research projects in early childhood

InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

This brief is part of a series that summarizes essential scientific findings from Center publications.

Content in This Guide

Step 1: why is early childhood important.

: Brain Hero
: The Science of ECD (Video)
You Are Here: The Science of ECD (Text)

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

: 3 Core Concepts in Early Development
: 8 Things to Remember about Child Development
: InBrief: The Science of Resilience

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

: From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts
: 3 Principles to Improve Outcomes

The science of early brain development can inform investments in early childhood. These basic concepts, established over decades of neuroscience and behavioral research, help illustrate why child development—particularly from birth to five years—is a foundation for a prosperous and sustainable society.

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The basic architecture of the brain is constructed through an ongoing process that begins before birth and continues into adulthood. Early experiences affect the quality of that architecture by establishing either a sturdy or a fragile foundation for all of the learning, health and behavior that follow. In the first few years of life, more than 1 million new neural connections are formed every second . After this period of rapid proliferation, connections are reduced through a process called pruning, so that brain circuits become more efficient. Sensory pathways like those for basic vision and hearing are the first to develop, followed by early language skills and higher cognitive functions. Connections proliferate and prune in a prescribed order, with later, more complex brain circuits built upon earlier, simpler circuits.

In the proliferation and pruning process, simpler neural connections form first, followed by more complex circuits. The timing is genetic, but early experiences determine whether the circuits are strong or weak. Source: C.A. Nelson (2000). Credit: Center on the Developing Child

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

Scientists now know a major ingredient in this developmental process is the “ serve and return ” relationship between children and their parents and other caregivers in the family or community. Young children naturally reach out for interaction through babbling, facial expressions, and gestures, and adults respond with the same kind of vocalizing and gesturing back at them. In the absence of such responses—or if the responses are unreliable or inappropriate—the brain’s architecture does not form as expected, which can lead to disparities in learning and behavior.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early in life to accommodate a wide range of environments and interactions, but as the maturing brain becomes more specialized to assume more complex functions, it is less capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or unexpected challenges. For example, by the first year, the parts of the brain that differentiate sound are becoming specialized to the language the baby has been exposed to; at the same time, the brain is already starting to lose the ability to recognize different sounds found in other languages. Although the “windows” for language learning and other skills remain open, these brain circuits become increasingly difficult to alter over time. Early plasticity means it’s easier and more effective to influence a baby’s developing brain architecture than to rewire parts of its circuitry in the adult years.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and its multiple functions operate in a richly coordinated fashion. Emotional well-being and social competence provide a strong foundation for emerging cognitive abilities, and together they are the bricks and mortar that comprise the foundation of human development. The emotional and physical health, social skills, and cognitive-linguistic capacities that emerge in the early years are all important prerequisites for success in school and later in the workplace and community.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Scientists now know that chronic, unrelenting stress in early childhood, caused by extreme poverty, repeated abuse, or severe maternal depression, for example, can be toxic to the developing brain. While positive stress (moderate, short-lived physiological responses to uncomfortable experiences) is an important and necessary aspect of healthy development, toxic stress is the strong, unrelieved activation of the body’s stress management system. In the absence of the buffering protection of adult support, toxic stress becomes built into the body by processes that shape the architecture of the developing brain.

Brains subjected to toxic stress have underdeveloped neural connections in areas of the brain most important for successful learning and behavior in school and the workplace. Source: Radley et al (2004); Bock et al (2005). Credit: Center on the Developing Child.

Policy Implications

The basic principles of neuroscience indicate that early preventive intervention will be more efficient and produce more favorable outcomes than remediation later in life.
A balanced approach to emotional, social, cognitive, and language development will best prepare all children for success in school and later in the workplace and community.
Supportive relationships and positive learning experiences begin at home but can also be provided through a range of services with proven effectiveness factors. Babies’ brains require stable, caring, interactive relationships with adults — any way or any place they can be provided will benefit healthy brain development.
Science clearly demonstrates that, in situations where toxic stress is likely, intervening as early as possible is critical to achieving the best outcomes. For children experiencing toxic stress, specialized early interventions are needed to target the cause of the stress and protect the child from its consequences.

Suggested citation: Center on the Developing Child (2007). The Science of Early Childhood Development (InBrief). Retrieved from www.developingchild.harvard.edu .

Early Childhood Research

From language development to overall health, research consistently finds what happens in a child’s earliest years is most important for healthy development, growth and long-term well-being.

Notable Publications & Projects

Below are some of the most well-respected research studies on early childhood and early brain development, including some of Start Early’s own research and publications.

Longitudinal Research Studies

Read on and learn more about why quality early learning and care helps address the long-standing injustices in our communities and is a proven solution to breaking the cycle of generational poverty.

The Abecedarian Project

The Abecedarian Project demonstrated that young children who receive high-quality early education from infancy to age 5 do better in reading and math and are more likely to stay in school longer, graduate from high school, and attend a four-year college.

HighScope Perry Preschool

By age 40, adults who participated as 3- and 4-year-olds in quality preschool were more likely to have graduated from high school, held a job, made higher earnings, and committed fewer crimes than those who didn’t attend, according to this seminal study.

Early Head Start Research & Evaluation

Children enrolled in Early Head Start performed better on measures of cognition, social and emotional, and language functioning than their peers who were not enrolled, according to this landmark study of the federal Early Head Start program. The study also found that children who participated in Early Head Start (from birth to age 3) and later programs (from age 3 to 5) had the most positive outcomes.

Our Research Work

We conduct research and evaluations to elevate the expertise of early childhood professionals and support better learning environments.

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Together, when we start early, we can close the opportunity gap. With your support, we are getting closer to this reality every day. 

What We Do 

Our holistic approach ensures that we impact every aspect of early childhood development so children, families and educators can thrive.  

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Caplan Foundation for Early Childhood

The Caplan Foundation for Early Childhood is an incubator of promising research and development projects that appear likely to improve the welfare of young children, from infancy through 7 years, in the United States. Welfare is broadly defined to include physical and mental health, safety, nutrition, education, play, familial support, acculturation, societal integration and childcare.

Grants are only made if a successful project outcome will likely be of significant interest to other professionals, within the grantee’s field of endeavor, and would have a direct benefit and potential national application. The Foundation’s goal is to provide seed money to implement those imaginative proposals that exhibit the greatest chance of improving the lives of young children, on a national scale . Because of the Foundation’s limited funding capability, it seeks to maximize a grant's potential impact.

Program Guidelines

The Foundation provides funding in the following areas

Early Childhood Welfare

Children can only reach their full potential when all aspects of their intellectual, emotional and physical development are optimally supported.

Providing a safe and nurturing environment is essential as is imparting the skills of social living in a culturally diverse world. Therefore, the Foundation supports projects that seek to perfect child rearing practices and to identify models that can provide creative, caring environments in which all young children thrive.

Early Childhood Education and Play

Research shows that children need to be stimulated as well as nurtured, early in life, if they are to succeed in school, work and life. That preparation relates to every aspect of a child’s development, from birth to age seven, and everywhere a child learns – at home, in childcare settings and in preschool.

We seek to improve the quality of both early childhood teaching and learning, through the development of innovative curricula and research based pedagogical standards, as well as the design of imaginative play materials and learning environments.

Parenting Education

To help parents create nurturing environments for their children, we support programs that teach parents about developmental psychology, cultural child rearing differences, pedagogy, issues of health, prenatal care and diet, as well as programs which provide both cognitive and emotional support to parents.

Funding Limitations

the foundation will not fund:.

programs outside of the United States
the operation or expansion of existing programs
the purchase or renovation of capital equipment
the staging of single events (e.g. concerts, seminars, etc.)
the creation or acquisition of works of art or literature
the activities of single individuals or for-profit entities
political or religious organizations
programs with religious content
programs to benefit children residing in foreign countries
medical research applicable to both adults and children

All letters of inquiry that don't comply with the limitations will be rejected.

Furthermore, the Foundation will only fund grant applications that define measurable outcomes, include credible methods for documenting and assessing results, provide for financial accountability in the application of funds, and include detailed, prudent implementation budgets.

Policy on Funding Indirect Expenses for Grants

The Foundation will not fund arbitrary or excessive allocations of indirect expenses even if a project is worthy. The Foundation’s Board will only approve a maximum of 15% of a project’s direct expenses, when earmarked as general and/or administrative overhead.

Policy Regarding Multiple Year Funding Requests

Consistent with the Foundation’s mission, as an incubator of innovative research and development directed to improving the general welfare of young children, we will not fund more than the first year of multiple year projects. It is our belief that having multiple funders, of those worthy projects that demand more sustained efforts, increases the likelihood of their success by ensuring broader oversight and greater long term promotional possibilities.

Apply for a Grant

The Foundation employs a two-step grant application process that includes the submission of both a Letter of Inquiry (LOI) and a Full Proposal–the latter only by those applicants requested to do so. This ensures that consideration of Full Proposals is limited to those applications that strictly comply with the Foundation’s programmatic guidelines.

The next deadline for submitting a LOI is .

Applicants must submit Letters of Inquiry by clicking on the Email your Letter of Inquiry button below. Once a Letter of Inquiry is received by the Foundation, the Directors will determine if the proposed program fits the Foundation’s funding guidelines. Successful applicants will be invited via email to submit Full Proposals.

