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Perceived Performance, Intrinsic Motivation and Adherence in Athletes

Bartolomé j almagro, pedro sáenz-lópez, sebastián fierro-suero, cristina conde.

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Correspondence: [email protected] (P.S.-L.); [email protected] (S.F.-S.)

Received 2020 Oct 26; Accepted 2020 Dec 14; Issue date 2020 Dec.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

Sports performance depends on a complex interaction of variables, such as psychological, physical, technical and tactical abilities. The purpose of the three studies described in this article was to validate an instrument to measure perceived performance in athletes (studies 1 and 2), and to analyze the predictive power of perceived performance, basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation on the intention to be physically active (which was used as a predictor of adherence to sport) (study 3). In study 1, the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire was validated in the Spanish sports context, analyzing its factorial structure, reliability, and temporal stability with 146 soccer players. The objective of study 2 was to check the factorial structure of the questionnaire with an objective performance measure (points scored and time played). The sample was 180 young basketball players. The objective of study 3 was to analyze the predictive power of basic psychological needs in exercise, intrinsic motivation, and perceived performance on the intention to be physically active in 339 athletes of fifteen different sports. The results show the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, and positive correlations with the points scored. Finally, the analysis of the structural equation model showed that the satisfaction of the need for competence predicted perceived performance and intrinsic motivation predicted perceived performance and intention to remain physically active.

Keywords: self-determination, psychological needs, sport, performance, psychometric properties

1. Introduction

1.1. perceived performance in sport.

Sports performance depends on a complex interaction of variables [ 1 ]. Every sportsperson wants to perform well, to win, and to improve their performance [ 2 , 3 ]. All players try their best to achieve individual and, if applicable, team objectives. Sports success requires that athletes, within certain limits, perform to the best of their ability, for the most successes [ 2 ].

The study of sports performance has focused on various variables [ 4 ]. Psychological abilities have a significant influence on performance [ 5 ]. The role of the player’s psychological characteristics is relevant not only because of its direct impact on the athlete’s performance, but also as a mediator between the athlete’s physical, technical, and tactical skills and performance in competition [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The study of these variables can help athletes to optimize their performance [ 11 ].

In young people, perception of their performance could be as important as the performance because they need to feel committed and motivated as part of the team [ 1 ]. They feel part of the team if they think that they are important to the team´s performance. Thus, it would be useful to have a tool that evaluates the perception of performance and that can help to know its relationship with other variables as the motivation.

1.2. Performance and Intrinsic Motivation in Sport

Various studies have shown motivation as a psychological factor related to sports performance [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In the framework of the self-determination theory (SDT), motivation varies over a continuum that ranges from amotivation, extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation [ 17 , 18 ]. The state of amotivation is characterized by a lack of intention to participate. Extrinsic motivation is divided into four types of regulation. The first two, external and introjected regulation, are considered controlled regulatory types, which means that behavior is regulated by non-self-determined processes. The next two, identified and integrated regulation, are considered autonomous regulatory types, which means behavior is regulated by internal self-determined forces. Finally, intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined form and occurs when the athlete takes part due to an interest in, or enjoyment of, the activity itself [ 19 ]. The most self-determined forms of motivation are related to positive behavioral consequences such as engagement, well-being, or healthy and mature relationships [ 20 ]. In several studies that used the SDT theoretical framework in the sports context, one of these consequences was improved performance of the athletes [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Intrinsic motivation improves performance even when the athletes still have the same level of competence [ 2 ].

According to this theory, prediction of self-determined motivation requires satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness [ 20 ]. Competence refers to basic need to feel effectance and mastery. Autonomy is the need to self-regulate one’s experiences and actions. Relatedness concerns feeling socially connected [ 20 , 24 ]. The more the athletes’ basic needs are satisfied, the more their levels of self-determined motivation may increase, leading to enhanced psychological functioning. Thus, if athletes feel their three basic psychological needs are satisfied, their performance could improve. In fact, some studies have linked the satisfaction of basic psychological needs with performance in sport [ 25 ], especially for the case of the need for competence [ 26 ].

1.3. Performance and Intention to Be Physically Active

Physical activity has many benefits for young people [ 27 ]; for instance, in physical health (preventing obesity, cardiovascular disease or musculoskeletal injuries), in psychological health (self-concept, autonomy, anxiety or depression) and even in social integration (for the transmission of knowledge, values and norms) [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. For this reason, understanding why young people adhere to physical activities has attracted attention in sports science research [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. This research focused on young athletes (between 13 and 18 years old), because various studies reported that the highest number of dropouts in sports occur during this period [ 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Different factors (lack of enjoyment, perceptions of competence, social pressures, competing priorities and injuries) affect the sports dropouts of young athletes, highlighting the lack of competence at the time of the decision [ 35 , 38 ], which can cause poor performance [ 39 ]. In this sense, numerous studies show that coaches have a great influence on athletes [ 33 , 40 , 41 ]. In fact, the motivational model of the coach–athlete relationship describes how coaches may influence athletes’ motivation, meaning that they are important determinants of performance and persistence [ 42 ]. Therefore, the intention expressed by children to practice sport can be a good indicator of the motivation towards this sporting activity as well as a strong predictor of this behavior [ 31 ]. Along these lines, positive experiences when practicing sports may contribute to a greater intention to continue involvement in physical activities [ 43 ] and thus generate adherence to sports practice [ 34 ]. Moreover, these positive experiences are related to an adequate self-concept as well as a high perception of competence when practicing a sport [ 27 ]. Hence, it is necessary to know how the perception of performance relates to the intention to be physically active in sports.

The objective of this research was to provide further evidence that the relations between perceived performance, motivation, and the intention to be physically active in young athletes. For this, three studies were carried out, two focused on validating an instrument to measure perceived performance in athletes (studies 1 and 2), and another that focused on analyzing the relations between basic psychological needs, intrinsic motivation, perceived performance, and the intention to continue being physically active in athletes. (study 3). Thus, the following hypotheses were presented: (1) the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire will present adequate psychometric properties; (2) the basic psychological needs will predict the intrinsic motivation and the perceived performance, which, in turn, will predict the intention to being physically active.

The purpose of this study was to adapt the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire (Questionário de Perceção do Rendimento no Desporto, (QPRD) in Portuguese) [ 44 ] to the Spanish sports context. For this, its factorial structure, reliability, and temporal stability were analyzed.

2.1. Methods

2.1.1. participants.

There were 146 (131 boys and 15 girls) participants, young soccer players aged between 14 and 35 years old (M = 20.50; SD = 4.11) from four Spanish cities. All of them competed every weekend with their soccer teams. These soccer players train an average of 6.13 h a week (SD = 2.41). The selection of the sample was done according to a non-probabilistic or convenience sampling.

2.1.2. Measures

Perceived performance.

An adaptation in Spanish of the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire (Questionário de Perceção do Rendimento no Desporto, QPRD) was used [ 44 ]. This instrument is made up of 5 elements (for example, “I consider my performance is good”), which are unique factors in evaluating the perception of athletes’ performance of their sports activity. The responses to the items are given on a Likert-type scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The previous sentence was: “Overall, during the competition: …”.

2.1.3. Procedure

This study was approved by the Andalusian Biomedical Research Ethics Committee (code: PIERP2020) and was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles of the American Psychological Association [ 45 ].

Participation in the study was solicited through direct contact with soccer clubs and coaches. Moreover, all participants provided written consent and, if they were under-aged, their parents or legal guardians also gave consent for their children to participate in the study.

As it was a questionnaire previously validated with Portuguese athletes, a circular translation of the items was performed. For this purpose, first, two translators translated the scale into Spanish; later, two other translators translated it back into the original language. After that, the original and final versions were compared to check that both scales had the same meaning.

The administration of the final questionnaire ( Appendix A , Table A1 ) was done in the presence of a study researcher, to briefly explain how to fill in the instrument, solving any doubts that might arise. Anonymity and honesty in the responses were insisted upon. The approximate completion time was five minutes.

2.1.4. Data Analysis

The psychometric properties of the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire were analyzed. An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to check if the five items were grouped into a single factor. The reliability of the scale was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha. Temporal stability was also evaluated through test-retest.

2.2. Results

2.2.1. exploratory factor analysis.

Before performing the exploratory factor analysis, the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin test (KMO = 0.81) and Bartlett’s statistic indices (χ 2 = 309.05, p < 0.001)) were calculated. These results show the suitability of the data for the analysis. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with the maximum likelihood method was employed to identify the latent dimensions that underlie the data. In the exploratory factor analysis with the maximum likelihood method, an eigenvalue of 3.12 and an explained variance of 62.3% were obtained (see Table 1 ). The results of the EFA show that the five items were grouped into a single factor: perceived performance.

Exploratory factor analysis.

2.2.2. Reliability and Temporary Stability

The internal consistency analysis of the instrument was performed by calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, whose value was 0.84.

Temporal stability was measured by performing test-retest. The Perceived Performance in Sports questionnaire was administered to the 146 young soccer players with whom the study was conducted. Thirty days After the first questionnaire, the retest was carried out with 21 young people from the sample. After analyzing the corresponding data, a correlation coefficient of 0.72 was found.

The objective of this study was to confirm the factorial structure of the questionnaire obtained in Study 1 with an independent sample. In addition to checking the validity of the criterion, the relationship between perceived performance and a more objective performance measure was verified.

3.1. Methods

3.1.1. participants.

Two samples of young basketball players were used to carry out Study 2. One of the samples, comprising 130 basketball players (82 males and 48 females) aged 14 to 22 (M = 15.85; SD = 1.65), was used to test the factorial structure of the questionnaire through a confirmatory factor analysis. These basketball players belonged to various clubs in the provinces of Huelva and Sevilla. They competed every weekend with their basketball teams. Furthermore, these players train an average of 5.23 h per week (SD = 1.76). The other sample consisted of 50 (24 boys and 26 girls) young basketball players aged between 12 and 16 years (M = 14.22; SD = 1.04) from Huelva. These players were evaluated to compare their perceived performance to the real performance through the number of points scored and minutes played in the last 3 games. The selection of both samples was made according to convenience sampling.

3.1.2. Measures

The version obtained from the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire ( Appendix A , Table A1 ) was used after the exploratory factor analysis performed in Study 1. Cronbach’s alpha obtained for this second study was 0.94.

Points Scored in the Last Three Matches

As a more objective measure of the individual performance of the basketball players, the variable points scored in the last three basketball games was used. For this, the official records of those matches were used. In several studies, points scored were used as part of an individual’s performance in basketball [ 46 , 47 , 48 ].

Playing Time of Each Player in the Last Three Matches

Another measure that can often be linked to the performance of the basketball player is playing time in games. In this case, the playing time in the last three matches for each player was used. Some studies used playing time as another indicator of basketball player performance [ 47 , 49 ].

3.1.3. Procedure

The process of collecting the data and the instructions given on completing the questionnaire were similar to those described in Study 1.

3.1.4. Data Analysis

First, with the sample of 130 basketball players, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed. The currently most recommended adjustment indices were used to evaluate the proposed models: χ 2 /d.f., Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Values equal to or greater than 0.90 in CFI, TLI and IFI, lower than 5 for χ 2 /d.f., and lower than 0.08 for RMSEA and SRMR are considered acceptable fit indices [ 50 ]. Moreover, the Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated between perceived performance, points scored and playing time.

3.2. Results

3.2.1. confirmatory factor analysis.

The maximum likelihood estimation method was used in the CFA to examine the single-factor structure of the model. The results of the analysis show a good fit to the single-factor model: χ²/d.f. = 4.9, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.94, IFI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.03. The standardized factor loadings were statistically significant ( p < 0.001) and ranged from 0.81 to 0.98 ( Figure 1 ).

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire.

3.2.2. Criteria Validity Analysis: Bivariate Correlations

To test the relationship of the perceived performance with other variables, a Pearson correlation analysis was performed. As can be seen in Table 2 , positive and statistically significant correlations were found between perceived performance and the points scored. The points scored in the last three games correlated positively and significantly with the player’s playing time.

Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations.

Notes: M = mean. SD = standard deviation. ** p < 0.001.

The objective of Study 3 was to analyze the predictive power of basic psychological needs, intrinsic motivation and perceived performance on athletes’ intention to be physically active.

4.1. Methods

4.1.1. participants.

Study 3’s sample consisted of a total of 339 athletes, of whom 139 were girls and 200 were boys, whose ages were between 12 and 28 years (M = 17.69, SD = 4.06). All the participants practiced some competitive sport in the provinces of Huelva or Sevilla. The sample was collected from both municipal sports schools and sports clubs and from various sports: basketball ( n = 83), soccer ( n = 79), futsal ( n = 35), handball ( n = 23), volleyball ( n = 21), paddle tennis ( n = 20), athletics ( n = 15), indoor hockey ( n = 12), swimming ( n = 10), karate ( n = 9), cycling ( n = 8), badminton ( n = 8), table tennis ( n = 6), triathlon ( n = 6) and tennis ( n = 4). These athletes trained for an average of 5.39 h (SD = 3.52). The selection of the participants was done using convenience sampling.

4.1.2. Measures

Basic psychological needs.

The Spanish version [ 51 ] of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES) [ 52 ] was used, adapted to a sports context [ 53 ]. The scale included 12 items covering the three needs for competence (example: “I have had great progression with respect to the desired result”), autonomy (example: “The training program that I still fit my interests”), and relatedness (example: “I feel very comfortable when I exercise with the other athletes”). The questionnaire was administered with the instructions, “During the training…”. A Likert scale was used, ranging from 1 (Not true at all) to 5 (Very true). Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.73 for competence, of 0.71 for autonomy and 0.75 for the relatedness were obtained.

Intrinsic Motivation

The intrinsic regulation factor of the Spanish version [ 54 ] of the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire (BRSQ) [ 19 ] was used. The intrinsic regulation factor measures intrinsic motivation and is made up of 4 items (example: “because I enjoy it”). The answers were responded to with a Likert scale that ranged from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). Cronbach’s alpha was 0.89.

The validated version of the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire was used in Studies 1 and 2. Cronbach’s alpha obtained in this study was 0.87.

