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Introduction

Historiography is the study of the methods and conclusions of historians concerning a specific topic.  Mastering historiography is a foundational activity of graduate education in history and related fields.  This guide provides suggestions to find already written historiographies and to gather sources to write such an original historiographical essay. The tools and suggestions here are only starting points. Please contact me if you need additional assistance. 

Searching for Historiographical Articles

Historiographies are rarely published as monographs. Most are articles, essays or book chapters. One of the best methods to find this type of scholarship is via a scholarly index. The two man indexes for historical research are America, History and Life (United States and Canada) and Historical Abstracts  (the rest of the world). The two keywords that retrieve this type of material are "historiograph*" (the * will return all words starting with that root) and "review essay." Enter these in one line and use the Boolean connector "or" between them. In the next line type the desired subject. If the initial search does not work, broaden the term. 

Historiography Journals

There are no journals devoted to historiography. There are a few journals that run historiographical essays frequently. For those interested in American history, Reviews in American History  is always worth the effort.

• Transversal: International Journal for the Historiography of Science This open access journal is published in English by the Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. The journal take a broad approach to covering trends in history of science scholarship.

The majority of historiography is published in scholarly journals.Still, it is worth searching the KU Catalog for relevant monograph sources. Use the advanced search screen to search "historiography" and the relevant subject. 

Blackwell Companions

Blackwell Companions explore the historiography of various themes, eras, and/or people. The links below are to various subsets of the series. Please note that it is hard to tell from the series title what topics it includes--poke around at all the titles until you find what you need. Titles are in print and e-book formats.

• Blackwell Companions to American History Each of these books contains of historiographical essays. Be sure to note that some of these take chronological approach, but others are thematic.
• Blackwell Companions to American History. Presidential Companions
• Blackwell Companions to British History
• Blackwell companions to European History
• Blackwell Companions to History This series includes historiographical essays on a wide variety of topics including, gender, global environmental, Mexican, and international history.
• Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World
• Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. Ancient History
• Blackwell Companions to World History This series includes collections of essays on a number of different countries and regions.

Subject Guide

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Print Resources

• Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing Covering all areas of history, this two volume set provides criticism about historians as well as historiographical essays on selected topics.
• Reader's Guide to American History Arranged topically this work provides brief historiographical essays on important topics in American history.
• Reader's Guide to British History Arranged topically this work provides brief historiographical essays on important topics in British history.
• Reader's Guide to Military History International in scope, this volume contains historiographical essays on a variety of military history topics.
• The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature This two volume work provides brief annotations for important historical work published between 1962 and 1991. It covers all geographic areas. Be sure to use the index in volume two.

Cambridge Histories

Biographical resources.

• American Historians 1866-1912
• American historians, 1607-1865
• American Women Historians, 1700s - 1900s: A Biographical Dictionary
• Blackwell Dictionary of Historians
• Eighteenth-century British Historians
• Great Historians of the Modern Age: An International Dictionary
• Twentieth Century American Historians
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• Last Updated: Dec 24, 2019 8:42 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.ku.edu/historiography

Historical Methods & Theory

• Thinking Like a Historian
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• Finding Articles

What is a Historiographical Essay?

Historiographical essays, evaluating secondary sources, acknowledgement.

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A historiographical essay:

• Is based on a broad, less focused topic or theme, e.g., Reconstruction in the United States)
• Critically examines secondary sources written by historians
• Puts emphasis on the historian, the historian's bias and how the writing of a particular topic has changed over the years
• Examines and compares other historians' arguments in opposition to each other

The purpose of an historiographic essay is threefold:

• To allow you to view an historical event or issue from multiple perspectives by engaging multiple sources;
• To display your mastery over those sources and over the event or issue itself; and
• To develop your critical reading skills as you seek to answer why your sources disagree, and what their disagreement tells you about the event or issue and the very nature of history itself.

Selected Titles About Historiography

• What information is given about the author? Is the author an historian?
• Can you identify the historian's school of thought?
• Read the table of contents, preface and other introductry material. Does the author set up his/her thesis (or point of view) in these sections? Who is the intended audience? Is it written for historians or for a general audience?
• What is the date of publication? If the book or article is old, it will not highlight recent scholarship. Is this important? Is it a reflection of the histories of the time or does it deviate from the norm?
• What primary source material does the author use? What primary source material may have been available to the author at the time?
• Consider the bibliography. Do the sources listed indicate serious works that are relevant to your topic? You may want to consult works used by the author. 

All materials from: Historiography: Ramapo College,   https://libguides.ramapo.edu/HIST201rice

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Write a Historiography

1. narrow your topic and select books and articles accordingly, 2. search for literature, 3. read the selected books and articles thoroughly and evaluate them, 4. organize the selected sources by looking for patterns and by developing subtopics, 5. develop a thesis statement, 6. draft the paper, 7. review your work.

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Consider your specific area of study. Think about what interests you and other researchers in your field.  

Talk to your professor or TA, brainstorm, and read lecture notes and current issues in periodicals in the field.  

Limit your scope appropriately based on the assignment guidelines (i.e., focusing on France's role in the Second World War, not the whole world, or on the legal agency of women in medieval Scotland, not all medieval European women). 

• Four Steps to Narrow Your Research Topic (Video) This 3-minute video provides instructions on how to narrow the focus of your research topic.
• Developing a Research Question + Worksheet Use this worksheet to develop, assess, and refine your research questions. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Define your source selection criteria (i.e., articles published within a specific date range or written through specific historical lenses; or research applying specific theories and methodologies or focusing on a specific geographic region, chronological period, or historical event).  

Using keywords, search a library database. If you need help finding the literature, contact a librarian through 

• Ask Us Contact a librarian via chat, email, phone or the AskUs desk on the main floor of McLaughlin Library
• Book an appointment Book a consultation to get research help.

Published articles and books always cite earlier studies in the footnotes, endnotes or bibliography: you can use these to trace the development of the subject.  

Include studies with conflicting points of view to help create a more engaging discussion within your historiographical paper.  

Evaluate and synthesize the studies' findings and conclusions.  

Note the following:  

• assumptions some or most historians seem to make.  
• methodologies, theories, and sources that historians have used to answer historical questions.  
• experts in the field, usually recognized as names that come up repeatedly in the literature (cited in the text or in the footnotes).  
• conflicting assumptions, theories, methodologies, and types of sources.  
• popular theories and interpretations, and how these have changed (or not) over time.  

You may not agree with everything you read and, indeed, the point of historiography is to critique (positively and constructively) the work of other historians on a given subject. With that in mind, remember the following historical conventions:  

• Someone writing in 1883 about the Norman Conquest of 1066 may not consider questions that are central to more recent kinds of history, but this does not mean that earlier historians and antiquarians were unqualified, unintelligent, or uninformed: they simply had different biases and experiences. These are worth discussing (for example, it might be worthwhile to compare how Protestant and Catholic historians of the late nineteenth century wrote about the sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation) but avoid condemning the authors outright without a thoughtful explanation of your critiques.  
• Consider why historians writing in the 1930s were not engaging with questions about gender history and compare the outcomes of their methods and research to the arguments being made by feminist scholars writing since the 1970s. Dig into how different theories, assumptions, and methodologies have led scholars to different conclusions about the same events. 

Note the following: 

• Findings that are common/contested. 
• Important trends in the research. 
• Popular sources, important theories, and common methodologies. 
• For example, the histories of many topics, regions, and periods have had “phases” like the Great Man Theory of History, the Cultural Turn, Feminist History, Disability Studies, and Queer History. Each of these has been tied to contemporary social changes, such as interest in nationalism during and after the World Wars, influences from sociology and anthropology, and different waves of social justice activism in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.

Tip: If your historiography is extensive, find a large table surface, and on it place post-it notes or filing cards to organize all your findings into categories.

• Move them around if you decide that (a) they fit better under different headings, or (b) you need to establish new topic headings. 
• Develop headings/subheadings that reflect the major themes and patterns you detected. 

Write a one- or two-sentence statement summarizing the conclusion you have reached about the major trends and developments you see in the research that has been conducted on your subject.

Some example statements to help you get started are: 

• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but I am the most convinced by the scholars who say Y because… 
• Historians disagree about X (your topic), but there is something bigger going on, and the whole debate should be reframed with Y in mind. 
• Historians have come to a consensus about X (your topic), but I disagree and propose a different interpretation (e.g., one that considers gender, one that takes a middle view, or one that incorporates underused primary sources). 

Explore the following library resources to help you create and revise your thesis statement: 

• Templates for Writing Thesis Statements This template provides a two-step guide for writing thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Types of Thesis Statements Learn about five different types of thesis statements to help you choose the best type for your research. There is also a downloadable PDF version.
• 5 Questions to Strengthen Your Thesis Statement Follow these five steps to strengthen your thesis statements. There is also a downloadable PDF version.

Note: The thesis statement is typically located in the first paragraph of a short paper (fewer than 2000 words) but can be left to the second paragraph of a larger paper (more than 2000 words) if you feel the reader needs more contextual or background information before you begin your argument. 

Follow the organizational structure you developed above, including any headings and subheadings you constructed. 

Make certain that each section links logically to the one before and after. 

Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual theorists or researchers. 

• Tip: If you find that each paragraph begins with a researcher's name, it might indicate that, instead of evaluating and comparing the research literature from an analytical point of view, you have simply described what research has been done. 

Prioritize analysis over description. 

• For example, look at the following two passages and note that Student A merely describes the literature. The writing is strong, but Student A has not explained how these two historians came to different conclusions. The paragraph would be stronger if it followed Student B’s approach. 
• Student B takes a more analytical and evaluative approach by comparing the methods and sources used by the historians. One thing to look for (and use) in historiographical writing is keywords that suggest there is some evaluation happening. Here, Student B makes logical connections (“conversely,” “this is due to,” and “as a result”). These techniques demonstrate Student B's ability to synthesize knowledge and explain the differences in the studies based on the sources used. 

Student A: Keith M. Brown argues that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. A different scholar, Julian Goodare, argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. According to Goodare, by the end of James VI’s reign, the state attained sufficient command of its organization to reintroduce an episcopal structure to the contemporary kirk. It also gained the authority to define the role of church and state in the trial and conviction of moral and criminal offences. In other words, the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently, and Scottish nobles acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties, with varying rewards and consequences.

Student B: Julian Goodare and Keith Brown have reached quite different conclusions about the role that the Scottish nobility played in helping or hindering the efforts of Protestant reformers.  This is due in part to the bodies of sources each employed. Brown drew on a wide variety of archival sources that provided insight into the lives of individuals and families: family papers and letters, local court records, and documents relating to bloodfeud. For Brown, these records demonstrate that, although James VI had clear ideas about what he wanted the reformed Scottish and English churches to look like, he relied on his relationships with magnates and ministers to ensure the speed, success, and cohesion of reform efforts. Conversely, Goodare offers a more traditional political examination of Scotland’s development from a medieval kingdom into an early modern state. After consulting crown financial documents, proceedings of the general assemblies, state papers, and the records of the privy seal records and justiciary court, Goodare argues that James VI came awfully close and indeed, in some cases, succeeded at reorganizing Scotland’s dissident authoritative bodies—the kirk, nobility, parliament, and crown—into a centralized and moderately absolutist government. As a result, the concepts of personal kingship and crown-magnate negotiations of power so central to Brown’s analysis are absent from Goodare’s assessment, in which the latter argues that the crown itself wielded sufficient authority to govern independently and that Scottish nobles merely acquiesced to or resisted its demands as they performed their institutional duties.