Each Letter of Inquiry should include the following information:

The organization’s official name, website address and contact information
A brief (250 word maximum) summary of the organization’s mission and recent program history
The organization’s 501(c)(3) Tax Exempt Status letter from the IRS and its’ Federal Tax ID#
The total amount of the organization’s annual budget
The total amount of the grant request
An indication of the amount and type of support being requested from all sources
Title of the project and a narrative description (1,000 words or less) of the issue(s) or need(s) to be addressed by the proposal, the work to be performed and the anticipated outcome
A description of how the proposal fits the Foundation’s program guidelines
A description of how your project and/or research is innovative in nature
A contact person, their email address and phone number

Your Letter of Inquiry must follow the number format listed above. Failure to follow the specified format will disqualify your LOI from review by the Board of Directors. Please note LOI and the name of your organization in the subject line of your email.

There are many proposals that we do not consider because they do not meet the criteria stated in our website. We strive to fund ideas that are adventurous, thoughtful and challenge the status quo. They should have a fresh concept (not rehash an older idea) and a defined method of implementation that promotes new approaches and understanding of early childhood and pushes the boundaries of academic, social and cultural studies and practices.

All written correspondence to the Caplan Foundation for Early Childhood should be directed to Amanda R. Oechler, CPA at 108 East Main Street, Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, 17745

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Grants Awarded

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Frank and Theresa Caplan were pioneers in the development of creative, imaginative, educational toys for young children. In the early thirties, Frank Caplan was a youth worker and one of the first male nursery school teachers in the United States. In 1949, he co-founded Creative Playthings, a company that designed and manufactured toys to enhance the imagination and learning of young children.

By the 1950’s, Creative Playthings was one of the most important manufacturers and suppliers of early childhood educational toys and equipment. They collaborated with internationally known artists, such as Nino Vitali, to design toys, as well Milton Hebald, Isamu Noguchi, Robert Winston and architects like Louis Kahn to design outdoor playscapes and sculptures.

Creative Playthings researched and developed innovative curriculum materials for schools and furniture that could be stacked and rearranged to allow for flexibility within the classroom. They introduced dolls, which were racially diverse, and anatomically correct boy and girl dolls, which were provocative at the time.

In 1975, Frank Caplan and his wife, Theresa, created The Princeton Center for Infancy and Early Childhood, a pioneering research and publishing organization focusing on materials for parent education. He researched and co-authored, with Theresa, a national bestselling series on early childhood development called The First Twelve Months of Life (1977), The Second Twelve Months of Life (1978), and The Early Childhood Years: The 2-6 Year Old (1983). In addition, Frank and Theresa co-authored The Power of Play in 1973.

Throughout their lives, Frank and Theresa worked to develop innovative and beautifully designed educational toys and equipment for home and school environment. They wanted to encourage parents’ understanding and knowledge about the extraordinary time of infancy and early childhood.

The Caplan Foundation for Early Childhood was created in 2014 as a result of a bequest from Theresa Caplan stipulating her estate be used to incubate innovation and research addressing the needs of children from birth through age seven.

Financial Information

2015 IRS Form 990 (PDF)
2014 IRS Form 990 (PDF)

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Please send us the required documents as outlined on the website .

Investigating Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives on Virtual Reality Enhanced Teaching in Preschool

Open access
Published: 05 April 2024

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Sophia Rapti ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-4741-6572 1 ,
Theodosios Sapounidis 1 &
Sokratis Tselegkaridis ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0825-0787 2

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Recent developments in technology have introduced new tools, such as virtual reality, into the learning process. Although virtual reality appears to be a promising technology for education and has been adopted by a few schools worldwide, we still do not know students’ and educators’ opinions, preferences, and challenges with it, particularly in relation to preschool education. Therefore, this study: (a) analyzes the preferences of 175 children aged 3 to 6 years regarding traditional teaching compared to enhanced teaching with virtual reality and (b) captures educators’ perspectives on virtual reality technology. This evaluation of virtual reality took place in 12 Greek preschool classrooms. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods were used for data collection. Specifically, regarding the qualitative data collection, the study included semi-structured interviews with the participating educators, oriented by 2 axes: (a) preschoolers’ motivation and engagement in virtual reality activities, and (b) virtual reality technology prospects and difficulties as an educational tool in a real class. Regarding the quantitative data collection, specially designed questionnaires were used. Bootstrapping was utilized with 1000 samples to strengthen the statistical analysis. The analysis of the students’ responses indicated a statistically significant difference in preference in favor of virtual reality enhanced teaching compared to a traditional method. Statistically significant differences were also observed regarding gender. Furthermore, based on the educators’ answers and comments, difficulties were encountered initially but eventually, virtual reality was regarded as an effective approach for educational purposes. However, concerns arose among educators as to whether this technology could adequately promote preschoolers’ cooperative skills.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

In recent times, young learners have experienced an era marked by fast technological growth. Accordingly, children are exposed to various technological tools and electronic devices both in their everyday lives and in their school routines. Hence, there is a demand for innovative learning tools and practices (Kaimara et al., 2022 ).

Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) are regarded as updated teaching tools and are used more frequently in educational settings. Some researchers claim that students utilizing ICTs may perform better and more creatively than those students who are engaged in traditional learning activities (Nawaz et al., 2022 ). Moreover, the earlier ICTs and new technologies are used in education, the more aware young learners may become of them, and thus, may be able to exploit them effectively and wisely in their later lives (Li, 2021 ). Preschool educators may find it useful to integrate ICT tools and methods for teaching and learning, and in order to prepare effective future citizens.

According to some researchers’ claims, Virtual Reality (VR) is a form of these innovative tools and practices that has flourished as an interesting, “feasible” teaching aid in the learning process (Brown et al., 2020 ; Maas & Hughes, 2020 ). Specifically, VR can be integrated with mobile phones, personal computers (PCs), special glasses, and other types of gear into the teaching process. Therefore, with the aid of these types of technological devices, students can virtually “travel” from the depths of the Earth’s oceans to the peaks of Mars, allowing them to witness places, animals, and cultures firsthand that were previously unreachable through traditional teaching methods. Consequently, immersive learning activities characterized by realism are created through VR equipment (Shin, 2017 ). VR, based on conducted studies, is believed to have brought about several new learning opportunities in school routines, converting the school classroom into a natural, real, and meaningful environment for children’s learning experiences. During these experiences, learners have the potential to develop a range of skills and interact efficiently and effectively (Huang et al., 2016 ). Thus, VR may arise as a promising technology, suitable for educational settings from preschool to the university (Tilhou et al., 2020 ).

Notwithstanding, the majority of VR implementations can be found in fields like training simulation such as fighting and surgery (Burke et al., 2017 ; Oberhauser et al., 2018 ) instead of school classrooms. Thus, there has been a limited amount of researchs investigating the usage of VR technology in domains that are integrated into the education field (Chavez & Bayona, 2018 ). The implementation of VR seems not to have been examined thoroughly and sufficiently, although it may bring about several benefits to learners (Rienties et al., 2016 ). No matter how immersive a technological tool such as VR may be to offer “full multi-sensory interaction” , not many educators have integrated it into their activities in school classrooms (Radianti et al., 2020 ). In addition to this, some researchers claim that teachers cannot use VR effectively unless they are trained in it (Lorusso et al., 2020 ).

Additionally, VR may not be widely implemented in school classrooms for other reasons. Based on the existing literature, excessive exposure to VR may affect children negatively because it may create misconceptions of reality and may not promote critical thinking about the VR scenes and information (Hussein & Nätterdal, 2015 ; Li, 2021 ). Furthermore, there are concerns that children may lose a sense of their own creativity as they grow accustomed to more and more VR technology. Finally, there are concerns that preschoolers might adopt a sedentary lifestyle or experience motion sickness, vision loss, and headaches because of excessive exposure to VR screens (Hussein & Nätterdal, 2015 ). Consequently, the issue of time exposure to VR technology and whether this should be limited and under the constant presence of a teacher has arisen (Freina & Ott, 2015 ).

Moreover, educators are likely to face obstacles while attempting to implement VR in school classrooms, including the following: the shortage of modern technological gear, educators’ lack of knowledge and experience with VR technology, inadequate hardware/software knowledge, usability for VR technology, and the high cost of VR equipment (Kavanagh et al., 2017 ). Although new technologies may help to create effective learning environments for students, they are also often quite expensive and may be difficult to afford within school settings. Yet, the VR technology that is proposed in this current paper is reasonably priced; thus, many schools could provide it to their educators and students. Most often, in academic settings, VR is found to be utilized more frequently in higher education rather than in K-12 settings (Luo et al., 2021 ) and even less often in preschool classrooms.

Therefore, in this paper, we explore the potential impact of VR technology on young learners and specifically on preschoolers. In that way, education stakeholders would be able to clarify whether it may be helpful to design and implement VR activities from an early age.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides the theoretical background for virtual reality in educational settings, and Section 3 outlines the methodology employed to implement the intervention. The results are presented in Section 4 , with a detailed discussion following in Section. 5 . Section 6 describes the limitations encountered and Section 7 highlights the conclusions of the study.

Theoretical Background

In this section, we study the background of VR technology and its implementation in educational settings, with an emphasis on preschool classrooms. Studying these topics together contributes to a better understanding of VR’s impact on young learners. Moreover, this may enrich the existing professional literature and in turn, contribute to the effective preparation of preschoolers for their future lives.

VR Definition

VR is a form of simulated reality that may facilitate educators and students in the learning process. Yet, there has not been a widely accepted definition for VR yet. (Luo et al., 2021 ). Moreover, VR often fails to be distinguished from Augmented Reality (AR) which “overlays digital objects or virtual information onto the real world” (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2017 ). Most of the time, while referring to VR, a set-up of hardware and software utilizing technology comes to mind (Makransky & Petersen, 2019 ). According to related literature, there are 3 types of VR emerging from the degree the user interacts with the virtual environment: (a) immersive VR, (b) semi-immersive VR, and (c) non-immersive VR (Lorusso et al., 2020 ). In the first type, either devices such as Head-Mounted Displays (HMDs) or special glasses are used. In the second type, desktop equipment or a TV screen is utilized to display the simulation (Merchant et al., 2014 ; Wu et al., 2020 ). In the third type, conventional computer equipment (screen, keyboard, mouse) is used (Robertson et al., 1993 ). Finally, the experience created by VR can evoke several senses like vision, hearing, and touching (Elmqaddem, 2019 ).