Intention to be Physically Active

The Spanish version [ 27 ] of the Measure of Intention to be Physically Active [ 55 ] was used. It consists of five items for measuring the subject’s intention of being physically active (for example, “I am interested in developing my physical fitness”). The items are preceded by the phrase “Regarding your intention to practice sport …”. The answers were responded to with a Likert scale ranging from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 5 (Strongly agree). The analysis of the internal consistency revealed a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77.

4.1.3. Procedure

The process of collecting the data and the instructions given to complete the questionnaire were similar to those described in Study 1. The main difference is that the athletes took about 10 min to fill out the questionnaire, since they had to answer more items.

4.1.4. Data Analysis

The descriptive statistics of the various variables of the study and the bivariate Pearson correlations were calculated. Next, a structural equations model was done to analyze the hypothesized relations between the variables. The various analyses were carried out with the SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 26.0 statistical packages.

4.2. Results

4.2.1. descriptive and bivariate correlation analyses.

Table 3 gives the descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) of each of the study’s variables and the bivariate Pearson correlations.

4.2.2. Structural Equations Model

In order to test the structural equations model (SEM) presented later, a measurement model was first carried out ( Figure 2 ), which allowed for construction of a validity for the scales and corresponded to a confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA), based on the 26 observed measurements and on the six latent constructs. To verify the validity of the measurement model, the following goodness-of-fit indices were taken into account: the ratio between chi-squared and degrees of freedom (χ 2 /d.f.), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR), and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). In this respect, the indices of the measurement model were appropriate: χ 2 (290, N = 339) = 513.12, p = 0.00, χ 2 /d.f. = 1.81, IFI = 0.95, TLI = 0.94 CFI = 0.95, SRMR = 0.05, RMSEA = 0.05.

Measurement model.

The second step of the method was to analyze the existing predictive relations between the variables of the study through a structural model. The model hypothesized that the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness with others would positively predict intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation would positively predict perceived performance. It was expected that the intention to be physically active would be positively related to the perceived performance in sport and intrinsic motivation. However, this model did not show adequate fit indices: χ 2 (290, N = 339) = 652.84, p = 0.00, χ 2 /d.f. = 2.25, IFI = 0.91, TLI = 0.90, CFI = 0.91, SRMR = 0.06, RMSEA = 0.10. For this, to achieve better model fits, a direct relationship was added between perceived performance and the intention to be physically active. Furthermore, the relationship between the need for competence and intrinsic motivation was eliminated, since this relationship was not statistically significant. After these changes, the indices of the measurement model were appropriate: χ 2 (292, N = 339) = 636.34, p = 0.00, χ 2 /d.f. = 2.19, IFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, CFI = 0.92, SRMR = 0.06, RMSEA = 0.08.

As can be seen in Figure 3 , the results of the analysis of the structural equation model showed that the satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and relatedness with others would positively predict intrinsic motivation. The need for competence predicted perceived performance. For its part, intrinsic motivation predicted perceived performance and intention to remain physically active. Finally, it was also found that perceived performance predicted the athlete’s intention to be physically active in the future, showing the direct and indirect effect of intrinsic motivation on the intention to be physically active.

Structural equations model.

5. Discussion

This study was designed to validate the Spanish version of the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire ( Appendix A , Table A1 ) and to analyze performance with motivational variables and adherence in young athletes in competitive sports.

The results of this study support a number of psychometric qualities of the scale, including its factorial composition, internal consistency, and test–retest reliability over a 30 days period. The predictive validity of the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire was supported through the examination of the relations between perceived performance and the points scored. In this sense, the points scored have already been used in a previous study [ 48 ] with basketball players as an indicator of performance. Moreover, the results of the structural equation models show the predictive relationship between competence and perceived performance, as found by some previous studies [ 25 , 44 ]. Likewise, the intrinsic motivation predicted performance, coinciding with the findings of other studies [ 22 , 56 ].

The results of structural equation modelling show that the intention to be physically active was significantly predicted by the intrinsic motivation (direct and indirect effect) and the perceived performance. The relationship between intrinsic motivation and the intention to be physically active has already been shown in other studies [ 33 , 56 , 57 ]. On the other hand, perceived performance predicted the intention of young athletes to remain active. This relationship may be due to the fact that the athlete’s perceived performance can affect their self-esteem, a variable that has already been related to the intention to continue practicing sports [ 58 ].

For the first part of the structural equation model, we expected to find that the satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs predicted intrinsic motivation, as other studies did [ 59 , 60 ]. However, it was only the need for autonomy and relatedness that predicted intrinsic motivation in a positive and statistically significant way. In another study with Mexican soccer players [ 61 ], satisfaction of the need for competition was not shown to be a positive predictor of autonomous motivation (although, as in our study, they did present positive correlations). Future studies will have to study the reason for this lack of predictive power of competence on the intrinsic motivation of athletes. For the relationship between the need for competence and perceived performance, it was found that competence positively predicted perceived performance. Along these lines, some previous studies [ 25 , 62 ] have highlighted the importance of providing competence support to improve team performance.

On the other hand, it is interesting to highlight the importance of the athlete having an intrinsic motivation towards the practice of their sport, since the intrinsic motivation predicted the intention to be physically active and the perceived performance. In fact, some studies affirm that the intrinsic motivation [ 62 ] or autonomous motivation [ 14 ] of athletes must be increased to achieve success in sport. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation in young athletes is a predictor of their adherence to sports practice [ 33 , 57 , 60 ]. In this sense, research in the sports context has shown that autonomous motivation [ 33 , 63 ] has more positive consequences than controlled motivation [ 64 , 65 ] and, of course, than amotivation [ 41 ].

An interesting and original result of this study is that the athlete’s perceived performance predicted their intention to remain physically active in the future. In turn, this study shows that the satisfaction of the need for competence positively affects perceived performance, so employing strategies in training and in competition so that the athlete feels competent and so that coaches provide adequate feedback, recognizing effort and self-improvement, help them to set realistic sports goals or objectives, etc. [ 34 ]. This can help improve the perception of their performance and their intention to continue practicing this sport.

Although the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, experienced motivation or perceived performance are factors that determine adherence to sport, there are other variables such as enjoyment [ 66 ], implicit beliefs in their ability [ 67 ], and family or social support [ 68 , 69 ] that also determine the intention to continue practicing sport, so they should be considered jointly in future studies.

This study provides psychometric support for the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire. Nevertheless, as for any research, some limitations need to be considered. First, this study was carried out with samples of young Spanish athletes; in the future, other similar groups of athletes should be examined. Second, the level of measurement invariance has not been studied (dependance on the gender or age of the athletes). Moreover, the different training backgrounds as well as the prevalence of team sports practitioners among the recruited players could be another limiting factor to be considered in future studies. In addition, the validation of an instrument must be treated as a continuous process, so the Perceived Performance in Sports Questionnaire will have to be tested again with athletes at a different competitive level, from different sports and from different areas of Spain. Likewise, it is recommended that future research continues to study the relationship between basic psychological needs, motivation and other variables with performance and adherence to sport, using other research designs (quasi-experimental, longitudinal studies, etc.).

6. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study showed that the satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and relatedness positively predicted intrinsic motivation. Satisfaction of the need for competence and intrinsic motivation predicted the athlete’s perceived performance. For its part, intrinsic motivation and perceived performance predicted the athlete’s intention to be physically active in the future. Furthermore, the evidence presented here supports the reliability and validity of the Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire ( Appendix A , Table A1 ), and we hope that others will use this measure to further advance knowledge of athlete behavior and improve the training process.

Appendix A. Perceived Performance in Sport Questionnaire

This questionnaire was validated in Spanish.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, B.J.A. and P.S.-L.; data curation, C.C., B.J.A. and S.F.-S.; formal analysis, S.F.-S. and B.J.A.; funding acquisition, C.C. and P.S.-L.; supervision, B.J.A. and P.S.-L.; methodology, B.J.A. and S.F.-S.; writing—original draft, B.J.A.; writing—review and editing, S.F.-S., C.C. and P.S.-L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

(1) Performing this work was possible thanks to the help of the Formación del Profesorado Universitario programme (FPU18/04855), run by the Ministerio de Ciencias, Innovación y Universidades. (2) This work was also supported by the Research Group Educación, Motricidad e Investigación onubense (HUM643) and by the Centro de Investigación en Pensamiento Contemporáneo e Innovación para el Desarrollo Social (COIDESO), of the Universidad de Huelva (Spain).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model

• Narelle Eather   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6320-4540 1 , 2 ,
• Levi Wade   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-5336 1 , 3 ,
• Aurélie Pankowiak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0178-513X 4 &
• Rochelle Eime   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-2813 4 , 5  

Systematic Reviews volume  12 , Article number:  102 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Sport is a subset of physical activity that can be particularly beneficial for short-and-long-term physical and mental health, and social outcomes in adults. This study presents the results of an updated systematic review of the mental health and social outcomes of community and elite-level sport participation for adults. The findings have informed the development of the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults.

Nine electronic databases were searched, with studies published between 2012 and March 2020 screened for inclusion. Eligible qualitative and quantitative studies reported on the relationship between sport participation and mental health and/or social outcomes in adult populations. Risk of bias (ROB) was determined using the Quality Assessment Tool (quantitative studies) or Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (qualitative studies).

The search strategy located 8528 articles, of which, 29 involving adults 18–84 years were included for analysis. Data was extracted for demographics, methodology, and study outcomes, and results presented according to study design. The evidence indicates that participation in sport (community and elite) is related to better mental health, including improved psychological well-being (for example, higher self-esteem and life satisfaction) and lower psychological ill-being (for example, reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress), and improved social outcomes (for example, improved self-control, pro-social behavior, interpersonal communication, and fostering a sense of belonging). Overall, adults participating in team sport had more favorable health outcomes than those participating in individual sport, and those participating in sports more often generally report the greatest benefits; however, some evidence suggests that adults in elite sport may experience higher levels of psychological distress. Low ROB was observed for qualitative studies, but quantitative studies demonstrated inconsistencies in methodological quality.

Conclusions

The findings of this review confirm that participation in sport of any form (team or individual) is beneficial for improving mental health and social outcomes amongst adults. Team sports, however, may provide more potent and additional benefits for mental and social outcomes across adulthood. This review also provides preliminary evidence for the Mental Health through Sport model, though further experimental and longitudinal evidence is needed to establish the mechanisms responsible for sports effect on mental health and moderators of intervention effects. Additional qualitative work is also required to gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The organizational structure of sport and the performance demands characteristic of sport training and competition provide a unique opportunity for participants to engage in health-enhancing physical activity of varied intensity, duration, and mode; and the opportunity to do so with other people as part of a team and/or club. Participation in individual and team sports have shown to be beneficial to physical, social, psychological, and cognitive health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Often, the social and mental health benefits facilitated through participation in sport exceed those achieved through participation in other leisure-time or recreational activities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Notably, these benefits are observed across different sports and sub-populations (including youth, adults, older adults, males, and females) [ 11 ]. However, the evidence regarding sports participation at the elite level is limited, with available research indicating that elite athletes may be more susceptible to mental health problems, potentially due to the intense mental and physical demands placed on elite athletes [ 12 ].

Participation in sport varies across the lifespan, with children representing the largest cohort to engage in organized community sport [ 13 ]. Across adolescence and into young adulthood, dropout from organized sport is common, and especially for females [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], and adults are shifting from organized sports towards leisure and fitness activities, where individual activities (including swimming, walking, and cycling) are the most popular [ 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the general decline in sport participation with age [ 13 ], the most recent (pre-COVID) global data highlights that a range of organized team sports (such as, basketball, netball volleyball, and tennis) continue to rank highly amongst adult sport participants, with soccer remaining a popular choice across all regions of the world [ 13 ]. It is encouraging many adults continue to participate in sport and physical activities throughout their lives; however, high rates of dropout in youth sport and non-participation amongst adults means that many individuals may be missing the opportunity to reap the potential health benefits associated with participation in sport.

According to the World Health Organization, mental health refers to a state of well-being and effective functioning in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, is resilient to the stresses of life, and is able to make a positive contribution to his or her community [ 20 ]. Mental health covers three main components, including psychological, emotional and social health [ 21 ]. Further, psychological health has two distinct indicators, psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and quality of life) and psychological ill-being (e.g., pre-clinical psychological states such as psychological difficulties and high levels of stress) [ 22 ]. Emotional well-being describes how an individual feels about themselves (including life satisfaction, interest in life, loneliness, and happiness); and social well–being includes an individual’s contribution to, and integration in society [ 23 ].

Mental illnesses are common among adults and incidence rates have remained consistently high over the past 25 years (~ 10% of people affected globally) [ 24 ]. Recent statistics released by the World Health Organization indicate that depression and anxiety are the most common mental disorders, affecting an estimated 264 million people, ranking as one of the main causes of disability worldwide [ 25 , 26 ]. Specific elements of social health, including high levels of isolation and loneliness among adults, are now also considered a serious public health concern due to the strong connections with ill-health [ 27 ]. Participation in sport has shown to positively impact mental and social health status, with a previous systematic review by Eime et al. (2013) indicated that sports participation was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, and improved vitality, social functioning, mental health, and life satisfaction [ 1 ]. Based on their findings, the authors developed a conceptual model (health through sport) depicting the relationship between determinants of adult sports participation and physical, psychological, and social health benefits of participation. In support of Eime’s review findings, Malm and colleagues (2019) recently described how sport aids in preventing or alleviating mental illness, including depressive symptoms and anxiety or stress-related disease [ 7 ]. Andersen (2019) also highlighted that team sports participation is associated with decreased rates of depression and anxiety [ 11 ]. In general, these reviews report stronger effects for sports participation compared to other types of physical activity, and a dose–response relationship between sports participation and mental health outcomes (i.e., higher volume and/or intensity of participation being associated with greater health benefits) when adults participate in sports they enjoy and choose [ 1 , 7 ]. Sport is typically more social than other forms of physical activity, including enhanced social connectedness, social support, peer bonding, and club support, which may provide some explanation as to why sport appears to be especially beneficial to mental and social health [ 28 ].

