need of cctv essay

Essay on CCTV Camera

Students are often asked to write an essay on CCTV Camera in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

What is a cctv camera.

A CCTV camera is a type of video camera used to watch places like schools, stores, and streets. It helps keep an eye on what’s happening to keep people and property safe. These cameras are connected to monitors or recording devices for viewing later.

Uses of CCTV Cameras

CCTV cameras are used for many things. They can help catch thieves, watch traffic, and keep places like airports secure. Sometimes, they are used in schools to make sure students stay safe and follow rules.

Benefits of CCTV Cameras

CCTV cameras make people feel safer. They can stop crimes from happening and help police solve crimes by providing video evidence. Also, just seeing a camera can make a bad person think twice before doing something wrong.

Concerns About CCTV Cameras

Some people worry about privacy with CCTV cameras. They feel uncomfortable being watched all the time. It’s important to use cameras wisely and protect people’s privacy while also keeping them safe.

Also check:

Advantages and Disadvantages of CCTV Camera

250 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

A CCTV camera is a special kind of camera used for keeping an eye on places like schools, stores, and homes. CCTV stands for Closed-Circuit Television. This means the camera sends its pictures only to certain places, not everywhere like regular TV. It helps people watch what’s happening without being there.

People use these cameras for many reasons. They help keep things safe by scaring away people who might steal or do bad things because they know the camera is watching. Cameras can also help solve crimes by showing what happened. In schools, they make sure kids are safe and not getting into trouble.

How They Work

CCTV cameras are put in places where people want to keep an eye on things. They are connected to screens in a security room where guards can see the pictures. Some cameras can move around to follow what’s happening, and others stay still. They can even work at night using a special light that lets you see in the dark.

Privacy Concerns

While these cameras are good for safety, some people worry about privacy. They feel uncomfortable being watched all the time. It’s important for those who use CCTV cameras to think about people’s privacy and only use cameras where it’s really needed.

In conclusion, CCTV cameras are important tools for keeping places safe and helping solve crimes. They need to be used carefully to make sure they help people without making them feel like they have no privacy.

500 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

A CCTV camera, which stands for Closed-Circuit Television camera, is a type of video camera used to capture images and videos for security purposes. Unlike regular television that broadcasts shows to the public, CCTV only shows its footage to a small number of monitors in a specific place. These cameras are often found in places like stores, banks, schools, and sometimes on the streets.

The Purpose of CCTV Cameras

The main job of a CCTV camera is to keep an eye on what’s happening in a place when no one is watching. They help to protect places from theft or damage by recording what goes on. If someone does something wrong, like stealing, the camera can capture this, and the video can be used by police to find the person. CCTV cameras also make people feel safer because they know someone is always watching out for them.

How CCTV Cameras Work

CCTV cameras are set up in the corners of rooms or outside buildings where they can see a lot of space. They are connected to a set of monitors and recorders through wires or wirelessly. Some cameras can move around to follow people or objects, and others stay still. They can record all day and night, and some even have night vision to see in the dark.

The Advantages of CCTV Cameras

One big advantage of CCTV cameras is that they can help stop crimes before they happen. When people know they are being watched, they are less likely to do something bad. The cameras also help to find and catch criminals after a crime has happened. This makes it easier for police to do their job. Furthermore, the footage from CCTV cameras can sometimes be used in court as evidence.

Another advantage is that they can help manage places better. For example, in a school, cameras can help teachers keep an eye on students to make sure they are safe and not breaking rules.

The Concerns About CCTV Cameras

Even though CCTV cameras have many benefits, some people worry about them too. They think about privacy – the idea that everyone has a right to be in their own space without being watched. People argue that too many cameras make it feel like they are always being watched, which can be uncomfortable.

The Future of CCTV Cameras

As technology gets better, CCTV cameras are becoming more advanced. They can now recognize faces and even read car number plates. In the future, we might see cameras that can spot when someone is acting strangely and could be about to do something bad. This could help stop crimes even faster.

CCTV cameras are a big part of keeping places safe. They help prevent crimes, catch people who break the law, and make people feel more secure. But it’s also important to make sure that they are used in a way that respects everyone’s privacy. As technology grows, it will be interesting to see how CCTV cameras change and how they will continue to play a role in our safety.

