as numerals. When a developer is engrossed in machine learning code and analyzing sophisticated algorithms and data structures, it is easy to forget this.
• Manipulating data: The computer manages information using numerical operations. It is possible to display an image on a screen by transferring a matrix of digits to the video memory, with every number reflecting a pixel of color.
• Multifaceted functions: The components of a computer architecture include both software and hardware. The processor — hardware that executes computer programs — is the primary part of any computer.
• Booting up: At the most elementary level of a computer design, programs are executed by the processor whenever the computer is switched on. These programs configure the computer’s proper functioning and initialize the different hardware sub-components to a known state. This software is known as firmware since it is persistently preserved in the computer’s memory.
• Support for temporary storage: Memory is also a vital component of computer architecture, with several types often present in a single system. The memory is used to hold programs (applications) while they are being executed by the processor and the data being processed by the programs.
• Support for permanent storage : There can also be tools for storing data or sending information to the external world as part of the computer system. These provide text inputs through the keyboard, the presentation of knowledge on a monitor, and the transfer of programs and data from or to a disc drive.
• User-facing functionality: Software governs the operation and functioning of a computer. Several software ‘layers’ exist in computer architecture. Typically, a layer would only interface with layers below or above it.

The working of a computer architecture begins with the bootup process. Once the firmware is loaded, it can initialize the rest of the computer architecture and ensure that it works seamlessly, i.e., helping the user retrieve, consume, and work on different types of data.

See More: Distributed Computing vs. Grid Computing: 10 Key Comparisons

Depending on the method of categorization, the parts of a computer architecture can be subdivided in several ways. The main components of a computer architecture are the CPU, memory, and peripherals. All these elements are linked by the system bus, which comprises an address bus, a data bus, and a control bus. Within this framework, the computer architecture has eight key components, as described below.

1. Input unit and associated peripherals

The input unit provides external data sources to the computer system. Therefore, it connects the external environment to the computer. It receives information from input devices, translates it to machine language, and then inserts it within the computer system. The keyboard, mouse, or other input devices are the most often utilized and have corresponding hardware drivers that allow them to work in sync with the rest of the computer architecture.

2. Output unit and associated peripherals

The output unit delivers the computer process’s results to the user. A majority of the output data comprises music, graphics, or video. A computer architecture’s output devices encompass the display, printing unit, speakers, headphones, etc.

To play an MP3 file, for instance, the system reads a number array from the disc and into memory. The computer architecture manipulates these numbers to convert compressed audio data to uncompressed audio data and then outputs the resulting set of numbers (uncompressed audio file) to the audio chips. The chip then makes it user-ready through the output unit and associated peripherals.

3. Storage unit/memory

The storage unit contains numerous computer parts that are employed to store data. It is typically separated into primary storage and secondary storage.

Primary storage unit

This component of the computer architecture is also referred to as the main memory, as the CPU has direct access to it. Primary memory is utilized for storing information and instructions during program execution. Random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) are the two kinds of memory:

• RAM supplies the necessary information straight to the CPU. It is a temporary memory that stores data and instructions intermittently.
• ROM is a memory type that contains pre-installed instructions, including firmware. This memory’s content is persistent and cannot be modified. ROM is utilized to boot the machine upon initial startup. The computer is now unaware of anything outside the ROM. The chip instructs it on how to set up the computer architecture, conduct a power-on self-test (POST), and finally locate the hard drive so that the operating system can be launched.

Secondary storage unit

Secondary or external storage is inaccessible directly to the CPU. Before the CPU uses secondary storage data, it must be transferred to the main storage. Secondary storage permanently retains vast amounts of data. Examples include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs) , compact disks (CDs), etc.

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4. Central processing unit (CPU)

The central processing unit includes registers, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU), and control circuits, which interpret and execute assembly language instructions. The CPU interacts with all the other parts of the computer architecture to make sense of the data and deliver the necessary output.

Here is a brief overview of the CPU’s sub-components:

1. Registers

These are high-speed and purpose-built temporary memory devices. Rather than being referred to by their address, they are accessed and modified directly by the CPU throughout execution. Essentially, they contain data that the CPU is presently processing. Registers contain information, commands, addresses, and intermediate processing results.

2. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

The arithmetic logic unit includes the electrical circuitry that performs any arithmetic and logical processes on the supplied data. It is used to execute all arithmetic (additions, subtractions, multiplication, division) and logical (<, >, AND, OR, etc.) computations. Registers are used by the ALU to retain the data being processed.

3. Control unit

The control unit collaborates with the computer’s input and output devices. It instructs the computer to execute stored program instructions via communication with the ALU and registers. The control unit aims to arrange data and instruction processing.

The microprocessor is the primary component of computer hardware that runs the CPU. Large printed circuit boards (PCBs) are utilized in all electronic systems, including desktops, calculators, and internet of things (IoT) devices. The Intel 40004 was the first microprocessor with all CPU components on a single chip.

In addition to these four core components, a computer architecture also has supporting elements that make it easier to function, such as:

5. Bootloader

The firmware contains the bootloader, a specific program executed by the processor that retrieves the operating system from the disc (or non-volatile memory or network interface, as deemed applicable) and loads it into the memory so that the processor can execute it. The bootloader is found on desktop and workstation computers and embedded devices. It is essential for all computer architectures.

6. Operating system (OS)

The operating system governs the computer’s functionality just above firmware. It manages memory usage and regulates devices such as the keyboard, mouse, display, and disc drives. The OS also provides the user with an interface, allowing them to launch apps and access data on the drive.

Typically, the operating system offers a set of tools for programs, allowing them to access the screen, disc drives, and other elements of the computer’s architecture.

A bus is a tangible collection of signal lines with a linked purpose; a good example is the universal serial bus (USB) . Buses enable the flow of electrical impulses between various components of a computer’s design, transferring information from one system to another. The size of a bus is the count of information-transferring signal lines. A bus with a size of 8 bits, for instance, transports 8 data bits in a parallel formation.

8. Interrupts

Interrupts, also known as traps or exceptions in certain processors, are a method for redirecting the processor from the running of the current program so that it can handle an occurrence. Such an event might be a malfunction from a peripheral or just the fact that an I/O device has completed its previous duty and is presently ready for another one. Every time you press a key and click a mouse button, your system will generate an interrupt.

See More: What Is Network Hardware? Definition, Architecture, Challenges, and Best Practices

It is possible to set up and configure the above architectural components in numerous ways. This gives rise to the different types of computer architecture. The most notable ones include:

1. Instruction set architecture (ISA)

Instruction set architecture (ISA) is a bridge between the software and hardware of a computer. It functions as a programmer’s viewpoint on a machine. Computers can only comprehend binary language (0 and 1), but humans can comprehend high-level language (if-else, while, conditions, and the like). Consequently, ISA plays a crucial role in user-computer communications by translating high-level language into binary language.

In addition, ISA outlines the architecture of a computer in terms of the fundamental activities it must support. It’s not involved with implementation-specific computer features. Instruction set architecture dictates that the computer must assist:

• Arithmetic/logic instructions: These instructions execute various mathematical or logical processing elements solely on a single or maybe more operands (data inputs).
• Data transfer instructions: These instructions move commands from the memory or into the processor registers, or vice versa.
• Branch and jump instructions: These instructions are essential to interrupt the logical sequence of instructions and jump to other destinations.

2. Microarchitecture

Microarchitecture, unlike ISA, focuses on the implementation of how instructions will be executed at a lower level. This is influenced by the microprocessor’s structural design.

Microarchitecture is a technique in which the instruction set architecture incorporates a processor. Engineering specialists and hardware scientists execute ISA with various microarchitectures that vary according to the development of new technologies. Therefore, processors may be physically designed to execute a certain instruction set without modifying the ISA.

Simply put, microarchitecture is the purpose-built logical arrangement of the microprocessor’s electrical components and data pathways. It facilitates the optimum execution of instructions.

3. Client-server architecture

Multiple clients (remote processors) may request and get services from a single, centralized server in a client-server system (host computer). Client computers allow users to request services from the server and receive the server’s reply. Servers receive and react to client inquiries.

A server should provide clients with a standardized, transparent interface so that they are unaware of the system’s features (software and hardware components) that are used to provide the service.

Clients are often located on desktops or laptops, while servers are typically located somewhere else on the network, on more powerful hardware. This computer architecture is most efficient when the clients and the servers frequently perform pre-specified responsibilities.

4. Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) architecture

Single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) computer systems can process multiple data points concurrently. This cleared the path for supercomputers and other devices with incredible performance capabilities. In this form of design, all processors receive an identical command from the control unit yet operate on distinct data packets. The shared memory unit requires numerous modules to interact with all CPUs concurrently.

5. Multicore architecture

Multicore is a framework wherein a single physical processor has the logic of multiple processors. A multicore architecture integrates numerous processing cores onto only one integrated circuit. The goal is to develop a system capable of doing more tasks concurrently, improving overall system performance.

See More: What Is Middleware? Definition, Architecture, and Best Practices

Two notable examples of computer architecture have paved the way for recent advancements in computing. These are ‘Von Neumann architecture’ and ‘Harvard architecture.’ Most other architectural designs are proprietary and are therefore not revealed in the public domain beyond a basic abstraction.

Here’s a description of what these two examples of computer architecture are all about.

1. Von Neumann architecture

The von Neumann architecture, often referred to as the Princeton architecture, is a computer architecture that was established in a 1945 presentation by John von Neumann and his collaborators in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (electronic discrete variable automatic computer). This example of computer architecture proposes five components:

• A processor with connected registers
• A control unit capable of storing instructions
• Memory capable of storing information as well as instructions and communicating via buses
• Additional or external storage
• Device input as well as output mechanisms

2. Harvard architecture

The Harvard architecture refers to a computer architecture with distinct data and instruction storage and signal pathways. In contrast to the von Neumann architecture, in which program instructions and data use the very same memory and pathways, this design separates the two. In practice, a customized Harvard architecture with two distinct caches is employed (for data and instruction); X86 and Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) systems frequently employ this instruction.

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Computer architecture is one of the key concepts that define modern computing. Depending on the architecture, you can build micro-machines such as Raspberry Pi or incredibly powerful systems such as supercomputers. It determines how electrical signals move across the different pathways in a computing system to achieve the most optimal outcome.

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Computer Architecture and Organization pp 1–22 Cite as

Introduction to Computer Architecture and Organization

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A computer is composed of a number of difference components: hardware, software, network, data, and the interactions between those elements for executing instructions to solve problems that can be computed. Turing machine sets up the theoretical foundation for computer science in modeling hardware, algorithms, and computation.

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Hwang, K. (1993). Advanced computer architecture: parallelism, scalability, programmability . New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Randell, B. (Ed.). (1982). The designs of digital computers . Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

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Computer System Architecture

A computer system is basically a machine that simplifies complicated tasks. It should maximize performance and reduce costs as well as power consumption. The different components in the Computer System Architecture are Input Unit, Output Unit, Storage Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit , Control Unit etc.

A diagram that shows the flow of data between these units is as follows −

The input data travels from input unit to ALU. Similarly, the computed data travels from ALU to output unit. The data constantly moves from storage unit to ALU and back again. This is because stored data is computed on before being stored again. The control unit controls all the other units as well as their data.

Details about all the computer units are −

The input unit provides data to the computer system from the outside. So, basically it links the external environment with the computer. It takes data from the input devices, converts it into machine language and then loads it into the computer system. Keyboard, mouse etc. are the most commonly used input devices.

The output unit provides the results of computer process to the users i.e it links the computer with the external environment. Most of the output data is the form of audio or video. The different output devices are monitors, printers, speakers, headphones etc.

Storage unit contains many computer components that are used to store data. It is traditionally divided into primary storage and secondary storage . Primary storage is also known as the main memory and is the memory directly accessible by the CPU . Secondary or external storage is not directly accessible by the CPU. The data from secondary storage needs to be brought into the primary storage before the CPU can use it. Secondary storage contains a large amount of data permanently.

All the calculations related to the computer system are performed by the arithmetic logic unit. It can perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. The control unit transfers data from storage unit to arithmetic logic unit when calculations need to be performed. The arithmetic logic unit and the control unit together form the central processing unit.

This unit controls all the other units of the computer system and so is known as its central nervous system. It transfers data throughout the computer as required including from storage unit to central processing unit and vice versa. The control unit also dictates how the memory, input output devices, arithmetic logic unit etc. should behave.

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

Oct 24, 2014

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE. 1. Introduction by Dr. John Abraham University of Texas- Panam. Computer Architecture. design of computers instruction sets hardware components system organization two parts Instruction set architecture (ISA) hardware-system architecture (HAS).