Thoits (2011) proposed several potential mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being [ 29 ]; however, these mechanisms have yet to be explored in the context of sports participation at any level in adults. The identification of the mechanisms responsible for such effects may direct future research in this area and help inform future policy and practice in the delivery of sport to enhance mental health and social outcomes amongst adult participants. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to examine and synthesize all research findings regarding the relationship between sports participation, mental health and social outcomes at the community and elite level in adults. Based on the review findings, the secondary objective was to develop the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model.

This review has been registered in the PROSPERO systematic review database and assigned the identifier: CRD42020185412. The conduct and reporting of this systematic review also follows the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 30 ] (PRISMA flow diagram and PRISMA Checklist available in supplementary files ). This review is an update of a previous review of the same topic [ 31 ], published in 2012.

Identification of studies

Nine electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Informit, Medline, PsychINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for relevant records published from 2012 to March 10, 2020. The following key terms were developed by all members of the research team (and guided by previous reviews) and entered into these databases by author LW: sport* AND health AND value OR benefit* OR effect* OR outcome* OR impact* AND psych* OR depress* OR stress OR anxiety OR happiness OR mood OR ‘quality of life’ OR ‘social health’ OR ‘social relation*’ OR well* OR ‘social connect*’ OR ‘social functioning’ OR ‘life satisfac*’ OR ‘mental health’ OR social OR sociolog* OR affect* OR enjoy* OR fun. Where possible, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) were also used.

Criteria for inclusion/exclusion

The titles of studies identified using this method were screened by LW. Abstract and full text of the articles were reviewed independently by LW and NE. To be included in the current review, each study needed to meet each of the following criteria: (1) published in English from 2012 to 2020; (2) full-text available online; (3) original research or report published in a peer-reviewed journal; (4) provides data on the psychological or social effects of participation in sport (with sport defined as a subset of exercise that can be undertaken individually or as a part of a team, where participants adhere to a common set of rules or expectations, and a defined goal exists); (5) the population of interest were adults (18 years and older) and were apparently healthy. All papers retrieved in the initial search were assessed for eligibility by title and abstract. In cases where a study could not be included or excluded via their title and abstract, the full text of the article was reviewed independently by two of the authors.

Data extraction

For the included studies, the following data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE using a customized Google Docs spreadsheet: author name, year of publication, country, study design, aim, type of sport (e.g., tennis, hockey, team, individual), study conditions/comparisons, sample size, where participants were recruited from, mean age of participants, measure of sports participation, measure of physical activity, psychological and/or social outcome/s, measure of psychological and/or social outcome/s, statistical method of analysis, changes in physical activity or sports participation, and the psychological and/or social results.

Risk of bias (ROB) assessment

A risk of bias was performed by LW and AP independently using the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies’ OR the ‘Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies’ for the included quantitative studies, and the ‘Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist for the included qualitative studies [ 32 , 33 ]. Any discrepancies in the ROB assessments were discussed between the two reviewers, and a consensus reached.

The search yielded 8528 studies, with a total of 29 studies included in the systematic review (Fig.  1 ). Tables  1 and 2 provide a summary of the included studies. The research included adults from 18 to 84 years old, with most of the evidence coming from studies targeting young adults (18–25 years). Study samples ranged from 14 to 131, 962, with the most reported psychological outcomes being self-rated mental health ( n  = 5) and depression ( n  = 5). Most studies did not investigate or report the link between a particular sport and a specific mental health or social outcome; instead, the authors’ focused on comparing the impact of sport to physical activity, and/or individual sports compared to team sports. The results of this review are summarized in the following section, with findings presented by study design (cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal).

Flow of studies through the review process

Effects of sports participation on psychological well-being, ill-being, and social outcomes

Cross-sectional evidence.

This review included 14 studies reporting on the cross-sectional relationship between sports participation and psychological and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 414 to n  = 131,962 with a total of n  = 239,394 adults included across the cross-sectional studies.

The cross-sectional evidence generally supports that participation in sport, and especially team sports, is associated with greater mental health and psychological wellbeing in adults compared to non-participants [ 36 , 59 ]; and that higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, are also linked to lower levels of mental distress in adults . This was not the case for one specific study involving ice hockey players aged 35 and over, with Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) reporting no relationship between participation in ice hockey and either mental health, or perceived life stress [ 54 ]. There is also some evidence to support that previous participation in sports (e.g., during childhood or young adulthood) is linked to better mental health outcomes later in life, including improved mental well-being and lower mental distress [ 59 ], even after controlling for age and current physical activity.

Compared to published community data for adults, elite or high-performance adult athletes demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction [ 39 ]; and reported reduced tendency to respond to distress with anger and depression. However, rates of psychological distress were higher in the elite sport cohort (compared to community norms), with nearly 1 in 5 athletes reporting ‘high to very high’ distress, and 1 in 3 reporting poor mental health symptoms at a level warranting treatment by a health professional in one study ( n  = 749) [ 39 ].

Four studies focused on the associations between physical activity and sports participation and mental health outcomes in older adults. Physical activity was associated with greater quality of life [ 56 ], with the relationship strongest for those participating in sport in middle age, and for those who cycled in later life (> 65) [ 56 ]. Group physical activities (e.g., walking groups) and sports (e.g., golf) were also significantly related to excellent self-rated health, low depressive symptoms, high health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and a high frequency of laughter in males and females [ 60 , 61 ]. No participation or irregular participation in sport was associated with symptoms of mild to severe depression in older adults [ 62 ].

Several cross-sectional studies examined whether the effects of physical activity varied by type (e.g., total physical activity vs. sports participation). In an analysis of 1446 young adults (mean age = 18), total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and team sport were independently associated with mental health [ 46 ]. Relative to individual physical activity, after adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only team sport was significantly associated with improved mental health. Similarly, in a cross-sectional analysis of Australian women, Eime, Harvey, Payne (2014) reported that women who engaged in club and team-based sports (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction than those who engaged in individual types of physical activity [ 47 ]. Interestingly, there was no relationship between the amount of physical activity and either of these outcomes, suggesting that other qualities of sports participation contribute to its relationship to mental health and life satisfaction. There was also some evidence to support a relationship between exercise type (ball sports, aerobic activity, weightlifting, and dancing), and mental health amongst young adults (mean age 22 years) [ 48 ], with ball sports and dancing related to fewer symptoms of depression in students with high stress; and weightlifting related to fewer depressive symptoms in weightlifters exhibiting low stress.

Longitudinal evidence

Eight studies examined the longitudinal relationship between sports participation and either mental health and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 113 to n  = 1679 with a total of n  = 7022 adults included across the longitudinal studies.

Five of the included longitudinal studies focused on the relationship between sports participation in childhood or adolescence and mental health in young adulthood. There is evidence that participation in sport in high-school is protective of future symptoms of anxiety (including panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, and agoraphobia) [ 42 ]. Specifically, after controlling for covariates (including current physical activity), the number of years of sports participation in high school was shown to be protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder [ 42 ]. A comparison of individual or team sports participation also revealed that participation in either context was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms. Furthermore, current and past sports team participation was shown to negatively relate to adult depressive symptoms [ 43 ]; drop out of sport was linked to higher depressive symptoms in adulthood compared to those with maintained participation [ 9 , 22 , 63 ]; and consistent participation in team sports (but not individual sport) in adolescence was linked to higher self-rated mental health, lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and lower depression scores in early adulthood [ 53 , 58 ].

Two longitudinal studies [ 35 , 55 ], also investigated the association between team and individual playing context and mental health. Dore and colleagues [ 35 ] reported that compared to individual activities, being active in informal groups (e.g., yoga, running groups) or team sports was associated with better mental health, fewer depressive symptoms and higher social connectedness – and that involvement in team sports was related to better mental health regardless of physical activity volume. Kim and James [ 55 ] discovered that sports participation led to both short and long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction.

A study on social outcomes related to mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) showed that both sports improved practitioners’ self-control and pro-social behavior, with greater improvements seen in the BJJ group [ 62 ]. Notably, while BJJ reduced participants’ reported aggression, there was a slight increase in MMA practitioners, though it is worth mentioning that individuals who sought out MMA had higher levels of baseline aggression.

Experimental evidence

Six of the included studies were experimental or quasi-experimental. Sample sizes ranged from n  = 28 to n  = 55 with a total of n  = 239 adults included across six longitudinal studies. Three studies involved a form of martial arts (such as judo and karate) [ 45 , 51 , 52 ], one involved a variety of team sports (such as netball, soccer, and cricket) [ 34 ], and the remaining two focused on badminton [ 57 ] and handball [ 49 ].

Brinkley and colleagues [ 34 ] reported significant effects on interpersonal communication (but not vitality, social cohesion, quality of life, stress, or interpersonal relationships) for participants ( n  = 40) engaging in a 12-week workplace team sports intervention. Also using a 12-week intervention, Hornstrup et al. [ 49 ] reported a significant improvement in mental energy (but not well-being or anxiety) in young women (mean age = 24; n  = 28) playing in a handball program. Patterns et al. [ 57 ] showed that in comparison to no exercise, participation in an 8-week badminton or running program had no significant improvement on self-esteem, despite improvements in perceived and actual fitness levels.

Three studies examined the effect of martial arts on the mental health of older adults (mean ages 79 [ 52 ], 64 [ 51 ], and 70 [ 45 ] years). Participation in Karate-Do had positive effects on overall mental health, emotional wellbeing, depression and anxiety when compared to other activities (physical, cognitive, mindfulness) and a control group [ 51 , 52 ]. Ciaccioni et al. [ 45 ] found that a Judo program did not affect either the participants’ mental health or their body satisfaction, citing a small sample size, and the limited length of the intervention as possible contributors to the findings.

Qualitative evidence

Three studies interviewed current or former sports players regarding their experiences with sport. Chinkov and Holt [ 41 ] reported that jiu-jitsu practitioners (mean age 35 years) were more self-confident in their lives outside of the gym, including improved self-confidence in their interactions with others because of their training. McGraw and colleagues [ 37 ] interviewed former and current National Football League (NFL) players and their families about its impact on the emotional and mental health of the players. Most of the players reported that their NFL career provided them with social and emotional benefits, as well as improvements to their self-esteem even after retiring. Though, despite these benefits, almost all the players experienced at least one mental health challenge during their career, including depression, anxiety, or difficulty controlling their temper. Some of the players and their families reported that they felt socially isolated from people outside of the national football league.

Through a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups, Thorpe, Anders [ 40 ] investigated the impact of an Aboriginal male community sporting team on the health of its players. The players reported they felt a sense of belonging when playing in the team, further noting that the social and community aspects were as important as the physical health benefits. Participating in the club strengthened the cultural identity of the players, enhancing their well-being. The players further noted that participation provided them with enjoyment, stress relief, a sense of purpose, peer support, and improved self-esteem. Though they also noted challenges, including the presence of racism, community conflict, and peer-pressure.

Quality of studies

Full details of our risk of bias (ROB) results are provided in Supplementary Material A . Of the three qualitative studies assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), all three were deemed to have utilised and reported appropriate methodological standards on at least 8 of the 10 criteria. Twenty studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, with all studies clearly reporting the research question/s or objective/s and study population. However, only four studies provided a justification for sample size, and less than half of the studies met quality criteria for items 6, 7, 9, or 10 (and items 12 and 13 were largely not applicable). Of concern, only four of the observational or cohort studies were deemed to have used clearly defined, valid, and reliable exposure measures (independent variables) and implemented them consistently across all study participants. Six studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies, with three studies described as a randomized trial (but none of the three reported a suitable method of randomization, concealment of treatment allocation, or blinding to treatment group assignment). Three studies showed evidence that study groups were similar at baseline for important characteristics and an overall drop-out rate from the study < 20%. Four studies reported high adherence to intervention protocols (with two not reporting) and five demonstrated that.study outcomes were assessed using valid and reliable measures and implemented consistently across all study participants. Importantly, researchers did not report or have access to validated instruments for assessing sport participation or physical activity amongst adults, though most studies provided psychometrics for their mental health outcome measure/s. Only one study reported that the sample size was sufficiently powered to detect a difference in the main outcome between groups (with ≥ 80% power) and that all participants were included in the analysis of results (intention-to-treat analysis). In general, the methodological quality of the six randomised studies was deemed low.

Initially, our discussion will focus on the review findings regarding sports participation and well-being, ill-being, and psychological health. However, the heterogeneity and methodological quality of the included research (especially controlled trials) should be considered during the interpretation of our results. Considering our findings, the Mental Health through Sport conceptual model for adults will then be presented and discussed and study limitations outlined.

Sports participation and psychological well-being

In summary, the evidence presented here indicates that for adults, sports participation is associated with better overall mental health [ 36 , 46 , 47 , 59 ], mood [ 56 ], higher life satisfaction [ 39 , 47 ], self-esteem [ 39 ], body satisfaction [ 39 ], HRQoL [ 60 ], self-rated health [ 61 ], and frequency of laughter [ 61 ]. Sports participation has also shown to be predictive of better psychological wellbeing over time [ 35 , 53 ], higher positive affect [ 55 ], and greater life satisfaction [ 55 ]. Furthermore, higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, have been linked to lower levels of mental distress, higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction in adults [ 39 ].

Despite considerable heterogeneity of sports type, cross-sectional and experimental research indicate that team-based sports participation, compared to individual sports and informal group physical activity, has a more positive effect on mental energy [ 49 ], physical self-perception [ 57 ], and overall psychological health and well-being in adults, regardless of physical activity volume [ 35 , 46 , 47 ]. And, karate-do benefits the subjective well-being of elderly practitioners [ 51 , 52 ]. Qualitative research in this area has queried participants’ experiences of jiu-jitsu, Australian football, and former and current American footballers. Participants in these sports reported that their participation was beneficial for psychological well-being [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], improved self-esteem [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], and enjoyment [ 37 ].

Sports participation and psychological ill-being

Of the included studies, n  = 19 examined the relationship between participating in sport and psychological ill-being. In summary, there is consistent evidence that sports participation is related to lower depression scores [ 43 , 48 , 61 , 62 ]. There were mixed findings regarding psychological stress, where participation in childhood (retrospectively assessed) was related to lower stress in young adulthood [ 41 ], but no relationship was identified between recreational hockey in adulthood and stress [ 54 ]. Concerning the potential impact of competing at an elite level, there is evidence of higher stress in elite athletes compared to community norms [ 39 ]. Further, there is qualitative evidence that many current or former national football league players experienced at least one mental health challenge, including depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling their temper, during their career [ 37 ].