Note: These examples have been reproduced and modified with the permission of the student author. For the purposes of these example paragraphs, citations have been omitted, but you should always indicate your sources using footnotes.

Content 

Make an outline of each section of the paper and decide whether you need to add information, delete irrelevant information, or re-structure sections.  

Look at the topic sentences of each paragraph. If you were to read only these sentences, would you find that your paper presented a clear position, logically developed, from beginning to end? The topic sentences of each paragraph should indicate the main points of your historiography. 

Read your work aloud (or use the speech-to-text feature in your word processor to have the computer read it to you). That way you will be better able to identify where you need punctuation marks to signal pauses or divisions within sentences, where you have made grammatical errors, or where your sentences are unclear. 

Avoid over-generalizations: societies are made up of individuals and they vary regionally and temporally. Starting your paper with “Since the first history was written...” or claiming that "scholars agree that the Enlightenment was the Age of Reason” is neither specific nor accurate. 

Evidence 

Since the purpose of historiography is partly to demonstrate that the writer is familiar with the important literature on the chosen subject, check to make certain that you have covered a broad selection of the important, up-to-date, and pertinent texts. What is considered relevant will depend on your subject, region, and period. Good strategies are to pick a few monographs from each decade of the past fifty years and to follow up on authors whose names show up frequently in the historiography sections of other papers. If you need help, ask your instructor or TA for advice once you have picked your topic. 

Check to make sure that you have not plagiarized either by failing to cite a source of information or by using words quoted directly from a source. (Usually, if you take four or more words—in a row—directly from another source, you should put those words within quotation marks, and cite the page.) 

Formatting 

Make certain that all the citations and references are correct and that you are using the appropriate formatting style for your discipline. Most history courses at the University of Guelph ask that you use the Chicago Manual of Style: Notes & Bibliography. If you are uncertain which style to use, ask your instructor.

Sentences should flow smoothly and logically. The text should be written in a clear and concise academic style; it should not be descriptive in nature or use the language of everyday speech (colloquialisms, slang) or excessive disciplinary jargon (specialist words). There should be no grammatical or spelling errors. 

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Guide Feedback

About this guide.

This guide will provide you with information on researching for a historiographic essay , guide you to Pace resources to use for research and link to additional resources that may be helpful in completing your assignment.  

Use the links on the left side to access information. 

   (Image from Pixabay)

For questions on the guide, please contact librarian, Jessica Kiebler at [email protected]. For questions about research for the assignment, contact Jessica Kiebler or the Get Help tab on the left to contact a librarian. 

About the historiography assignment

What is a historiographic essay? 

"Historiography is the study of how history is written.  No single scholar’s approach is “correct” or unimpeachable, because no matter how much he or she tries to treat the subject at hand in a fair and unbiased manner, the final product is invariably shaped by political agendas and pressures, contemporary trends in academia, limitations of resources, and the inherent subjectivity of critical analysis....

A historiographical essay is one which summarizes and analyzes historians’ changing arguments and interpretations of a historical topic ."

(From  https://www.agnesscott.edu/writingandspeaking/handouts/f12-historiographical-essays_rev.-2018.pdf ) 

The links below provide descriptions and step by step details on crafting a historiographic essay. 

• Historiographic Essay Manual This manual provides guidance on selecting a topic, getting started and building a bibliography.
• The Center for Writing & Speaking: Historiographical Essays This PDF provides example perspectives and questions to ask as you research your historiography.
• VIDEO: Difference between a literature review & a historiography This video from Central Connecticut State University Libraries explains the differences between a literature review & a historiography as both deal with collecting past writings on a topic.
• Hints for Writing a Historiographical Essay A professor provides some strategies for writing a historiographical essay.
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How to Write a Historiographical Essay

December 15, 2023

Understanding the purpose of a historiographical essay is crucial to writing a successful and informative essay. Essentially, the purpose of a historiographical essay is to provide an overview of the scholarly literature on a particular topic. Historiographical essays allow writers to identify, analyze and evaluate the existing scholarship on a topic and to present their findings in a cogent and persuasive manner. The key to writing a successful historiographical essay is to demonstrate a clear understanding of the topic and to provide a balanced and insightful analysis of the existing scholarship. To achieve this, writers must be able to critically evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and identify areas where new research is needed. By doing so, writers can make important contributions to the historiography of their respective fields and advance our collective understanding of important historical topics.

Selecting a Topic

Selecting a topic is a crucial step in writing a historiographical essay. The topic must be appropriate in terms of its relevance, scope, and availability of sources. It is important to choose a topic that is important to the field and has a rich historiography, as this will allow the writer to engage with a range of different debates and interpretations. Once a suitable topic has been identified, it is important to begin the process of gathering sources and identifying key debates within the existing historiography. This process can be time-consuming and challenging, but it is crucial in developing a nuanced and insightful understanding of the topic. Ultimately, a strong historiographical essay will demonstrate a deep knowledge of the topic, a mastery of the relevant literature, and the ability to provide critical analysis and synthesis of existing scholarship.

Example Historiographical Essay Topics:

• The Historiography of the American Civil War
• The Historiography of World War II
• The Historiography of the French Revolution
• The Historiography of Ancient Greece
• The Historiography of Women’s Suffrage Movements
• The Historiography of Colonialism in Africa
• The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement
• The Historiography of the Renaissance
• The Historiography of the Holocaust
• The Historiography of the Cold War

Gathering and Analyzing Sources

Gathering and analyzing sources is a fundamental step in writing a historiographical essay. To effectively engage with the existing scholarship on a topic, writers must collect a wide range of sources and critically evaluate them. Here are some key steps to consider:

• Identify primary and secondary sources: Begin by identifying primary sources that are directly related to your topic. These may include archival documents, diaries, or personal letters. Also, gather relevant secondary sources such as scholarly articles, books, and monographs that provide analysis and interpretation of the topic.
• Evaluate the credibility and reliability of sources: Assess the credibility and expertise of the authors and publishers. Consider the date of publication to gauge how current the information is. Ensure that the sources come from reputable journals or publishing houses.
• Analyze the perspectives and arguments: Read the sources carefully and analyze the differing perspectives and arguments presented. Take note of recurring themes, debates, and gaps in the literature.
• Create an annotated bibliography: Compile an annotated bibliography that provides a summary and evaluation of each source. Include key arguments, methodologies used, and any biases or limitations.
• Identify trends and debates: Explore how different historians have approached the topic and identify key trends or shifts in interpretations over time. Look for areas of consensus and disagreement among scholars.

By effectively gathering and analyzing sources, writers can develop a comprehensive understanding of the existing historiography, identify gaps, and construct a well-rounded and persuasive argument in their historiographical essay.

Developing an Outline

Developing an outline is an essential step in organizing the structure and flow of a historiographical essay. It helps writers to establish a clear and logical framework for their arguments. Here are some key considerations when developing an outline for a historiographical essay:

Introduction:

• Provide an overview of the topic and its historical context.
• Clearly state the purpose of the essay and the thesis statement.

Background and Historiographical Context:

• Provide a brief overview of the existing scholarship and historiography on the topic.
• Highlight key debates, theories, and influential historians.

Themes and Trends in the Historiography:

• Identify major themes and trends that have emerged in the literature.
• Discuss the different approaches and interpretations.

Critique and Evaluation of Sources and Arguments:

• Analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the existing scholarship.
• Evaluate the credibility, biases, and limitations of sources and arguments.

Identifying Gaps and Future Directions:

• Discuss areas where further research is needed and potential avenues for future scholarship.

Conclusion:

• Recap the main arguments and findings from the historiographical analysis.
• Reflect on the significance of the topic and its contribution to the field.

By structuring the essay with a well-developed outline, writers can ensure that their arguments are coherent, logical, and supported by the existing historiography.

Experience the convenience of generating historiography essays effortlessly with our new tool .

Writing the Introduction

The introduction of a historiographical essay plays a vital role in setting the stage for the reader and presenting the main objectives and arguments of the essay. Here are some key elements to consider when writing the introduction:

Contextualize the topic:

• Provide a brief overview of the historical era, event, or theme being examined.
• Establish the historical significance of the topic and its relevance to the field of study.

Introduce the historiographical approach:

• Explain the purpose of a historiographical essay, which is to analyze the existing scholarship and interpretations on the topic.
• Highlight the importance of understanding how historians have studied and written about the topic over time.

Present the main thesis or argument:

• Clearly state the main argument or thesis that the essay will be exploring.
• Provide a preview of the main points or themes that will be discussed to support the argument.

Outline the structure of the essay:

• Give a brief overview of how the essay will be structured, including the main sections or themes that will be covered.
• This helps provide a roadmap for the reader and allows them to understand the progression of the essay.

Engage the reader:

• Begin with an attention-grabbing opening sentence or a thought-provoking question related to the topic.
• Establish a connection with the reader by explaining why the topic is important and how it relates to broader historical debates or current events.

By crafting a well-written and informative introduction, the writer can effectively capture the reader’s attention and provide a solid foundation for the rest of the historiographical essay.

Background and Historiographical Context

Before delving into the analysis and evaluation of the existing scholarship, it is essential to provide a solid background and historiographical context in a historiographical essay. This section sets the stage for the reader and helps them understand the broader historical landscape surrounding the topic. Here are some key points to consider in this section:

Historical background:

• Provide a brief overview of the historical period, event, or theme being studied.
• Highlight any key historical developments or events that are relevant to the topic.

Importance of the topic:

• Explain why the topic is significant within the context of the broader field of study.
• Highlight its relevance to wider historical debates or its impact on society.

Historiographical overview:

• Summarize the development of the historiography on the topic over time.
• Identify influential works, key historians, and pivotal moments in the evolution of the scholarship.

Key debates and interpretations:

• Introduce major debates among historians regarding different aspects of the topic.
• Highlight the key interpretations and schools of thought that have emerged in the historiography.

By providing a comprehensive background and historiographical context, this section prepares the reader for the subsequent analysis and evaluation of the existing scholarship in the historiographical essay.

Themes and Trends in the Historiography

Analyzing the themes and trends in the historiography is a crucial aspect of writing a historiographical essay. This section explores the ideas, theories, and overarching patterns that have emerged in the scholarship on the topic. Here are key points to consider:

Identify major themes:

• Discuss the recurring topics or concepts that historians have focused on when studying the topic.
• Highlight the different aspects of the topic that have received significant attention within the historiography.

Examine evolving perspectives:

• Discuss how interpretations and perspectives on the topic have evolved over time.
• Identify significant shifts in historiographical approaches and theories.

Analyze methodologies:

• Explore the methodologies and approaches employed by historians in studying the topic.
• Consider the methods used in collecting and analyzing primary sources, as well as the theoretical frameworks applied.

Evaluate prevailing interpretations:

• Identify dominant interpretations or schools of thought within the historiography.
• Examine the strengths and weaknesses of these interpretations and their impact on the field.

By analyzing the themes and trends in the historiography, writers can demonstrate their understanding of the scholarly discourse and provide a comprehensive overview of the different perspectives on the topic.

Critique and Evaluation of Sources and Arguments

Critiquing and evaluating the sources and arguments is a crucial component of a historiographical essay. This section assesses the reliability, biases, and scholarly contributions of both primary and secondary sources. Here are some key points to consider:

Critique of primary sources:

• Evaluate the quality, authenticity, and biases of the primary sources used by historians.
• Consider the context in which the sources were created and any limitations they may have.