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COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 1. Introduction by Dr. John Abraham University of Texas- Panam

Computer Architecture • design of computers • instruction sets • hardware components • system organization • two parts • Instruction set architecture (ISA) • hardware-system architecture (HAS)

Instruction set architecture (ISA) • includes specifications that determine how machine-language programmers will interact with the computer • A computer is generally viewed in terms of ISA • which determines the computational characteristics of the computer

Hardware-System architecture (HSA) • Deals with the computer’s major hardware subsystems • CPU • I/O • HAS includes both the logical design and dataflow organization of these components • HAS determines the efficiency of the machine

computer Family architecture • PCs come with varying HSAs • But they all have the same ISA • A computer family is a set of implementations that share the same or similar ISA.

IBM System/360 family architecture • introduced in in the 60s • Models 20,30,40,44,50,65 and 91 • Different amount of memory, speed, storage, etc. • All ran the same software

Other families • DEC PDP-8 family 1965, PDP-11 1970, VAX-11 family 1978 • CDC 6000 family 1960s, CYBER 170 series in the 70s • IBM System /370 family 1970s • IBM Enterprise System Architecture/370, 1988

Compatibility • Ability of different computers to run the same programs • Upward compatibility • High end computers of the same family can run programs written for low end family members • Downward compatibility • Not always possible, since software written for higher end machines may not run on low end machines

History • First Generation • Second Generation • Third Generation • Fourth Generation

First Generation • One of kind laboratory machine • ENIAC • built by Eckert and Mauchly, consultant: John von Neumann • Not a stored program computer • EDSAC, EDVAC • MARK-1..MARK-IV • Howard Eiken

First Generation cont. • Used vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays • First commercial product - UNIVAC • tens of thousand vacuum tubes consumed much power • Produced lot of heat

Second Generation • Transistor invented in 1948 • John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Schockley of Bell Labs • Consumes much less power than vacuum tubes • smaller and more reliable than vacuum tubes • Magnetic-core memory • donut shaped magnetic elements • provided reliability and speed • 1 megabyte core memory cost 1 million dollars

Second Generation cont. • 1950s and early 60s. • Batch processing to maximize CPU • Multiprogramming operating systems were introduced • Operating system loads different programs into non-overlapping parts of memory • Burroughs introduced execution-stack artitecture • uses stack as an integral part of the CPU • provided hardware support for high level languages

Third Generation • 1963-1975 • small scale integration (solid-state) • Medium scale integration • Core memory • Mini computers

Fourth generation • Intel’s first chip in 1973 • VLSI • Micro computers • solid state memory • Inexpensive storage

More speed is needed • weather forecasting • molecular modeling • electronic design • seismic prspecting

How to achieve more speed • Processor arrays • Useful for array manipulations • CPU intensive repetitive operations • Pipelining • Assembly line fashion • Several instructions are worked on simultaneously - all at different stages

Achieving higher speed contd. • RISCs (reduced instruction set computers) • as opposed to complex-instruction-set computers (CISCs) • Multiprocessor computers • Many separate processors. • Alternative architectures • neural networks, dataflow, demand-driven, etc.

Classification of Computer Architectures • Von Neumann Machines • Non-von Neumann Machines

Von Neumann Machines • Hardware has CPU, main memory and IO system • Stored program computer • sequential instruction operation • Single path between CPU and main memory (bottleneck)

Modifications of Von Neuman machines • Harvard architectures • provides independent pathways for data address, data, instruction address, and instructions • Allow CPU to access instruction and data simultaneously

CPU • Control unit • ALU • registers • program counter

Instructions • instructions are stored as values in memory • These values tell the computer what operation to perform • Every instruction has a set of fields • these fields provide specific details to control unit • Instruction format - the way the fields are laid out

Instructions contd. • Instruction size - how many bytes needed. • Operands - data for the operation • Opcode - numeric code representing the instruction • Instruction set - Each CPU has a specific set of instruction it is able to execute • A program is a sequence of instructions

Instruction contd. • Each instruction in a program has a logical address. • Each instruction as a physical address depending on where in memory it is stored. • The sequences of instruction to execcute is called a instruction stream • To keep track of instruction in memory PC is used

von Neumann machine cycle • instruction fetch • instruction execution • After each fetch the PC points to the next physical address

Flynn classification • SISD - single instruction stream, single data stream (von Neumann computer) • The rest are non-von Neumann classification • SIMD - Single instruction stream, multiple data stream. Multiple Cus. One CU controls all other Cus • Processor arrays fall into this category

Flynn classification contd. • MISD - multiple instruction stream, single data stream. No use for this type. • MIMD - Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream. • Multiprocessors. More than one independent processor.