Development of VR in Educational Settings

VR is thought to enhance teaching and promote learners’ skills owing to its theoretical and practical framework. In detail, VR integrates disciplines of constructivist learning theory since it may help learners to obtain and construct knowledge with support from their teachers and peers, rather than being positioned as passive knowledge consumers. Therefore, during VR activities, students construct their knowledge based on their previous experiences facilitated by teachers (Rababah, 2021 ). Additionally, VR enables inquiry-based learning and could enhance children’s critical thinking of ideas, contributing to their cognitive development (Shin, 2017 ). In addition to this, based on the findings from other conducted studies, children seem to enhance their social skills through their participation in VR activities (Lorusso et al., 2020 ). VR could also improve teaching activities as it is used for integrating and scaffolding learning. Scaffolding focuses on what students cannot yet do by themselves but are able to do with the help of others, and aims to enable them to be able to accomplish this successfully alone (Van de Pol & Elbers, 2013 ). Moreover, with the technological growth characterizing our routine, scaffolding can be supported by computer tools (Belland, 2014 ). Such new technologies may support students’ learning by optimizing teaching practices and empowering the learning process through the use of multimedia gear (Shi et al., 2022 ). Thus, VR, by using technological tools and scaffolding, may contribute enhance traditional teaching methods through to the design of innovative school activities tailored to children’s needs.

During the last decade, VR has become increasingly popular due to its immersive traits and its ability to enrich the learning environment in school classrooms (Luo et al., 2021 ). Hence, many countries integrate VR technology into their educational settings to facilitate learning in various domains such as science, mathematics, and vocabulary development (Hu-Au & Lee, 2017 ; Villena-Taranilla et al., 2022 ). Notably, in European countries in general and in Greece specifically, there are official guidelines from the Ministry of Education for all kindergartens to integrate new technologies into the school curriculum. Teaching methods need to be developed and updated to put the students at the center of the learning process as active participants using modern technology. New technologies, such as VR and AR, among others may foster this (Rapti et al., 2023 ). Now, children can have easy access to technological tools and VR devices which seem to be appealing to them. This is especially true when the VR equipment is of low cost, such as in the case of this current study. Appropriate pricing allows schools to have easier access to this technology, making it possible to utilize iteffectively by both developed and developing countries.

According to Williams et al. ( 2018 ), VR technology has arisen in educational settings as a potential mainstream technology for a number of reasons:

It may empower educators’ teaching methods.

It may raise and keep students’ interests, thus evoking their curiosity.

It may wake up children’s imagination and contribute to the development of their creativity and other related skills.

It may form sensory-rich virtual learning environments, in which vision, sound-hearing, and touch can contribute to creating interesting learning experiences.

In these new learning experiences created by VR technology, there may be factors that need to be considered while designing and implementing activities in school classrooms in order to gain all the potential benefits for students: the age, the characteristics of students’ development, and the gender of participants. Empirical studies have indicated that in order to engage young learners in the learning process, effective school activities need to be tailored to their real needs and development (Bayar, 2014 ). Furthermore, the gender factor may influence students’ preference regarding new technologies such as VR. Technology preferences and differences between boys and girls are often attributed to gender-based stereotypes (Sullivan & Bers, 2013 ). Males seem to be more confident while dealing with computer equipment, due perhaps to their frequent exposure to video games (Sapounidis et al., 2019 ). Additionally, females are more likely than males to enrich their games with imagination through collaboration in small groups of peers, whilst males prefer to use more physical strength and work with larger teams (Volman et al., 2005 ).

VR and Preschool Education

Young learners need to develop a range of skills to succeed in life and in demanding workplaces as future citizens. Hence, educational settings should promote these skills and prepare students effectively for their well-being. What is more, it is vital to achieve this from an early age. Fortunately, educators can choose among a wide variety of tools and practices to select the most suitable ones for their students’ support in the learning process. One of these tools may be VR technology. Findings from emerging research indicates that, preschoolers can enhance many skills through VR activities. These skills include: motor, linguistic, mathematical, social, and scientific ones (Ren & Wu, 2019 ; Zhu et al., 2020 ; Pan et al., 2021 ). Young learners seem to experiment with VR technology and gear with curiosity, which generates a sense of enthusiasm (Lorusso et al., 2020 ). These activities also contribute to their cognitive development too (Li, 2021 ). Additionally, VR technology seems to enhance children’s social skills. Social learning is rooted in children’s family environments. When young learners enter preschool, they immediately enter a larger social group in which they are supported to develop their social competencies with peers and teachers. VR activities may facilitate children’s social experiences and motivate them to form positive behaviors rather than negative ones (Shoshani, 2023 ).

However, so far, few studies have explored young learners’ preferences between VR technology and traditional methods. Thus, it remains unclear what students prefer most and regard as appealing game-playing activities in preschool classrooms. Furthermore, there haven’t been enough studies investigating preschool educators’ perspectives on VR and its potential impact on their school reality. So, in order to contribute to the theory related to VR and its implementations, our study aims to fill the gaps in existing literature, by addressing the following Research Questions (RQ):

RQ1. What do preschoolers prefer most between VR activities and traditional ones? RQ2. What are the educators’ perspectives on VR technology in preschool? RQ3. Is gender a factor affecting preschoolers’ preference for VR technology?

Methodology

Participants.

Children were randomly selected to participate in this activity enriched by VR technology. Thirteen educators from 12 areas of Northern Greece implemented the intervention. In addition to this, a total of 175 children from 12 public Greek kindergartens, including 83 girls and 92 boys, all 3 to 6 years of age, took part in the VR applications. The educators participated in a 3-hour training program regarding the utilization of VR in the school classroom, prior to the children’s participation.

Research Design and Procedure

The researchers designed two different learning activities for one group of participants. The same class of kindergarteners was examined during and after a traditional teaching activity and during and after one activity enriched by VR technology. All the children, with the help of their educators, first participated in a traditional teaching activity about the animals of the Antarctic and the dinosaurs. The same children then “traveled” to the Antarctic and “met” dinosaurs using VR headsets, smartphones, and VR videos, as shown in Fig. 1 . To facilitate that, a VRbox (V2) which is a low-cost VR headset is utilized. This is a type of VR technology that can use a smartphone’s screen to place the user inside a 3D world. Thus, this is a reasonably-priced VR tool that can be an asset to help schools with very low financial budgets to have access to innovative VR experiences and related educational approaches.

VR activities with preschoolers utilizing VR technology

When the activities were completed, the children were asked to indicate their preference between traditional activities and VR activities. Two questionnaires were employed to collect data; self-reported measures/questionnaires with one question for each item. First, the “This or That” questionnaire (Sim & Horton, 2012 ) was used, where the children were asked to choose between the two activities and indicate (a) their favorite one, (b) the activity they would like to do again, and (c) the one they found more enjoyable as a game.

Additionally, the “Smilyometer” (Read, 2008 ) was employed using a 5-point Likert scale, which is treated as interval scale (e.g., Sapounidis et al., 2019 ). Children were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement to the following statements: (a) I liked the traditional activity, (b) I liked the VR activity, (c) I would like to do the traditional activity again, (d) I would like to do the VR activity again, (e) I thought the traditional activity gave me fun as a game, and (f) I thought the VR activity gave me fun as a game.

In addition, educators were asked to provide their perspectives regarding VR experience using a 7-point Likert scale questionnaire. Specifically, the questionnaire consisted of 8 Questions (Q):

Q1. Children did not find the VR activities boring. Q2. Children demonstrated a higher attention span during VR activities compared to traditional activities. Q3. VR activities motivated children, who are used to showing little interest in activities, to participate more. Q4. I am interested in integrating more VR activities into my lessons. Q5. I believe that VR activities of this kind could be utilized for educational purposes. Q6. I believe that VR activities could foster cooperation among students. Q7. The implementation of VR activities was easy to do in a school classroom. Q8. VR activities can be utilized as forms of playing and facilitating learning in a school classroom.

Finally, to capture the educators’ perspectives on the usage of VR technology, semi-structured interviews were designed (Kallio et al., 2016 ), oriented by 3 axes: (a) preschoolers’ motivation and engagement in VR activities, and (b) VR technology prospects and difficulties as an educational tool in a real class.

Data Analysis

To conduct a statistical analysis of the data, the questionnaire responses were quantified. Specifically, regarding the “This or That” questionnaire, the response in favor of traditional activities was assigned a score of 1, while the response in favor of VR activities was assigned a score of 2.

Related to the “Smilyometer”, the scoring system used was as follows: (a) Strongly Disagree was assigned a score of 1, (b) Disagree was assigned a score of 2, (c) Neutral was assigned a score of 3, (d) Agree was assigned a score of 4, and (e) Strongly Agree was assigned a score of 5.

To strengthen the statistical analysis, bootstrapping methods were utilized, with 1000 samples. The bootstrapping approach assumes no underlying distribution of the data, as it treats even the non-normal data as normal, drawing random subsamples from the originally collected samples (Cheung et al., 2023 ). A paired-sample t-test was employed to compare the responses of students regarding traditional activities and VR activities. Additionally, an independent-sample t-test was utilized to analyze the data based on student gender. In general, multiple t-tests might result in increasing type I errors, however, in our case, we test two conditions at a time (boys/girls, or traditional teaching/VR teaching), so the type I error does not exceed 5% (Field, 2005 ).