Evaluation of secondary sources:

• Assess the arguments, methodologies, and evidence presented in the secondary sources.
• Consider the credibility and expertise of the authors and their contributions to the field of study.

Comparison of perspectives:

• Compare and contrast the different interpretations and arguments presented by historians.
• Analyze the similarities, differences, and points of contention among the various perspectives.

Identification of gaps and limitations:

• Identify any gaps or limitations in the existing scholarship on the topic.
• Consider areas where further research or analysis is needed.

Synthesis of sources and arguments:

• Synthesize the various sources and arguments to identify overarching trends and common themes.
• Evaluate the overall strengths and weaknesses of the historiographical discourse on the topic.

By critically evaluating the sources and arguments, writers can demonstrate their ability to engage with the existing scholarship and contribute to the ongoing discourse on the topic in a historiographical essay.

Writing the Conclusion

The conclusion of a historiographical essay serves as the final opportunity to summarize and synthesize the key findings, arguments, and perspectives presented throughout the essay. Here are some important points to consider when writing the conclusion:

Summarize the main arguments:

• Recapitulate the main arguments and interpretations presented in the essay.
• Highlight the different perspectives and approaches that have been examined.

Evaluate the historiography:

• Reflect on the strengths and weaknesses of the existing scholarship on the topic.
• Discuss any overarching trends or significant shifts in historiographical interpretations.

Address remaining questions and gaps:

• Consider any lingering questions or unresolved issues in the historiography.
• Discuss areas where further research is needed to fill gaps in knowledge.

Discuss personal insights and contributions:

• Offer your own insights and reflections on the topic based on the analysis conducted.
• Highlight any unique contributions or perspectives you have brought to the historiography.

Emphasize the significance:

• Reinforce the importance and relevance of studying the topic within the field of history.
• Discuss how the historiographical essay contributes to the broader understanding of the topic.

By writing a concise and comprehensive conclusion, you can effectively summarize the key points and contributions made in the historiographical essay, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of the topic’s historiography and its significance.

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Research Help for History Students: Historiography

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Getting Started

At some point during your time in the History program at the University of Hartford, you will come across a word that has kept historians on their toes for decades -  HISTORIOGRAPHY .  It is important for every history student to understand the two common uses of the term and how they relate to the discipline.  

Historiography, broadly defined, is the study of the discipline of history.  It goes one step past learning about a historical event. Historiography asks you to consider how interpretations or studies of events have changed over time.  Whereas in a typical history paper you would use primary sources as your evidence for what you claim, historiographies require using articles and books written by historians (otherwise known as secondary sources) to understand how interpretations of historical events have changed over time. 

Historiography as a General Descriptor

Historiography (General Descriptor)  of a topic consists of a group of interpretations around one topic, written by past and present historians.  

For example:  "The historiography of the decision to use the atomic bomb on Hiroshima changed over the years as new research questioned the former consensus view that the decision to drop the bomb was predicated on the necessity to save American lives." 

For example:  "The historiography on the causes of the American Revolution have changed over time as new research has uncovered and analyzed primary source documents on several groups of people involved in the Revolution."

Looking at it this way, historiography can be added to your paper to make it more complete, or you can discuss the "state of the historiography" at a certain point in time.  

Historiography as a Noun

A  Historiographical Paper (noun)  is an analysis of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past historians. Specifically, a historiography identifies influential thinkers and reveals the shape of the scholarly debate on a particular subject. 

The major purpose of writing a historiographical paper is to convey the scholarship of other historians on a particular subject, rather than to analyze the subject itself.

• A historiography can be a stand-alone paper, in which case your paper examines the work completed by other historians. 
• Alternately, a historiography can act as an introduction to a major research paper, in which you will go on to add your own analysis.

Thus, a good historiography does the following:

• Points out influential books and papers that exemplified, shaped, or revolutionized a field of study.
• Shows which scholars were most effective in changing the scope of the debate.
• Describes the current trends in the field of study, such as which interpretation is currently in the mainstream.
• Allows the writer (that's you!) to position themselves in the field for their analysis.

Created, Updated, Adapted

Created by Alan Witt 02/2012.  Updated by Alan Witt 04/2012.  Updated by Michaela Keating 11/2013.  Adapted by Jillian Maynard 07/2017.  Updated by Taylor St. Pierre 7/2021.

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Types of Writing Assignments

• Narrative History
• Response Papers
• Creative Approaches
• Annotated Bibliographies
• Book Reviews

Historiographic Essays

• Research Papers

Basic Considerations When Writing on History

• Cause and Effect
• Establishing a Broader Context
• Common Fallacies

Types of Sources

• Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources
• Fiction/Art/Poetry
• The Internet

Critical Reading

• Historiography
• Bias/Prejudice
• Evaluating Contradictory Data and Claims

Preparation and Writing

• Time Management
• Note-Taking Tips
• Developing a Thesis
• Organization
• Formulating a Conclusion

Basic Quoting Skills

• Quotation/Annotation
• Bibliographies
• Advanced Quoting Skills
• The Ethics of Quoting

Style and Editing

• Drafts and Revisions
• Common Stylistic Errors

What is historiography?

Parts of a historiographic essay, a sample historiographic essay, works cited.

In a nutshell, historiography is the history of history. Rather than subjecting actual events - say, the Rape of Nanking - to historical analysis, the subject of historiography is the history of the history of the event: the way it has been written, the sometimes conflicting objectives pursued by those writing on it over time, and the way in which such factors shape our understanding of the actual event at stake, and of the nature of history itself.

A historiographic essay thus asks you to explore several sometimes contradictory sources on one event. An annotated bibliography might come in handy as you attempt to locate such sources; you should also consult the footnotes and bibliographies of any text you read on a certain event, as they will lead you to other texts on the same event; if your research is web-based, follow links - always bearing in mind the pitfalls of the Internet - and if you are researching in the library, check out the books on nearby shelves: you'll be surprised by how often this yields sources you may otherwise never have found.

For an example of an essay on multiple perspectives on the same event (for our purposes, the Rape of Nanking, an event also examined in the context of Book Reviews ), click here .

The purpose of an historiographic essay is threefold: 1.) to allow you to view an historical event or issue from multiple perspectives by engaging multiple sources; 2.) to display your mastery over those sources and over the event or issue itself; and 3.) to develop your critical reading skills as you seek to answer why your sources disagree, and what their disagreement tells you about the event or issue and the very nature of history itself.

Specific skills honed by such an exercise include your ability to discern bias or prejudice and to evaluate contradictory data and claims . As you will have to quote from your sources in order to make your point, you will also have to display basic quoting skills . The very nature of an essay on multiple sources also requires a Works Cited page, of course, on which, see Bibliography .

You will begin a historiographic essay with a thesis that presents the issue or event at stake, then introduces your sources and articulates, in brief, their authors' perspectives and their main points of (dis)agreement. In the main body of your paper you will elaborate upon and develop this latter point, pulling out specific points of (dis)agreement, juxtaposing quotes (and/or paraphrasing arguments) and subjecting them to analysis as you go along. As you do so, ask (and answer) why you think the authors of your various sources disagree. Is their disagreement a product of personal or professional rivalry, ideological incompatibility, national affiliation? These questions go to the heart of historiography. In your conclusion , finally, you will briefly summarize your findings and, more importantly, assess the credibility of your various sources, and specify which one(s) you find to be most compelling, and why. In final conclusion you might articulate in brief the insights you have gained into the event or issue at stake, the sources you have used, and the nature of history itself.

Let us assume that the subject of your historiographic essay is the Rape of Nanking, an event discussed in some detail in the Book Reviews section. There, we examine the event as it is described and analyzed by Iris Chang in her bestselling book The Rape of Nanking . To this we now add several other sources, all of which are listed in the Works Cited section at the end of this page , and cited in the text immediately following, which exemplifies, in brief, some of the basic strategies of a historiographic essay.

• THESIS: The so-called Rape of Nanking of 1937, a six-week massacre of Chinese civilians in the city of Nanking perpetrated by the invading Japanese army, was presented to a largely uninitiated American mass audience by Iris Chang in her best-selling book The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (1997). Chang's vivid book spawned international interest and a number of responses from fellow historians worldwide. Western historians generally agreed with Chang's insistence that the event - long a mere footnote in the popular historiography of World War II - deserved larger notice, but some criticized her for displaying personal bias as well as historical inaccuracies and methodological weaknesses of various sorts. The response from a number of Japanese scholars was overwhelmingly negative. They denied her account of a post-war Japanese "cover up," yet at the same time also, to varying degrees, denied that the event had even occurred.
• EXAMPLE (1): Tanaka Masaaki, for example, author of the website "What Really Happened at Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth," refers to Chang's work as one of "lies, hyperbole, propaganda." Chang's "mountains of dead bodies," according to Matsaaki, were mountains "that no one saw." Her "Reports of mass murders of prisoners of War [were] fabricated," he claims, offering as evidence that there was "no mention of the 'Nanking Massacre'" - a term he pointedly places in quotation marks - "in Chinese Communist Party Records"; and that "No protests against the 'Nanking Massacre' [was] submitted to the League of Nations [or] ... by the United States, Great Britian, or France." The event, he concludes - if there even was one - was "a massacre with no witnesses" (Masaaki).

ANALYSIS: Much of Masaaki's criticism smacks of precisely the kind of revisionism Chang critiques in her book, and is easily exposed as such. The fact that Chinese communist party records make no mention of the event, for example, is hardly surprising, as the Chinese communists were at this time in disarray, operating largely underground in the Nanking area. Not until 1949 did the communists begin their rule over China and begin keeping official records: why then should we expect there to exist records dating back to 1937? Nor should the silence of the League of Nations, the United States, Great Britain and France come as any surprise. In the same year that France and Britain stood by as Nazi Germany re-militarized the Rhineland in violation of the Treaty of Versailles; and that the United States and the League of Nation stood by as Franco and Mussolini continued in their campaigns against the rightful governments of Spain and Ethiopia, why would we expect the United States or the League of Nations to have registered any protest over events halfway around the world?

• EXAMPLE (2): Other arguments by Masaaki are more compelling. For example, he notes of one of the many disturbing photographs in Chang's book - a famous one, apparently showing a Chinese prisoner of war about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer brandishing a sword - that its "fakery is easy to detect if you look at the shadow cast by the man at the center [the officer] and that cast by [a lower-ranking] soldier to his right. [The shadows] are facing in different directions" (Masaaki). The photograph does indeed seem to be a composite, and while stopping short of supporting Masaaki's claim that "not a single one of [Chang's photographs] bears witness to a 'Nanking Massacre'," even American historian Robert Entenmann concedes that several of the photos in Chang's book are indeed "fakes, forgeries and composites," including one (also singled out by Masaaki) "of a row of severed heads," which, according to Entenmann, in fact depicts "bandits executed by Chinese police in 1930 rather than victims of the Nanking Massacre" (Masaaki, Entenmann).

