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Self-presentation: Impression management and interpersonal behavior

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Self-presentation: Impression Management And Interpersonal Behavior

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The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Ego depletion: is the active self a limited resource, the nature and function of self-esteem: sociometer theory, through a glass darkly: information technology design, identity verification, and knowledge contribution in online communities, self-evaluation: to thine own self be good, to thine own self be sure, to thine own self be true, and to thine own self be better, related papers (5), the presentation of self in everyday life, using multivariate statistics, the benefits of facebook “friends:” social capital and college students’ use of online social network sites, the moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations..

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Impression Management: How to Influence the Way Others See You

These strategies can help you take control of your image.

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Alice Morgan for Verywell Mind / Stocksy

Theories of Impression Management

• Impression Management Behaviors
• Influential Factors
• Real-World Examples

Impression Management in Professional Settings

Tips for managing impressions effectively.

• Psychological Effects

Impression Management and Deception

Impression management is all of the conscious and unconscious processes that we use to control how others perceive us. It involves actions that often cast us in a favorable light in order to achieve our goals.

"We all engage in purposeful and subconscious behaviors to manage the perceptions that others have of us. This kind of behavior is a normal aspect of everyday behavior in personal and professional settings," explains Nicholas Forlenza, PhD, a psychologist, licensed certified social worker, and founder of Psychological Wellness Partners .

Controlling the impression we leave with others doesn't just help us get what we want—it also influences our interpersonal relationships. Forlenza also notes that being able to manage the impression you leave on others is an essential part of building trust, strengthening bonds, and avoiding conflict.

Good impressions forge friendships, attract romantic partners, and foster professional connections. Such meaningful relationships impact our social health, mental well-being, and career success. 

At a Glance

Impressions matter, which is exactly why we spend so much time and energy devoted to conveying a certain type of image. Sociologists and other behavior experts suggest that this is a lot like an actor putting on a performance. But if your social life is a theater, it is important to remember that you are both a performer and an audience member.

You are trying to manage your own image while at the same time interacting with and making judgments about other people’s images. It’s a complex interplay that can have an impact on your relationships, accomplishments, and emotional well-being.

Sociologist Erving Goffman took a dramaturgical perspective to explain how people manage and evaluate impressions. Social interactions, he suggested, are much like theatrical performances.  

In order to form an impression, people craft their performances and engage in social environments as both actors and performers.

At the heart of Goffman's theory were his ideas of the "front stage" and "backstage" self. A person's public persona, or the image they present to others, is their "front stage" self. This can be contrasted with their less formal, more relaxed "backstage self." The backstage self is more authentic, but its something you probably only show in private when you are by yourself or around close friends and family.

Goffman also suggested that people use various techniques to form, maintain, and repair the impressions that they give. We all use various methods to do this, including nonverbal communication , body language , facial expressions, and other signals. How we act, the way we dress, and the signals shape impressions and relationships.

Simply put, Goffman's theory suggests that people engage in performance when they are interacting with other people. The goal of this act is to cultivate the image they hope to convey. It is in private that people act like their genuine, authentic selves.

But our actions alone aren’t the only factors that shape impressions. According to social identity theory , the people we spend time with and the groups we affiliate with also have an essential role in the impression management process.

This theory suggests that group memberships have an important role in impression management. To form positive impressions, people align themselves with certain groups that suit the image they are trying to convey. For example, if you want to convey the impression that you are a competent professional, you might join certain professional or networking groups associated with your values. 

Types of Impression Management Behaviors

"Impression management is an important part of many social interactions in order to achieve desired outcomes. Adapting our behavior in this way increases the likelihood of being viewed positively and accepted in various forms of social groups," Forlenza explains.

The tactics we use to form these impressions can vary depending on our needs, the situation, and the audience. There are several key behaviors that people use to control the impression that others form. These behaviors include:

Ingratiation

Ingratiation is all about trying to get approval from others. It involves behaviors like complimenting, flattering, or agreeing with others to encourage people to like you more.

At a job interview, for example, a job candidate might try to ingratiate themselves by expressing admiration for the potential employer's accomplishments.

Such behavior can be genuine or manipulative, depending on what the person doing it is trying to accomplish. If they are trying to get someone to do something for them, it may be manipulative; if they are trying to forge a genuine bond, then it may be authentic.

Intimidation

In some cases, people utilize intimidation to assert power or exert influence over others and shape their perceptions and beliefs. Common ways of doing this involve being assertive, acting aggressively, or even displaying dominance to encourage compliance (or even fear).

Exemplification

Have you ever encountered someone who seems like the epitome of perfection? They might be using an impression management tactic known as exemplification. They go all-out to project an image of perfection. The goal of this type of behavior is to win the admiration of others. 

For example, they might seem to have the perfect work ethic, the highest moral standards, and the most flawless image–which goes a long way toward making them a role model. This tactic can sometimes work, but it can sometimes backfire if the image people project seems phony or inauthentic.