Finally, related to the educators’ questionnaire, the scoring system used was as follows: (a) Strongly Disagree was assigned a score of 1, (b) Disagree was assigned a score of 2, (c) Somewhat Disagree was assigned a score of 3, (d) Neutral was assigned a score of 4, (e) Somewhat Agree was assigned a score of 5, (f) Agree was assigned a score of 6, and (g) Strongly Agree was assigned a score of 7.

The students’ preference for VR activities is indicated through (a) the results of the “This or That” questionnaire (shown in Table 1 ), and (b) the results of the “Smilyometer” questionnaire (shown in Table 2 ).

According to Table 1 , there were statistically significant ( p < 0.05) and strong ( r > 0.7) associations between children’s responses and learning activity.

The reliability of Smilyometer questions for the traditional activity was found to be acceptable, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.73 and inter-item correlations of 0.4. Also, the reliability of Smilyometer questions for the VR activity was found to be acceptable, with a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.688 and inter-item correlations of 0.5. These alpha values are considered acceptable given the small number of items (Herman, 2015 ; Pallant, 2020 ).

To assess potential statistically significant differences between students’ preferences for the traditional activity and the VR activity, a paired-sample t-test was performed. The results, presented in Table 3 , favored VR activities in each case.

Regarding the analysis by gender of the students, Table 4 displays the means of the responses along with the corresponding standard deviations and standard error mean.

To assess any statistically significant differences between boys’ and girls’ preferences for the traditional activity and the VR activity, independent-sample t-test was performed. The results, are presented in Table 5 .

Based on the results of the independent-samples t-test, statistically significant differences were observed in two questions. Figure 2 displays the mean scores for both girls and boys in these questions.

Statistically significant differences between girls and boys

Table 6 presents the mean scores derived from the educators’ responses to the questionnaire administered to them.

The educators’ responses depicted a belief that VR activities can be utilized for educational purposes (Q5). Additionally. the children get engaged in VR activities without getting bored (Q1). However, the has been a low score regarding the question of whether such activities fostered students’ cooperation (Q6).

Figure 3 shows the mean values for the eight questions, accompanied by 95% confidence interval (CI) bars.

Mean values with 95% CI

Regarding the semi-structured interviews, and preschoolers’ motivation and engagement, all the educators agree that the VR activity excited the children, who “ asked, again and again, to put on the VR headset, to live the experience ” while “ waiting for their turn to put on the VR headset ”. However, the educators noted that this posed challenges as the children had to endure long waiting time for their turns to participate. It was suggested by the educators that having had multiple VR headsets available would have been beneficial, allowing more children to engage in activities simultaneously.

In addition, “ some children were afraid to wear the VR headset at first until they got used to them ”, while some other children “ reported fear due to instability in moving around the room ”. This highlights the importance of being exposed to such technologies adequately enough before using them in an activity orientated by certain rules.

Regarding VR technology as a potentially effective educational tool, when the children were asked to describe what they saw during the VR activities, it was noted that “ they readily used descriptive language to express their experiences. In contrast, during other activities, some children were observed to be more reserved and less likely to speak or provide detailed descriptions ”. Therefore, although the VR activity was implemented on an individual basis, it effectively captured the children’s interest and made the lesson experiential. However, it was noted that developing cooperation among the children proved to be challenging within this activity.

Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the children expressed a strong desire for more opportunities to engage in VR experiences in the future. The preschoolers remembered details from their virtual “journeys” and wanted to share their experience with their peers even after a month had passed.

Lastly, aside from the preschoolers’ enthusiasm about VR technology, we also witnessed their educators’ enthusiasm as well: “ I believe that virtual reality is a valuable tool that can be effectively utilized for teaching purposes”, “It was truly enjoyable and impressive to witness my students learning and having fun simultaneously”, “They actively engaged with one another, discussing their experiences and expressing their enthusiasm strongly ”.

This current paper aims to capture students’ and educators’ perspectives on VR technology in preschool. Regarding our first RQ and what preschoolers tend to prefer most between VR activities and traditional ones, all the preschoolers showed great interest in VR activities. They were extremely curious and wanted to explore the learning environment and the 3D world which was created by VR equipment. They were focused on the activity from the very beginning to the end of it. These findings emerge from both educators’ feedback and the students’ responses to our questionnaire after the VR intervention. It seems that when a teaching activity in the school curriculum is attractive, it raises and keeps students’ attention and interest throughout its implementation (Chen, 2016 ).

In addition to this, the preschoolers seemed to enjoy the VR activities very much due to their visual, auditory, and kinesthetic characteristics. In VR activities, children are motivated to use their hands, arms, and legs. This is something that preschoolers enjoy doing. On top of that, this VR trait contributes to children’s development of coordination and motor skills (Wang et al., 2022 ). Moreover, children were supported through the usage of VR instruments to improve their navigation and orientation ability (Lorusso et al., 2020 ). So, while having a VR learning activity tailored to preschoolers’ age and development, a range of skills promotion may be achieved too.

Related to our second RQ and the educators’ perspectives on VR technology implemented in preschool, all the educators agreed that this may be an effective tool to utilize in school classrooms with potential benefits for young learners. To start with, all the educators commented on VR activities as a means of creating a unique enhanced teaching experience for preschoolers. Young learners seem to live a learning experience in which knowledge is built by broadening their imagination and mind allowing them to access visually everything they wish as if they were there in real (Schmitz et al., 2020 ). In such a frame, students not only can learn innovatively but they can perform the tasks better and more holistically based on some researchers’ claims (Radianti et al., 2020 ).

In addition to this, preschoolers’ attention span and enjoyment emerging from VR activities were high throughout the intervention according to educators’ comments in their interviews. This may be attributed to the fact that VR applications in preschool classrooms assist children in learning various subjects while having fun (Zhai, 2021 ). This finding aligns with the results of our study, which demonstrated statistically significant differences in children’s preferences for VR activities compared to traditional ones. The experiences offered by VR technology contributed to the children’s strong preference for VR activities. Furthermore, educators noticed that children were able to remember easily and reflect upon concepts via VR technology. It seems that VR’s characteristic of having powerful visualization and fewer symbols to interpret while trying to understand something may facilitate young learners’ direct understanding of topics with less cognitive effort (Elmqaddem, 2019 ). Consequently, this could contribute to their better comprehension of many issues (Li, 2021 ).

In terms of our third RQ and whether gender has the potential to affect the VR impact on preschoolers, the findings from this study indicate that there may be a gender difference in the experience of VR activities. We found that during our VR intervention, girls showed greater interest than boys in the VR activities compared to traditional ones and gained more pleasure out of it. That may have happened because of the females being emotionally involved with the information in the VR environment (Mousas et al., 2018 ). Some research indicates that females may be more prone to become «embodied ” with visualized information and understand it better than males (De Almeida Scheibler & Rodrigues, 2018 ). Moreover, the female participants seemed to enjoy and participate equally in all the VR scenarios in the implemented activities. This may be explained by the fact that female participants liked the topics of our VR activities. It seems that the context of a VR activity may affect the level of interest that each gender may show. For instance, military scenarios may appeal most to males (Grassini & Laumann, 2020 ).

Finally, regarding children’s social skills and their promotion through VR technology, according to existing literature, VR technology may create a range of emotional situations in which children can enhance their social skills. VR technology turns out to be able to represent authentic social scenarios and cases in which children act as if they are in their everyday lives (Georgescu et al., 2014 ). The more children become familiar with VR technology, the more they participate in groups to work and cooperate as team members (Luo et al., 2021 ). However, based on the educators’ perspectives in our intervention, limitations were identified in promoting student collaboration. Furthermore, our findings revealed two different cases: on the one hand, the children were so enthusiastic to experience the VR environment that they didn’t care to share this with their peers. On the other hand, they were so engaged in the VR activity that they showed great interest in discussing their ideas and feelings with their friends many days after the intervention. Thus, while there was enthusiasm and detailed discussions among the students about their individual experiences, there was a lack of a common group goal, teamwork, and collaborative activity. Hence, the educators observed that although the VR activities generated excitement and full engagement, they did not necessarily foster a sense of teamwork among the students. According to some researchers’ findings, VR might enable children to feel that they belong to a special learning group and environment to explore and discover knowledge meaningful to them. Yet, this often makes them want to share this experience and cooperate more with the visualized heroes rather than their peers (Bailey & Bailenson, 2017 ). Therefore, VR appears to be a technology potential to promote communication among students but needs to be further researched as far as the collaboration domain is concerned.

Limitations

Children were randomly selected to participate in this activity enriched by VR technology. However, one of the limitations of this study could be that all the data was collected from kindergartens located in Northern Greece to which we had easy access. Additionally, because of educators’ limited prior experience with VR technology, we decided to provide them with a 3-hour training program. During this program, they were able to familiarize themselves with the equipment and actively participate in various VR activities before implementing the intervention with the students. Yet, this may have affected the way they utilized VR technology and the way they expressed their perspectives on it. Additionally, it was the first time the children had been exposed to such activities, which may have led them to their enthusiastic preference for VR activities.

Conclusions

In this paper, a preschool education intervention was conducted involving 13 educators and 175 students. The study aimed to explore the preferences and perspectives of both teachers and learners by comparing traditional teaching methods with VR enhanced teaching. Statistical analysis, specifically t-tests, were employed to examine whether there were statistically significant differences between the two approaches, and the results indicated a significant preference for VR activities. Also, gender differences were observed to be statistically significant. Thus, it is recommended that further research investigating VR’s impact on preschoolers focusing on the gender factor be conducted. Moreover, according to the findings, educators expressed the belief that teaching may be enhanced by VR technology. The educators’ interviews highlighted the enthusiasm of children to experience VR learning and get engaged in it with much curiosity and interest. However, the interviews also revealed limited development of cooperation among students. Finally, this current paper suggests utilizing VR technology in preschool to enhance traditional teaching methods as long as implemented activities meet the young learners’ 21st -century needs.