Parallel processors • Both SIMD and MIMD machines are called parallel processors • They operate in parallel on more than one datum at a time.

Classification of parallel processors • based on memory organization • Global Memory (GM) One global memory is shared by all processors • current high performance computers have this type of memory • Local-memory (LM) Each processor has its own memory. • They share data through a common memory area

SIMD machine characteristics • They distribute processing over a large amount of hardware • They operate concurrently on many different data elements • They perform the same computation on all data elements • One CU(control unit) and many PEs (processing elements)

MIMD machine characteristics • Distribute processing over a number of independent processors • share resources including memory • Each processor operates independently and concurrently • Each processor runs its own program • tightly or loosely coupled

Category examples • SISD (RISC) Uniprocessor MIPS R2000, SUN SPARC, IBM R6000 • SISD (CISC) Uniprocessor IBM PC, DEC PDP-11, VAX-11 • GM-SIMD processor array Burroghs BSP • LM-SIMD Processor array ILLIAC IV, MPP, CM-1 • GM-MIMD Multiprocessor DEC and IBM tightly coupled • LM-MIMD Multiple processor Tandem/16, iPSC/2

Measuring Quality of a computer architecture • Generality • Applicability • Efficiency • Ease of Use • Malleability • Expandability

Generality • Range of applications that can be run on a particular architecture • Generality tends to increase the complexity of application implementations • The more complex a design fewer clones will be made of it.. (Good/Bad?)

Applicability • Utility of architecture for what it was intended for • Scientific and Engineering applications • computation intensive • General commercial applications

Efficiency • Measure of the average amount of hardware that remains busy during normal computer use. • Because of the low cost of hardware now, efficiency is considered very important.

Ease of use • Ease with which system programs can be developed

Malleability • Ease with which computers in the same family can be implemented using this architecture • Example- machines that differ in size and performance

Expandability • How easy is to increase the capabilities of an architecture. • Increase number of devices? Make larger devices?

Factors influencing the success of an architecture • Architectural merit • Open/closed architecture • System performance • System Cost

Architectural merit • Measured by: • applicability • Malleability • Expandability • Compatibility

Open/closed architecture • Example of Open: IBM PC • Example of Closed: Apple

System Performance • Speed of the computer • Benchmark tests • Linpack, Livermore loops, Whetstone, SPEC • Matrics • MIPS, MFLOPS, GFLOPS • Clock ticks per instruction • I/O speed • bandwidth and megabits per second

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Introduction

• Evolution of Computing Devices
• Digital Computers
• Boolean Algebra
• Basics of Digital Components
• Memory Unit
• Random Access Memory
• Read Only Memory

Architecture of Computer System

• Logic Gates
• Instruction Codes
• Addressing Modes and Instruction Cycle
• Memory Organisation
• Mapping and Virtual Memory
• Parallel Processing
• Vector and Superscalar
• Array Processor
• I/O Organisation
• I/O Processor
• Priority Interrupt
• Serial Communication
• I/O Channels
• Interleaved Memory
• RISC/CISC Processors
• Booth Multiplication
• Design of Control Unit

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In computer, the CPU executes each instruction provided to it, in a series of steps, this series of steps is called Machine Cycle , and is repeated for each instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching of instruction , decoding the instruction , transferring the data , executing the instruction .

Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations, which are given below:

Output Unit

Storage unit.

• Arithmetic Logic Unit

Control Unit

Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input devices are keyboard , mouse , magnetic tape etc.

Input unit performs following tasks:

• Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.
• Convert it into machine language.
• Supply the converted data to computer system.

It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results of any computation, or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices are printers , monitor etc.

This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are sent to the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.

The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:

• Primary Storage : This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed. It is used for temporary storage of data. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage memory.
• Secondary Storage : The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data. Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit

All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU. When the operations are done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.

It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to and from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also known as central nervous system of the computer.

It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. It performs following tasks:

• It performs all operations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all the units of computer.

Above figure shows the block diagram of a computer.

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