Evidence from longitudinal research provided consistent evidence that participating in sport in adolescence is protective of symptoms of depression in young adulthood [ 43 , 53 , 58 , 63 ], and further evidence that participating in young adulthood is related to lower depressive symptoms over time (6 months) [ 35 ]. Participation in adolescence was also protective of manifestations of anxiety (panic disorder and agoraphobia) and stress in young adulthood [ 42 ], though participation in young adulthood was not related to a more general measure of anxiety [ 35 ] nor to changes in negative affect [ 55 ]). The findings from experimental research were mixed. Two studies examined the effect of karate-do on markers of psychological ill-being, demonstrating its capacity to reduce anxiety [ 52 ], with some evidence of its effectiveness on depression [ 51 ]. The other studies examined small-sided team-based games but showed no effect on stress or anxiety [ 34 , 49 ]. Most studies did not differentiate between team and individual sports, though one study found that adolescents who participated in team sports (not individual sports) in secondary school has lower depression scores in young adulthood [ 58 ].

Sports participation and social outcomes

Seven of the included studies examined the relationship between sports participation and social outcomes. However, very few studies examined social outcomes or tested a social outcome as a potential mediator of the relationship between sport and mental health. It should also be noted that this body of evidence comes from a wide range of sport types, including martial arts, professional football, and workplace team-sport, as well as different methodologies. Taken as a whole, the evidence shows that participating in sport is beneficial for several social outcomes, including self-control [ 50 ], pro-social behavior [ 50 ], interpersonal communication [ 34 ], and fostering a sense of belonging [ 40 ]. Further, there is evidence that group activity, for example team sport or informal group activity, is related to higher social connectedness over time, though analyses showed that social connectedness was not a mediator for mental health [ 35 ].

There were conflicting findings regarding social effects at the elite level, with current and former NFL players reporting that they felt socially isolated during their career [ 37 ], whilst another study reported no relationship between participation at the elite level and social dysfunction [ 39 ]. Conversely, interviews with a group of indigenous men revealed that they felt as though participating in an all-indigenous Australian football team provided them with a sense of purpose, and they felt as though the social aspect of the game was as important as the physical benefits it provides [ 40 ].

Mental health through sport conceptual model for adults

The ‘Health through Sport’ model provides a depiction of the determinants and benefits of sports participation [ 31 ]. The model recognises that the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports participation vary by the context of sport (e.g., individual vs. team, organized vs. informal). To identify the elements of sport which contribute to its effect on mental health outcomes, we describe the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ model (Fig.  2 ). The model proposes that the social and physical elements of sport each provide independent, and likely synergistic contributions to its overall influence on mental health.

The Mental Health through Sport conceptual model

The model describes two key pathways through which sport may influence mental health: physical activity, and social relationships and support. Several likely moderators of this effect are also provided, including sport type, intensity, frequency, context (team vs. individual), environment (e.g., indoor vs. outdoor), as well as the level of competition (e.g., elite vs. amateur).

The means by which the physical activity component of sport may influence mental health stems from the work of Lubans et al., who propose three key groups of mechanisms: neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral [ 64 ]. Processes whereby physical activity may enhance psychological outcomes via changes in the structural and functional composition of the brain are referred to as neurobiological mechanisms [ 65 , 66 ]. Processes whereby physical activity provides opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, opportunity for mastery, changes in self-perceptions, the development of independence, and for interaction with the environment are considered psychosocial mechanisms. Lastly, processes by which physical activity may influence behaviors which ultimately affect psychological health, including changes in sleep duration, self-regulation, and coping skills, are described as behavioral mechanisms.

Playing sport offers the opportunity to form relationships and to develop a social support network, both of which are likely to influence mental health. Thoits [ 29 ] describes 7 key mechanisms by which social relationships and support may influence mental health: social influence/social comparison; social control; role-based purpose and meaning (mattering); self-esteem; sense of control; belonging and companionship; and perceived support availability [ 29 ]. These mechanisms and their presence within a sporting context are elaborated below.

Subjective to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a group, social influence and comparison may facilitate protective or harmful effects on mental health. Participants in individual or team sport will be influenced and perhaps steered by the behaviors, expectations, and norms of other players and teams. When individual’s compare their capabilities, attitudes, and values to those of other participants, their own behaviors and subsequent health outcomes may be affected. When others attempt to encourage or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain health practices, social control is displayed [ 29 ]. This may evolve as strategies between players (or between players and coach) are discussion and implemented. Likewise, teammates may try to motivate each another during a match to work harder, or to engage in specific events or routines off-field (fitness programs, after game celebrations, attending club events) which may impact current and future physical and mental health.

Sport may also provide behavioral guidance, purpose, and meaning to its participants. Role identities (positions within a social structure that come with reciprocal obligations), often formed as a consequence of social ties formed through sport. Particularly in team sports, participants come to understand they form an integral part of the larger whole, and consequently, they hold certain responsibility in ensuring the team’s success. They have a commitment to the team to, train and play, communicate with the team and a potential responsibility to maintain a high level of health, perform to their capacity, and support other players. As a source of behavioral guidance and of purpose and meaning in life, these identities are likely to influence mental health outcomes amongst sport participants.

An individual’s level of self-esteem may be affected by the social relationships and social support provided through sport; with improved perceptions of capability (or value within a team) in the sporting domain likely to have positive impact on global self-esteem and sense of worth [ 64 ]. The unique opportunities provided through participation in sport, also allow individuals to develop new skills, overcome challenges, and develop their sense of self-control or mastery . Working towards and finding creative solutions to challenges in sport facilitates a sense of mastery in participants. This sense of mastery may translate to other areas of life, with individual’s developing the confidence to cope with varied life challenges. For example, developing a sense of mastery regarding capacity to formulate new / creative solutions when taking on an opponent in sport may result in greater confidence to be creative at work. Social relationships and social support provided through sport may also provide participants with a source of belonging and companionship. The development of connections (on and off the field) to others who share common interests, can build a sense of belonging that may mediate improvements in mental health outcomes. Social support is often provided emotionally during expressions of trust and care; instrumentally via tangible assistance; through information such as advice and suggestions; or as appraisal such feedback. All forms of social support provided on and off the field contribute to a more generalised sense of perceived support that may mediate the effect of social interaction on mental health outcomes.

Participation in sport may influence mental health via some combination of the social mechanisms identified by Thoits, and the neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms stemming from physical activity identified by Lubans [ 29 , 64 ]. The exact mechanisms through which sport may confer psychological benefit is likely to vary between sports, as each sport varies in its physical and social requirements. One must also consider the social effects of sports participation both on and off the field. For instance, membership of a sporting team and/or club may provide a sense of identity and belonging—an effect that persists beyond the immediacy of playing the sport and may have a persistent effect on their psychological health. Furthermore, the potential for team-based activity to provide additional benefit to psychological outcomes may not just be attributable to the differences in social interactions, there are also physiological differences in the requirements for sport both within (team vs. team) and between (team vs. individual) categories that may elicit additional improvements in psychological outcomes. For example, evidence supports that exercise intensity moderates the relationship between physical activity and several psychological outcomes—supporting that sports performed at higher intensity will be more beneficial for psychological health.

Limitations and recommendations

There are several limitations of this review worthy of consideration. Firstly, amongst the included studies there was considerable heterogeneity in study outcomes and study methodology, and self-selection bias (especially in non-experimental studies) is likely to influence study findings and reduce the likelihood that study participants and results are representative of the overall population. Secondly, the predominately observational evidence included in this and Eime’s prior review enabled us to identify the positive relationship between sports participation and social and psychological health (and examine directionality)—but more experimental and longitudinal research is required to determine causality and explore potential mechanisms responsible for the effect of sports participation on participant outcomes. Additional qualitative work would also help researchers gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants. Thirdly, there were no studies identified in the literature where sports participation involved animals (such as equestrian sports) or guns (such as shooting sports). Such studies may present novel and important variables in the assessment of mental health benefits for participants when compared to non-participants or participants in sports not involving animals/guns—further research is needed in this area. Our proposed conceptual model also identifies several pathways through which sport may lead to improvements in mental health—but excludes some potentially negative influences (such as poor coaching behaviors and injury). And our model is not designed to capture all possible mechanisms, creating the likelihood that other mechanisms exist but are not included in this review. Additionally, an interrelationship exits between physical activity, mental health, and social relationships, whereby changes in one area may facilitate changes in the other/s; but for the purpose of this study, we have focused on how the physical and social elements of sport may mediate improvements in psychological outcomes. Consequently, our conceptual model is not all-encompassing, but designed to inform and guide future research investigating the impact of sport participation on mental health.

The findings of this review endorse that participation in sport is beneficial for psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults. Furthermore, participation in team sports is associated with better psychological and social outcomes compared to individual sports or other physical activities. Our findings support and add to previous review findings [ 1 ]; and have informed the development of our ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults which presents the potential mechanisms by which participation in sport may affect mental health.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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We would like to acknowledge the work of the original systematic review conducted by Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., and Payne, W. R. (2013).

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Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A. et al. The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model. Syst Rev 12 , 102 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: advances in sport science: latest findings and new scientific proposals.

• 1 Department of Science of Physical Activity and Sport, Pontifical University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
• 2 Department of Social Psychology and Quantitative Psychology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
• 3 Department of Science of Physical Activity and Sport, Catholic University of Valencia “San Vicente Mártir”, Valencia, Spain
• 4 Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
• 5 Faculdade de Ciências do Desporto e Educação Física, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
• 6 Department of Physical and Sports Education, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain
• 7 Institut Nacional d'Educació Física de Catalunya (INEFC). University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain

Editorial of the Research Topic Editorial: Advances in Sport Science: Latest Findings and New Scientific Proposals

Although sport as an activity has been practiced for much of modern history, sports sciences were not considered a discipline of academic tradition until the 20th century ( Fernández and García, 2018 ). The purpose and function of sport sciences are to investigate questions about motor behavior and performance, which must be solved on a scientific basis.

According to data from PubMed, scientific research on sport sciences has increased in the last 10 years. Specifically, it is possible to affirm that more scientific studies were published in the 2010–2020 decade than in the entire previous period (1945–2009) ( Maneiro, 2021 ). This brings us closer to the idea that this area of knowledge is in full expansion and apogee, in which sports scientists have a fundamental role.

Analyzing more specifically the different fields of study, it is possible to affirm that some fields have more robust growth, while in others their growth is more moderate. Specifically, areas such as rehabilitation, exercise, or biomechanics show very notable growth, while others such as sports injuries, motor behavior analysis, performance analysis, or strength training show less notable growth ( González et al., 2018 ).

This special Research Topic entitled “ Advances in Sport Science: Latest Findings and New Scientific Proposals ” began with a double objective: on the one hand, to offer a space where scientists can continue to delve into the most consolidated scientific disciplines; and on the other hand, to open a path where those areas that still need more research could have a place. As a result, the great impact it has had on the community is noteworthy, to the extent that 27 articles have been published by 130 authors, and with a total global impact of almost 61,000 visits from multiple different countries, which has increased and improved knowledge on the following topics: performance analysis in individual and team sports (15 articles), the impact of COVID-19 on performance (3 articles), executive functions and physical fitness at an early age (3 articles), physical activity in older people (1 article), and psychological profiles in performance athletes (6 articles).

Overview of Contributions

The analysis of sports performance has been the subject that research has most concentrated on. This is no coincidence, since the abundance of currently existing sports disciplines demands research that results in potential recommendations with empirical support. More specifically, football is the sport that has been the subject of most research, specifically with five studies, and they have focused on the comparison of goal scoring patterns in the main European leagues ( Li and Zhao ), the peak performance age of top-level soccer players ( Oterhals et al. ), differences in technical and space management actions in three UEFA Champions League finals ( Amatria et al. ), the analysis of one of the most important rules of the game in soccer, such as offside ( Zhao ), and the opinion of game analysts on different aspects of the game ( Aguado-Méndez et al. ). All these studies have allowed us to increase our knowledge about different variables that may be modulating success in performance football. The analysis of other team sports, such as volleyball, assessed the efficiency of the training process with different methodologies ( Fernández-Echevarría et al. ), the influence of the yips (psycho-neuromuscular disorder characterized by involuntary movements that disrupt the execution of automatic fine motor behavior) in college baseball players (Aoyama et al.), the analysis of ultimate frisbee from different criteria such as where more passes are made and what behaviors differentiate the winning teams from the losers ( Lam et al. ) and, finally, it has been shown that in sports such as rowing ( Gavala-González et al. ) there is a relationship between the academic record of athletes and sports performance. Specifically, rowers who obtain better academic grades have higher levels of involvement in the tests, and therefore better sports results.

On the other hand, individual sports have also had a special space within the topic. An example is the study by León-Guereño et al. , where they analyze the influence of different variables such as age, sex, or marital status on the motivation toward endurance sports such as athletics; on the other hand, badminton (an individual or dual sport) has also had a special mention with two articles: the study by Torres-Luque et al. has proposed the design and validation of an observation instrument for the analysis of technical and tactical behaviors in badminton; and the study by Guo et al. , where they analyzed the effect of combined balance and plyometric training on change of direction performance in a 6-week program. Finally, the work of Núñez-Barriopedro et al. , with a sample of 682 karate fighters, analyzed the strategies of karate federations to attract and retain competitors through variables such as happiness and how it modulates performance.

Of course, this special Research Topic could not ignore the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on both the training and sports performance of athletes. In this sense, three studies have focused their efforts on the impact not only of COVID, but also the performance within the bubble in world championships. More specifically, the work of Gentile et al. analyzes how the pandemic influenced different psychological variables such as stress and the ability to fall asleep in the “bubble” at the 2020 World Samboo Championships; on the other hand, the work of McLean et al. , using the STS (sociotechnical systems) theory shows that the sports teams of the Australian Football League can take advantage of the circumstances of the pandemic to improve the efficiency of their departments; and finally, the study by Bobo-Arce et al. collects 302 interviews with rhythmic gymnastics coaches from 26 different countries, where they conclude that although gymnasts continued training during confinement, almost 3 out of 4 reported some abandonment of sports practice, also proposing training advice for future lockdowns.