Data Availability

Data will be made available upon reasonable request.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Game-based learning in early childhood education: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Department of Kindergarten, College of Education, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia

Game-based learning has gained popularity in recent years as a tool for enhancing learning outcomes in children. This approach uses games to teach various subjects and skills, promoting engagement, motivation, and fun. In early childhood education, game-based learning has the potential to promote cognitive, social, and emotional development. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to summarize the existing literature on the effectiveness of game-based learning in early childhood education This systematic review and meta-analysis examine the effectiveness of game-based learning in early childhood education. The results show that game-based learning has a moderate to large effect on cognitive, social, emotional, motivation, and engagement outcomes. The findings suggest that game-based learning can be a promising tool for early childhood educators to promote children’s learning and development. However, further research is needed to address the remaining gaps in the literature. The study’s findings have implications for educators, policymakers, and game developers who aim to promote positive child development and enhance learning outcomes in early childhood education.

1 Introduction

Game-based learning in early childhood education has evolved over time, driven by advancements in technology, educational research, and changing pedagogical approaches. Digital game-based learning refers to the use of digital technology, such as computers or mobile devices, to deliver educational content through interactive games ( Behnamnia et al., 2020 ). Game-based learning, on the other hand, is a broader term that encompasses both digital and non-digital games as tools for educational purposes. In the early years, educational games were primarily non-digital, consisting of board games, puzzles, and manipulatives designed to teach basic concepts and skills ( Pivec, 2007 ). These games often focused on early literacy, numeracy, and problem-solving. With the advent of computers and educational software, digital games emerged as a new medium for learning in the late 20th century. Early educational computer games, such as “Reader Rabbit” and “Math Blaster,” aimed to engage young learners through interactive gameplay while reinforcing educational content. As technology continued to advance, game-based learning expanded beyond standalone software to web-based platforms, mobile apps, and immersive virtual environments ( Shamir et al., 2019 ). The introduction of touchscreen devices, such as tablets and smartphones, made educational games more accessible and interactive for young children. These advancements allowed for greater customization, adaptive learning experiences, and real-time feedback, tailoring the games to meet the individual needs and abilities of young learners.

Researchers and educators recognized the potential of game-based learning to enhance engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes in early childhood education. Studies began to explore the cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral effects of game-based learning, highlighting its effectiveness in promoting critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, creativity, and digital literacy skills ( Park and Park, 2021 ).

In early childhood education, online educational game-based learning has gained popularity as a tool to promote cognitive, social, and emotional development in young children ( Anastasiadis et al., 2018 ). Online educational games are interactive digital games specifically designed to educate and teach children a wide range of skills and concepts. These games utilize engaging and interactive elements to promote learning in areas such as literacy, numeracy, problem-solving, and critical thinking ( Papanastasiou et al., 2022 ). These games are typically played on digital devices such as computers, tablets, and smartphones, and they offer a variety of engaging and interactive learning experiences for young children. Young children are naturally curious and have a strong desire to explore and learn about their environment ( Gurholt and Sanderud, 2016 ). Online educational game-based learning taps into this natural curiosity and provides children with opportunities to engage in meaningful and engaging learning experiences. These games can be tailored to meet the unique needs and abilities of young children, and they can be adapted to suit different learning styles and preferences ( Qian and Clark, 2016 ).

One of the key benefits of online educational game-based learning in early childhood education is its ability to promote cognitive development ( Ferreira et al., 2016 ). Online games can help children develop their problem-solving skills, memory, attention, and processing speed. For example, puzzle games can help children develop their spatial reasoning and problem-solving skills, while memory games can help them improve their memory and concentration ( Suhana, 2017 ).

In addition to promoting cognitive development, online educational game-based learning can also enhance social development in young children. Online games provide children with opportunities to interact with their peers and develop important social skills such as cooperation, communication, and empathy. Children can learn to work together, take turns, and share resources, which are essential skills for building positive relationships and succeeding in life ( Lamrani and Abdelwahed, 2020 ).

Moreover, online educational game-based learning can promote emotional development in young children ( Peterson et al., 2016 ). Online games can help children develop their emotional regulation skills, self-awareness, and self-confidence ( Simion and Bănuț, 2020 ). Games that involve role-playing can help children develop their emotional intelligence and understand different perspectives, while games that require children to take risks and try new things can help them build resilience and confidence ( Huynh et al., 2020 ).

This distinction is further exemplified in studies using online educational game-based learning in early childhood education for is its ability to increase children’s motivation and engagement in learning ( Hwa, 2018 ). Traditional teaching methods can sometimes be dry and one-dimensional, leading to disengagement and boredom in children ( Fotaris et al., 2016 ). Online educational games, on the other hand, provide a fun and interactive way to learn, which can increase children’s motivation and engagement in learning ( Nieto-Escamez and Roldán-Tapia, 2021 ). Children are more likely to be engaged in learning when they are having fun and enjoying the process ( Iten and Petko, 2016 ). Furthermore, online educational game-based learning can be tailored to meet the individual needs and abilities of young children ( Ke, 2014 ). Online games can be adapted to suit different learning styles and preferences, ensuring that all children can benefit from this approach to learning. This is certainly true in the case of games that involve movement and physical activity can be used to promote learning in children who have a kinesthetic learning style, while games that involve visual aids can be used to promote learning in children who have a visual learning style ( Hayati et al., 2017 ).

In addition, online educational game-based learning can help children develop important life skills, such as critical thinking, creativity, and adaptability. Online games can be designed to require children to think critically and creatively, solve problems, and adapt to new situations ( Behnamnia et al., 2020 ). These skills are essential for success in today’s rapidly changing world and can help children develop into confident, independent, and resourceful individuals. Moreover, online educational game-based learning can be used to promote language development and literacy skills in young children ( Ronimus et al., 2014 ). Online games that involve reading, writing, and communication can help children develop their language skills and build their vocabulary ( Castillo-Cuesta, 2020 ). Games that involve storytelling and role-playing can also help children develop their narrative skills and comprehension ( Huynh et al., 2020 ). Finally, online educational game-based learning can be used to promote STEM education in early childhood education. Online games that involve science, technology, engineering, and math concepts can help children develop their critical thinking and problem-solving skills, as well as their understanding of the world around them. These games can help children develop into curious and inquiring minds, which are essential for success in STEM fields ( Yu et al., 2022 ).

Based on the above, game-based learning in early childhood education offers numerous benefits, such as enhancing engagement, promoting active learning, and fostering the development of various skills. However, it is essential to acknowledge and address potential drawbacks or challenges associated with this approach to ensure its effective implementation. One notable challenge is the need for careful game selection. Not all educational games are created equally, and some may lack appropriate content, fail to align with specific learning objectives, or not adequately support the developmental needs of young learners ( Domoff et al., 2019 ). It is crucial to critically evaluate the quality, educational value, and appropriateness of games before incorporating them into early childhood education settings ( Derevensky et al., 2019 ). Another challenge is the limited generalizability of skills acquired through games. While games can provide engaging and interactive learning experiences, there is a concern that skills learned within the context of a game may not seamlessly transfer to real-world situations. The rules, mechanics, and artificial environments within games may differ significantly from the complexities and nuances of real-life scenarios, potentially limiting the applicability and transferability of skills learned. It is important for educators to provide explicit connections and opportunities for children to apply their game-based learning experiences to real-life contexts ( All et al., 2021 ).

Moreover, access to appropriate technology and infrastructure is another potential drawback. Integrating game-based learning in early childhood education often requires access to devices such as computers, tablets, or gaming consoles. However, not all early childhood education settings may have the necessary resources or infrastructure to support the seamless integration of technology. Limited access to technology or technical issues can hinder the effective implementation of game-based learning experiences, creating disparities in access and opportunities for young learners ( Greipl et al., 2020 ).

Teacher training and support are critical for the successful implementation of game-based learning in early childhood education. Educators need to be equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and pedagogical approaches to effectively integrate games into the curriculum and facilitate meaningful learning experiences. However, providing adequate training and ongoing support for teachers can be a challenge. It requires dedicated professional development programs, resources, and time for educators to become proficient in using educational games and leveraging them to support early childhood learning and development. Assessing and evaluating learning outcomes achieved through game-based learning can also pose challenges ( Kaimara et al., 2021 ). Traditional assessment methods may not fully capture the range of skills and competencies developed through games, which are often multifaceted and interdisciplinary in nature. Developing appropriate and authentic assessment strategies that align with the learning goals of early childhood education and effectively measure the desired outcomes can be complex. It requires careful consideration of formative and summative assessment approaches that capture the holistic development of young learners and provide meaningful feedback ( Schabas, 2023 ).

Furthermore, there may be concerns about the potential for excessive screen time and its impact on young children’s health and well-being. While game-based learning can be highly engaging, it is essential to strike a balance between screen-based activities and other developmentally appropriate learning experiences, such as hands-on play, social interactions, and outdoor exploration. Educators and parents should be mindful of the amount and quality of screen time to ensure a healthy and well-rounded early childhood education experience ( Przybylski and Weinstein, 2019 ).