Supplication

Revealing weaknesses and appealing to people's sympathies can also be a way to influence others' impressions. In such cases, people might present themselves as needy, helpless, vulnerable, or dependent. The goal is to tug at your heartstrings, leaning on people's natural empathy to ensure they're willing to lend a helping hand. 

It can be an effective tool when people need a little extra help. Plus, it fosters prosocial behaviors that can be important in positive interpersonal dynamics.

Assertiveness

If you are trying to convey the impression of confidence, knowing when to speak your mind and assert your opinion can be particularly important. Assertiveness means stating your opinions and setting boundaries calmly and confidently. It can also involve personal storytelling and self-promotion.

This approach helps people feel empowered and lets people know you are self-assured and willing to take charge when needed.

For example, while negotiating a contract with your employer, you might use assertive behaviors–like making eye contact, actively listening, and calmly asserting non-negotiable points–to convey your boundaries and ensure that people see you as confident and competent.

Self-Monitoring

Monitoring and regulating your emotions and reactions is critical to effective impression management. Self-monitoring involves reading social cues and attuning your behavior to suit the situation and achieve your goals. It requires a high level of self-regulation and emotional intelligence , which helps you read the room and respond in ways that suit your needs.

In the workplace, people tend to have much better impressions of others who effectively manage their own emotions and maintain a calm demeanor. These skills can also help with avoiding potential conflicts in the workplace.

For example, when interacting with others in a social setting, you might match your demeanor and communication to match the demands of the situation. Because you can clearly recognize the tone and image you need to strike, you can create a favorable impression in that particular situation.

Self-Presentation

Self-presentation is a specific component of impression management that focuses on the ways people present themselves to others. It involves putting out signals conveying the image we hope to communicate in order to get social approval and positive feedback from others.

Much of this behavior is conscious, but unconscious forces can also shape the impressions that we give to others.

Factors Influencing Impression Management

Factors that can influence impression management include:

Self-Esteem

If you want to present yourself as confident and assured, it often involves having a strong sense of self-esteem . People with good self-esteem are able to assert themselves in social situations, while people with low self-esteem may come off as more guarded and defensive.

Personality Traits

Personality traits and tendencies influence how you present yourself to others. For example, extroverted people tend to be more outgoing and gregarious in social situations, while introverted people are more cautious and reserved.

Social Roles

Our roles in different situations also affect the impression behaviors we use to manage how others perceive us. You might adopt different strategies as you interact with your friends versus how you respond to your colleagues. In many cases, the impression we strive to form is influenced by the norms associated with different social roles.

We also modify our actions based on what we hope to accomplish in a situation. How you present yourself to your friends will probably differ from how you present yourself at a job interview. You adjust your impression management strategies based on whether you are trying to win approval, build rapport, convey competence, or establish authority in a situation.

Audience Characteristics

We also tailor the image we present based on our audience. If you are more familiar with the audience, you are more likely to act informally and casually. More formal situations, on the other hand, dictate a more cautious approach based on that audience's expectations and goals.

Cultural Factors

Your cultural background also influences aspects of self-presentation and impression management. Individualistic cultures prize conveying autonomy and self-reliance, while collectivist cultures emphasize expressions that support group harmony.

Impression Management in Everyday Life

We utilize impression management as part of our everyday life in many different ways. In our day to day relationships, it helps us form a consistent image to help the people around us understand who we are. Some other ways that impression management functions in everyday life include the following examples:

• First impressions : You might engage in behaviors like smiling, making good eye contact, and listening actively to help people form a positive first impression and view you as friendly and likable.
• Job interviews : You might intentionally adjust your behavior to portray yourself as competent, confident, and experienced. By projecting a professional image, you are able to highlight the abilities and achievements that make you an ideal candidate.
• Social media : You might curate your social media presence to convey a specific image. This can include the type of comments you post, the pages and people you follow, and the posts you choose to like and share.
• Public speaking : When presenting in front of a group, you may adapt your behavior and speech to ensure that people form the right impression of what you have to say. This can include using body language, speech structure, and persuasive tactics to ensure people remember your argument.
• Social identity : By managing the way we present ourselves to others, we are able to align ourselves with certain norms, values, and groups that help reinforce our identity and create a sense of belonging .
• Politics and media : Politicians, actors, and other public figures also utilize impression management to shape how the public perceives them. This is done through tactics like strategically communicating information, framing narratives to suit their image, garnering public trust, and espousing certain values.

"Impression management is essential in professional settings as well, where such skills increase the likelihood of obtaining employment, advancing in careers, and improving professional relationships," Forlenza says.

In competitive work settings, making a positive impression on your colleagues, supervisors, clients, and extended network can make or break your efforts to advance your career. If people perceive you as effective, competent, and trustworthy, you may be more likely to be promoted and achieve other career benefits.