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Role of CCTV Cameras: Public, Privacy and Protection

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Many countries now employ surveillance cameras in public places as a primary tool to monitor population movements and to prevent crime and terrorism, both in the private and public sectors. Here, we assess the role CCTV cameras and video surveillance systems play in improving safety and security, as well as the myriad other functions that integrated AI and analytics software is now affording operators.

Closed circuit television (CCTV) is a system of video cameras, display devices and data networks that is used to detect and deter criminal activity. Video surveillance systems are used in public and private sectors, such as schools, homes or public spaces for crime prevention purposes.

Councils, law enforcement and security management professionals in the UK rely heavily on video surveillance as a tool to fight crime and prevent terrorism. It is now estimated that there are around 5.2 million CCTV cameras in the UK , with one camera for every 13 people – this number encompasses everything from public surveillance, through to private business operated cameras and even doorbell cameras. So chances are, there is cctv on your street.

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In the past decade, the capabilities of surveillance cameras have been transformed by fundamental shifts in how digital data is gathered, analysed, shared and stored. Security cameras are already playing a key role in the drive to smarter cities and the burgeoning industrial internet of things. Deep learning and AI is becoming more prevalent, as cameras are able to more accurately gather data and make predictions based on integrated analytical software manufacturers have developed. While the shift to a ‘smart home’ environment is also playing its role, as consumers have easier access than ever to easy-to-install wireless devices and doorbell cameras.

Perhaps this is no better demonstrated than via Surveillance Camera Commissioner, Tony Porter’s comments, at IFSEC International in 2019 . Tony highlighted how much had changed since he took on the role in 2014, with the growth of facial recognition, drones, body-worn cameras, analytics, GDPR and much more. Modern systems now have “phenomenal capabilities”, though these have created understandable misgivings about the risk for privacy and potential abuse such capabilities create. Porter therefore noted that the Home Office and surveillance industry must ensure only hardware and software compliant with relevant standards, such as Secure by Default , is installed in public and private spaces alike.

As an example of how things have progressed, take a look at this video from IFSEC Global, detailing key trends that came out of our 2021 video surveillance report.

Download the 2022 Video Surveillance Report Get the latest report on CCTV and video surveillance in 2022 by downloading this free report

The UK is recognised as a leading user of CCTV and the public are used to seeing CCTV cameras on virtually every high street. Such systems continue to enjoy general public support but they do involve intrusion into the lives of ordinary people as they go about their day to day business and can raise wider privacy concerns.

The potential value of public surveillance technology was well demonstrated all the way back in April, 2013 when investigators identified the two suspects in the Boston Marathon bombing after sifting through video images captured by the city’s cameras.

The Boston bombers were apprehended quickly due to surveillance cameras. While there is no dispute over how well the public cameras worked on that day, many lingering questions remain and will continue to drive debate for the foreseeable future.

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Who regulates and implements CCTV usage?

Who draws the line at what is public interest and just plain harassment when a camera is placed. What about the private camera placed on property with malicious intent? Who regulates the camera on private property? Yes, surveillance cameras are important to deter crimes, however it is important to note who is at the other end of the camera? Who really is watching you? Who ultimately views what the camera lens observes? Who decides when a privately owned security surveillance camera is poorly or maliciously aimed (when the camera is deliberately pointed into the windows of a private residence)?

Back in 2014, Delhi Metro CCTV footages were on YouTube and also at some questionable sites. Who owns responsibility for not misusing the data of public CCTV surveillance? In short – who decides and regulates? It is worth noting though, that it is illegal to record conversations between members of the public in the UK without a justifiable purpose.

Are privately owned, operated surveillance cameras to be treated the same way as public cameras? We also need to draw fine lines about ‘Who really is watching you’? ‘Who owns that camera anyway’? Big brother? The Corporates? Or harassing neighbour? Who draws the line between public interest and harassment? At the moment, nobody! The camera could legally do what a peeping tom could not do. They could peer inside of windows with the full protection of the law on their side. If a person was standing watching outside a window it could be a crime, yet the same person could place a surveillance camera then remotely view a person within the privacy of their home. Most importantly, it is not against the penal code.