COUNTER-ARGUMENT: Faked though some of Chang's twelve pages of photos might be - perhaps even all of them, as Masaaki suggests - the fact that there exist literally hundreds of photographs of the Nanking Massacre, many of them "souvenir photos" taken by Japanese soldiers themselves, strains the credibility of his larger point and even more so the point made by his stridently anti-Chang colleagues Takemoto Tadao and Ohara Yasuo. In their The Alleged 'Nanking Massacre': Japan's Rebuttal to China's Forged Claims , these writers state that "none of these photos are dated, and the names of places and photographers are not stated. In other words, there exist [no] photos that are rigidly authentic, and definitely, these photos can not be used as evidence of [the] 'Nanking Massacre'" (Tadao and Yasuo 101). In fact, several hundred photographs have been published in one volume - The Rape of Nanking: An Undeniable History in Photographs , by Shi Young and James Yin, many of them showing female rape victims with legs spread and genitalia exposed - graphic photographs it is hard to conceive of as staged. Such pictures, while not settling the matter beyond dispute, offer powerful testimony that speaks for itself.

• EXAMPLE (3): Notwithstanding the many graphic photographs that exist, it is precisely the accusation of widespread rape - most likely because of its abhorrent nature - that Chang's Japanese critics wish to deny. "The number of 'cases of rape' [the Chinese] claim is from 20,000 to 80,000 cases," Tadao and Yasuo note. "Suppose we took this number, there should have been from 500 to 2,000 cases of rapes...daily [during the six week period of the Massacre]. This number is absolutely not trustworthy," they conclude, citing instead the number of only 361 official complaints of rape actually registered during this period (130). Of course, they are parsing numbers here. The fact is, whether there were three hundred rapes, thirty thousand, more, or less, rape perpetrated by an occupying force against a civilian population (and that such was the case is amply documented in Chang and virtually all extant sources on Nanking, including the Japanese sources, although they, of course, acknowledge only 361) is a crime of war. But that it is an individual crime of war, rather than a collective, government-sponsored crime against humanity (such as the Holocaust) is precisely the point for the Japanese historians: "[Holocaust] killings were indeed ... 'crimes against humanity', [but] those crimes are fundamentally different from the 'war crimes' which the Japanese troops are said to have committed. ... Those acts of crimes [were] the responsibility of each individual soldier" (136, 130). Following this line of reasoning, the Japanese government is absolved of any blame for the rapes that did occur in Nanking, the exact number of which remains unknown. (On this issue, see Evaluating Contradictory Data and Claims ).
• EXAMPLE (4): More trenchant criticism of Chang than that offered by Japanese historians comes from the American academy. Robert Entenmann, for example, a China expert and senior faculty member in the History department at St. Olaf College, faults Chang on the very premise of her book. He denies that there is a conspiracy of silence surrounding Nanking in Japan; maintains (in contradiction to Chang's claims) that Japanese textbooks do address the event (it is rather quaintly referred to as an "incident" in Japanese historiography, if at all, rather than a massacre, far less a rape); states that those textbooks that do mention it offer fatality rates listed between 150,000 to 300,000 (the Western consensus is around 250,000; Chang claims 300,000); and that 80% of respondents to a 1994 opinion poll in Japan found "that their government had not adequately compensated victimized peoples in countries Japan had colonized or invaded" (Entenmann). On this last count, it is worth noting that the specific wording of the question does not appear to address Nanking explicitly, and that the opinion poll's finding thus bears little relevance to the question at hand. We might also be skeptical of Entenmann's generous appraisal of Japanese textbooks: on its role in World War II, Japan's high school textbooks in particular are subject to constant revision, much of it aimed at mitigating the government's role in wartime atrocities, as a 2007 New York Times article reminds us (Onishi 12).
• EXAMPLE (5): Entenmann's more fundamental criticism of Chang's work and perspective, however, goes deeper. As the granddaughter of former Nanking residents who barely escaped the city, she is guilty, he writes, of having fallen victim to "her own ethnic prejudice. ... Her explanations are, to a large extent, based on unexamined [anti-Japanese] ethnic stereotypes." Furthermore, she engages in "implausible speculations," according to Entenmann, for example, her claim that Emperor Hirohito himself exulted in the news of the Rape of Nanking (see Chang 179). In fact, Entenmann points out, Hirohito's response is unknown, and Chang may be guilty here of "confus[ing] Japanese leaders' delight in the fall of the Chinese capital with exulting in the massacre that occurred afterward" (Entenmann).

ANALYSIS: Such sleights of hand (which Entenmann himself indulges in, as his opinion poll example above shows) are perhaps conscious on Chang's part, or perhaps a function of her not being a professional historian and therefore applying a less-than-rigorous methodology in her efforts to tell a good story. She is after all, a popular (rather than an academic) historian, whom another bestselling historian, Stephen Ambrose, whose scholarship has also been faulted on several counts, once called "the best young historian we've got because she understands that to communicate history, you've got to tell the story in an interesting way" (Ambrose qtd. in Sullivan B6).

• CONCLUSION: It is this zeal to tell a good story and back it up with sensational evidence (even if - like some of her photographs - it is faked), as well as her occasionally emotional prose, sometimes bordering on hyperbole, that remains Chang's greatest liability. In an effort to place the Rape of Nanking into historical context, for example, she states that "[u]sing numbers killed alone" it "surpasses much of the worst barbarism of the ages." Its casualties exceeded those of the Carthaginians at the hands of the Romans, the victims of the Spanish Inquisition, and those of the Mongolian leader Timur Lenk, she writes in a series of specious comparisons that culminate with the observation that "the deaths at Nanking far exceeded the deaths from the American raids on Tokyo ... and even the combined death toll of the two atomic blasts at Hiroshima and Nagasaki" (Chang 6). In The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography , an anthology generally sympathetic to Chang's project (if not to her methodology), George Washington University history and international affairs professor Daqing Yang, himself a native of Nanking, notes that "such a comparison [as Chang's] is methodologically sterile" and "morally misguided" (Yang 161). Indeed, it is precisely the sort of parsing of numbers for which Chang herself would most likely challenge the above-mentioned Japanese historians in their effort to deny the extent to which rape occurred at Nanking. Despite these failings, Chang's book ultimately emerges as a more persuasive argument of what did in fact happen at Nanking than those offered by her Japanese detractors. The enduring controversy surrounding the event, however, and the specific criticism against Chang from even those who support her premise, point both to the endlessly debatable nature of history, and to the need for a more rigorous, analytical approach in its telling. As Joshua Fogel notes in his introduction to The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography , "The Massacre and related events must be lifted beyond the popular level ... to be studied with greater nuance and with a wider range of sources" (Fogel 1). In such a project, the contradictory data and claims of Chang and her critics need not necessarily be mutually exclusive but, instead, might help establish a broader context within which the event can be understood more fully, from all sides.
• Chang, Iris. The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II (New York: BasicBooks, 1997).
• Entenmann, Robert. "Review of Iris Chang: The Rape of Nanking: The Forgotten Holocaust of World War II." October 29, 1998. H-Net List for Asian History and Culture , 1998. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/481.html .
• Yang, Daqin. "The Challenges of the Nanjing Massacre: Refections on Historical Inquiry." The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography. Ed. Joshua Fogel. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000, 133 - 180.
• Masaaki, Tanaka. "What Really Happened in Nanking: The Refutation of a Common Myth." N.d. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.ne.jp/asahi/unko/tamezou/nankin/whatreally/index.html .
• Onishi, Norimitsu. "Japan's Textbooks Reflect Revised History." The New York Times , April 1, 2007, A12.
• Sullivan, Patricia. "'Rape of Nanking' Author Irish Chang Dies." November 12, 2004, B6. Washington Post , November 12, 2004, B6. Accessed July 1, 2007. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A44139-2004Nov11.html .
• Takemoto, Tadao and Ohara Yasuo. The Alleged 'Nanking Massacre': Japan's Rebuttal to China's Forged Claims. Tokyo: Meisei-sha, Inc., 2000.
• Young, Shi and James Ying. The Rape of Nanking: An Undeniable History in Photographs, expanded 2nd edition. Chicago, Innovative Publishing Group, Inc., 1997.

The interested reader will find another brief exercise in historiographical inquiry - this one on the disputed relationship between the Catholic Church and fascism during the 1930s - in the Research Paper section of this site, under "Conducting Research for 'The Austrian Catholic Church and the Anschluss': Catholicism and fascism."

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HIST 3372 / HIST 5380: Historiography

• Find the Historiography of a Topic
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Historiography: Specific Topics

Below is just a small sampling of the historiographical topics you can find in the SHSU Library; just click a link to see books on that topic.

To explore additional topics: To explore additional topics (broader, narrower, or entirely different than those below), follow these steps: Open the library catalog ; click "Exact Search" in the blue toolbar; type Historiography ; and click "subject." A list of topics will be displayed; use the Backward and Forward buttons in the blue toolbar to browse, then click on a subject to view a list of books.

• Historiography. African Americans
• Historiography, America, Discovery and exploration
• Historiography, China
• Historiography, Crusades
• Historiography, France, History, Revolution 1789-1799
• Historiography, Great Britain
• Historiography, Holocaust, Jewish, 1939-1945
• Historiography, Indians of North America
• Historiography, Islamic Empire
• Historiography, Mexico
• Historiography, Rome
• Historiography, Slavery, United States
• Historiography, Slaves, United States
• Historiography, Texas
• Historiography, United States, History, Civil War, 1861-1865
• Historiography, Vietnam War, 1961-1975
• Historiography, World War, 1914-1918
• Historiography, World War, 1939-1945

"Interpreting American History" Series from Kent State University Press

Each work in this series presents historiographic essays centered around the book's theme or area of focus, addressing all major schools of historical writing and thought on the topic.  

Oxford Bibliographies

If you can find a bibliography on your broad topic area, it will often include a summary of historiographical coverage and a list of sources to explore.

Search the Library Catalog

Search for books and other items in the library catalog.

Search Catalog Search fields Keyword Author Title Subject Series Title ISBN Periodical Title Search Options All   Ebooks Only

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Tips for Using the Library Catalog

• Click on a book's title to view more details , including (in many cases) a summary or the complete table of contents.
• Always make note of a book's call number and location if you want to retrieve it.
• Use the "Keep" checkbox beside books of interest to bookmark them. Then click "Print or email kept records" in the blue toolbar to print a handy list of all the books you want to check out.
• When viewing one book, click on any of its Subject Terms to see a list of more books on that subject.
• When viewing a book, click the "Nearby items on shelf" link beside the title to virtually browse the bookshelf.

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Independent History Research Fellows Program: Historiography

• Topic Development
• Historical Thinking Skills

Historiography

• Historical Method
• Using Sources Strategically
• Search Strategies: Keyword Development
• Historical Secondary Sources
• Reading a bibliography
• Secondary Sources: Books & Journal Articles
• Peer Review
• Primary Sources
• Locating Sources: Books
• Search Strategies
• Journal Articles
• NYPL Databases
• Google Scholar
• What are Archives?
• Locating Primary Source Archives: Physical Collections
• Locating Primary Source Archives: Digital Archives and Libraries
• Locating Primary Sources: Primary Source Database Collections

Why is it Important?

Before doing work in primary sources, historians must know what has been written on their topic.  They must be familiar with theories and arguments–as well as facts–that appear in secondary sources.

Before you proceed with your research project, you too must be familiar with the literature: you do not want to waste time on theories that others have disproved and you want to take full advantage of what others have argued.  You want to be able to discuss and analyze your topic.

-  Susan Fernsebner ,  Talking History Series , History and American Studies, University of Mary Washington.