Despite the growing interest in game-based learning in early childhood education, there is a need for a systematic review and meta-analysis that specifically focuses on the effects of game-based learning on cognitive, social, emotional, motivation, and engagement outcomes. The choice of these outcomes is based on their significance in the context of game-based learning research. Numerous studies consider cognitive development and enhancement of thinking skills as essential aspects of learning. Game-based learning has the potential to stimulate various cognitive processes such as problem-solving, critical thinking, decision-making, and information processing. Investigating the impact of game-based learning on cognitive outcomes helps to understand its effectiveness in promoting higher-order thinking skills ( Chang and Yang, 2023 ). Moreover, it has been reported that social interaction and collaboration are important components of learning, and game-based learning often involves cooperative or competitive elements that can influence social interactions among learners. Exploring the impact of game-based learning on social outcomes can shed light on how it affects teamwork, communication, and social skills development ( Sun et al., 2022 ). Regarding emotional outcomes, as was pointed out in the introduction to this paper emotional engagement and affective experiences play a crucial role in learning. Games have the potential to evoke a range of emotions such as excitement, curiosity, frustration, and joy. Understanding the impact of game-based learning on emotional outcomes helps in assessing its effectiveness in creating a positive affective environment that can enhance motivation and engagement ( Dabbous et al., 2022 ). Recent research has suggested that examining the impact of game-based learning on motivational outcomes can explore aspects such as intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, persistence, and enjoyment, which are crucial for effective learning experiences especially for kids in kindergarten ( Yu and Tsuei, 2022 ). Moving on now to consider engagement outcomes, child engagement is a critical factor in achieving successful learning outcomes. Games have inherent features that can promote engagement, such as challenges, rewards, interactivity, and immediate feedback. Investigating the impact of game-based learning on engagement outcomes helps in understanding the extent to which it can enhance learners’ involvement, attention, and active participation in the learning process ( Fang et al., 2022 ). While some individual studies have explored these effects, a comprehensive synthesis of the literature, including quantitative analysis, is lacking. This study aims to bridge this gap by providing a rigorous review and analysis of existing studies, thus offering valuable insights into the effectiveness of game-based learning in early childhood education across multiple developmental domains.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to summarize the existing literature on the effectiveness of online game-based learning in early childhood education. Specifically, we will examine the impact of game-based learning on children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development, as well as their motivation and engagement in learning. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the effect of game-based learning on cognitive, social, emotional, motivation, and engagement outcomes in early childhood education. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions:

1. What is the effect of game-based learning on cognitive development in early childhood education?

2. What is the effect of game-based learning on social development in early childhood education?

3. What is the effect of game-based learning on emotional development in early childhood education?

4. What is the effect of game-based learning on motivation in early childhood education?

5. What is the effect of game-based learning on engagement in early childhood education?

2 Materials and methods

The present study employs a systematic review and meta-analysis methodology to comprehensively analyze and summarize the extant literature regarding the efficacy of game-based learning in the context of early childhood education. Specifically, the study aims to investigate the effects of game-based learning on various facets of children’s development, including cognitive, social, and emotional domains, as well as their motivation and engagement levels in the learning process.

Systematic review and meta-analysis are widely recognized research methodologies that enable the synthesis of existing studies and provide a robust and comprehensive overview of a particular research topic. By systematically searching, selecting, and critically evaluating relevant empirical studies, the researchers ensure the inclusion of high-quality evidence in the analysis. Meta-analysis, on the other hand, involves the statistical aggregation of effect sizes from individual studies, allowing for a quantitative estimation of the overall impact of game-based learning on early childhood education.

2.1 A systematic review

A systematic search of electronic databases, including ERIC, PsycINFO, Scopus, and Web of Science, was conducted to identify studies that investigated the effect of game-based learning in early childhood education as shown in Figure 1 . The synthesis of the existing literature through a systematic review and meta-analysis offers several advantages. First, it allows for a comprehensive examination of the accumulated evidence, providing a more complete understanding of the impact of game-based learning on early childhood education. Second, the quantitative analysis of effect sizes enables the estimation of the overall magnitude of the effects, allowing for a more precise evaluation of the efficacy of game-based learning interventions. Lastly, by identifying potential gaps and inconsistencies in the literature, the study’s findings can contribute to guiding future research endeavors and inform evidence-based practices in the field of early childhood education.

Figure 1 . Systematic review process ( Robson et al., 2019 ).

The search terms used included (“game-based learning” OR “serious games” OR “educational games”) AND (“early childhood education” OR “preschool” OR “kindergarten”). The search was limited to studies published in English between 2013 and 2023. Studies that met the following criteria were included in the review:

• Focused on children aged 3–8 years old.

• Included a control group or baseline measure.

• Investigated the effect of game-based learning on cognitive, social, emotional, motivation, and engagement outcomes in early childhood education.

• Published in English.

• Used a quantitative study design (experimental or quasi-experimental).

Relevant studies were selected based on predefined criteria, and data extraction involved capturing information on study design, sample characteristics, game features, and outcome measures. To handle variations in measures, outcomes were categorized into broader themes. Data synthesis included qualitative analysis of findings and, where applicable, quantitative meta-analysis to quantify the overall impact. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to assess robustness, and the synthesized data were interpreted considering the research objectives, discussing strengths, limitations, and future research directions. This rigorous approach aimed to provide a reliable and comprehensive review of game-based learning effects in early childhood education.

To ensure accuracy and minimize the risk of synthesizing information from incorrect papers, I employed rigorous research methods. This involved systematic searches using relevant keywords, evaluating the relevance and context of identified studies, and critically assessing authors’ usage of terms. Additionally, verifying the methodology, objectives, and scope of the studies helped align them with the specific terminology under investigation. These practices minimized the risk of including studies that interchangeably or incorrectly used the terms “digital game-based learning” and “game-based learning.” Moreover, several workshops were held within a project funded by Najran University to ensure the objectivity and reliability of the study selection. The number of attendees at the workshop was five faculty members specializing in educational technology and childhood, who have researched in the field, and all steps and selection and inclusion criteria were reviewed by them. Data was extracted from each study using a standardized form. The data included information on study design, sample characteristics, game characteristics, and outcomes measures. The means, standard deviations, and p -values for each outcome measure were also recorded as described in Figure 2 .

Figure 2 . PRISMA flow of game-based learning in early childhood education between 2013–2023.

2.2 A meta-analytic approach

A meta-analytic approach was used to synthesize the data. The effect size for each study was calculated using Hedges’ g formula, which considers the sample size and the standard deviation of the control group. The effect sizes were then combined across studies using a random-effects model ( Enzmann, 2015 ).

2.3 Sensitivity analyses and risk of bias assessment

The results of the sensitivity analyses revealed that the effects of game-based learning on cognitive and social–emotional outcomes were robust across different study characteristics. However, the effects on motivation and engagement were found to be sensitive to study duration and sample size. Specifically, studies with longer durations and larger sample sizes tended to report higher effects on motivation and engagement. Moreover, the assessment of reliability and validity is crucial in determining the trustworthiness and credibility of research findings. In the context of the results provided, the assessment items related to risk of bias in systematic reviews can have varying levels of impact on the reliability and validity of the review findings ( Lundh and Gøtzsche, 2008 ). For this regard, the revised Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) was used for studies reviewed ( n = 136). Points evaluated: Design, Sample Size, Selection Bias, Performance Bias, Detection Bias, Attrition Bias, Reporting Bias, and Overall Bias as presented in Figure 3 .

Figure 3 . Summary of risk of bias assessment for studies reviewed ( n = 136). Points evaluated: design, sample size, selection bias, performance bias, detection bias, attrition bias, reporting bias, and overall bias.

Several factors are assessed to determine the risk of bias and ensure the reliability and validity of the findings. The design assessment examines the overall study design’s potential bias, with low risk indicating a well-designed study and high-risk suggesting limitations that could introduce bias. Sample size assessment focuses on the adequacy of the sample size in capturing true effects, with low risk indicating an adequate sample size and high-risk suggesting insufficiency. Selection bias assessment considers the risk of bias in the study selection process, with high risk indicating potential incomplete representation of evidence. Performance bias evaluation examines the risk of bias related to blinding of participants or researchers, with low risk indicating measures to minimize bias. Detection bias assessment evaluates the risk of bias related to blinding of outcome assessors, with low risk indicating measures to minimize bias. Attrition bias assessment considers the risk of bias related to incomplete data or participant loss, with high risk suggesting potential bias. Reporting bias assessment examines the risk of bias related to selective reporting of outcomes or results, with high risk indicating potential distortion of findings. Minimizing these biases enhances the reliability and validity of the review findings ( Lundh and Gøtzsche, 2008 ).

3 Results and discussions

This search yielded a total of 232 studies, of which 136 met our inclusion criteria. The studies were published between 2013 and 2023 and included a total of 1,426 participants. The sample sizes ranged from 20 to 112 participants, with a median sample size of 40. Ninety-six of the studies were experimental designs, and 40 were quasi-experimental. The studies were conducted in various countries, including Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. In addition to North America, i.e., United States, Canada. Followed by Australia, and the United Kingdom as presented in Figure 4 .

Figure 4 . Distributed studies based on locations.

On the other side the meta-analysis results showed a significant overall effect of game-based learning on cognitive development ( g = 0.46, p < 0.001), social development ( g = 0.38, p < 0.001), emotional development ( g = 0.35, p < 0.001), motivation ( g = 0.40, p < 0.001), and engagement ( g = 0.44, p < 0.001). The results indicate that game-based learning has a moderate to large effect on all five outcomes ( Lin and Aloe, 2021 ).

3.1 Moderator analysis

The current study adopts a moderator analysis to examine whether certain game characteristics, such as game type, game duration, and feedback, influenced the effectiveness of game-based learning ( Suurmond et al., 2017 ). The results showed that game type was a significant moderator for cognitive development, with puzzle games having a larger effect than other game types ( g = 0.63 vs. g = 0.31). Game duration was also a significant moderator for motivation, with longer game sessions having a larger effect than shorter sessions ( g = 0.50 vs. g = 0.26). Feedback was not found to be a significant moderator for any of the outcomes.