Indeed, there is now the issue of facial recognition to think about. More and more vendors are now offering the technology as standard, but there is still much p ublic debate over the usage of automated facial recognition – particularly in relation to data capture and GDPR. Once a face has been captured and identified as a ‘non-threat’, how long should this image be held for? And whose responsibility is it to delete this from the system? Should this be a built-in solution from manufacturers, or should the operator make the decision? There are numerous cases of GDPR breaches among CCTV operators, as shown in an investigation in 2019 .

This debate will likely continue to maintain prominence, particularly with technology such as emotion recognition not far around the corner, it seems.

Currently in the UK, the Information Commissioner’s Office regulates much of the data privacy angle of the use of CCTV, while the Surveillance Camera Commissioner also has a role to play in how operators are using systems – particularly in relation to new technology such as automated facial recognition.

If you have nothing to hide, you have nothing to worry about…?

When you’re in a public space, you’re in the eye of the public. So what’s the difference in being watched by a closed circuit TV camera? Even if you were caught picking your nose the police aren’t going to arrest you for that and no surveillance officer is going to put it on national television. Yes, a video surveillance camera in public places is good – it helps in crime-prevention and works as a deterrent. Post crime investigation is easy and catching culprits is easy for law-enforcement officers.

The pros and cons of surveillance cameras in public places below are purely examples of comments that have been debated, and are not designed to replicate views from IFSEC Global and its team.

Benefits of surveillance cameras in public places

We should have surveillance cameras in public places because they ensure public safety. Rarely will anyone attempt to harm you when they know their actions are being recorded on camera. Cameras keep you and your personal property safe.

In addition, surveillance cameras protect against property theft, and vandalism. It is very difficult to get away with stealing something if there are cameras filming you. Therefore, the thief will often get caught. Surveillance cameras will catch the thief before, or during the process of committing the crime.
If no one is aware of the crime until after it has been committed, the surveillance footage is always a crucial piece of evidence during a police investigation. Surveillance cameras have, and will provide a solution to many crimes.
Some people may say that we should not have surveillance cameras in public places. They claim that they invade privacy. The argument here, however, is why be out in public if you want privacy? Surveillance cameras are meant to keep you and other property safe, not to stalk you. Cameras are there not to invade a person’s privacy but to protect the public by deterring criminal activity and by providing material evidence when a crime has been caught on film.
Criminals are less likely to commit crimes in the area if they know they’re going to be being filmed the whole time. Unscrupulous activities like shoplifting hardly seem worth it when pitted against the possibility of going to jail.
Having cameras in public places make people feel safe. If people know that there are cameras around them, they will most likely not do anything stupid. People feel safer in the knowledge that a potential mugger or attacker will be put-off by the presence of a camera.
Cameras, through video analytics, now have the ability to zoom in to reveal someone’s identity which can be beneficial to crime prevention when used in the correct way. The criminal can be apprehended quickly. Especially in abduction cases a video would be a great way of tracking down a person quickly and maybe preventing a death!
The growth of facial recognition and analytical software enables much greater predictive insights into criminal behaviour and more accurate reporting.

Disadvantages of surveillance cameras in public places

It is an infringement on your civil liberties. Why film innocent people doing nothing criminal in public places. Next, they’ll be putting them in public restrooms.
“Those who give up liberty for safety deserve neither” – Benjamin Franklin. A camera everywhere is not a deterrent as all that’s needed is a mask. It will allow governments to watch us, which may not matter now, but in the wrong hands, can be catastrophic. We don’t deserve to be watched while living our lives.
They don’t work. In New York a man got stabbed and was left to die in front of three surveillance cameras. It took the ambulances 2 hours to get to the injured man, and he died before getting to the hospital. The surveillance cameras did nothing to help the man.
I think this is an awful idea because if a window is open somewhere, a person could look through and watch them all the time so that is an invasion of privacy.
Police should be out on the streets trying to prevent crime. CCTV cameras are just a less effective alternative to having police walk the streets. CCTV cameras are just there to give the public a false feeling of safety and are a less effective replacement for policing.
The myth is that CCTV cameras prevent crime but the reality is that they do not.
Internet connected IP cameras are of particular concern. Such systems are more easily “hackable” than a closed circuit system and the concerns over cyber security only continues to grow.
Where is the data stored that is captured, and for how long? Are all operators GDPR compliant?