• A historiography shows you the research that has been done on your topic in the past.
• This keeps you from having to reinvent the wheel.
• A historiography can give you new angles to research and new interpretations to dispute.
• Most importantly, a historiography shows you which interpretations have been challenged. This keeps you from championing an interpretation using arguments that have already been countered.

What is a Historiography?

Historians need to know what has been written on their topic–facts, theories, and arguments–so they can place their own thesis in the context of that body of work. Historiography is the study of what historians have written and argued about a given topic.

"Historiography deals with the writing of history. In the broadest sense, it is the study of the history of history (as it is described by historians). Historiography has several facets, but for the purposes of a researcher trying to situate his work in the context of other historians' work on a particular topic, the most useful thing is the historiographic essay or review article that summarizes changing ideas about and approaches to the topic. A really good historiographic essay will also address why historians' ideas have changed."

-  Steven Knowlton, Librarian for History and African American Studies, Princeton University Library.

There are two common uses of the term "Historiography."

The historiography (general descriptor)  of a topic is the sum total of the interpretations of a specific topic written by past and current historians.

• For example: "The historiography of the decision to use the atomic bomb on Hiroshima changed over the years as new research questioned the former consensus view that the decision to drop the atomic bomb was predicated on the necessity to save American lives."
• Specifically, a historiography identifies influential thinkers and reveals the shape of the scholarly debate on a particular subject. 

The major purpose of writing a historiographical paper is to convey the scholarship of other historians on a particular subject, rather than to analyze the subject itself.

• A historiography can be a stand-alone paper, in which case your paper examines the work completed by other historians. 
• Alternately, a historiography can act as an introduction to a major research paper, in which you will go on to add your own analysis.

A good historiography does the following:

• Points out influential books and papers that exemplified, shaped, or revolutionized a field of study.
• Shows which scholars were most effective in changing the scope of the debate.
• Describes the current trends in the field of study, such as which interpretation is currently in the mainstream.
• Allows the writer to position themselves in the field for their analysis.

Searching for Historiographies

A quick search in the library catalog using "Historiography" as a keyword will get you a host of books on a variety of subjects.

To find a historiography of a particular subject, you can use the following search structure: specific topic name AND historiography

• Ex: Holocaust AND Historiography

Rampolla  Section  3d-2: Comparing secondary sources: literature reviews and historiographic essays

"Historiographic essays: As noted in Chapter 1, historians frequently disagree about how to interpret the events they study. These differences in interpretation reflect the varying approaches that historians take to their subject. For example, individual historians might be interested primarily in social, cultural, political, economic, legal, or intellectual history. They might approach their work from a Marxist, Freudian, feminist, or postmodernist point of view. Such orientations and affiliations affect the ways in which historians explore and interpret the past; thus, historians interested in the same historical event might examine different sets of sources to answer the same question. For example, in studying the causes of the French Revolution, Marxist historians might focus on economic and class issues, while intellectual historians might concentrate on how the writings of the philosophes (a group of French Enlightenment writers) affected political thought and practice. Moreover, since the historian’s work is embedded in a particular social and cultural context, historical interpretations and methodologies change over time. For example, the growth of the civil rights and feminist movements in the 1960s led to a greater interest in African American and women’s history. Historiographic essays are thus a particularly effective way to introduce students to diverse perspectives and invite them to enter the exciting world of historical discussion and debate."

Examples of Historiographies

• Interpreting American History : Historiographical book series in ProQuest Ebook Central. 
• Wiley Blackwell Companions to American History : Historiographical book series in ProQuest Ebook Central. 

Journal Articles:

• Ryan, Mary P. “The Explosion of Family History.” Reviews in American History 10, no. 4 (1982): 181–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701826
• Foner, Eric. “Reconstruction Revisited.”  Reviews in American History  10, no. 4 (1982): 82–100.  http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701820
• Helmbold, Lois Rita, and Ann Schofield. “Women’s Labor History, 1790-1945.”  Reviews in American History  17, no. 4 (1989): 501–18. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2703424
• McKay, Richard. “‘Patient Zero’: The Absence of a Patient’s View of the Early North American AIDS Epidemic.” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 88, no. 1 (2014): 161–94. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26308895 .

Created and Updated

The Guide is an adaptation of How to Create a Historiography from the University of Rhode Island Libraries created by Alan Witt, updated by Michaela Keating. 

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Historiographical Essays

Historiographical essays   provide the context within which contemporary historians continue a "conversation" begun by earlier scholars. Tracking down a good historiographical essay is perhaps the most efficient way to identify  important works  and  critical debates  on your topic.

Cambridge  Histories and Oxford  Reference are useful reference works.

Try the Cambridge Companions and  Oxford Handbooks series as well.

Keep in mind that many important historiographical essays are published in the secondary journal literature, so don't forget to search the two most important databases in history and the journal History Compass :

• America: History & Life with Full Text This link opens in a new window
• Historical Abstracts with Full Text This link opens in a new window
• History Compass Articles are not traditional reports on historical research but rather surveys of recent historiography, ongoing interpretive debates, of suggestions for fresh directions of inquiry. They are aimed at a mixed audience of undergraduates, graduates, and faculties.

Find Book-Length Historiographies

To find books that review the historiography of a topic, use Library Search , and include the word historiography with your keywords.

If you find a historiographical work of interest, check the subject headings for that title, and follow the links to further works with the same title. For example  World War, 1914-1918 -- Historiography , is the most relevant subject heading for the historiography of World War I. You can expand your resource pool by searching other libraries' contents via  WorldCat .

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Historiography Essays

Munslow: on history as a postmodern literary activity.

In the article, “What History Is,” Munslow (2001) illustrated the epistemological turn in writing history and its role in shaping the meaning of history. He…

Heinrich Himmler: An Expository Essay

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512 History Essay Topics & Good Ideas

18 January 2024

last updated

History essay topics provide a wide range of subjects that cover different eras, cultures, and historical events. Some themes offer numerous opportunities for detailed exploration and robust discussions. These topics cover narratives from ancient civilizations, such as the Egyptians and Romans, to modern-day conflicts and revolutions. Moreover, students can engage with topics, like the fall of the Roman Empire or the intricate dynamics of the French Revolution. Another area of focus can be the Industrial Revolution and its monumental impact on societal structures. More recent events, such as the World Wars, the Cold War, and the decolonization movement, also offer rich materials. Topics on non-Western history, including the dynastic periods in China, the Mughal era in India, and pre-colonial African societies, provide alternative viewpoints. Examining history through the lenses of gender, race, and culture can lead to a reevaluation of conventional narratives. In essence, history essay topics act as windows to the past, bridging it to the present, shedding light on patterns, errors, victories, and transformations that deepen the comprehension of the collective human experience.

Best History Essay Topics

• The Impact of the Printing Press on Renaissance Europe
• Unraveling the Mystery of the Bermuda Triangle
• Life and Legacy of Alexander the Great: An Exploration
• Hidden Meanings: The Symbolism in Egyptian Hieroglyphics
• Salem Witch Trials: Fear and Paranoia in 17th Century America
• Exploration and Impact of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
• Mysteries Surrounding the Construction of the Pyramids
• Understanding the Japanese Feudal System: A Comprehensive Study
• Viking Culture: Examining Myths and Reality
• Indian Independence: Non-Violence and the Role of Mahatma Gandhi
• Decoding the Dead Sea Scrolls: A Historical Investigation
• Origins and Influence of the Magna Carta in Modern Democracies
• Social Impacts of the Industrial Revolution on Victorian Britain
• Effects of Marco Polo’s Travels on Europe’s Perception of Asia
• Sparta vs. Athens: Differing Approaches to Greek City-States
• Human Sacrifices in Aztec Culture: Rituals and Beliefs
• The Formation of the Silk Road: Trade and Cultural Exchange
• World War I: The Aftermath and the Road to World War II
• The Enigma of the Roanoke Colony: America’s Lost Settlement
• Transformative Power of the American Civil Rights Movement
• Napoleon Bonaparte: Military Genius or the Tyrant of Europe?
• The Significance of the Ottoman Empire in World History

Easy History Essay Topics

• Mysteries of the Mayan Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective
• Hidden Treasures: Unearthing the Secrets of the Terracotta Army
• The Bubonic Plague: How Did It Shape Medieval Europe?
• The Mystery and History of Stonehenge: A Druidical Design?
• The Partition of India and Pakistan: A Human Tragedy
• The Influence of Roman Law on Modern Legal Systems
• Confucianism’s Impact on Chinese Society and Governance
• Russian Revolution: Causes and Consequences
• Joan of Arc: Heroine, Saint, or Heretic?
• The Birth of Democracy in Ancient Greece: A Critical Analysis
• Zulu Kingdom: The Rise and Fall
• The Role of Religion in the Crusades
• Uncovering the Origins of the Renaissance: A Thorough Analysis
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: A Dark Chapter in Human History
• The Mongol Empire: Influence and Expansion Under Genghis Khan
• Analyzing the Social Effects of Prohibition in the 1920s America
• Age of Discovery: Columbus and the New World
• Understanding the Holocaust: The Systematic Annihilation of Jews
• The Evolution of Samurai Culture in Feudal Japan
• The Cultural Revolution in China: Causes and Impact

Interesting History Essay Topics

• The Birth of Jazz in African American Communities
• The Berlin Wall: Symbol of Division and Its Fall
• Women’s Suffrage Movement: Struggle and Triumph
• Influence of the Byzantine Empire on Early Christianity
• The Legacy of Cleopatra: Egypt’s Last Pharaoh
• Fall of Constantinople: The End of the Byzantine Empire
• The Cultural Impact of the Harlem Renaissance
• Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia: A Military Disaster
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• The Spanish Inquisition: Its Impact on Religious Freedom
• Colonialism in Africa: Long-Term Effects and Consequences
• Humanism in the Renaissance: Its Influence and Importance
• The French Resistance in World War II: An Undercover War
• The Apollo Moon Landing: A Leap for Mankind
• The Role of Propaganda in Nazi Germany
• Migration and Settlement of the Vikings: A Historical Overview
• Rise of Fascism: Italy under Mussolini
• The Opium Wars: The Clash between the British Empire and China
• The Code of Hammurabi: An Examination of Ancient Babylonian Law

History Essay Topics for High School

• Significance of the Magna Carta in British History
• The Cultural Revolution: China’s Sociopolitical Shifts
• Spanish Armada: Triumphs, Tragedies, and Implications
• The Black Death: Disease, Destruction, and Aftermath in Medieval Europe
• Harriet Tubman: Freedom, Courage, and the Underground Railroad
• Trail of Tears: Native American Displacement and Resilience
• The Scientific Revolution: Unraveling Truths and Transforming Perspectives
• African Kingdoms: Wealth, Power, and Innovation
• Democracy’s Birth: Athenian Politics and Philosophy
• Samurai and Shoguns: Feudal Japan’s Hierarchy
• Roman Gladiators: Heroes, Horrors, and Historical Impacts
• Napoleon Bonaparte: Conquests, Reforms, and Downfall
• Slavery’s Legacy: The United States’ Struggle for Civil Rights
• Apartheid’s Shadows: South Africa’s Road to Reconciliation
• Women’s Suffrage Movement: Progress and Paradoxes
• Cuban Missile Crisis: Brinkmanship, Resolution, and Legacy
• Martin Luther’s Theses: Catalysts for the Protestant Reformation
• Aztec Civilization: Achievements, Fall, and Spanish Conquest
• Holocaust’s Horror: Unveiling the Shoah’s Realities
• Mughal Empire’s Magnificence: Culture, Conquests, and Contributions
• The Crusades: Religion, Conflict, and Historical Perspectives