Managing your self-image also influences your professional relationships. Creating a positive impression on co-workers, employers, and customers can lead to more opportunities for further career growth and impact leadership success.

What can you do to help ensure you leave a good impression on others in both personal and professional settings?

Learn More About the Organization

Forlenza suggests that you should start by familiarizing yourself with the a company's culture and value system. In professional settings, it's important to ensure that your behaviors and decision-making align with these aspects of the organization.

Be Authentic

"Leaving a good impression is important but more importantly that you are being authentic in the impression you are leaving. People will feel more comfortable and feel a real connection when you are acting like your true self," explains Abbey Sangmeister, MS.Ed, LPC, ACS, a therapist, burnout coach, and founder of Evolving Whole .

Different situations call for different behaviors, but being genuine in how you present yourself can lead to the best outcomes.

Authenticity gets you further with your connections, and the connections you make will align more with you and your services or product. This will also lead to people having better success when working or referring to you.

Practice Active Listening

Forming the right impression requires being abe to read the room and understand what other people expect and need in any given situation. That means paying attention to others and using active listening to hear and understand what they are trying to communicate.

"It is also important when you are meeting people to actively listen to them, not focus on only selling your services or product, and to ask how you can support their endeavors," Sangmeister says.

Present Yourself Professionally

Forlenza notes that you should make sure that your impression matches the tone and expectations of the setting. This means dressing appropriately and maintaining a professional appearance. 

"Basic workplace behaviors such as punctuality, reliability, and respect towards coworkers are important for managing the perceptions others have of us," he explains.

Communicate Effectively

Forlenza and Sangmeister both note that effective interpersonal communication is a critical component of impression management. This means listening to others, communicating clearly, and taking a genuine, empathetic approach when interacting with others in the workplace.

Forlenza also recommends staying open to feedback and staying motivated to keep learning. Showing that you are a team player who is open to ongoing growth can help others form a more positive impression of you in the workplace.

The Psychological Effects of Impression Management

Managing the impressions we leave on others can have a range of psychological and social effects:

Self-Concept

The process of cultivating and projecting an impression can influence our self-concept and self-esteem. When we form positive impressions, we are more likely to get positive feedback and have rewarding social experiences, both of which bolster how we see ourselves.

Negative experiences, on the other hand, can undermine self-esteem. When we fail to create a good impression, it can lead to feelings of inadequacy or self-doubt.

Social Anxiety

For some people, worrying about the impression they leave on others can be extremely anxiety-provoking. Such anxiety can become particularly severe during high-stakes situations, like when a person is interviewing for a new job or speaking in public. The fear of negative evaluations can lead to feelings of social anxiety that can become debilitating at times.

Constantly monitoring your behavior in order to forge a specific impression can be exhausting, especially if the image you are trying to create contrasts with who you are in private. For example, if you are an introvert trying to act like an extrovert, you might find yourself feeling fatigued and overwhelmed when you have to spend a lot of time in social situations without any time to yourself.

This can lead to feelings of chronic stress and burnout that can ultimately take a toll on your health and well-being.

Cognitive Dissonance

Impression management can create feelings of cognitive dissonance in cases where your public self conflicts with your private self. You might find yourself feeling dissatisfied that your own image of your ideal self doesn't match up with how others see you. Or you might feel inauthentic if your public perception is wildly different from who you are in your private life. 

One study found that impression management could negatively affect life satisfaction. While maintaining impressions plays a major role in social functioning, the researchers suggested that it can undermine one's personal sense of control and contribute to feelings of loneliness.

Managing the impression we give to others is usually about presenting ourselves favorably. This may not always present the full picture—it's not necessarily dishonest, but people often take steps to disguise their flaws so people don't get a bad impression.

However, people sometimes use impression management to intentionally manipulate or mislead others. This may involve presenting false or deceptive information as a way to avoid negative consequences to for personal gain. 

Ways that impression management can be used deceptively include:

• Strategically presenting information to downplay flaws, fabricate information, or conceal negative aspects of a person's behavior.
• Misleading or lying by engaging in exaggeration, embellishment, or omission.

Unfortunately, using deception to manage impressions erodes trust and hurts social relationships. When people sense that someone is being deceptive or dishonest, suspicions and distrust are generated, making communication harder.

Research suggests that such behaviors can also negatively affect a person's professional performance and success. One study found that using ingratiation and self-promoting behaviors in the workplace can deplete self-control resources. When this happens, it can lead to harmful, counterproductive behaviors.

Keep in Mind

Impression management is a complex process that involves many different aspects of your self-concept, personality, social behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Forming good impressions is vital for success, but maintaining impressions that are inauthentic or that conflict with your true values can lead to stress, conflict, and other problems.

In order to form impressions and develop relationships that support your well-being, strive to cultivate a strong emotional awareness that allows you to adapt to the situation while still remaining true to who you really are.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Impression management: Developing your self-presentation skills

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What is impression management?