4 Discussion

Key findings across the studies showed that game-based learning was effective in improving various early learning outcomes including numeric skills, literacy, collaboration, and perseverance. Digital game formats like mini games, educational apps and programs promoted cognitive development, problem-solving and creativity. Educator-guided game-play and scaffolding was important for maximizing learning gains. Challenges included the need for age-appropriate game design and limited time for gaming in class. The review provides preliminary support for benefits of game-based learning for early learners, when implemented appropriately. This section will discuss in more detail the key finding reflecting the five research questions that proposed in the introduction.

4.1 Cognitive development

The first question in this study sought to determine the effect of game-based learning on cognitive development in early childhood education. Numerous studies have been conducted in this line of research. However, these studies have shown mixed results, with some finding positive effects, while others have found no significant effects. Thus, this analysis will examine the various studies conducted and try to provide a comprehensive overview of their findings.

One of the earliest studies conducted on game-based learning was by Ke (2013) , who investigated the effect of a game-based math program on the math skills of first-grade students. The study found that the game-based program significantly improved students’ math problem-solving skills and motivation compared to traditional instructional methods.

Subsequent studies have also found positive effects of game-based learning on cognitive development in early childhood education. For example, a study by Lin et al. (2020) found that a game-based science program improved the computational thinking abilities of kindergarten students. The evidence presented thus far supports the idea that game-based teaching methods could assist preschoolers in learning computational logic and programming ideas to improve their computational thinking and problem-solving capabilities ( Pérez-Marín et al., 2020 ).

However, not all studies have found positive effects of game-based learning on cognitive development. This is certainly true in the case study by Brezovszky et al. (2019) found that a game-based math program had no significant effect on the math skills of primary school students. Similarly, a study by Byun and Joung (2018) found that a game-based reading program had no significant effect on the reading skills of first-grade students. Moreover, findings suggest that the game-based learning model, consisting of problem-solving concepts, learning processes, learning content, and game mechanics, can be effectively used to enhance children’s problem-solving behavior and skill scores. The study reports an increase in children’s problem-solving competency after participating in game-based learning, indicating the potential of board games to develop this important skill. Additionally, the research highlights positive learning experiences and high engagement among students during the gaming sessions. On the other hand, some results showed that when considering the use of educational games in early childhood education settings, it is important to recognize that not all games are equally effective ( Tay et al., 2022 ). Some games may lack suitable content, fail to align with specific learning objectives, or not adequately address the developmental needs of young learners. Therefore, it is crucial to critically evaluate the quality, educational value, and appropriateness of games before integrating them into educational settings for young children. Additionally, it is important to acknowledge that the skills acquired through games may have limited generalizability. While games can provide valuable learning experiences, it is necessary to supplement game-based learning with other instructional methods to ensure a well-rounded educational approach for young learners ( Cai et al., 2022 ). One possible explanation for the mixed results of these studies is the variation in the design and implementation of game-based learning programs. This is evident in the case of some programs that may be designed to focus on specific skills, such as math or reading, while others may be more general in nature, covering a range of skills ( Valdés, 2014 ). Additionally, some programs may be designed to be more engaging and interactive than others, which could impact their effectiveness ( Panter-Brick et al., 2014 ).

This discrepancy could be attributed to the difficulty in isolating the effect of game-based learning from other factors that may influence cognitive development, such as teacher quality, parental involvement, and socioeconomic status ( Quinto, 2022 ). Many studies have relied on quasi-experimental designs, which make it difficult to control these factors.

Despite these limitations, there are several studies that have used rigorous experimental designs to investigate the effect of game-based learning on cognitive development. For example, a study by Di Tore et al. (2014) used a randomized controlled trial to investigate the effect of a game-based reading program on the reading skills of struggling readers. The study found that the game-based program significantly improved the reading skills of the students compared to a control group.

A similar study by Thai et al. (2022) used a randomized controlled trial to investigate the effect of a game-based math program on the math skills of elementary school students. The study found that the game-based program significantly improved the math skills of the students compared to a control group. Turning now to the experimental evidence on the potential benefits of using augmented reality games in primary school education, specifically focusing on enhancing motivation and creativity in geometry learning in primary school education. The results indicate that can positively impact students’ motivation and creativity, particularly in the context of geometry learning ( Yousef, 2021 ). Further research is needed to fully understand the effects of game-based learning and to identify the specific characteristics of effective game-based learning programs. Nonetheless, game-based learning holds promise as a tool to enhance cognitive development in early childhood education.

4.2 Social development

The second question in this research was what is the effect of game-based learning on social development in early childhood education? Studies have shown that game-based learning can improve social skills in young children. A study conducted by Craig et al. (2016) found that game-based intervention improved social skills such as cooperation, communication, and empathy in preschool children. Similarly, a study by Al Saud (2017) found that a game-based program enhanced social skills and reduced aggressive behavior in kindergarten children. Game-based learning has also been found to promote empathy in young children. A study by Mukund et al. (2022) found that a game-based intervention increased empathy in children aged 4–6 years old. Similarly, a study by Bang (2016) found that a game-based program improved empathy and prosocial behavior in children aged 5–7 years old.

Game-based learning has also been found to promote cooperation in young children. A study by Partovi and Razavi (2019) found that a game-based intervention improved cooperation among first-grade students. Similarly, a study by Craig et al. (2016) found that a game-based program improved cooperation and reduced aggression in preschool children. The studies conducted on game-based learning in early childhood education suggest that it can be an effective tool in promoting social development in young children ( Behnamnia et al., 2022 ). Game-based learning has been found to improve social skills, empathy, cooperation, and reduce aggression in young children. Additionally, it has been found to promote social–emotional learning and improve teacher-child interaction ( Toh and Kirschner, 2023 ). However, further research is needed to fully understand the effects of game-based learning on social development in early childhood education and to identify the specific characteristics of effective game-based learning programs.

4.3 Emotional development

It was hypothesized that game-based learning has a positive effect on emotional development in early childhood education as investigated in question three in this study. Studies suggest that video games can be an effective tool for developing social–emotional concepts in children ( Gerkushenko et al., 2013 ). Game-based learning can improve social skills, empathy, self-awareness, self-regulation, and motivation, and reduce aggressive behavior ( Chao-Fernández et al., 2020 ). Toh and Kirschner (2020) developed a game-based program to improve social–emotional learning in children. The results showed that the program improved children’s social–emotional skills, such as self-awareness, self-regulation, and empathy. Hausknecht et al. (2017) conducted a study to investigate the effectiveness of a video game-based intervention aimed at improving teacher-child interaction in early childhood education. The results showed that the intervention improved teacher-child interaction and increased teacher sensitivity to children’s needs. The results of these studies are promising and suggest that video games have the potential to be a useful tool in promoting social–emotional learning in early childhood education. However, it is important to note that these studies have some limitations. Many of the studies had small sample sizes and were conducted over short periods of time. Further research is needed to investigate the long-term effects of game-based learning on social–emotional development and to determine the best ways to integrate game-based learning into early childhood education considering long periods of time and large sample size in line with culture diversity.

4.4 Motivation development

With respect to the fourth research question, it was found that the studies conducted on the effect of game-based learning on motivation in early childhood education suggest that game-based learning can be a useful tool to enhance motivation and learning out-comes. One of the earliest studies conducted on game-based learning and motivation was by Liu and Chen (2013) . The study investigated the effectiveness of a game-based intervention aimed at improving performance in science learning in elementary school students. The results showed that the game-based intervention significantly improved students’ motivation and engagement compared to traditional instructional methods.

Ronimus and Lyytinen (2015) conducted a study to investigate the effect of game-based learning on reading motivation in first-grade students. The results showed that the game-based intervention improved students’ reading motivation and reading skills compared to a control group. Similar to this, a study by Brennan et al. (2022) discovered that a game-based reading program increased struggling readers’ reading enthusiasm and ability. People with dyslexia, in particular, struggle with spelling and reading accuracy because of a deficiency in this phonological component of language.

The finding of this review has also shown that game-based learning can improve motivation by providing a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to students ( Chen and Law, 2016 ). Eseryel et al. (2014) found that game-based learning provided students with a sense of autonomy and competence, which in turn, increased their motivation to learn. Similarly, a study by Anastasiadis et al. (2018) found that game-based learning provided students with a sense of relatedness, which improved their motivation and engagement ( Anastasiadis et al., 2018 ).

Game-based learning has also been found to increase motivation by providing instant feedback and rewards ( Yousef, 2021 ). A study by Hung et al. (2015) found that a game-based intervention that provided instant feedback and rewards improved students’ motivation and learning outcomes. Similarly, a study by Zabala-Vargas et al. (2021) found that a game-based intervention that provided rewards and feedback improved students’ motivation and engagement.

However, not all studies have found a positive effect of game-based learning on motivation. A study by Xu et al. (2021) found that game-based learning did not significantly improve motivation in mathematics learning. A systematic review by Hussein et al. (2019) found that game-based learning did not improve motivation in science learning. The studies reviewed above suggest that game-based learning can have a positive effect on motivation in early childhood education. Game-based learning can improve motivation by providing a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and by providing instant feedback and rewards. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of game-based learning on motivation may depend on various factors, such as the type of game, the student’s prior knowledge and skills, and the learning objectives.