History Essay Topics for Middle School

• The Renaissance: Catalyst for the Modern World
• Vikings’ Voyage: Discoveries, Culture, and Scandinavian Influence
• The Great Depression: Causes, Consequences, and Recovery
• The French Revolution: Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’s Fight
• Stalin’s Reign: Policies, Purges, and WWII.
• Revolutionary War’s Effect on the American Identity
• Byzantine Empire: Crossroads of Culture and Trade
• Decolonization of Africa: Struggles, Triumphs, and Aftermath
• Incas’ Ingenuity: Empire Building in the Andes
• World War I: Catalysts, Combat, and Consequences
• Cold War’s Effects on Global Politics
• Mayans’ Mysteries: Understanding the Mesoamerican Civilization
• The Atomic Age: Nuclear Power’s Promise and Peril
• Egyptian Pharaohs: Dynasties, Deities, and Discoveries
• Revolutionary France’s Impacts on the Modern State
• War of 1812: Interpretations and Implications
• Babylonian Empire: Hammurabi, His Code, and Ancient Justice
• Formation and Fall of the Soviet Union
• Ming Dynasty’s Contributions to Chinese Culture and Exploration
• Prohibition Era: The Roaring Twenties and American Society

History Essay Topics for College Students

• The Evolution of Democracy: Ancient Greece to Modern Times
• Colonialism and its Impact on Modern African Nations
• Revolutionary Implications of the Magna Carta
• Evolution of Roman Military Tactics
• Cultural Shifts: Harlem Renaissance and African American Identity
• Impacts of the Industrial Revolution on Victorian Society
• Decolonization and Its Effects on Southeast Asia
• Medieval Chivalry: Ideals and Reality
• Witch Trials: Superstition and Society in Early Modern Europe
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s Strategies and Their Effect on Europe
• Apartheid in South Africa: Causes and Consequences
• American Prohibition: Intentions and Unforeseen Repercussions
• Influences of Renaissance Art on European Culture
• Silk Road: Trade, Culture, and Consequences
• The Great Depression: Causes, Impacts, and Recovery
• Influences of the Ottoman Empire on the Modern Middle East
• Tracing Communism: Russian Revolution to Cold War
• Unveiling Ancient Egypt: Myth, Culture, and Civilization
• Viking Age: Exploration, Expansion, and Culture
• The Enlightenment: Philosophers and Their Influences on Western Thought

History Essay Topics for University

• Holocaust: Tragedy, Human Rights, and Aftermath
• Atomic Age: Nuclear Power and Its Global Impact
• Civil War: Divisions and Reunions in the United States
• Reformation: Martin Luther’s Theses and Their Impact on Christianity
• Expansion of the Mongol Empire: Tactics and Influence
• French Revolution: Causes, Course, and Consequences
• The Crusades: Motives, Methods, and Historical Impact
• Native American Tribes: Cultures and Contributions Pre-Columbus
• Slavery Abolition: Global Perspectives and Implications
• The Space Race: Politics, Technology, and Achievements
• Holocaust Survivors: Stories, Memories, and Historical Importance
• Byzantine Empire: Rise, Fall, and Legacy
• Manifest Destiny and the American Westward Expansion
• Cold War Espionage: Tactics, Technology, and Impact
• European Exploration: Columbus, Magellan, and the Age of Discovery
• Women’s Suffrage: Struggles, Successes, and Effects
• Samurai Culture in Feudal Japan: Honor, Warfare, and Legacy
• Berlin Wall: Symbol of Division and Its Fall
• Partition of India: Causes, Violence, and Post-Colonial Impact
• The Influence of Religion on Medieval Europe
• Nineteenth-Century Imperialism: Justification, Exploitation, and Resistance

African History Topics

• Kingdoms of Ancient Africa: Egypt, Carthage, and Aksum
• Ethiopia’s Roles in the Early Christian Movement
• Mansa Musa and the Prosperity of the Mali Empire
• African Influence on Greek and Roman Civilizations
• Nubian Dynasties: Power Shifts Along the Nile
• Trade Networks: Trans-Saharan Routes’ Impact
• Zulu Nation’s Military Innovation and Imperial Expansion
• Slavery’s Devastating Effects on West Africa
• Pan-Africanism: Ideology, Impact, and Influential Figures
• Resistance Movements Against Colonial Rule in the 20th Century
• African Diaspora: Cultural Retentions and Transformations
• Maafa’s Legacy: Understanding the Atlantic Slave Trade
• Independence Movements: Ghana Leads the Way
• Genocide in Rwanda: Causes and Aftermath
• Cultural Practices: Ancient African Art and Architecture
• Kingdom of Zimbabwe: Origins of the Shona Civilization
• Women’s Roles in Pre-Colonial African Societies
• Berber Kingdoms and Their Impact on the Maghreb
• European Colonialism: Its Effects on the African Continent
• Ashanti Empire: Military Prowess and Cultural Contributions

Ancient History Topics

• Origins of the Mesopotamian Civilization: Sumerians and Cuneiform
• Advanced Engineering in the Ancient Egyptian Pyramids
• Roman Innovations in Law and Government
• Development of the Greek Polis: Athens and Sparta
• Mythologies’ Impacts on Ancient Greek Culture
• Influences of the Ancient Persians on Modern Culture
• Hebrews and the Formation of Early Monotheistic Religions
• Buddha’s Teachings and Their Transformation of Ancient India
• Inca Achievements in Agriculture and Infrastructure
• Aztec Rituals, Sacrifices, and Cultural Traditions
• Maya Scientific Discoveries: Astronomy and Mathematics
• Han Dynasty’s Contributions to Art and Literature
• Construction Techniques in the Ancient Roman Architecture
• Empires in the Fertile Crescent: The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians
• Pharaohs Rule in the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms of Egypt
• Bronze Age Aegean Civilizations: Minoans and Mycenaeans
• Democracy Evolution in Ancient Athens
• Trade Routes in the Ancient Mediterranean: Silk Road and Amber Road
• Carthaginian Power and the Punic Wars
• Transformative Ideas of Confucius and Ancient Chinese Philosophy
• Nomadic Invasions and Their Impact on Ancient Civilizations

Asian History Topics

• Evolution of Confucianism in Imperial China
• Impacts of Colonialism on Southeast Asia’s Socioeconomic Structure
• Samurai Culture and Feudal Japan
• Ming Dynasty’s Maritime Expeditions
• Roles of Buddhism in the Khmer Empire
• Mongol Empire’s Influence on Eurasian Trade
• Korean Peninsula’s Struggle for Independence Post World War II
• Silk Road: Trade and Cultural Exchange
• Roles of Islam in Shaping Mughal India
• Sukarno Era’s Impacts on Indonesia’s Political Landscape
• Rise and Fall of the Maurya Empire in Ancient India
• Comparative Study: Chinese Tang and Song Dynasties
• Development of Writing Systems in Ancient China
• Indus Valley Civilization: Society, Economy, and Religion
• Meiji Restoration’s Contributions to Japan’s Modernization
• Siam Kingdom’s Resistance to Colonial Rule
• Roles of Women in Ancient and Medieval Asian Societies
• Ottoman Influence on Southeast European and Middle Eastern History
• Influence of Persian Culture on Ancient Indian Civilizations
• Terracotta Warriors: Art, Craftsmanship, and Legacy in Ancient China

Cultural History Essay Topics

• Influence of Shakespearean Drama on Elizabethan Society
• The Harlem Renaissance: Catalyst for African American Cultural Identity
• Evolution of Japanese Tea Ceremonies: Beyond Aesthetics
• Impressionism’s Impact on French Society During the 19th Century
• Cultural Shifts Encouraged by the American Beat Generation
• Byzantine Art: Reflection of Spiritual and Political Power
• Mayan Hieroglyphics: Decoding Cultural Narratives
• Industrial Revolution’s Effect on Victorian-Era Fashion
• Silent Cinema: A Catalyst for 1920s American Pop Culture
• Renaissance Humanism: Transformation of European Intellect
• Cultural Syncretism: Fusion in Afro-Caribbean Music
• Flamenco’s Role in Forming Andalusian Identity
• Expression of Greek Ideals in Classical Architecture
• Modernism’s Influence on Post-World War I Literature
• Indigenous Mythologies: Shaping of Pre-colonial Australian Culture
• The Enlightenment: Precursor to French Revolutionary Ideals
• Turkish Coffee: Symbol of National Identity and Hospitality
• The Ming Dynasty: Patronage of Chinese Porcelain Artistry
• Irish Folklore: Fabric of Societal Beliefs and Customs
• Migration Stories Depicted in Mexican Muralism
• The American Civil Rights Movement: Catalyst for Cultural Change

Economic History Essay Topics

• Industrial Revolution: Determinants and Impact on Modern Economics
• Adam Smith and the Influence of The Wealth of Nations on Modern Economic Thought
• Colonialism: Exploitation and Economic Growth in European Empires
• Japanese Economic Miracle: Post-World War II Recovery and Lessons Learned
• Keynesian Economics: Roots and Role in Shaping the Post-Depression Era
• Free Market Economy: Milton Friedman’s Contributions and Influences
• Bretton Woods System: Its Role in Shaping the International Monetary Order
• China’s Transition From a Centrally Planned Economy to a Market Economy: Steps and Challenges
• Mercantilism: Understanding its Principles and Effects on European Economic Growth
• Gold Standard: Its Rise, Fall, and Effects on Global Economies
• Silicon Valley: The Evolution and Economic Impact of the Tech Industry
• Slave Trade: Its Role in the Evolution of Global Economics
• Eurozone Crisis: Causes, Impacts, and Solutions
• OPEC and the Global Oil Economy: Formation, Influence, and Impact
• Global Financial Crisis of 2008: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention Strategies
• Russian Transition: Post-Soviet Economic Reforms and Outcomes
• The Marshall Plan: Significance and Impact on European Post-War Recovery
• American Great Depression: Causes, Impact, and Government Response
• Globalization: Its Historical Evolution and Economic Implications
• Subprime Mortgage Crisis: Lessons Learned and Policy Implications

European History Topics

• Rise of Feudalism in Medieval Europe
• Black Death’s Impact on the 14th-Century Society
• Enlightenment’s Influence on Political Thought
• French Revolution’s Effect on European Politics
• Italian Renaissance: A Cultural and Artistic Shift
• Reformation’s Roles in Shaping Modern Christianity
• Napoleon Bonaparte’s Conquest and the French Empire
• Industrial Revolution’s Transformation of European Economies
• Formation and Impact of the European Union
• Two World Wars: Causes and Consequences
• Emergence of Modern Democracy: The Magna Carta
• Cold War: Europe’s Role and Responses
• Ottoman Empire’s Interactions With European Powers
• Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Age of Exploration: Europe’s Global Influence
• Holocaust: A Dark Chapter in 20th-Century Europe
• Byzantine Empire: Constantinople’s Flourishing Culture
• Spanish Inquisition’s Impact on Religion and Society
• Viking Raids: Exploring Their Influence on Europe
• Hundred Years’ War: English and French Power Struggles
• Transition From Monarchies to Democracies in Europe