A novel feature of this Research Topic has been the attention paid to early ages from two perspectives: the assessment of physical fitness in boys and girls, as well as their related executive functions. In this sense, the work of Escolano-Pérez et al. examined the influence of early environmental variables such as the type of feeding or the mode of delivery and some biological variables (sex and age) on pre-school motor skills, finding notable differences between them based on sex and type of delivery, among others. The study by Veraksa et al. , with a sample of 261 boys and girls from 5 to 6 years of age, tried to identify the possible different levels of physical fitness among them, in addition to an analysis of their executive functions. Lastly, the ambitious study by Iglesias-Soler et al. , entitled “Percentiles and principal component analysis of physical fitness from a big sample of children and adolescents aged 6–18 years: the DAFIS Project” with more than 15,000 young people from Galicia, concluded that the physical condition was better in boys than in girls, and that the distribution of fat mass and muscle performance had a high proportion of variation in physical fitness. On the other hand, physical activity in older people has also had a special place in this Research Topic with the article “Physical activity and life satisfactions: an empirical study in a population of senior citizens” by Wöbbeking et al. , where, with a sample of 300 older subjects, the influence of various sociodemographic variables (age, sex, institutionalization, and level of education) on the performance of physical activity is analyzed, demonstrating that people with a higher level of education present differences in physical and motivational reserves, and that the latter affect healthy cognitive aging.

Another novel research focus in the current Research Topic has been the inclusion of studies on eye fixation and the “quiet eye” effect. The study of Dahl et al. monitored eye behavior and vision in a similar context to e-sports in more than 2,600 trials, stating that increased cognitive load delayed the onset of gaze fixation, and that the duration of the last fixation before a motor action predicted performance outcome.

Finally, the psychological approach in performance analysis was addressed in five different studies, and four different sports. In the first place, the study by Uriarte et al. focused on judo, and found that the performance indicators that made the greatest difference were psychological aspects such as motivation, stress, and team cohesion, with the motivation variable being the most important for success. On the other hand, there have been two studies that have focused on psychological aspects in archers. The study by Wu et al. studied the effects of a mindfulness intervention program (mindfulness-based peak performance, MBPP) on sports performance in 23 archers, showing that the MBPP program significantly improved shooting performance, multiple cognitive functions, and the level of negative ruminations decreased significantly. On the other hand, the investigation of Li et al. (43 archers and shooting specialists were analyzed) intended to investigate the relationship between the level of experience and interoceptive attention capacity in shooting and archery, concluding that elite athletes outperformed amateurs in different aspects and variables considered. Likewise, Peng et al. studied the relationship between competitive cognitive anxiety and motor performance in Chinese college basketball players, concluding that ego and task orientations and the “goal profile” moderate the relationship between competitive anxiety and motor performance. Finally, in the work of Mitic et al. , the differences in the psychological profiles of elite and non-elite athletes are analyzed, stating that the former are characterized by a positive score toward self-efficacy, emotionality, low negative past time perspective, emotional competence, and future time perspective, while the latter have completely opposite features. Finally, in the study entitled “Use of Stroop Test for sports psychology study: cross-over design research” by Takahashi and Grove , they used the Stroop psychological test to investigate the benefits of exercise on cognitive function, finding that there was no significant effect on the exercise mode for both Stroop and reverse Stroop interference.

Future Lines of Research

In view of the large number of published articles, all of them of high methodological and substantive quality, the present Research Topic has responded to those objectives that the editors have aspired to: to help increase scientific support around sport from different disciplines and perspectives, with the ultimate objective that these studies result in better decision-making in the practical field.

From this editorial, scientists are encouraged to continue focusing their efforts on consolidating the areas of research that have the most outstanding growth, but without forgetting areas of study that do not yet have robust scientific development, and which also need the support provided by empirical data.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: editorial, sport science, methodology, performance analysis, high performance

Citation: Maneiro R, Losada JL, Casal CA, Papadopoulou S, Sarmento H, Ardá A, Iglesias X and Amatria M (2022) Editorial: Advances in Sport Science: Latest Findings and New Scientific Proposals. Front. Psychol. 13:891906. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.891906

Received: 08 March 2022; Accepted: 01 April 2022; Published: 28 April 2022.

Edited and reviewed by: Barkat A. Khan , Gomal University, Pakistan

Copyright © 2022 Maneiro, Losada, Casal, Papadopoulou, Sarmento, Ardá, Iglesias and Amatria. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Rubén Maneiro, rmaneirodi@upsa.es

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Research Article

Sport psychology and performance meta-analyses: A systematic review of the literature

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America, Education Academy, Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas, Lithuania

Roles Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft

Affiliation Department of Psychological Sciences, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Methodology

Roles Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Kinesiology and Sport Management, Honors College, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, United States of America

Roles Data curation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Faculty of Education, Health and Well-Being, University of Wolverhampton, Walsall, West Midlands, United Kingdom

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Division of Research & Innovation, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia

• Marc Lochbaum, 
• Elisabeth Stoner, 
• Tristen Hefner, 
• Sydney Cooper, 
• Andrew M. Lane, 
• Peter C. Terry

• Published: February 16, 2022
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

Sport psychology as an academic pursuit is nearly two centuries old. An enduring goal since inception has been to understand how psychological techniques can improve athletic performance. Although much evidence exists in the form of meta-analytic reviews related to sport psychology and performance, a systematic review of these meta-analyses is absent from the literature. We aimed to synthesize the extant literature to gain insights into the overall impact of sport psychology on athletic performance. Guided by the PRISMA statement for systematic reviews, we reviewed relevant articles identified via the EBSCOhost interface. Thirty meta-analyses published between 1983 and 2021 met the inclusion criteria, covering 16 distinct sport psychology constructs. Overall, sport psychology interventions/variables hypothesized to enhance performance (e.g., cohesion, confidence, mindfulness) were shown to have a moderate beneficial effect ( d = 0.51), whereas variables hypothesized to be detrimental to performance (e.g., cognitive anxiety, depression, ego climate) had a small negative effect ( d = -0.21). The quality rating of meta-analyses did not significantly moderate the magnitude of observed effects, nor did the research design (i.e., intervention vs. correlation) of the primary studies included in the meta-analyses. Our review strengthens the evidence base for sport psychology techniques and may be of great practical value to practitioners. We provide recommendations for future research in the area.

Citation: Lochbaum M, Stoner E, Hefner T, Cooper S, Lane AM, Terry PC (2022) Sport psychology and performance meta-analyses: A systematic review of the literature. PLoS ONE 17(2): e0263408. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408

Editor: Claudio Imperatori, European University of Rome, ITALY

Received: September 28, 2021; Accepted: January 18, 2022; Published: February 16, 2022

Copyright: © 2022 Lochbaum et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Sport performance matters. Verifying its global importance requires no more than opening a newspaper to the sports section, browsing the internet, looking at social media outlets, or scanning abundant sources of sport information. Sport psychology is an important avenue through which to better understand and improve sport performance. To date, a systematic review of published sport psychology and performance meta-analyses is absent from the literature. Given the undeniable importance of sport, the history of sport psychology in academics since 1830, and the global rise of sport psychology journals and organizations, a comprehensive systematic review of the meta-analytic literature seems overdue. Thus, we aimed to consolidate the existing literature and provide recommendations for future research.

The development of sport psychology

The history of sport psychology dates back nearly 200 years. Terry [ 1 ] cites Carl Friedrich Koch’s (1830) publication titled [in translation] Calisthenics from the Viewpoint of Dietetics and Psychology [ 2 ] as perhaps the earliest publication in the field, and multiple commentators have noted that sport psychology experiments occurred in the world’s first psychology laboratory, established by Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig in 1879 [ 1 , 3 ]. Konrad Rieger’s research on hypnosis and muscular endurance, published in 1884 [ 4 ] and Angelo Mosso’s investigations of the effects of mental fatigue on physical performance, published in 1891 [ 5 ] were other early landmarks in the development of applied sport psychology research. Following the efforts of Koch, Wundt, Rieger, and Mosso, sport psychology works appeared with increasing regularity, including Philippe Tissié’s publications in 1894 [ 6 , 7 ] on psychology and physical training, and Pierre de Coubertin’s first use of the term sport psychology in his La Psychologie du Sport paper in 1900 [ 8 ]. In short, the history of sport psychology and performance research began as early as 1830 and picked up pace in the latter part of the 19 th century. Early pioneers, who helped shape sport psychology include Wundt, recognized as the “father of experimental psychology”, Tissié, the founder of French physical education and Legion of Honor awardee in 1932, and de Coubertin who became the father of the modern Olympic movement and founder of the International Olympic Committee.

Sport psychology flourished in the early 20 th century [see 1, 3 for extensive historic details]. For instance, independent laboratories emerged in Berlin, Germany, established by Carl Diem in 1920; in St. Petersburg and Moscow, Russia, established respectively by Avksenty Puni and Piotr Roudik in 1925; and in Champaign, Illinois USA, established by Coleman Griffith, also in 1925. The period from 1950–1980 saw rapid strides in sport psychology, with Franklin Henry establishing this field of study as independent of physical education in the landscape of American and eventually global sport science and kinesiology graduate programs [ 1 ]. In addition, of great importance in the 1960s, three international sport psychology organizations were established: namely, the International Society for Sport Psychology (1965), the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (1966), and the European Federation of Sport Psychology (1969). Since that time, the Association of Applied Sport Psychology (1986), the South American Society for Sport Psychology (1986), and the Asian-South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology (1989) have also been established.

The global growth in academic sport psychology has seen a large number of specialist publications launched, including the following journals: International Journal of Sport Psychology (1970), Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (1979), The Sport Psychologist (1987), Journal of Applied Sport Psychology (1989), Psychology of Sport and Exercise (2000), International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology (2003), Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology (2007), International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology (2008), Journal of Sport Psychology in Action (2010), Sport , Exercise , and Performance Psychology (2014), and the Asian Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology (2021).

In turn, the growth in journal outlets has seen sport psychology publications burgeon. Indicative of the scale of the contemporary literature on sport psychology, searches completed in May 2021 within the Web of Science Core Collection, identified 1,415 publications on goal setting and sport since 1985; 5,303 publications on confidence and sport since 1961; and 3,421 publications on anxiety and sport since 1980. In addition to academic journals, several comprehensive edited textbooks have been produced detailing sport psychology developments across the world, such as Hanrahan and Andersen’s (2010) Handbook of Applied Sport Psychology [ 9 ], Schinke, McGannon, and Smith’s (2016) International Handbook of Sport Psychology [ 10 ], and Bertollo, Filho, and Terry’s (2021) Advancements in Mental Skills Training [ 11 ] to name just a few. In short, sport psychology is global in both academic study and professional practice.

Meta-analysis in sport psychology

Several meta-analysis guides, computer programs, and sport psychology domain-specific primers have been popularized in the social sciences [ 12 , 13 ]. Sport psychology academics have conducted quantitative reviews on much studied constructs since the 1980s, with the first two appearing in 1983 in the form of Feltz and Landers’ meta-analysis on mental practice [ 14 ], which included 98 articles dating from 1934, and Bond and Titus’ cross-disciplinary meta-analysis on social facilitation [ 15 ], which summarized 241 studies including Triplett’s (1898) often-cited study of social facilitation in cycling [ 16 ]. Although much meta-analytic evidence exists for various constructs in sport and exercise psychology [ 12 ] including several related to performance [ 17 ], the evidence is inconsistent. For example, two meta-analyses, both ostensibly summarizing evidence of the benefits to performance of task cohesion [ 18 , 19 ], produced very different mean effects ( d = .24 vs d = 1.00) indicating that the true benefit lies somewhere in a wide range from small to large. Thus, the lack of a reliable evidence base for the use of sport psychology techniques represents a significant gap in the knowledge base for practitioners and researchers alike. A comprehensive systematic review of all published meta-analyses in the field of sport psychology has yet to be published.

Purpose and aim

We consider this review to be both necessary and long overdue for the following reasons: (a) the extensive history of sport psychology and performance research; (b) the prior publication of many meta-analyses summarizing various aspects of sport psychology research in a piecemeal fashion [ 12 , 17 ] but not its totality; and (c) the importance of better understanding and hopefully improving sport performance via the use of interventions based on solid evidence of their efficacy. Hence, we aimed to collate and evaluate this literature in a systematic way to gain improved understanding of the impact of sport psychology variables on sport performance by construct, research design, and meta-analysis quality, to enhance practical knowledge of sport psychology techniques and identify future lines of research inquiry. By systematically reviewing all identifiable meta-analytic reviews linking sport psychology techniques with sport performance, we aimed to evaluate the strength of the evidence base underpinning sport psychology interventions.

Materials and methods

This systematic review of meta-analyses followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 20 ]. We did not register our systematic review protocol in a database. However, we specified our search strategy, inclusion criteria, data extraction, and data analyses in advance of writing our manuscript. All details of our work are available from the lead author. Concerning ethics, this systematic review received a waiver from Texas Tech University Human Subject Review Board as it concerned archival data (i.e., published meta-analyses).

Eligibility criteria

Published meta-analyses were retained for extensive examination if they met the following inclusion criteria: (a) included meta-analytic data such as mean group, between or within-group differences or correlates; (b) published prior to January 31, 2021; (c) published in a peer-reviewed journal; (d) investigated a recognized sport psychology construct; and (e) meta-analyzed data concerned with sport performance. There was no language of publication restriction. To align with our systematic review objectives, we gave much consideration to study participants and performance outcomes. Across multiple checks, all authors confirmed study eligibility. Three authors (ML, AL, and PT) completed the final inclusion assessments.

Information sources

Authors searched electronic databases, personal meta-analysis history, and checked with personal research contacts. Electronic database searches occurred in EBSCOhost with the following individual databases selected: APA PsycINFO, ERIC, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, and SPORTDiscus. An initial search concluded October 1, 2020. ML, AL, and PT rechecked the identified studies during the February–March, 2021 period, which resulted in the identification of two additional meta-analyses [ 21 , 22 ].