Examples of impression management, the theory behind impression management, impression management in the workplace, 7 impression management techniques, noticing the practice of impression management.

How much is a first impression worth?

We all know the value of a strong first impression, but not many of us know how to strategically go about creating one . Instead, we tend to cultivate two different personas. There’s our relaxed self, when we don’t feel like we have to impress. And then there are the times when we’re “on,” and we become deliberate about every word we say and move we make.

Social media has made us even more aware of the power of our personas. And that doesn’t mean that we have to be inauthentic. Understanding impression management can help us emphasize the qualities that we want to shine through and how to be more at ease with others.

Canadian social psychologist, sociologist, and writer Erving Goffman first presented the idea of impression management in the 1950s. In his book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , Goffman uses the idea of theatre as a metaphor for human social interactions.

His theory became known as Goffman's dramaturgical analysis. It provides an interesting contextual framework for understanding human behavior.

Impression management is the sum total of actions we take — both consciously and unconsciously — to influence how others perceive us. We often attempt to manage how people see us to make us more likely to achieve our goals.

People use impression management to align how we’re seen with what we want. In general, we want other people to think of us as confident, likeable, intelligent, capable, interesting, and any number of other positive traits.

We then “adjust” our behavior to exhibit these characteristics to meet a desired goal. This is closely related to the self-presentation theory — and in fact, the two ideas are often used interchangeably.

If you’ve ever seen the musical Chicago, you’re familiar with the idea of impression management.

Our client, Roxie Hart, was an ambitious adulterer — a persona that wouldn’t have made her too sympathetic to the jury during her murder trial. Instead, she and her lawyer carefully curated a set of behaviors, actions, and even a backstory that made her seem more likeable and naive. 

This impression management strategy culminated in the song, “ They Both Reached for the Gun .” Her lawyer, Billy Flynn, stepped in to manage every part of her presentation to the court, emphasizing that Roxie would only have fired a gun in self-defense.

Outside of the Cook County jail, people use impression management strategies in all kinds of ways. Here are some examples you might have experienced in the workplace: 

• A person is walking into a meeting. They’ve had a rough morning and an even rougher commute. But they smile broadly and wave at each person as they walk in, hiding their bad mood and exhaustion. To all watching, they’re happy to be here.
• You’ve been working in your pajamas all day amongst a pile of paperwork and cookie crumbs. Before joining the afternoon Zoom call, you brush your hair, throw on a clean shirt, and dust the crumbs off the sofa.
• A candidate arrives for their job interview several minutes late. “So sorry,” they say breathlessly. “I was here early, but I got sent to the wrong office.”

What’s the point of this duplicity? 

Well, it might not be all that inauthentic . Despite a rough morning, the first person might genuinely be thrilled to be at work — or might be trying to salvage the day. You might be extremely punctual and just ended up in the wrong place. And it’s totally possible you have no idea how those cookies got there.

On both conscious and unconscious levels, we’re aware that in different situations, we need to emphasize different aspects of our personality and behavior. That doesn’t mean that they aren’t true, just that they’re hidden (under a layer of cookie dust). We tend to engage in a constant, quiet self-monitoring that makes us aware of behaviors that don’t align with how we want to be seen. 

Awareness of these internal contradictions is known as cognitive dissonance . It’s the sense of psychological discomfort that we feel when we’re doing something that contradicts our beliefs or values. We typically resolve cognitive dissonance by taking an action that’s better aligned with our beliefs, or by changing our beliefs to justify our behavior.

So in the above examples, we smile, clean up, or apologize because we want to emphasize our good nature, professionalism, and punctuality. We curate these behaviors to try to control the impressions others have of us. 

Over time, the behaviors (and feedback we get based on those behaviors) inform our self-concepts. We begin to believe that we are the face that we’re putting out to the world, and to a large extent we are.

After all, a tree makes a sound if it falls in the forest, even if no one is around to hear it. But it’s hard to understand the impact of the sound — or put it into context — without an audience.

Goffman explained impression management theory using theatre as a metaphor. Our behavior in a given setting is based on three components: motives , self-presentation , and social context .

We adapt our behaviors as a means to an end. We might want to seem more likeable, competent, or attractive. The qualities we decide to emphasize are the ones that we believe are in line with the outcome we want.

If you pay attention to people’s behavior across different settings, you can often guess what they want to accomplish. The behaviors and qualities they “play up” will clue you into the goal. 

Self-presentation

Self-presentation falls into two main categories: actions that are aligned with your self-image, and actions that align with the expectations of the “audience.” When people respond positively to the projected self, it has a positive impact on our self-esteem. 

This effect is multiplied when the desired image feels congruent with the audience’s expectations. In other words, when people feel like they can bring their whole selves to the “performance,” and that self is welcomed and rewarded, they feel great about themselves. In the workplace, these individuals have higher job satisfaction, a sense of belonging , and increased retention.