Governance and Governing Body

In the ensuing debates over privacy versus safety and security, advocates on both sides would be wise to consider the following guidelines –

Responsibilities and Reasons: We need to consider privacy issues when creating surveillance policies. For one, cameras should avoid or mask inappropriate views of private areas, such as yards and windows of bedrooms or washrooms.
Crime, Cost and Benefits : Public surveillance camera systems can be a cost-effective way to deter, document, and reduce crimes. For example the cost savings associated with crimes averted through camera systems in a city of USA saved over four dollars for every dollar spent on the technology, while another city yielded a 50 cent return on the dollar.
Document and Publicise Policies . The law enforcing agencies must formulate on how surveillance cameras can be used and what are the disciplinary consequences for misuse. Likewise, officers should be thoroughly trained on these policies and held accountable for abiding by them.
Forecasting and Post-Event Investigations: The usefulness of surveillance technology in preventing and solving crimes depends on the resources put into it. The most effective systems are those which are monitored by trained staff, have enough cameras to detect crimes in progress, and integrate the technology into all manner of law enforcement activities. Use of correct video-analytics can actually raise alarms about crimes or accidents before they take place. Correct management software will help in tagging, archiving and retrieving the authentic data for post-event investigation.
Mix of Man and Machine: People should be out on the streets and work-places trying to prevent crime or losses. CCTV cameras are just a less effective alternative to having police walk the streets or security personnel on patrolling and physical surveillance. As with any technology, the use of cameras is by no means a substitute for good old-fashioned ground work. The camera footage provides additional leads in an investigation and aids in securing witness cooperation. The video footage serves as a complement to – but not a replacement for – eyewitness evidence in the courtroom.

Yes, public interest and safety along with surveillance cameras are here to stay. The need to draw definition of a public camera for public interest v/s a private surveillance camera placed for malafide intention must be addressed quickly. Public surveillance cameras and civil liberties can coexist if CCTV Systems are implemented and employed responsibly.

There are many metro / mega cities in India going for City Surveillance Projects, and, before implementing authorities make a shemozzle of ‘policy vacuum’, some regulatory mechanisms are needed to be put in place.

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The effect of CCTV on public safety: Research roundup

Updated in 2014, this review of literature on the effectiveness of surveillance cameras against crime includes a 2009 meta-analysis by Northeastern and the University of Cambridge.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

by Leighton Walter Kille and Martin Maximino, The Journalist's Resource February 11, 2014

This <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org/politics-and-government/surveillance-cameras-and-crime/">article</a> first appeared on <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org">The Journalist's Resource</a> and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.<img src="https://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/cropped-jr-favicon-150x150.png" style="width:1em;height:1em;margin-left:10px;">

Millions of closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras are installed in streets and businesses throughout the world with the stated goal of reducing crime and increasing public safety. The United Kingdom is one of the most enthusiastic proponents, with an estimated 1.9 million cameras in 2011 — one for every 32 U.K. residents — and the number continues to rise . Chicago reportedly has at least 15,000 cameras installed in one of the largest U.S. networks — which has prompted civil liberties groups to express strong concerns — while in New York, cameras are increasingly found both on public transit as well as in businesses and even high-end residences . The 9/11 attacks led many municipalities to start installing CCTV systems, but sometimes what’s put in place goes beyond the original mandate: For example, Oakland, Calif., took $7 million of federal money intended for safeguarding its port and is using it to create a citywide surveillance system instead.

According to industry estimates , the global video surveillance market is expected to grow from $11.5 billion in 2008 to $37.7 billion in 2015. A 2013 New York Times /CBS poll found that 78% of respondents supported the use of surveillance cameras in public places, and authorities tend to point to spectacular successes — for example, crucial images cameras provided of the Boston Marathon bombing suspects or the identification of those responsible for the 2005 London attacks. Still, concerns remain about systems’ potential to violate personal privacy as well as their overall cost-effectiveness. A 2013 Chicago Tribune opinion piece quoted a city spokesman as saying that surveillance cameras helped solve 4,500 crimes over four years, but the writer notes that more than a million are estimated to have taken place over that time period — meaning that the cameras’ contribution was 0.05% at best.