Historiographical Topics

• Influence of Marxism in Modern Historiography: An Exploration
• Decolonial Approaches: Reshaping Historical Interpretations
• Postmodernist Perspectives: Challenges to Traditional History
• Women’s Voices in History: The Evolution of Gender Studies
• Oral Traditions: Advancements in Indigenous Historiography
• Subjective Reality: The Role of Memory in Constructing History
• Imperial Power: European Colonial Histories Revisited
• Interdisciplinary Approaches: Melding History With Sociology
• Comparative History: The Synthesis of Regional Perspectives
• Counterfactual Thinking: Exploring Alternate Historical Pathways
• Textual Analysis: Unveiling Sociocultural Dimensions in Historical Studies
• Evolution of Diplomatic Historiography: Power, Politics, and Peace
• Material Culture: The Archaeological Method in Historiography
• Holocaust Studies: Examining Methodologies and Debates
• Military History: Strategy, Tactics, and Societal Impact
• Biographical Approach: Unpacking Individual Influence on History
• Microhistory: Magnifying Minute Historical Details
• Economic History: Capitalism and Its Historical Context
• Nationalist Narratives: Critiques and Reinterpretations
• Cultural History: Unraveling the Fabric of Societies
• Global History: Understanding Interconnected Histories and Cultures

History Essay Topics in Science & Medicine

• Revolutionary Impacts of the Discovery of Penicillin
• Einstein’s Theory of Relativity and Its Influences on Modern Science
• Vaccination Development: Polio Vaccine and Its Effect on Global Health
• Contributions of Marie Curie to Radioactivity
• Influence of the Manhattan Project on 20th-Century Scientific Developments
• Advancements in DNA Sequencing: A Historical Perspective
• Medical Ethics: Case Study of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment
• Human Genome Project: Its Repercussions on Modern Medicine
• Apollo Moon Landing: Significance in Technological Advancements
• Era of AI: Turing’s Test and the Dawn of Machine Learning
• Technological Innovations During World War II: Radar and Cryptography
• Advances in Cardiac Surgery: The First Heart Transplant
• Public Health Initiatives: The Elimination of Smallpox
• Telecommunications Evolution: From Morse Code to 5G Networks
• Nikola Tesla’s Contributions to Electrical Engineering
• Nanotechnology Developments: Feynman’s Concept to Current Applications
• Progression of Neurosurgery: Harvey Cushing’s Legacy
• Probing Into Atomic Theory: Niels Bohr’s Quantum Model
• Impacts of Cybernetics on Modern Science and Medicine
• Exploration of Black Holes: Hawking’s Theoretical Contributions

History Topics in Technology

• Revolutionizing Medicine: The Impact of Biotechnology
• The Journey of Mobile Phones: From Luxuries to Necessities
• The Emergence of Cryptocurrencies: Understanding Blockchain Technology
• Computing Power: Decoding the Rise of Quantum Computers
• Reshaping Communication: A Study of Social Media Platforms
• Transportation Transformed: The Advent of Electric Vehicles
• Photographic Pioneers: A History of Digital Cameras
• Software Evolution: The Shift From Proprietary to Open Source
• Rise of Robotics: Unfolding the Age of Automation
• Space Exploration: Innovations in Satellite Technology
• Unraveling E-Commerce: A Chronicle of Digital Marketplaces
• Cybersecurity Developments: Safeguarding the Digital World
• Advancements in Renewable Energy: The Legacy of Solar Panels
• Augmented Reality: Tracing Its Developmental Path
• History of Video Games: From Arcades to Virtual Reality
• Human Genome Project: A Leap in Biomedical Tech
• From Typewriters to Word Processors: A Digital Revolution
• Computer Graphics: An Evolutionary Perspective
• Fiber Optics: Unveiling Its Journey of Innovation
• 3D Printing: Understanding Its Historical Developments
• Nanotechnology Advances: Revolutionizing Material Science

Medieval History Essay Topics

• Chivalry’s Impact on Medieval Social Structures
• The Black Death’s Effect on European Economic Systems
• Monastic Life’s Role in Preserving Knowledge During the Middle Ages
• Architectural Evolution: From Romanesque to Gothic Styles
• Feudalism’s Influence on Medieval Political Landscapes
• Women’s Status and Roles in Medieval Society
• Medieval Education: The Rise of Universities in Europe
• Crusades’ Effect on East-West Relations and Trade
• The Power of the Catholic Church in Medieval Europe
• Knights and Their Code of Honor: An In-Depth Analysis
• Medieval Literature: Exploring Themes and Moral Messages
• Advances in Medical Practice During the Middle Ages
• Castles as a Reflection of Medieval Defensive Techniques
• Daily Life of Peasants in the Medieval Period
• Analysis of the Magna Carta’s Influence on English Law
• Medieval Art: Illuminated Manuscripts and Their Cultural Significance
• Exploration of Courtly Love in Medieval Poetry
• Monarchs’ Authority: The Divine Right of Kings During the Middle Ages
• Impacts of the Hundred Years War on France and England
• Roles of the Inquisition in Maintaining Church Power

Middle Eastern History Topics

• Rise of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula
• Impacts of the Crusades on Muslim-Christian Relations
• Persian Empire’s Influence on Modern Iran
• Creation and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire
• Evolution of Arabic Literature and Poetry
• Cairo’s Transformation Into an Islamic Cultural Center
• Establishment and Development of the Silk Road
• Ottoman Empire’s Collapse and the Birth of Modern Turkey
• Influence of the Abbasid Caliphate on the Islamic Golden Age
• Evolution and Impact of the Zionist Movement
• Historical Analysis of the Israel-Palestine Conflict
• Sassanid Empire’s Contribution to Persian Art and Culture
• Impacts of the Petroleum Industry on Gulf Countries
• Investigation of Ancient Egyptian Religion and Mythology
• Byzantine Empire’s Legacy in the Middle East
• Scientific Advancements During the Islamic Golden Age
• Arabian Peninsula’s Roles in Spice Trade Routes
• Transition From Ottoman Rule to French Mandate in Syria
• Examination of the Iranian Islamic Revolution
• Life and Rule of Saladin During the Ayyubid Dynasty
• Migration Patterns of Ancient Semitic Peoples

Military History Essay Topics

• Analyzing Leadership Strategies in The Battle of Waterloo
• Causes and Consequences of the Napoleonic Wars
• Lessons From the Vietnam War: Guerilla Tactics and Counterinsurgency
• Transformation of Battlefield Medicine From the American Civil War to Today
• Intelligence Operations and Their Role in the Cold War
• The Siege of Leningrad: Civilians in the Crossfire
• Revolutionary Tactics: The Military Innovations of Alexander the Great
• Ethical Implications of Atomic Bombings in World War II
• Combat Psychology: Understanding PTSD in Veterans of the Iraq War
• The French Resistance: Unconventional Warfare in World War II
• Evolution of Military Strategy: Sun Tzu to Modern Warfare
• The Korean War: Impact of International Intervention
• Women in the Military: Roles and Challenges from World War II Onwards
• Spartan Warriors: The Role of Discipline and Training in Ancient Warfare
• Codebreakers: Cryptography’s Influence on World War II Outcomes
• Military Implications of Space Exploration During the Cold War
• Amphibious Warfare: An Analysis of D-Day Invasion
• Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: Lessons From the Afghan War
• Defense Policies and Their Role in the Cold War Détente
• The Art of Siege Warfare: A Study of the Crusades

Modern History Topics

• Evolution of Democratic Institutions in Europe Post WWII
• Rise of Feminism: The Second Wave Movement
• Emergence of Neo-Liberalism: A Global Perspective
• Nuclear Weapons Development: Ethical Considerations
• End of Apartheid: Mandela’s Legacy in South Africa
• Consequences of Decolonization in Africa
• Confluence of Technological Advancements and Warfare
• Indian Independence: The Non-Violence Path
• Impacts of the Internet Revolution on Global Communication
• Formation and Dissolution of Yugoslavia
• Legacy of Nelson Mandela: South African Democracy
• Deciphering the Arab-Israeli Conflict
• Unveiling the Causes of the Rwandan Genocide
• Collapse of Soviet Union: Global Consequences
• Chornobyl Disaster: Ecological and Societal Aftermath
• Examination of the Cuban Missile Crisis
• Effects of Globalization on National Identities
• Rise of China: Economic and Political Implications
• Birth of European Union: A Journey Toward Integration
• Changing Landscapes: Post-Industrial Revolution Transformations
• Decoding the Iran-Contra Affair: International Ramifications

History Essay Topics in Music

• Evolution of Jazz: A Century’s Journey
• Pivotal Roles of Beethoven in Classical Music’s Transformation
• Impacts of Social Issues on the Songs of the 1960s
• Bach’s Influence: Baroque Music and Beyond
• The Beatles: Revolutionizing the Pop Music Scene
• Music in Ancient Civilizations: A Comparative Study
• Indigenous Music: Richness and Diversity in Native Cultures
• Punk Rock: An Anthem for Discontented Youth
• Hip-Hop: A Medium for Sociopolitical Discourse
• Opera’s Development: Dramatic Shifts From 17th Century Onwards
• Country Music: An Echo of Rural America
• Reggae: Bob Marley’s Legacy and Influence
• Wagner’s Operas: Romanticism, Nationalism, and Beyond
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Should college essays touch on race? Some feel the affirmative action ruling leaves them no choice

CHICAGO — When she started writing her college essay, Hillary Amofa told the story she thought admissions offices wanted to hear. About being the daughter of immigrants from Ghana and growing up in a small apartment in Chicago. About hardship and struggle.

Then she deleted it all.

“I would just find myself kind of trauma-dumping,” said the 18-year-old senior at Lincoln Park High School in Chicago. “And I’m just like, this doesn’t really say anything about me as a person.”

When the Supreme Court ended affirmative action in higher education, it left the college essay as one of few places where race can play a role in admissions decisions. For many students of color, instantly more was riding on the already high-stakes writing assignment. Some say they felt pressure to exploit their hardships as they competed for a spot on campus.

Amofa was just starting to think about her essay when the court issued its decision, and it left her with a wave of questions. Could she still write about her race? Could she be penalized for it? She wanted to tell colleges about her heritage but she didn’t want to be defined by it.

In English class, Amofa and her classmates read sample essays that all seemed to focus on some trauma or hardship. It left her with the impression she had to write about her life’s hardest moments to show how far she’d come. But she and some of her classmates wondered if their lives had been hard enough to catch the attention of admissions offices.

“For a lot of students, there’s a feeling of, like, having to go through something so horrible to feel worthy of going to school, which is kind of sad,” said Amofa, the daughter of a hospital technician and an Uber driver.

This year’s senior class is the first in decades to navigate college admissions without affirmative action . The Supreme Court upheld the practice in decisions going back to the 1970s, but this court’s conservative supermajority found it is unconstitutional for colleges to give students extra weight because of their race alone.

Still, the decision left room for race to play an indirect role: Chief Justice John Roberts wrote universities can still consider how an applicant’s life was shaped by their race, “so long as that discussion is concretely tied to a quality of character or unique ability.”

“A benefit to a student who overcame racial discrimination, for example, must be tied to that student’s courage and determination,” he wrote.

Scores of colleges responded with new essay prompts asking about students’ backgrounds. Brown University asked applicants how “an aspect of your growing up has inspired or challenged you.” Rice University asked students how their perspectives were shaped by their “background, experiences, upbringing, and/or racial identity.”