Social context

Our public image is also closely tied to how we conduct ourselves in social situations. We inform our understanding of acceptable and unacceptable (and by extension, desirable and undesirable) behavior according to context and social norms.

When we’re successful in making the desired impressions on a group, we feel good about our social standing.

Impression management is a very important skill to have in the workplace. It affects your social influence at work, or — in other words — how others perceive you and your company. 

How organizations use impression management

Organizations use it for both internal and external purposes. Internally, companies want to be seen by the industry as a good place to work. They want to appear organized, capable, supportive, and financially stable. Impression management is closely related to company culture. 

Organizations also use impression management for external purposes. This might include communications with clients, partners, or investors. Managing the positive and negative impression a company has on the general public is usually called public relations or marketing.

Impression management in interviews

The classic scenario of impression management in the workplace is the job interview. Candidates and interviewers alike feel compelled to try to look “perfect.” This means coming across as “authentically perfect” — that is, pleasant, competent, and yet not so perfect as to seem disingenuous.  

Interviews also involve quite a bit of self-promotion. Although self-promotion gets a bit of a bad rep, it’s often the best way for a company to find out about a candidate's skills and experience. This kind of self-promotion can help a candidate leave a positive impression on a prospective employer or client.

Note that this is only true when self-promotion is based in honesty. Lying about your skills or competencies doesn’t earn you any ingratiation points.

Interpersonal impression management

Another common use of impression management at work is building relationships with your colleagues. People usually have a work “persona,” which encompasses a range of behaviors, wardrobe choices, and even topics of conversation. 

While we all shift our behavior to suit different contexts, many feel the shift that happens at work acutely. This is because of the pressure and high value placed on social capital at work, which often compounds other issues of belonging. This kind of impression management is called code-switching .

Impression management techniques can be used in a variety of situations, from job interviews to networking events. Even if it happens unconsciously, we tend to match our behavior and techniques to the situation. According to Goffman, there are 7 different types of impression management tactics we use to control how others perceive us: conformity , excuses , acclaim , flattery , self-promotion , favors , and association .

1. Conformity

Conformity means being accepted by a larger group. In order to conform, you have to (implicitly or explicitly) uphold the social norms and expectations of the group.

Group norms are the behaviors that are considered appropriate for a situation or in a particular set of people. For example, if your job may have a business-casual dress code, so cut-off jeans would feel out-of-place.

Excuses are explanations for a negative event given in order to avoid (or lessen) punishment and judgment. There are countless examples of excuses being made — in and out of the workplace. For example, you might hear people blame traffic when they’re late to meetings.  

Generally speaking, you can only count on but so much social favor with excuses and apologies. Once you make an excuse, you’ve given up a little bit of authority in the situations. Do this too often, and you’ll be seen as unreliable or as a perpetual victim .

That being said, traffic, setbacks, and emergencies really do happen. Communicating these changes proactively can go a long way towards building rapport — especially if you show you’re willing to work through it. 

Public recognition of someone’s accomplishments often goes a long way towards building rapport. When you acclaim someone in this way, you applaud them for their skills and success. If your team is recognition-driven, this sentiment will likely inspire others to work hard as well. It can help incentivize specific behaviors.

4. Flattery

Flattery is a technique often used to improve your relationship with someone through compliments. It’s meant to make you seem agreeable, perceptive, and pleasant. After all, who wouldn’t want to spend time with someone who always has something positive to say about them?

As with the other techniques — if not even more so — flattery can easily come across as insincere. Anchor flattering comments in specific praise, and try not to go overboard. It can be helpful to develop self-awareness and ask yourself why you’re piling it on. Are you truly impressed, or are you feeling a little insecure?

5. Self-promotion

Self-promotion is about highlighting your strengths and drawing attention to your achievements. This phenomenon is especially common in business settings, but it’s frequently seen in personal relationships, too. Because it’s self-directed, some worry that “bragging” on themselves will make them less likeable.

You can eliminate a little of this pressure by looking for spaces where talking about yourself isn’t just welcomed, but expected. Social media, job interviews, and professional networking events are great platforms for practicing self-promotion. Curate at least one space where you can own your full range of accomplishments.

Doing a favor for someone, whether in business or in everyday life, shifts the power dynamic of a relationship. It establishes the person doing the favor as “useful,” and may result in the recipient feeling like they owe something to the other party. 

When favors only come with strings attached, people feel manipulated and resentful. When they’re done freely and out of a desire to be helpful, they can build mutual affinity in a relationship.

7. Association

Association means ensuring that any information shared about you, your company, and your partners is truthful and relevant. This is especially important, as being associated with someone means that everyone’s impressions reflect on each other's values and image.