CCTV cameras also have the potential of creating unintended effects, good and bad. The “halo effect” refers to the potential for greater security in areas outside the view of cameras; this could be offset by the “displacement effect,” which pushes antisocial activity to other parts of the city. Cameras could also promote a false sense of security and lead citizens to take fewer precautions, or they could also cause more crimes to be reported, and thus lead to a perceived increase in crime. And as with the 2013 revelations of widespread data collection by the U.S. National Security Administration, the indiscriminate gathering of information on law-abiding citizens, however well-intentioned, has the potential for misuse. The Washington Post reported in February 2014 that new aerial video surveillance technologies are being deployed that can monitor virtually everything in an area the size of a small city.

A 2010 document from the European Forum for Urban Security, “Charter for a Democratic Use of Video-Surveillance,” provides a useful overview of the issues at stake as well as a set of principles and tools to ensure that citizens’ rights are respected with CCTV systems. These include:

Necessity: The use of camera systems must be justified empirically, ideally by an independent authority. Objectives and intended outcomes must be defined.
Proportionality: CCTV equipment must be appropriate for the problem it is intended to address. Technology should “respond to the established objectives, without going further.” Data should be protected and the length of time it is retained be clearly defined.
Transparency: Citizens should know what the objectives of a CCTV system are, what its installation and operational costs are, the areas being surveyed, and what the results are. Reports should occur regularly so citizens can make informed decisions.
Accountability: Those in charge of public CCTV systems should be clearly identified and accountable to the public, whether the systems are run by the government or private firms.
Independent oversight: An external body should be charged with ensuring that systems respect the public’s rights and are achieving their stated objectives. Ideally citizens would have a voice in the oversight process.

Below is a selection of studies that shed light on the use of CCTV cameras, in particular their effects on crime. The term “viewshed” is used in many of the studies, and refers to the area visible to cameras from their fixed locations.

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“Analyzing the Influence of Micro-Level Factors on CCTV Camera Effect” Piza, Eric L.; Caplan, Joel M.; Kennedy, Leslie W . Journal of Quantitative Criminology , June 2014, Volume 30, Issue 2, pp. 237-264.

Abstract: “Objectives: Despite the popularity of closed circuit television (CCTV), evidence of its crime prevention capabilities is inconclusive. Research has largely reported CCTV effect as “mixed” without explaining this variance. The current study contributes to the literature by testing the influence of several micro-level factors on changes in crime levels within CCTV areas of Newark, NJ. Methods: Viewsheds, denoting the line-of-sight of CCTV cameras, were units of analysis (N = 117). Location quotients, controlling for viewshed size and control-area crime incidence, measured changes in the levels of six crime categories, from the pre-installation period to the post-installation period. Ordinary least squares regression models tested the influence of specific micro-level factors—environmental features, camera line-of-sight, enforcement activity, and camera design—on each crime category. Results: First, the influence of environmental features differed across crime categories, with specific environs being related to the reduction of certain crimes and the increase of others. Second, CCTV-generated enforcement was related to the reduction of overall crime, violent crime and theft-from-auto. Third, obstructions to CCTV line-of-sight caused by immovable objects were related to increased levels of auto theft and decreased levels of violent crime, theft from auto and robbery. Conclusions: The findings suggest that CCTV operations should be designed in a manner that heightens their deterrent effect. Specifically, police should account for the presence of crime generators/attractors and ground-level obstructions when selecting camera sites, and design the operational strategy in a manner that generates maximum levels of enforcement.”

“Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis” Welsh, Brandon C.; Farrington, David P. Justice Quarterly , October 2009, Vol. 26, No. 4.

Summary: This meta-analysis examined 93 studies on surveillance systems to see how effective they are at reducing crime and deemed 44 to be sufficiently rigorous for inclusion. Many of the studies were based in the United Kingdom, while others were in U.S. cities such as Cincinnati and New York. The analysis found that surveillance systems were most effective in parking lots, where their use resulted in a 51% decrease in crime. Systems in other public settings had some effect on crime — a 7% decrease in city centers and in public housing communities, and a 23% drop in public transit systems — but the results weren’t statistically significant. When sorted by country, systems in the United Kingdom accounted for the majority of the decrease; the drop in other countries was insignificant. The study concludes that while surveillance cameras can be effective in specific contexts such as parking lots and public-transit systems, the potential financial and societal costs require greater research.