WONDERING IF SCHOOLS 'EXPECT A SOB STORY'

When Darrian Merritt started writing his essay, he knew the stakes were higher than ever because of the court’s decision. His first instinct was to write about events that led to him going to live with his grandmother as a child.

Those were painful memories, but he thought they might play well at schools like Yale, Stanford and Vanderbilt.

“I feel like the admissions committee might expect a sob story or a tragic story,” said Merritt, a senior in Cleveland. “And if you don’t provide that, then maybe they’re not going to feel like you went through enough to deserve having a spot at the university. I wrestled with that a lot.”

He wrote drafts focusing on his childhood, but it never amounted to more than a collection of memories. Eventually he abandoned the idea and aimed for an essay that would stand out for its positivity.

Merritt wrote about a summer camp where he started to feel more comfortable in his own skin. He described embracing his personality and defying his tendency to please others. The essay had humor — it centered on a water gun fight where he had victory in sight but, in a comedic twist, slipped and fell. But the essay also reflects on his feelings of not being “Black enough” and getting made fun of for listening to “white people music.”

“I was like, ‘OK, I’m going to write this for me, and we’re just going to see how it goes,’” he said. “It just felt real, and it felt like an honest story.”

The essay describes a breakthrough as he learned “to take ownership of myself and my future by sharing my true personality with the people I encounter. ... I realized that the first chapter of my own story had just been written.”

A RULING PROMPTS PIVOTS ON ESSAY TOPICS

Like many students, Max Decker of Portland, Oregon, had drafted a college essay on one topic, only to change direction after the Supreme Court ruling in June.

Decker initially wrote about his love for video games. In a childhood surrounded by constant change, navigating his parents’ divorce, the games he took from place to place on his Nintendo DS were a source of comfort.

But the essay he submitted to colleges focused on the community he found through Word is Bond, a leadership group for young Black men in Portland.

As the only biracial, Jewish kid with divorced parents in a predominantly white, Christian community, Decker wrote he constantly felt like the odd one out. On a trip with Word is Bond to Capitol Hill, he and friends who looked just like him shook hands with lawmakers. The experience, he wrote, changed how he saw himself.

“It’s because I’m different that I provide something precious to the world, not the other way around,” he wrote.

As a first-generation college student, Decker thought about the subtle ways his peers seemed to know more about navigating the admissions process . They made sure to get into advanced classes at the start of high school, and they knew how to secure glowing letters of recommendation.

If writing about race would give him a slight edge and show admissions officers a fuller picture of his achievements, he wanted to take that small advantage.

His first memory about race, Decker said, was when he went to get a haircut in elementary school and the barber made rude comments about his curly hair. Until recently, the insecurity that moment created led him to keep his hair buzzed short.

Through Word is Bond, Decker said he found a space to explore his identity as a Black man. It was one of the first times he was surrounded by Black peers and saw Black role models. It filled him with a sense of pride in his identity. No more buzzcut.

The pressure to write about race involved a tradeoff with other important things in his life, Decker said. That included his passion for journalism, like the piece he wrote on efforts to revive a once-thriving Black neighborhood in Portland. In the end, he squeezed in 100 characters about his journalism under the application’s activities section.

“My final essay, it felt true to myself. But the difference between that and my other essay was the fact that it wasn’t the truth that I necessarily wanted to share,” said Decker, whose top college choice is Tulane, in New Orleans, because of the region’s diversity. “It felt like I just had to limit the truth I was sharing to what I feel like the world is expecting of me.”

SPELLING OUT THE IMPACT OF RACE

Before the Supreme Court ruling, it seemed a given to Imani Laird that colleges would consider the ways that race had touched her life. But now, she felt like she had to spell it out.

As she started her essay, she reflected on how she had faced bias or felt overlooked as a Black student in predominantly white spaces.

There was the year in math class when the teacher kept calling her by the name of another Black student. There were the comments that she’d have an easier time getting into college because she was Black .

“I didn’t have it easier because of my race,” said Laird, a senior at Newton South High School in the Boston suburbs who was accepted at Wellesley and Howard University, and is waiting to hear from several Ivy League colleges. “I had stuff I had to overcome.”

In her final essays, she wrote about her grandfather, who served in the military but was denied access to GI Bill benefits because of his race.

She described how discrimination fueled her ambition to excel and pursue a career in public policy.

“So, I never settled for mediocrity,” she wrote. “Regardless of the subject, my goal in class was not just to participate but to excel. Beyond academics, I wanted to excel while remembering what started this motivation in the first place.”

WILL SCHOOLS LOSE RACIAL DIVERSITY?

Amofa used to think affirmative action was only a factor at schools like Harvard and Yale. After the court’s ruling, she was surprised to find that race was taken into account even at some public universities she was applying to.

Now, without affirmative action, she wondered if mostly white schools will become even whiter.

It’s been on her mind as she chooses between Indiana University and the University of Dayton, both of which have relatively few Black students. When she was one of the only Black students in her grade school, she could fall back on her family and Ghanaian friends at church. At college, she worries about loneliness.

“That’s what I’m nervous about,” she said. “Going and just feeling so isolated, even though I’m constantly around people.”

The first drafts of her essay focused on growing up in a low-income family, sharing a bedroom with her brother and grandmother. But it didn’t tell colleges about who she is now, she said.

Her final essay tells how she came to embrace her natural hair . She wrote about going to a mostly white grade school where classmates made jokes about her afro. When her grandmother sent her back with braids or cornrows, they made fun of those too.

Over time, she ignored their insults and found beauty in the styles worn by women in her life. She now runs a business doing braids and other hairstyles in her neighborhood.

“I stopped seeing myself through the lens of the European traditional beauty standards and started seeing myself through the lens that I created,” Amofa wrote.

“Criticism will persist, but it loses its power when you know there’s a crown on your head!”

Ma reported from Portland, Oregon.

The Associated Press’ education coverage receives financial support from multiple private foundations. AP is solely responsible for all content. Find AP’s standards for working with philanthropies, a list of supporters and funded coverage areas at AP.org .

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Alabama's Mark Sears has taken what his mom calls the backroad route to basketball glory

LOS ANGELES – Mark Sears, Alabama’s star guard, celebrated with his teammates at Crypto.com Arena Saturday night and drew the gaze of a woman − one who’s been watching Sears since before he first dribbled a basketball.

That would be his mother, Lameka, who wanted to share a story even as another chapter was unfolding in front of her eyes.

Her son had just led Alabama past Clemson, 89-82 , in the Elite Eight with a game-high 23 points. Sears, a senior, also had been named Most Outstanding Player of the West Regional in the NCAA Tournament. And his stellar play, which helped Alabama topple No. 1 seed North Carolina in the Sweet 16, also helped the Crimson Tide secure its first trip to the Final Four in school history .

But, the story Lameka Sears wanted to tell took place about five years ago.

"I’m a travel nurse and I was working in Atlanta," she told USA TODAY Sports. "Somehow I was on a backroad route."

FOLLOW THE MADNESS: NCAA basketball bracket, scores, schedules, teams and more.

Somehow, Lameka said, she got stuck at a traffic light.

Lameka is religious woman, who along with her husband raised their only son in Muscle Shoals, Alabama. At the time, Mark Sears was struggling to find college scholarship offers to play anywhere, much less the dream destination of the University of Alabama, according to Lameka.

But she said something happened at that traffic light.

"God said, ‘I’m taking Mark the backroad route to his destiny,’" Lameka said. "It’s like (how) you’re going to get to your job today. I’m taking him the backroad route. On purpose."

Divinely inspired or not, here’s how it went: Mark Sears spent a year at Hargrave Military Academy as a high school senior, two years at Ohio University, then put his name in the transfer portal. Then the Crimson Tide called and brought him home. Two years later, he's headed for the Final Four.

"My parents, they kept encouraging me to never give up and stay focused, put God first," Mark Sears said after helping cut down the nets at Crypto.com Arena. "I just put the work in, trusted God, and now I'm here."

March Madness? How about 'Mark Madness'

Mark Sears has inspired a nickname that might warrant a copyright.

"We call him Mark Madness right now," said Latrell Wrightsell Jr., a senior guard at Alabama. 

But during the first half of Alabama’s game against Clemson, it would have been perfectly reasonable to call Sears Off The Mark.

He was 2-for-11 shooting from the floor, including 1-for-7 from 3-pointer range.

"We knew he was gonna get going," Alabama guard Rylan Griffen said. "I’m never gonna think Mark Sears is gonna be off a whole entire game."

Then it was Mark Madness at his best, with Sears going 6-for-7 from 3-point range in the second half.

"Mark hit one, felt like it was from half court," Alabama coach Nate Oats said. "And it was big 3 after big 3."

Wrightsell said Alabama’s players also call Sears "Mark March." That might need some adjusting.

When Alabama heads to Phoenix, site of the Final Four, it’ll be April. But with the same expectations for Sears.

"He's been a real big for us," Wrightsell said, "he stepped up in a lot of ways and has been a leader."

Marching into the Alabama record books

Yes, Mark Sears’ mother said she told him about getting stuck at the traffic light: "So when I told Mark that, I send, ‘Go do your thing.’ Keep making plays. Don’t stop.’ "

It’s been a ceaseless march for Mark Madness.

On Thursday, he broke Alabama’s single-season scoring record, previously held by Reggie King, who set the mark with 747 points during the 1978-79 season.

Breaking that record might have seemed implausible during Sears’ freshman season at Ohio, where he made just 27.9 percent from 3-point range. But his work ethic was unrelenting, and that following year he shot 40.8 percent from 3-point range.

That helped convince Oats that was the right fit for the Crimson Tide.

This season he’s shooting 43.4 percent from 3-point range and leads the team in scoring with 21.5 points per game. He also occasionally blows kisses to the crowd.

"Even though it's intense we play the game because we have fun with it," he said. "To be in those moments you dream about it as a kid, and just to have fun with it because you remember, even though it's a business to go out there, we still gotta have to have fun with it."

Contributing: Jordan Mendoza

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For topics that are of wide interest, you may be able to find an essay that reviews the literature on that topic, and that sets it in context by discussing how other historians have approached that topic. This kind of essay is invaluable when you are starting a research project. There are two easy ways to find them:

History Compass is an online journal that publishes historiographic essays. If there is an essay on your topic, it can be an excellent place to start. Caution: if you do not find what you need with your first search, don't choose Edit Search, because you will then be searching all the publisher's online journals. Return to the starting point for History Compass to continue searching just within this journal.

If your topic is covered, check Oxford Bibliographies Online (currently, covers African Studies, Atlantic History, Medieval Studies, Military History, Classics, Criminology, Islamic Studies, Philosophy, and Renaissance and the Reformation, and many other fields)

America: History & Life and Historical Abstracts In both of these bibliographic databases, "historiography" is a Subject. For example, in AHL, to find historiography on the American Civil war, do a Subject search for: civil war historiography

Annual bulletin of historical literature History Reference (SH). Firestone Z6205 .H65 and online

The "Blackwell Companions" are a series published both in print and online in Blackwell Reference Online . If there is one on your topic, it can be an exceptionally useful place to start reading. Note: to find print copies of the Blackwell Companions, do a keyword search in the Main Catalog for " Blackwell companions to history," "Blackwell companions to American history," " Blackwell companions to British history," " Blackwell companions to world history," or " Blackwell companions to European history " to see if there is a volume in this series that covers your topic. Some copies circulate, and others are in the History Reference room on A floor.

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