Sometimes, we consciously associate with certain people to promote our self-image. Some people will network with you (and you with others) in hopes of being introduced to a larger network of contacts.

Impression management is the act of managing how other people perceive you. It is a social strategy that we employ in order to make a good impression on others and to control what they think about us. 

The practice of impression management is a common one in modern society. It’s one of the main ways that people try to maintain their social status and establish themselves as a worthy individual. We may not be aware that we’re doing it, but — at any given time — we’re making dozens of decisions that are influenced by what others might think of us.

You can learn how to better manage your own persona, thrive in social situations, and understand the behavior of others by working with a coach. Coaches can help you understand what you need to project more (or less) of to get what you want, and how to align it with your authentic self.

Ready to learn how to improve your influence, both in and out of the workplace? Schedule a demo with a BetterUp coach today.

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Impression Management: Erving Goffman Theory

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On This Page:

• Impression management refers to the goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event by regulating and controlling information in social interaction.
• Generally, people undertake impression management to achieve goals that require they have a desired public image. This activity is called self-presentation.
• In sociology and social psychology, self-presentation is the conscious or unconscious process through which people try to control the impressions other people form of them.
• The goal is for one to present themselves the way in which they would like to be thought of by the individual or group they are interacting with. This form of management generally applies to the first impression.
• Erving Goffman popularized the concept of perception management in his book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life , where he argues that impression management not only influences how one is treated by other people but is an essential part of social interaction.

Impression Management in Sociology

Impression management, also known as self-presentation, refers to the ways that people attempt to control how they are perceived by others (Goffman, 1959).

By conveying particular impressions about their abilities, attitudes, motives, status, emotional reactions, and other characteristics, people can influence others to respond to them in desirable ways.

Impression management is a common way for people to influence one another in order to obtain various goals.

While earlier theorists (e.g., Burke, 1950; Hart & Burk, 1972) offered perspectives on the person as a performer, Goffman (1959) was the first to develop a specific theory concerning self-presentation.

In his well-known work, Goffman created the foundation and the defining principles of what is commonly referred to as impression management.

In explicitly laying out a purpose for his work, Goffman (1959) proposes to “consider the ways in which the individual in ordinary work situations presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kind of things he may or may not do while sustaining his performance before them.” (p. xi)

Social Interaction

Goffman viewed impression management not only as a means of influencing how one is treated by other people but also as an essential part of social interaction.

He communicates this view through the conceit of theatre. Actors give different performances in front of different audiences, and the actors and the audience cooperate in negotiating and maintaining the definition of a situation.

To Goffman, the self was not a fixed thing that resides within individuals but a social process. For social interactions to go smoothly, every interactant needs to project a public identity that guides others’ behaviors (Goffman, 1959, 1963; Leary, 2001; Tseelon, 1992).

Goffman defines that when people enter the presence of others, they communicate information by verbal intentional methods and by non-verbal unintentional methods.

According to Goffman, individuals participate in social interactions through performing a “line” or “a pattern of verbal and nonverbal acts by which he expresses his view of the situation and through this his evaluation of the participants, especially himself” (1967, p. 5).

Such lines are created and maintained by both the performer and the audience. By enacting a line effectively, a person gains positive social value or “face.”

The verbal intentional methods allow us to establish who we are and what we wish to communicate directly. We must use these methods for the majority of the actual communication of data.

Goffman is mostly interested in the non-verbal clues given off which are less easily manipulated. When these clues are manipulated the receiver generally still has the upper hand in determining how realistic the clues that are given off are.

People use these clues to determine how to treat a person and if the intentional verbal responses given off are actually honest. It is also known that most people give off clues that help to represent them in a positive light, which tends to be compensated for by the receiver.

Impression Management Techniques

• Suppressing emotions : Maintaining self-control (which we will identify with such practices as speaking briefly and modestly).
• Conforming to Situational Norms : The performer follows agreed-upon rules for behavior in the organization.
• Flattering Others : The performer compliments the perceiver. This tactic works best when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver.
• Being Consistent : The performer’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between the performer’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

Self-Presentation Examples

Self-presentation can affect the emotional experience . For example, people can become socially anxious when they are motivated to make a desired impression on others but doubt that they can do so successfully (Leary, 2001).

In one paper on self-presentation and emotional experience, Schlenker and Leary (1982) argue that, in contrast to the drive models of anxiety, the cognitive state of the individual mediates both arousal and behavior.

The researchers examine the traditional inverted-U anxiety-performance curve (popularly known as the Yerkes-Dodson law) in this light.

The researchers propose that people are interpersonally secure when they do not have the goal of creating a particular impression on others.

They are not immediately concerned about others’ evaluative reactions in a social setting where they are attempting to create a particular impression and believe that they will be successful in doing so.

Meanwhile, people are anxious when they are uncertain about how to go about creating a certain impression (such as when they do not know what sort of attributes the other person is likely to be impressed with), think that they will not be able to project the types of images that will produce preferred reactions from others.