Search protocol

ML and ES initially conducted independent database searches. For the first search, ML used the following search terms: sport psychology with meta-analysis or quantitative review and sport and performance or sport* performance. For the second search, ES utilized a sport psychology textbook and used the chapter title terms (e.g., goal setting). In EBSCOhost, both searches used the advanced search option that provided three separate boxes for search terms such as box 1 (sport psychology), box 2 (meta-analysis), and box 3 (performance). Specific details of our search strategy were:

Search by ML:

• sport psychology, meta-analysis, sport and performance
• sport psychology, meta-analysis or quantitative review, sport* performance
• sport psychology, quantitative review, sport and performance
• sport psychology, quantitative review, sport* performance

Search by ES:

• mental practice or mental imagery or mental rehearsal and sports performance and meta-analysis
• goal setting and sports performance and meta-analysis
• anxiety and stress and sports performance and meta-analysis
• competition and sports performance and meta-analysis
• diversity and sports performance and meta-analysis
• cohesion and sports performance and meta-analysis
• imagery and sports performance and meta-analysis
• self-confidence and sports performance and meta-analysis
• concentration and sports performance and meta-analysis
• athletic injuries and sports performance and meta-analysis
• overtraining and sports performance and meta-analysis
• children and sports performance and meta-analysis

The following specific search of the EBSCOhost with SPORTDiscus, APA PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, and ERIC databases, returned six results from 2002–2020, of which three were included [ 18 , 19 , 23 ] and three were excluded because they were not meta-analyses.

• Box 1 cohesion
• Box 2 sports performance
• Box 3 meta-analysis

Study selection

As detailed in the PRISMA flow chart ( Fig 1 ) and the specified inclusion criteria, a thorough study selection process was used. As mentioned in the search protocol, two authors (ML and ES) engaged independently with two separate searches and then worked together to verify the selected studies. Next, AL and PT examined the selected study list for accuracy. ML, AL, and PT, whilst rating the quality of included meta-analyses, also re-examined all selected studies to verify that each met the predetermined study inclusion criteria. Throughout the study selection process, disagreements were resolved through discussion until consensus was reached.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.g001

Data extraction process

Initially, ML, TH, and ES extracted data items 1, 2, 3 and 8 (see Data items). Subsequently, ML, AL, and PT extracted the remaining data (items 4–7, 9, 10). Checks occurred during the extraction process for potential discrepancies (e.g., checking the number of primary studies in a meta-analysis). It was unnecessary to contact any meta-analysis authors for missing information or clarification during the data extraction process because all studies reported the required information. Across the search for meta-analyses, all identified studies were reported in English. Thus, no translation software or searching out a native speaker occurred. All data extraction forms (e.g., data items and individual meta-analysis quality) are available from the first author.

To help address our main aim, we extracted the following information from each meta-analysis: (1) author(s); (2) publication year; (3) construct(s); (4) intervention based meta-analysis (yes, no, mix); (5) performance outcome(s) description; (6) number of studies for the performance outcomes; (7) participant description; (8) main findings; (9) bias correction method/results; and (10) author(s) stated conclusions. For all information sought, we coded missing information as not reported.

Individual meta-analysis quality

ML, AL, and PT independently rated the quality of individual meta-analysis on the following 25 points found in the PRISMA checklist [ 20 ]: title; abstract structured summary; introduction rationale, objectives, and protocol and registration; methods eligibility criteria, information sources, search, study selection, data collection process, data items, risk of bias of individual studies, summary measures, synthesis of results, and risk of bias across studies; results study selection, study characteristics, risk of bias within studies, results of individual studies, synthesis of results, and risk of bias across studies; discussion summary of evidence, limitations, and conclusions; and funding. All meta-analyses were rated for quality by two coders to facilitate inter-coder reliability checks, and the mean quality ratings were used in subsequent analyses. One author (PT), having completed his own ratings, received the incoming ratings from ML and AL and ran the inter-coder analysis. Two rounds of ratings occurred due to discrepancies for seven meta-analyses, mainly between ML and AL. As no objective quality categorizations (i.e., a point system for grouping meta-analyses as poor, medium, good) currently exist, each meta-analysis was allocated a quality score of up to a maximum of 25 points. All coding records are available upon request.

Planned methods of analysis

Several preplanned methods of analysis occurred. We first assessed the mean quality rating of each meta-analysis based on our 25-point PRISMA-based rating system. Next, we used a median split of quality ratings to determine whether standardized mean effects (SMDs) differed by the two formed categories, higher and lower quality meta-analyses. Meta-analysis authors reported either of two different effect size metrics (i.e., r and SMD); hence we converted all correlational effects to SMD (i.e., Cohen’s d ) values using an online effect size calculator ( www.polyu.edu.hk/mm/effectsizefaqs/calculator/calculator.html ). We interpreted the meaningfulness of effects based on Cohen’s interpretation [ 24 ] with 0.20 as small, 0.50 as medium, 0.80 as large, and 1.30 as very large. As some psychological variables associate negatively with performance (e.g., confusion [ 25 ], cognitive anxiety [ 26 ]) whereas others associate positively (e.g., cohesion [ 23 ], mental practice [ 14 ]), we grouped meta-analyses according to whether the hypothesized effect with performance was positive or negative, and summarized the overall effects separately. By doing so, we avoided a scenario whereby the demonstrated positive and negative effects canceled one another out when combined. The effect of somatic anxiety on performance, which is hypothesized to follow an inverted-U relationship, was categorized as neutral [ 35 ]. Last, we grouped the included meta-analyses according to whether the primary studies were correlational in nature or involved an intervention and summarized these two groups of meta-analyses separately.

Study characteristics

Table 1 contains extracted data from 30 meta-analyses meeting the inclusion criteria, dating from 1983 [ 14 ] to 2021 [ 21 ]. The number of primary studies within the meta-analyses ranged from three [ 27 ] to 109 [ 28 ]. In terms of the description of participants included in the meta-analyses, 13 included participants described simply as athletes, whereas other meta-analyses identified a mix of elite athletes (e.g., professional, Olympic), recreational athletes, college-aged volunteers (many from sport science departments), younger children to adolescents, and adult exercisers. Of the 30 included meta-analyses, the majority ( n = 18) were published since 2010. The decadal breakdown of meta-analyses was 1980–1989 ( n = 1 [ 14 ]), 1990–1999 ( n = 6 [ 29 – 34 ]), 2000–2009 ( n = 5 [ 23 , 25 , 26 , 35 , 36 ]), 2010–2019 ( n = 12 [ 18 , 19 , 22 , 27 , 37 – 43 , 48 ]), and 2020–2021 ( n = 6 [ 21 , 28 , 44 – 47 ]).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.t001

As for the constructs covered, we categorized the 30 meta-analyses into the following areas: mental practice/imagery [ 14 , 29 , 30 , 42 , 46 , 47 ], anxiety [ 26 , 31 , 32 , 35 ], confidence [ 26 , 35 , 36 ], cohesion [ 18 , 19 , 23 ], goal orientation [ 22 , 44 , 48 ], mood [ 21 , 25 , 34 ], emotional intelligence [ 40 ], goal setting [ 33 ], interventions [ 37 ], mindfulness [ 27 ], music [ 28 ], neurofeedback training [ 43 ], perfectionism [ 39 ], pressure training [ 45 ], quiet eye training [ 41 ], and self-talk [ 38 ]. Multiple effects were generated from meta-analyses that included more than one construct (e.g., tension, depression, etc. [ 21 ]; anxiety and confidence [ 26 ]). In relation to whether the meta-analyses included in our review assessed the effects of a sport psychology intervention on performance or relationships between psychological constructs and performance, 13 were intervention-based, 14 were correlational, two included a mix of study types, and one included a large majority of cross-sectional studies ( Table 1 ).

A wide variety of performance outcomes across many sports was evident, such as golf putting, dart throwing, maximal strength, and juggling; or categorical outcomes such as win/loss and Olympic team selection. Given the extensive list of performance outcomes and the incomplete descriptions provided in some meta-analyses, a clear categorization or count of performance types was not possible. Sufficient to conclude, researchers utilized many performance outcomes across a wide range of team and individual sports, motor skills, and strength and aerobic tasks.

Effect size data and bias correction

To best summarize the effects, we transformed all correlations to SMD values (i.e., Cohen’s d ). Across all included meta-analyses shown in Table 2 and depicted in Fig 2 , we identified 61 effects. Having corrected for bias, effect size values were assessed for meaningfulness [ 24 ], which resulted in 15 categorized as negligible (< ±0.20), 29 as small (±0.20 to < 0.50), 13 as moderate (±0.50 to < 0.80), 2 as large (±0.80 to < 1.30), and 1 as very large (≥ 1.30).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.g002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.t002

Study quality rating results and summary analyses

Following our PRISMA quality ratings, intercoder reliability coefficients were initially .83 (ML, AL), .95 (ML, PT), and .90 (AL, PT), with a mean intercoder reliability coefficient of .89. To achieve improved reliability (i.e., r mean > .90), ML and AL re-examined their ratings. As a result, intercoder reliability increased to .98 (ML, AL), .96 (ML, PT), and .92 (AL, PT); a mean intercoder reliability coefficient of .95. Final quality ratings (i.e., the mean of two coders) ranged from 13 to 25 ( M = 19.03 ± 4.15). Our median split into higher ( M = 22.83 ± 1.08, range 21.5–25, n = 15) and lower ( M = 15.47 ± 2.42, range 13–20.5, n = 15) quality groups produced significant between-group differences in quality ( F 1,28 = 115.62, p < .001); hence, the median split met our intended purpose. The higher quality group of meta-analyses were published from 2015–2021 (median 2018) and the lower quality group from 1983–2014 (median 2000). It appears that meta-analysis standards have risen over the years since the PRISMA criteria were first introduced in 2009. All data for our analyses are shown in Table 2 .

Table 3 contains summary statistics with bias-corrected values used in the analyses. The overall mean effect for sport psychology constructs hypothesized to have a positive impact on performance was of moderate magnitude ( d = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.42, 0.58, n = 36). The overall mean effect for sport psychology constructs hypothesized to have a negative impact on performance was small in magnitude ( d = -0.21, 95% CI -0.31, -0.11, n = 24). In both instances, effects were larger, although not significantly so, among meta-analyses of higher quality compared to those of lower quality. Similarly, mean effects were larger but not significantly so, where reported effects in the original studies were based on interventional rather than correlational designs. This trend only applied to hypothesized positive effects because none of the original studies in the meta-analyses related to hypothesized negative effects used interventional designs.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.t003

In this systematic review of meta-analyses, we synthesized the available evidence regarding effects of sport psychology interventions/constructs on sport performance. We aimed to consolidate the literature, evaluate the potential for meta-analysis quality to influence the results, and suggest recommendations for future research at both the single study and quantitative review stages. During the systematic review process, several meta-analysis characteristics came to light, such as the number of meta-analyses of sport psychology interventions (experimental designs) compared to those summarizing the effects of psychological constructs (correlation designs) on performance, the number of meta-analyses with exclusively athletes as participants, and constructs featuring in multiple meta-analyses, some of which (e.g., cohesion) produced very different effect size values. Thus, although our overall aim was to evaluate the strength of the evidence base for use of psychological interventions in sport, we also discuss the impact of these meta-analysis characteristics on the reliability of the evidence.

When seen collectively, results of our review are supportive of using sport psychology techniques to help improve performance and confirm that variations in psychological constructs relate to variations in performance. For constructs hypothesized to have a positive effect on performance, the mean effect strength was moderate ( d = 0.51) although there was substantial variation between constructs. For example, the beneficial effects on performance of task cohesion ( d = 1.00) and self-efficacy ( d = 0.82) are large, and the available evidence base for use of mindfulness interventions suggests a very large beneficial effect on performance ( d = 1.35). Conversely, some hypothetically beneficial effects (2 of 36; 5.6%) were in the negligible-to-small range (0.15–0.20) and most beneficial effects (19 of 36; 52.8%) were in the small-to-moderate range (0.22–0.49). It should be noted that in the world of sport, especially at the elite level, even a small beneficial effect on performance derived from a psychological intervention may prove the difference between success and failure and hence small effects may be of great practical value. To put the scale of the benefits into perspective, an authoritative and extensively cited review of healthy eating and physical activity interventions [ 49 ] produced an overall pooled effect size of 0.31 (compared to 0.51 for our study), suggesting sport psychology interventions designed to improve performance are generally more effective than interventions designed to promote healthy living.

Among hypothetically negative effects (e.g., ego climate, cognitive anxiety, depression), the mean detrimental effect was small ( d = -0.21) although again substantial variation among constructs was evident. Some hypothetically negative constructs (5 of 24; 20.8%) were found to actually provide benefits to performance, albeit in the negligible range (0.02–0.12) and only two constructs (8.3%), both from Lochbaum and colleagues’ POMS meta-analysis [ 21 ], were shown to negatively affect performance above a moderate level (depression: d = -0.64; total mood disturbance, which incorporates the depression subscale: d = -0.84). Readers should note that the POMS and its derivatives assess six specific mood dimensions rather than the mood construct more broadly, and therefore results should not be extrapolated to other dimensions of mood [ 50 ].

Mean effects were larger among higher quality than lower quality meta-analyses for both hypothetically positive ( d = 0.54 vs d = 0.45) and negative effects ( d = -0.25 vs d = 0.17), but in neither case were the differences significant. It is reasonable to assume that the true effects were derived from the higher quality meta-analyses, although our conclusions remain the same regardless of study quality. Overall, our findings provide a more rigorous evidence base for the use of sport psychology techniques by practitioners than was previously available, representing a significant contribution to knowledge. Moreover, our systematic scrutiny of 30 meta-analyses published between 1983 and 2021 has facilitated a series of recommendations to improve the quality of future investigations in the sport psychology area.

Recommendations

The development of sport psychology as an academic discipline and area of professional practice relies on using evidence and theory to guide practice. Hence, a strong evidence base for the applied work of sport psychologists is of paramount importance. Although the beneficial effects of some sport psychology techniques are small, it is important to note the larger performance benefits for other techniques, which may be extremely meaningful for applied practice. Overall, however, especially given the heterogeneity of the observed effects, it would be wise for applied practitioners to avoid overpromising the benefits of sport psychology services to clients and perhaps underdelivering as a result [ 1 ].