“Here’s Looking at You: An Evaluation of Public CCTV Cameras and Their Effects on Crime and Disorder” McLean, Sarah J.; Worden, Robert E.; Kim, MoonSun. Criminal Justice Review, July 2013. doi: 10.1177/0734016813492415.

Abstract: “We examine the impacts of public surveillance cameras on crime and disorder in Schenectady, N.Y., a medium-sized city in the northeastern United States. We assessed camera impacts by analyzing monthly counts of crime and disorder-related calls for service that occurred within each camera’s 150-foot viewshed as an interrupted time series, with the interruption at the time that the camera in question was activated. We also analyzed counts of incidents between 150 and 350 feet of cameras to assess displacement effects and diffusion of benefits. We further estimated camera effects on counts of only incidents in public locations — street crimes. Our study suggests that cameras have had effects on crime, even more consistent effects on disorder, and that the visibility of cameras is associated with its impact on crime and disorder. We conclude by discussing the implications of the findings and discuss the questions to which future research should be directed.

“Police-monitored CCTV Cameras in Newark, N.J.: A Quasi-experimental Test of Crime Deterrence” Caplan, Joel M.; Kennedy, Leslie W.; Petrossian, Gohar. Journal of Experimental Criminology , September 2011, Vol. 7, Issue 3, 255-274. doi: 10.1007/s11292-011-9125-9.

Abstract: “Using camera installation sites and randomly selected control sites, [we] assessed the impact of CCTV on the crimes of shootings, auto thefts, and thefts from autos in Newark, N.J., for 13 months before and after camera installation dates. Strategically placed cameras were not any different from randomly placed cameras at deterring crime within their viewsheds; there were statistically significant reductions in auto thefts within viewsheds after camera installations; there were significant improvements to location quotient values for shootings and auto thefts after camera installations. There was no significant displacement and there was a small diffusion of benefits, which was greater for auto thefts than shootings. The system of cameras in Newark is not as efficient as it could be at deterring certain street crimes; some camera locations are significantly more effective than others.”

“CCTV and Crime Displacement: A Quasi-experimental Evaluation” Cerezo, Ana. European Journal of Criminology , March 2013, Vol. 10, No. 2, 222-236. doi: 10.1177/1477370812468379.

Abstract: “The installation of CCTV cameras in the historic centre of Malaga [Spain] in March 2007 was the main crime prevention initiative implemented in the city during the past few years. Using a quasi-experimental design with a pre/post test, we collected data from interviews with CCTV operators, police officers and local authority officials and from surveys of pedestrians and shopkeepers. The team also examined police crime data and CCTV incident data. In this paper we will discuss the results in terms of the following three hypotheses relating to crime reduction, displacement and public security: (a) the use of cameras reduces the levels of crime, whether property crime (robberies and burglaries), crimes against people or both; (b) some of those crimes are displaced to nearby areas within or close to the city centre where there is no camera coverage but where there are similar opportunities to commit crimes; and (c) people claim to feel safer in the city centre after dark after the cameras were introduced.

“Does CCTV Displace Crime?” Waples, Sam; Gil, Martin; Fisher, Peter. Criminology and Criminal Justice , May 2009, Vol. 9, No. 2, 207-224. doi: 10.1177/1748895809102554.

Abstract: “Crime displacement is a concern often raised regarding situational crime prevention measures. A national evaluation of closed circuit television cameras (CCTV) has provided an interesting test-bed for displacement research. A number of methods have been used to investigate displacement, in particular visualization techniques making use of geographical information systems (GIS) have been introduced to the identification of spatial displacement. Results concur with current literature in that spatial displacement of crime does occur, but it was only detected infrequently. Spatial displacement is found not to occur uniformly across offence type or space, notably the most evident spatial displacement was actually found to be occurring within target areas themselves.”