Such people think that they will not be able to project the desired image strongly enough or believe that some event will happen that will repudiate their self-presentations, causing reputational damage (Schlenker and Leary, 1982).

Psychologists have also studied impression management in the context of mental and physical health .

In one such study, Braginsky et al. (1969) showed that those hospitalized with schizophrenia modify the severity of their “disordered” behavior depending on whether making a more or less “disordered” impression would be most beneficial to them (Leary, 2001).

Additional research on university students shows that people may exaggerate or even fabricate reports of psychological distress when doing so for their social goals.

Hypochondria appears to have self-presentational features where people convey impressions of illness and injury, when doing so helps to drive desired outcomes such as eliciting support or avoiding responsibilities (Leary, 2001).

People can also engage in dangerous behaviors for self-presentation reasons such as suntanning, unsafe sex, and fast driving. People may also refuse needed medical treatment if seeking this medical treatment compromises public image (Leary et al., 1994).

Key Components

There are several determinants of impression management, and people have many reasons to monitor and regulate how others perceive them.

For example, social relationships such as friendship, group membership, romantic relationships, desirable jobs, status, and influence rely partly on other people perceiving the individual as being a particular kind of person or having certain traits.

Because people’s goals depend on them making desired impressions over undesired impressions, people are concerned with the impressions other people form of them.

Although people appear to monitor how they come across ongoingly, the degree to which they are motivated to impression manage and the types of impressions they try to foster varies by situation and individuals (Leary, 2001).

Leary and Kowalski (1990) say that there are two processes that constitute impression management, each of which operate according to different principles and are affected by different situations and dispositional aspects. The first of these processes is impression motivation, and the second is impression construction.

Impression Motivation

There are three main factors that affect how much people are motivated to impression-manage in a situation (Leary and Kowalski, 1990):

(1) How much people believe their public images are relevant to them attaining their desired goals.

When people believe that their public image is relevant to them achieving their goals, they are generally more motivated to control how others perceive them (Leary, 2001).

Conversely, when the impressions of other people have few implications on one’s outcomes, that person’s motivation to impression-manage will be lower.

This is why people are more likely to impression manage in their interactions with powerful, high-status people than those who are less powerful and have lower status (Leary, 2001).

(2) How valuable the goals are: people are also more likely to impress and manage the more valuable the goals for which their public impressions are relevant (Leary, 2001).

(3) how much of a discrepancy there is between how they want to be perceived and how they believe others perceive them..

People are more highly motivated to impression-manage when there is a difference between how they want to be perceived and how they believe others perceive them.

For example, public scandals and embarrassing events that convey undesirable impressions can cause people to make self-presentational efforts to repair what they see as their damaged reputations (Leary, 2001).

Impression Construction

Features of the social situations that people find themselves in, as well as their own personalities, determine the nature of the impressions that they try to convey.

In particular, Leary and Kowalski (1990) name five sets of factors that are especially important in impression construction (Leary, 2001).

Two of these factors include how people’s relationships with themselves (self-concept and desired identity), and three involve how people relate to others (role constraints, target value, and current or potential social image) (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Self-concept

The impressions that people try to create are influenced not only by social context but also by one’s own self-concept .

People usually want others to see them as “how they really are” (Leary, 2001), but this is in tension with the fact that people must deliberately manage their impressions in order to be viewed accurately by others (Goffman, 1959).

People’s self-concepts can also constrain the images they try to convey.

People often believe that it is unethical to present impressions of themselves different from how they really are and generally doubt that they would successfully be able to sustain a public image inconsistent with their actual characteristics (Leary, 2001).

This risk of failure in portraying a deceptive image and the accompanying social sanctions deter people from presenting impressions discrepant from how they see themselves (Gergen, 1968; Jones and Pittman, 1982; Schlenker, 1980).

People can differ in how congruent their self-presentations are with their self-perceptions.

People who are high in public self-consciousness have less congruency between their private and public selves than those lower in public self-consciousness (Tunnell, 1984; Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Desired identity

People’s desired and undesired selves – how they wish to be and not be on an internal level – also influence the images that they try to project.

Schlenker (1985) defines a desirable identity image as what a person “would like to be and thinks he or she really can be, at least at his or her best.”

People have a tendency to manage their impressions so that their images coincide with their desired selves and stay away from images that coincide with their undesired selves (Ogilivie, 1987; Schlenker, 1985; Leary, 2001).

This happens when people publicly claim attributes consistent with their desired identity and openly reject identities that they do not want to be associated with.

For example, someone who abhors bigots may take every step possible to not appear bigoted, and Gergen and Taylor (1969) showed that high-status navel cadets did not conform to low-status navel cadets because they did not want to see themselves as conformists (Leary and Kowalski, 1990).

Target value

people tailor their self-presentations to the values of the individuals whose perceptions they are concerned with.