The results of our systematic review can be used to generate recommendations for how the profession might conduct improved research to better inform applied practice. Much of the early research in sport psychology was exploratory and potential moderating variables were not always sufficiently controlled. Terry [ 51 ] outlined this in relation to the study of mood-performance relationships, identifying that physical and skills factors will very likely exert a greater influence on performance than psychological factors. Further, type of sport (e.g., individual vs. team), duration of activity (e.g., short vs. long duration), level of competition (e.g., elite vs. recreational), and performance measure (e.g., norm-referenced vs. self-referenced) have all been implicated as potential moderators of the relationship between psychological variables and sport performance [ 51 ]. To detect the relatively subtle effects of psychological effects on performance, research designs need to be sufficiently sensitive to such potential confounds. Several specific methodological issues are worth discussing.

The first issue relates to measurement. Investigating the strength of a relationship requires the measured variables to be valid, accurate and reliable. Psychological variables in the meta-analyses we reviewed relied primarily on self-report outcome measures. The accuracy of self-report data requires detailed inner knowledge of thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Research shows that the accuracy of self-report information is subject to substantial individual differences [ 52 , 53 ]. Therefore, self-report data, at best, are an estimate of the measure. Measurement issues are especially relevant to the assessment of performance, and considerable measurement variation was evident between meta-analyses. Some performance measures were more sensitive, especially those assessing physical performance relative to what is normal for the individual performer (i.e., self-referenced performance). Hence, having multiple baseline indicators of performance increases the probability of identifying genuine performance enhancement derived from a psychological intervention [ 54 ].

A second issue relates to clarifying the rationale for how and why specific psychological variables might influence performance. A comprehensive review of prerequisites and precursors of athletic talent [ 55 ] concluded that the superiority of Olympic champions over other elite athletes is determined in part by a range of psychological variables, including high intrinsic motivation, determination, dedication, persistence, and creativity, thereby identifying performance-related variables that might benefit from a psychological intervention. Identifying variables that influence the effectiveness of interventions is a challenging but essential issue for researchers seeking to control and assess factors that might influence results [ 49 ]. A key part of this process is to use theory to propose the mechanism(s) by which an intervention might affect performance and to hypothesize how large the effect might be.

A third issue relates to the characteristics of the research participants involved. Out of convenience, it is not uncommon for researchers to use undergraduate student participants for research projects, which may bias results and restrict the generalization of findings to the population of primary interest, often elite athletes. The level of training and physical conditioning of participants will clearly influence their performance. Highly trained athletes will typically make smaller gains in performance over time than novice athletes, due to a ceiling effect (i.e., they have less room for improvement). For example, consider runner A, who takes 20 minutes to run 5km one week but 19 minutes the next week, and Runner B who takes 30 minutes one week and 25 minutes the next. If we compare the two, Runner A runs faster than Runner B on both occasions, but Runner B improved more, so whose performance was better? If we also consider Runner C, a highly trained athlete with a personal best of 14 minutes, to run 1 minute quicker the following week would almost require a world record time, which is clearly unlikely. For this runner, an improvement of a few seconds would represent an excellent performance. Evidence shows that trained, highly motivated athletes may reach performance plateaus and as such are good candidates for psychological skills training. They are less likely to make performance gains due to increased training volume and therefore the impact of psychological skills interventions may emerge more clearly. Therefore, both test-retest and cross-sectional research designs should account for individual difference variables. Further, the range of individual difference factors will be context specific; for example, individual differences in strength will be more important in a study that uses weightlifting as the performance measure than one that uses darts as the performance measure, where individual differences in skill would be more important.

A fourth factor that has not been investigated extensively relates to the variables involved in learning sport psychology techniques. Techniques such as imagery, self-talk and goal setting all require cognitive processing and as such some people will learn them faster than others [ 56 ]. Further, some people are intuitive self-taught users of, for example, mood regulation strategies such as abdominal breathing or listening to music who, if recruited to participate in a study investigating the effects of learning such techniques on performance, would respond differently to novice users. Hence, a major challenge when testing the effects of a psychological intervention is to establish suitable controls. A traditional non-treatment group offers one option, but such an approach does not consider the influence of belief effects (i.e., placebo/nocebo), which can either add or detract from the effectiveness of performance interventions [ 57 ]. If an individual believes that, an intervention will be effective, this provides a motivating effect for engagement and so performance may improve via increased effort rather than the effect of the intervention per se.

When there are positive beliefs that an intervention will work, it becomes important to distinguish belief effects from the proposed mechanism through which the intervention should be successful. Research has shown that field studies often report larger effects than laboratory studies, a finding attributed to higher motivation among participants in field studies [ 58 ]. If participants are motivated to improve, being part of an active training condition should be associated with improved performance regardless of any intervention. In a large online study of over 44,000 participants, active training in sport psychology interventions was associated with improved performance, but only marginally more than for an active control condition [ 59 ]. The study involved 4-time Olympic champion Michael Johnson narrating both the intervention and active control using motivational encouragement in both conditions. Researchers should establish not only the expected size of an effect but also to specify and assess why the intervention worked. Where researchers report performance improvement, it is fundamental to explain the proposed mechanism by which performance was enhanced and to test the extent to which the improvement can be explained by the proposed mechanism(s).

Limitations

Systematic reviews are inherently limited by the quality of the primary studies included. Our review was also limited by the quality of the meta-analyses that had summarized the primary studies. We identified the following specific limitations; (1) only 12 meta-analyses summarized primary studies that were exclusively intervention-based, (2) the lack of detail regarding control groups in the intervention meta-analyses, (3) cross-sectional and correlation-based meta-analyses by definition do not test causation, and therefore provide limited direct evidence of the efficacy of interventions, (4) the extensive array of performance measures even within a single meta-analysis, (5) the absence of mechanistic explanations for the observed effects, and (6) an absence of detail across intervention-based meta-analyses regarding number of sessions, participants’ motivation to participate, level of expertise, and how the intervention was delivered. To ameliorate these concerns, we included a quality rating for all included meta-analyses. Having created higher and lower quality groups using a median split of quality ratings, we showed that effects were larger, although not significantly so, in the higher quality group of meta-analyses, all of which were published since 2015.

Conclusions

Journals are full of studies that investigate relationships between psychological variables and sport performance. Since 1983, researchers have utilized meta-analytic methods to summarize these single studies, and the pace is accelerating, with six relevant meta-analyses published since 2020. Unquestionably, sport psychology and performance research is fraught with limitations related to unsophisticated experimental designs. In our aggregation of the effect size values, most were small-to-moderate in meaningfulness with a handful of large values. Whether these moderate and large values could be replicated using more sophisticated research designs is unknown. We encourage use of improved research designs, at the minimum the use of control conditions. Likewise, we encourage researchers to adhere to meta-analytic guidelines such as PRISMA and for journals to insist on such adherence as a prerequisite for the acceptance of reviews. Although such guidelines can appear as a ‘painting by numbers’ approach, while reviewing the meta-analyses, we encountered difficulty in assessing and finding pertinent information for our study characteristics and quality ratings. In conclusion, much research exists in the form of quantitative reviews of studies published since 1934, almost 100 years after the very first publication about sport psychology and performance [ 2 ]. Sport psychology is now truly global in terms of academic pursuits and professional practice and the need for best practice information plus a strong evidence base for the efficacy of interventions is paramount. We should strive as a profession to research and provide best practices to athletes and the general community of those seeking performance improvements.

Supporting information

S1 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263408.s001

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the work of all academics since Koch in 1830 [ 2 ] for their efforts to research and promote the practice of applied sport psychology.

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Revisiting Early Sport Specialization: What’s the Problem?

Alexandra mosher , ma, kevin till , phd, jessica fraser-thomas , phd, joseph baker , phd.

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Alexandra Mosher, MA, York University, 341 Bethune College, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, M3J1P3, Canada (email: [email protected] ) (Twitter: @SandyMosher).

Collection date 2022 Jan-Feb.

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page ( https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage ).

The assumed risks of early specialization in sport are well known, with several international consensus statements advising against specialization in early athlete development. However, there have been recent calls for more focused research in this area.

Evidence Acquisition:

Research evidence from several scientific disciplines (eg, sport psychology, sports medicine, human development) were synthesized to develop a framework for practitioners working with adolescent athletes.

Study Design:

Narrative review.

Level of Evidence:

There appear to be risks associated with a highly specialized approach to athlete training, but the mechanisms driving these effects are largely unknown. Greater attention to understanding these mechanisms would help mitigate risk and develop stronger policy for athlete development. Recommendations for program modifications are provided.

Conclusion:

Early specialization remains an important topic for researchers and practitioners working with youth and adolescent athletes. However, more work needs to be done to provide truly evidence-based recommendations for youth athlete training.

Keywords: adolescents, training, athlete development, specialization

It appears early specialization is increasing among athletes, presumably due largely to the changing nature of youth sport participation and the professionalization of youth sport. 11 , 33 Interestingly, there is no consistent definition of sport specialization. One of the earliest posited definitions described sport specialization as year-round training in a single sport at the exclusion of other sport or nonsport activities. 80 While there is some variation, researchers have found that the average age of sports specialization for elite athletes is about 14 years 10 , 13 , 70 and is therefore during a crucial stage in human development—early adolescence. According to the World Health Organization, adolescence occurs between 10 and 19 years of age and is the transition period from childhood to adulthood. 82 Although the age at which this life stage occurs can vary by sex (ie, girls typically reach it earlier than boys), in sport, early adolescence is usually marked by an increase in the volume of sport (ie, training and competition), and an increased pressure to specialize to become an elite athlete. 78

The notion that earlier specialization increases the likelihood of eventually achieving elite sport performance mainly comes from research using the “deliberate practice framework.” 22 As the name suggests, this framework emphasizes the time spent in training and proposes a monotonic relationship between hours spent engaging in effortful, domain-specific (ie, sport-specific) “deliberate practice” and performance. Even more relevant to the concept of early specialization, Ericsson et al 22 suggested (1) the sooner one began deliberate practice, the sooner one would reach a high level of performance and (2) those who started deliberate practice later would not be able to reach the same level of performance as their earlier starting peers.

Despite support for other elements of this framework (eg, the positive relationship between overall time spent in training and eventual level of attainment, and the importance of domain specificity, see Young et al, 83 for a recent review), there is a growing body of evidence suggesting early specialization is not a prerequisite for elite level attainment in sport. 10 , 13 , 30 , 57 Furthermore, early specialization among youth athletes is linked to negative consequences. 31 , 37 , 43 One of the main concerns of early specialization relates to injuries. Athletes who are highly specialized are at greater risk of serious overuse injuries 31 and are more likely to report a previous overuse injury. 6 In addition to these types of negative physical outcomes, there is also concern about negative effects on psychological outcomes. For example, early specialization is associated with psychological needs dissatisfaction 44 and emotional exhaustion. 68 Although there have been a number of consensus statements and recommendations about the dangers of early specialization, 11 , 18 , 37 the relationship between early specialization as a behavior and these negative consequences is poorly understood. 4

There are likely several reasons for this disconnect in understanding. First, there is a surprising lack of research on this topic of early specialization, given its prominence in discussions of youth sport and athlete development. A recent systematic review, 45 including both empirical and nonempirical peer-reviewed papers, found that much of the literature was recirculated information in the form of commentaries and editorials. While there is value in expert opinion and summaries of previous literature, in order for the field to advance, there is a clear need for more criticality and data driven research. Of the data-driven articles, only 48 were aimed at advancing understanding of specialization in sport, and of those, only 25 examined “early” specialization.

One of the main concerns of early specialization is the outcome of overuse injuries, yet 2 separate systematic reviews and meta-analyses 5 , 14 specifically evaluating specialization and overuse injury included only 5 and 6 studies, respectively. In a broader review of several aspects of specialization (eg, number of sports, months per year and hours per week of involvement, multiple team participation) and injury, only 12 studies were included. In addition to the lack of research related to specialization and injury, some have suggested that there are “substantial gaps in the scientific literature regarding the effect of specialization on motor control development, sport performance, musculoskeletal injury risk, psychosocial outcomes, burnout, attrition, and optimal strategies for youth athletes’ training and development in specific sports.” 33 This lack of research across the field leads to a lack of understanding of specialization as a whole.

A second factor contributing to poor understanding of early specialization and potential negative consequences is the lack of a clear and consistent definition of specialization. A systematic review by Mosher et al 45 reported a range of inconsistencies in the definitions and components used for specialization. While time spent in deliberate practice has often been suggested to be the underpinning rationale for specialization, Mosher et al 45 found that only 9% of studies included elements of practice in their definition of specialization. Additionally, 17% of studies failed to define specialization altogether. 45 This corroborates a 2019 review that found only 32.5% of studies operationally defined specialization. 19 Early sport specialization becomes even more difficult to define as the parameters for “early” are arbitrary and change depending on both the sport and researcher. In previous work, some of these parameters have included (1) 12 years of age or earlier, 15 , 70 (2) before 15 years of age, 60 (3) before high school, 81 and (4) as old as 23 years of age (in a sample of marathon runners. 49 Recently, a group of researchers formed a Delphi panel and came to a consensus definition of specialization as intentional and focused participation in a single sport for the majority of the year that restricts opportunities for engagement in other sports and activities. 8 While this is a more encompassing definition, whether it is accepted and widely used in the field remains to be seen. Until there is a concrete definition of the concept of specialization, researchers will continue to struggle to fully understand these relationships. 71

Collectively, these first 2 factors lead to the third and arguably most substantial limitation to our understanding of the relationships between specialization and negative consequences, a lack of knowledge regarding the mechanisms underpinning these relationships. In a 2009 review of the literature, Baker et al 3 attempted to explain the mechanisms behind specialization by suggesting a range of potential factors. Unfortunately, despite the authors’ recommendations for future research that would better explain this connection, current research has taken to using a blanket construct of “specialization” that is both inconsistently defined and unreliably measured. This has led to (1) an inability to draw cause-and-effect relationships between specialization and negative consequences and (2) an inability to design optimal training and development environments.