4.5 Engagement development

Engagement is a crucial aspect of learning in early childhood education, as it directly impacts the motivation and interest of young learners ( Lamrani and Abdelwahed, 2020 ). Game-based learning has been gaining popularity as a tool to enhance engagement in early childhood education. One of the earliest studies conducted on game-based learning and engagement was by Lester et al. (2013) . The study investigated the effectiveness of a game-based intervention aimed at improving math skills in elementary school students. The results showed that the game-based intervention significantly improved students’ engagement and motivation compared to traditional instructional methods. Research has also shown that game-based learning can improve engagement by providing a sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness to students. Mekler et al. (2013) found that game-based learning provided students with a sense of autonomy and competence, which in turn, increased their engagement and motivation. Similarly, a study by Abeysekera and Dawson (2015) found that game-based learning provided students with a sense of relatedness, which improved their engagement and motivation. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of game-based learning on engagement may depend on various fac-tors, such as the type of game, the student’s prior knowledge and skills, and the learning objectives ( Hamari et al., 2016 ).

5 Conclusion

In early childhood education, game-based learning has the potential to promote cognitive, social, and emotional development. The results of the systematic review and me-ta-analysis provide strong evidence for the effectiveness of game-based learning in enhancing various aspects of child development. The significant overall effect of game-based learning on cognitive development, social development, emotional development, motivation, and engagement suggests that this approach can be a valuable tool for promoting positive child outcomes. The effect size for cognitive development ( g = 0.46) suggests a moderate to large effect, indicating that game-based learning can significantly improve children’s cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving, memory, and attention. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that game-based learning can enhance cognitive development in children.

The effect size for social development ( g = 0.38) suggests a moderate effect, indicating that game-based learning can positively impact children’s social skills, such as cooperation, communication, and empathy. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that game-based learning can improve social development in children. The effect size for emotional development ( g = 0.35) suggests a moderate effect, indicating that game-based learning can help children develop better emotional regulation skills and reduce negative emotions, such as anxiety and aggression. This finding is consistent with previous research showing that game-based learning can enhance emotional development in children. The effect size for motivation ( g = 0.40) suggests a moderate to large effect, indicating that game-based learning can significantly enhance children’s motivation and engagement in learning. The effect size for engagement ( g = 0.44) suggests a moderate to large effect, indicating that game-based learning can significantly improve children’s engagement in learning.

The findings suggest that game-based learning can be a valuable tool for educators and parents seeking to promote positive child development. However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of game-based learning may depend on various factors, such as the type of game, the child’s prior knowledge and skills, and the learning objectives. The findings from this study have the potential to inform educational practitioners, policymakers, and researchers regarding the effective integration of game-based learning approaches in early childhood education settings. Further research is needed to fully understand the effects of game-based learning on child development and to identify best practices for integrating game-based learning into educational settings. Furthermore, considering the potential individual differences among children, future research could examine the differential effects of game-based learning on various subgroups, such as children with different learning styles or those with specific developmental needs. This would contribute to a more nuanced understanding of how game-based learning can be tailored to meet the diverse needs of young learners.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

MA: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the General Research Funding program grant code (NU/DRP/SEHRC/12/5).

Acknowledgments

The author is thankful to the Deanship of Scientific Research at Najran University for funding this work under the General Research Funding program grant code (NU/DRP/SEHRC/12/5).

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: game-based learning, early childhood, cognitive outcomes, social engagement, emotional development

Citation: Alotaibi MS (2024) Game-based learning in early childhood education: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Psychol . 15:1307881. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1307881

Received: 05 October 2023; Accepted: 20 March 2024; Published: 02 April 2024.

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*Correspondence: Manar S. Alotaibi, [email protected]

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Community research briefing: enabling early child development in ealing (ecde) project.

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This briefing highlights key findings from the Early Childhood Development in Ealing (ECDE) project. The project gathered the perspectives of 77 parents, carers, and 10 children across the borough on services and support for young children (aged 5 and under).

This initiative aimed to understand how these services can be improved to ensure every child in Ealing has the best possible start in life.

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Hrynick, T. (2024) Community Research Briefing: Enabling Early Child Development in Ealing (ECDE) Project, Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, DOI: 10.19088/IDS.2024.010

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New Early Childhood Education Research Project Topics and Materials

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Full Project – Impact of Parental Support on Preschool Pupils Learning Outcomes In District III Ikoyi Lagos

Full Project – INFLUENCE OF GOVERNMENT, COMMUNITY AND PRIVATE SECTOR ON EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN ONDO SOUTH LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, ONDO STATE

Project Topic – OBSERVATION STRATEGY AND PRESCHOOLERS SOCIAL SKILL IN CARE CENTERS IN RIVERS STATE EAST SENATORIAL DISTRICT

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Background In collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene (MHPH) of Burkina Faso (BF), the Foundation Terre des Hommes (Tdh) has developed the Integrated e-Diagnostic Approach (IeDA) project in BF since 2010 to strengthen the health system by digitalizing medical protocols, improving the quality of services and using data. We sought to identify and analyze the barriers and facilitators of using the electronic clinic registry (ECR) for the integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) by healthcare providers (HCPs) in the health district of Toma, BF.

Methods We conducted a descriptive and exploratory qualitative study. In-depth individual interviews were conducted with thirty-five (35) HCPs in the health district of Toma, BF, from the 1 st to the 30 th of December 2021. Thematic analysis of qualitative data according to the Braun & Clarke model was performed using NVivo 12 software and arranged along a social-ecological model.

Results Our findings revealed that HCPs play an essential role in using ECR for IMCI. Many key facilitating factors have emerged regarding the use of IMCIs in primary health care (PHC) facilities, such as positive perceptions of the ECR, firm commitment and the involvement of HCPs, stakeholder support, collaborative networks with implementing partners, convenience, privacy, confidentiality and client trust, experience and confidence in using the system, and the satisfaction, motivation and competency of staff. In addition, the easy diagnosis offered by the ECR and the training of HCPs increased the acceptance and use of the ECR. Regarding barriers, HCPs complained about the tablet’s slowness, recurrent breakdowns, and increased workload.

Conclusion This study revealed that ECR has excellent potential to improve the quality of care and, in turn, reduce maternal and infant mortality. Although the satisfaction of the HCPs with the tool is positive, the actors of the Foundation Tdh, in collaboration with the MHPH, must work to optimize the application’s performance and reduce breakdowns and delays during consultations. This will allow the deployment of ECR in all BF health districts.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This study did not receive any funding

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

The study received approval from the Burkina Faso Health Research Ethics Committee under deliberation number 2021-12-283. Investigation authorization was also obtained from the chief physician of the health district of Toma. Furthermore, the patients/participants provided written informed consent to participate in this study.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data produced in the present work are contained in the manuscript

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Lonely children more likely to experience psychosis later in life – research

Childhood loneliness may serve as an early risk factor for later psychotic disorders, scientists say..

Being lonely in childhood may be associated with greater risk of experiencing an episode of psychosis such as hallucinations, delusions and confused thoughts later in life, early research suggests.

Scientists have found that children who experienced loneliness for more than six months before the age of 12 were more likely to experience a loss of contact with reality compared to those who did not.

Women were more likely to be affected than men, according to the preliminary findings presented at the European Congress of Psychiatry in Budapest, Hungary.

Professor Andrea Fiorillo, president elect of the European Psychiatric Association, said the findings show “a direct connection between childhood loneliness and the onset of psychosis” and highlight “a concerning trend and underscore the importance of addressing social connectedness and emotional well-being from an early age”.

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The study involved 285 people who had experienced their first episode of psychosis and 261 people who have never had the mental health condition.

When controlling for factors such as social isolation, childhood loneliness was associated with a 117% increased likelihood of experiencing a psychotic episode later in life, the researchers said.

Men who reported experiencing childhood loneliness had a 17% increased risk of experiencing a psychotic episode compared to those who did not.

For women, the risk was much higher – a 374% increased risk of experiencing a psychotic episode – compared to women do did not report feeling lonely in childhood, according to the researchers.

Dr Covadonga Diaz-Caneja of the Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Maranon, Madrid, Spain, said: “There is increasing evidence of the negative health and social consequences of loneliness in adults, but much less is known about the long-term effects of loneliness in young people.

“Despite their preliminary nature, our results suggest that childhood loneliness may serve as an early risk factor for later psychotic disorders and support its role as a potential target for preventive mental health interventions from an early age.

“This may be especially relevant considering that childhood loneliness is a prevalent phenomenon that appears to be increasing in recent years”.

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Facilitators and barriers in the use of the electronic consultation
Background In collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Public Hygiene (MHPH) of Burkina Faso (BF), the Foundation Terre des Hommes (Tdh) has developed the Integrated e-Diagnostic Approach (IeDA) project in BF since 2010 to strengthen the health system by digitalizing medical protocols, improving the quality of services and using data. We sought to identify and analyze the barriers and ...
Lonely children more likely to experience psychosis later in life
Being lonely in childhood may be associated with greater risk of experiencing an episode of psychosis such as hallucinations, delusions and confused thoughts later in life, early research suggests.

InBrief: The Science of Early Childhood Development

Content in This Guide

Step 2: How Does Early Child Development Happen?

Step 3: What Can We Do to Support Child Development?

Brains are built over time, from the bottom up.

The interactive influences of genes and experience shape the developing brain.

The brain’s capacity for change decreases with age.

Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities are inextricably intertwined throughout the life course.

Toxic stress damages developing brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning, behavior, and physical and mental health.

Policy Implications

Related Topics: toxic stress , brain architecture , serve and return

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Investigating Educators’ and Students’ Perspectives on Virtual Reality Enhanced Teaching in Preschool

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VR and Preschool Education

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

1 Introduction

2 Materials and methods

2.1 A systematic review

2.2 A meta-analytic approach

2.3 Sensitivity analyses and risk of bias assessment

3 Results and discussions

3.1 Moderator analysis

4 Discussion

4.1 Cognitive development

4.2 Social development

4.3 Emotional development

4.4 Motivation development

4.5 Engagement development

5 Conclusion

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