This may lead to people sometimes fabricating identities that they think others will value.

However, more commonly, people selectively present truthful aspects of themselves that they believe coincide with the values of the person they are targeting the impression to and withhold information that they think others will value negatively (Leary, 2001).

Role constraints

the content of people’s self-presentations is affected by the roles that they take on and the norms of their social context.

In general, people want to convey impressions consistent with their roles and norms .

Many roles even carry self-presentational requirements around the kinds of impressions that the people who hold the roles should and should not convey (Leary, 2001).

Current or potential social image

People’s public image choices are also influenced by how they think they are perceived by others. As in impression motivation, self-presentational behaviors can often be aimed at dispelling undesired impressions that others hold about an individual.

When people believe that others have or are likely to develop an undesirable impression of them, they will typically try to refute that negative impression by showing that they are different from how others believe them to be.

When they are not able to refute this negative impression, they may project desirable impressions in other aspects of their identity (Leary, 2001).

Implications

In the presence of others, few of the behaviors that people make are unaffected by their desire to maintain certain impressions. Even when not explicitly trying to create a particular impression of themselves, people are constrained by concerns about their public image.

Generally, this manifests with people trying not to create undesired impressions in virtually all areas of social life (Leary, 2001).

Tedeschi et al. (1971) argued that phenomena that psychologists previously attributed to peoples’ need to have cognitive consistency actually reflected efforts to maintain an impression of consistency in others’ eyes.

Studies have supported Tedeschi and their colleagues’ suggestion that phenomena previously attributed to cognitive dissonance were actually affected by self-presentational processes (Schlenker, 1980).

Psychologists have applied self-presentation to their study of phenomena as far-ranging as conformity, aggression, prosocial behavior, leadership, negotiation, social influence, gender, stigmatization, and close relationships (Baumeister, 1982; Leary, 1995; Schlenker, 1980; Tedeschi, 1981).

Each of these studies shows that people’s efforts to make impressions on others affect these phenomena, and, ultimately, that concerns self-presentation in private social life.

For example, research shows that people are more likely to be pro-socially helpful when their helpfulness is publicized and behave more prosocially when they desire to repair a damaged social image by being helpful (Leary, 2001).

In a similar vein, many instances of aggressive behavior can be explained as self-presentational efforts to show that someone is willing to hurt others in order to get their way.

This can go as far as gender roles, for which evidence shows that men and women behave differently due to the kind of impressions that are socially expected of men and women.

Baumeister, R. F. (1982). A self-presentational view of social phenomena. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 3-26.

Braginsky, B. M., Braginsky, D. D., & Ring, K. (1969). Methods of madness: The mental hospital as a last resort. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Buss, A. H., & Briggs, S. (1984). Drama and the self in social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1310-1324. Gergen, K. J. (1968). Personal consistency and the presentation of self. In C. Gordon & K. J. Gergen (Eds.), The self in social interaction (Vol. 1, pp. 299-308). New York: Wiley.

Gergen, K. J., & Taylor, M. G. (1969). Social expectancy and self-presentation in a status hierarchy. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 5, 79-92.

Goffman, E. (1959). The moral career of the mental patient. Psychiatry, 22(2), 123-142.

• Goffman, E. (1963). Embarrassment and social organization.

Goffman, E. (1978). The presentation of self in everyday life (Vol. 21). London: Harmondsworth.

Goffman, E. (2002). The presentation of self in everyday life. 1959. Garden City, NY, 259.

Martey, R. M., & Consalvo, M. (2011). Performing the looking-glass self: Avatar appearance and group identity in Second Life. Popular Communication, 9 (3), 165-180.

Jones E E (1964) Ingratiation. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York.

Jones, E. E., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. Psychological perspectives on the self, 1(1), 231-262.

Leary M R (1995) Self-presentation: Impression Management and Interpersonal Behaior. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.

Leary, M. R.. Impression Management, Psychology of, in Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (Eds.). (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (Vol. 11). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological bulletin, 107(1), 34.

Leary M R, Tchvidjian L R, Kraxberger B E 1994 Self-presentation may be hazardous to your health. Health Psychology 13: 461–70.

Ogilvie, D. M. (1987). The undesired self: A neglected variable in personality research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 379-385.

• Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression management (Vol. 222). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Schlenker, B. R. (1985). Identity and self-identification. In B. R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 65-99). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization model. Psychological bulletin, 92(3), 641.

Tedeschi, J. T, Smith, R. B., Ill, & Brown, R. C., Jr. (1974). A reinterpretation of research on aggression. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 540- 563.

Tseëlon, E. (1992). Is the presented self sincere? Goffman, impression management and the postmodern self. Theory, culture & society, 9(2), 115-128.

Tunnell, G. (1984). The discrepancy between private and public selves: Public self-consciousness and its correlates. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48, 549-555.

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