While these issues have clear implications for researchers, their relevance for practitioners is even more important. Practitioners are warned to advise parents and athletes against the practice of specialization without understanding why or how it should be avoided. In a multidisciplinary review that provided a broad picture of the empirical research performed on the topic of specialization, DiSanti et al 19 summarized the work and conclusions in this area but did not provide possible explanations for these associations. As highlighted in a recent editorial by Baker et al, 4 “We need greater attention to the mechanisms driving any negative effects. What is it about specialization that leads to negative outcomes?” Commentaries, editorials, and reviews are regularly added to the literature on specialization, but few extend our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning these negative specialization effects. Without this understanding of the processes by which these negative events occur, practitioners, parents, and other stakeholders cannot design healthy training environments to buffer against the mechanisms.

A Framework for Exploring Early Specialization in Sport

In an effort to move the discussion forward, in this section, we use the existing literature on specialization to provide a framework for future work exploring these mechanisms ( Figure 1 ).

A framework for exploring early specialization in sport. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the basic building blocks of advanced movement that occurs later in athlete development.

Antecedent Conditions

The model begins with establishing that early specialization does not happen in a vacuum. There are several antecedent conditions that promote its occurrence, which we have divided into those that have a close relationship with the athlete ( near influences ) and those occurring more distally ( far influences ). First, athlete-specific characteristics such as personality or motivation are near influences that may promote a more specialized focus during adolescence. For instance, athletes with high levels of passion 75 or commitment 63 may have a more focused engagement profile than those with lower scores on these measures. Moreover, social pressure from significant others such as peers, parents, or coaches could exert powerful influences on the decision to specialize in a single sport (eg, to be with key peers, to please valued coaches or parents).

In addition to these proximal variables, there are a number of more distal social and sport-related factors that can influence the likelihood of specialization. For example, one system limitation might be when sport funding comes from the number of enrollments in a program, resulting in programs being cautious of athletes participating in other sports. In many national sporting systems, sports are largely “siloed” and losing athletes (ie, to another sport) has significant repercussions for the short- and long-term success of the program. As a result, these sports may create additional training programs to complete in the off season to maintain athletes’ engagement within this one sport. Finally, the sociocultural factors associated with specific sports can promote more specialized engagement as the norm, seen most obviously in sports commonly referred to as “early specialization sports” such as gymnastics, figure skating, and diving. Surprisingly, there has been relatively little exploration of how these antecedents (and others) promote early specialization. As we note later in the paper, understanding the conditions from which a specialized athlete emerges could be valuable for understanding the most appropriate response. It is to this understanding of mechanisms and responses that we turn next.

Consequences and Mechanisms

Based on prior work, we have noted 3 main categories of consequences associated with early sport specialization, although it is possible others will emerge after more research attention to the mechanisms driving these effects. The first category deals with the increased injury risk that is regularly noted as a negative outcome of specialization. 7 , 31 Presumably, these increased risks are associated with inappropriate training loads leading to overuse injuries. 21 Some have also noted that increased injury risk could come from the lack of foundational, or so-called “fundamental” movement skills. The implication here is that specialized involvement does not provide athletes with the same broad exposure to movement opportunities, which ultimately limits their experiential foundation and increases injury risk.

In addition to the obvious ill effects of chronic injuries on athletes’ physical development, other areas of development have been negatively associated with early specialization. For instance, early studies have suggested participation in intensive training with limited engagement with peers during early development can limit the acquisition of social skills (see Baker et al 3 for a review). Importantly, much of this work needs to be replicated in contemporary samples. There are also links between negative psychological indicators such as eating disorders and early specialization sports, 35 , 69 although this relationship may reflect elements related to the aesthetic component of these sports, rather than being a direct consequence of specialization per se. Additionally, it has been suggested that patterns of specialization are associated with burnout and/or dropout from one’s primary sport. 25 , 68 However, more recent research has refuted this claim, finding no direct link between indicators of early specialization and burnout or dropout, suggesting instead meditating effects of enjoyment, competency, and autonomy. 38 The hypothesized mechanisms driving these negative developmental effects seem to be related to the lack of opportunities to develop “normal” skills for social, emotional, and psychological coping.

The final category of consequences, and the one that has had the greatest degree of discourse, relates to skill acquisition . On one hand, in the past, some researchers 16 have argued that specialized forms of engagement compromise long-term skill acquisition by undermining intrinsic forms of motivation and enjoyment. On the other hand, others (eg, Ericsson et al 22 ) have noted the specificity of training-related adaptations and the relationship between deliberate practice and attainment, which seemingly justifies the need for starting focused, specific training, as early as possible. The relationship between time spent in practice and improvement/attainment is well established in other domains (eg, chess; see Ericsson et al 22 and Newell and Rosenbloom 48 ), although the requirement of an early start age in sport seems questionable. 12 , 42 From a skill acquisition perspective, the impacts from early specialization have the potential to be both positive (more time on task, promoting specific performance-related adaptations) and negative (imbalance between the developmental needs of the athlete leading to injury). Much of the debate about the value of early specialization as it relates to skill acquisition comes from the inability to reconcile these potentialities.

In the next section, we propose a range of solutions for practitioners working with young athletes to try to accommodate the risks and mechanisms that may be related to negative effects from early specialization. However, it is important to emphasize some of the limitations of this evidence base as a way of stimulating further work. For instance, most of these studies are done with small samples, some quite dated, that have never been replicated or extended beyond the original study design. This is a significant issue in sport—particularly elite sport, where the developmental context is critical. Discourse in this area seems to have accepted these study findings at face value, without the normal pushing and prodding that the scientific method uses to both stabilize robust findings and eliminate elements that do not stand up to scrutiny. In the framework we have presented, there is a need for considerable additional work in all elements of the model.

Programs to Manage the Risks

As we suggest above, the negative consequences may not lie with early sport specialization alone but rather the design, implementation, and management of an early specialization program, similar to what has been proposed within talent identification and development systems. 55 From this perspective, managing and minimizing the negative consequences associated with early specialization involves developing practices to avoid triggering potential driving mechanisms. We propose 5 strategies for practitioners to consider to manage risks.

Establish an “Appropriate” Environment

Practitioners need to understand the potential risks and negative consequences associated with specialization during early adolescence. Alongside, understanding the risks and negative consequences, taking responsibility for the design and implementation of their program and establishing an appropriate environment focused on promoting positive and reducing negative health consequences is key. 71 To establish this, it is recommended the environment has clear values, expectations and day-to-day routines within the organization, which is the responsibility of all staff working with early specialization athletes.

To prevent negative physical consequences, practitioners must understand, place importance on and communicate the risks of early specialization to align day-to-day practices with minimizing such risks. For example, while athletes may specialize in sports, the environment can still support the development of a broad range of skills and experiences delivered in-house such as an integrative neuromuscular program (see below) and implementation of other activities (eg, within warm-ups). This can provide opportunities for the growth of fundamental movement skills while preventing overuse injuries. 47 To prevent negative psychosocial consequences, implementing an integrated approach focused on the personal, social, and physical youth development rather than sporting success alone would be beneficial. 26 Practitioners can do this by demonstrating a safe and caring environment where the person is the focus 17 , 74 rather than their athletic achievements. As mentioned previously, the process of skill acquisition is significantly affected by a loss of motivation and enjoyment. To prevent these negative consequences, creating autonomy-supportive, mastery-oriented, and positive climates can result in less stress, greater enjoyment and more intrinsic motivation. 77 , 79

Perhaps most important, avoiding the negative consequences associated with early specialization can be done by practitioners creating an environment that values the holistic development of their athletes (ie, technical, tactical, physical, psychological, social health, and performance). 73 This places greater importance on understanding developmental principles as they relate to children and young people, the influence of growth and maturity as well as the processes of emotional and social development. The key factor here is that development is individual focused. It is the practitioner’s responsibility to establish positive training and competitive environments, and to create relationships that focus on individual athletes’ needs in addition to the long-term objectives of performance, participation, and personal development. 76 In early adolescence especially, coaches should strive to create a challenging and enjoyable climate that focuses on development over competition and results. Moreover, other stakeholders are also important. The inclusion of parents, guardians, and supportive others can be a further strategy, acknowledging that implementation can be a challenge. 34 Sport organizations can develop interdisciplinary support teams with specific expertise across the sport sciences, including athletic development, injury, medical, psychological, and lifestyle factors (eg, nutrition). Finally, education of all stakeholders and athletes is vital for preventing negative consequence associated with early specialization, as well as other potential negative elements associated with youth sport participation.

Monitor and Evaluate Athletes

Having a clear approach to monitoring and evaluation can serve several purposes with adolescent athletes, including informing needs analysis and talent identification as well as evaluating the effectiveness of training programs. Furthermore, monitoring and evaluation tools could have additional value for managing athlete health during early adolescence, thereby minimizing risks of early specialization and/or the mechanisms associated with these effects over the short and longer term. 71 Several areas have been highlighted for establishing a monitoring and evaluation tool in adolescent athletes, including athlete wellness, 61 , 62 growth and maturation for measuring when the relative risk of injury may be increased or performance may be decreased, 32 , 41 training load and practices, including training diaries, to establish what the athlete is doing, 51 , 64 physical development, 46 recovery, 27 injury prevalence and mechanisms, 53 psychosocial factors, including burnout, 52 perfectionistic tendencies, 2 athletic identity, 1 and educational attainment. 54 , 56 The aforementioned list alone provides a large number of areas to monitor effectively, making this a challenge for all stakeholders. Therefore, an area for future work is the establishment of valid, reliable, and practically applicable tools that can be applied in such settings without becoming additional burdens.

Implement Integrative Neuromuscular Programs

Participation in organized sport alone does not ensure appropriate development of strength and other biomotor abilities. Therefore, the implementation of integrative neuromuscular training (see Fort-Vanmeerhaeghe et al 24 and Lloyd et al 39 ) is a strategy to manage the physical risks associated with early specialization. Integrative neuromuscular training is supplemental training incorporating general (eg, fundamental movements) and specific (eg, exercises targeted to motor control deficits) strength and conditioning activities (eg, resistance, dynamic stability, core focused strength, plyometric, and agility) that are designed to enhance health and skill-related components of physical fitness. 23 , 47 Integrative neuromuscular training programs allow the development of concepts of athleticism (ie, “the ability to repeatedly perform a range of movements with precision and confidence in a variety of environments, which require competent levels of motor skills, strength, power, speed, agility, balance, coordination, and endurance” 40 and are associated with enhanced athletic qualities and reductions in negative consequences, especially injury. Standardized integrative neuromuscular programs have been designed and implemented through specific warm-up protocols within some sports (eg, soccer, FIFA 11+, 58 , 59 rugby union, Activate program 28 , 29 ), which have seen injury reductions of up to 80%. However, successful implementation and compliance toward such programs requires coach, athlete and parent education and behavior to be successful, which can be difficult because of the rigidity and repetitive nature of these programs. 20 , 50 Instead, other coach education and practice frameworks have been presented (eg, RAMPAGE 72 ) to provide coaches with a greater degree of freedom in choosing activities within an overall framework while still emphasizing the importance of neuromuscular development. Overall, the implementation of integrative neuromuscular training is important for early specialization athletes during early adolescence to develop biomotor abilities and reduce injury risk.

Provide Psychological Skills Training

Because of some of the suggested negative psychological consequences associated with early specialization, providing psychological skills training to assist adolescent athletes in acquiring psychological strategies for coping, goal setting and managing multiple demands is important. 36 , 66 In alignment with other elements noted in the sections above, this recommendation positions athletes as key agents in navigating their sport experience. Providing them with coping skills, for example, may mitigate the negative effects of performance pressure, a characteristic often seen as being associated with early specialization.

Commitment to the psychological development of resilient and adaptable athletes characterized by mental capability and robustness, high self-regulation, and enduring personal excellence qualities, is critical. Furthermore, practitioners should encourage early specialization athletes to communicate honestly about how they are feeling and utilize other monitoring tools (see the Monitor and Evaluate Athletes section). Together, this information can be used to better understand the demands and stresses on athletes and potentially change training cultures in early specialization sports. Moreover, adopting this approach, where athletes feel more supported to share their feelings and concerns with coaches, parents, and peers, could be important for managing other emerging issues in high-performance sport (eg, mental health concerns 67 ).

Manage Training Practices

Programs, particularly during early adolescence, should focus on an appropriate sport-life balance. 9 The appropriate management of training practices, including frequency, volume, and intensity of training, alongside adequate rest and recovery, could be vital for minimizing the negative consequences of early specialization. This is important not only from both a physiological and psychological perspective to balance workload and recovery to maximize training adaptations and learning but also for providing opportunities for other priorities, including social time with family and friends, academic work, and enjoying other activities. Therefore, the careful planning of training (including a balance of technical, tactical, physical, and psychological development), competition, rest, and recovery, and the promotion of other key activities of youth development (eg, social activities) is vital to maximize positive and reduce negative consequences. However, research on key stakeholders (eg, parents) has shown limited understanding of these concepts. 7 Importantly, managing training volumes may be easier in early specialization athletes with fewer stakeholders (eg, coaches) than multisport athletes, a group that has been described as “organized chaos” because of the multiple stakeholders across multisports, -clubs, and -coaches. 65

In developing the above framework and recommendations, we wish to be very clear—we have many more questions than we do answers about the relationships between early specialization (and its varied definitions) and negative health and developmental outcomes. However, based on the limited existing empirical work, the various systematic and narrative reviews, as well as the editorials and position statements, we believe the framework provides a useful roadmap for future work. Furthermore, we believe the recommendations are useful guidelines given that they have general relevance for athlete development, training load management, and positive youth development generally, and happen to focus on what researchers and policy makers believe are the key factors associated with early specialization more specifically. Continued work in this area will help us refine these recommendations as causal links between behavior and effect emerge.

The consistent interest in this area provides good momentum for future work. However, we need to move beyond the simplistic correlational studies used in prior work to prospective and longitudinal designs that can track participation patterns and developmental effects in multivariate models. Moreover, having adequate comparison groups across the spectrum of participation (eg, including those with an extreme multisport participation) would extend our understanding of the optimal forms of participation for athlete skill acquisition as well as for positive and healthy development.

The authors report no potential conflicts of interest in the development and publication of this article.

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