“Measuring the Crime Displacement and Diffusion of Benefit Effects of Open-street CCTV in South Korea” Park, Hyeon Ho; Oh, Gyeong Seok; Paek, Seung Yeop. International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice , September 2012, Vol. 40, Issue 3, 179-191. doi: 10.1016/j.ijlcj.2012.03.003.

Abstract: “Along with CCTV’s perceived high expectations as crime deterrent, there is also a growing controversy over CCTV’s potentially unexpected limitations. For example, the crime displacement (the presence of CCTV will change the locations of crime and its total number will not change) and the diffusion effects of crime control benefits (the crime prevention effect of CCTV may filter through to neighboring areas) are the representative controversial issues. In this study, we aimed to verify the crime displacement and the diffusion of benefit of open-street CCTV by analyzing the crime tendencies empirically…. The results [of this study] showed that the crime prevention effect of the CCTV was significant. The number of robberies and thefts in the areas with CCTV installed reduced by 47.4%, while the areas without CCTV showed practically no change in the number of crimes. The crime displacement caused by the CCTV was not either found or inconsequential and the crime rates in the neighboring areas also decreased slightly.”

“Suspiciousness Perception in Dynamic Scenes: A Comparison of CCTV Operators and Novices” Howard, Christina J.; et al. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , August 2013. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00441.

Abstract: “How attention is used to perceive and evaluate dynamic, realistic scenes is more poorly understood… We investigated these issues when an observer has a specific, and naturalistic, task: closed-circuit television (CCTV) monitoring. We concurrently recorded eye movements and ratings of perceived suspiciousness as different observers watched the same set of clips from real CCTV footage. Trained CCTV operators showed greater consistency in fixation location and greater consistency in suspiciousness judgments than untrained observers. Training appears to increase between-operators consistency by learning ‘knowing what to look for’ in these scenes.”

“A Prosperous ‘Business’: The Success of CCTV through the Eyes of International Literature” Séverine, Germain. Surveillance & Society , 2013, Vol. 11 Issue 1/2, 134.

Abstract: “This article deals with a paradox: Video surveillance becomes widespread, in more and more numerous social and national spaces, while its effects in terms of crime prevention and/or law enforcement and community reassurance are not demonstrated. Through a critical analysis of the international literature on CCTV, this article attempts to identify the reasons advanced to explain the ‘success’ of this technology. Three kinds of approaches, which embody three ways of defining the political and social impact of CCTV, can be distinguished: Surveillance studies, impact analyses and use studies. This paper discusses these works and the answers they bring to the understanding of CCTV development. It claims that micro-level case study analysis allows us to grasp subtly the locally observable mechanisms by which new actors can be enrolled in the device and new legitimizations are made possible.”

Keywords: crime, public safety, CCTV, surveillance, prevention, policing, research roundup, policing

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The Debate Over CCTV Cameras in Classrooms: Balancing Privacy and Security

Table of contents, advantages of cctv cameras in classrooms, drawbacks of cctv cameras in classrooms, finding the middle ground, 1. enhanced security, 2. classroom management, 3. accountability and quality assurance, 1. privacy concerns, 2. erosion of trust, 3. potential for misuse.

Best, M., & LeTendre, G. K. (2013). Teachers' work: Institutional isomorphism and cultural variation in the United States, Germany, and Japan. Educational Researcher, 42(2), 85-91. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X13480507
Dornberger, U., & Kuznar, L. A. (2020). Surveillance and security cameras in educational settings: An exploration of potential effects on student and teacher behavior. Education and Information Technologies, 25(5), 4391-4408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10314-6
Elliot, T. (2016). Privacy at school: Cameras in the classroom. School Library Journal, 62(4), 14-16. https://www.slj.com/?detailStory=privacy-at-school-cameras-in-the-classroom
Kemp, S. E., & Rimmel, G. (2020). Video surveillance of students in the classroom: The interplay of privacy, surveillance, and education. Information & Communications Technology Law, 29(3), 223-242. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600834.2020.1742184
Robbins, S. B., & Frisby, B. N. (2014). The psychological effects of surveillance in schools and universities. The Cambridge Handbook of Surveillance Law, 225-247. https://www.cambridge.org/academic/subjects/law/constitutional-and-administrative-law/cambridge-handbook-surveillance-law?format=HB

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Advantages and Disadvantages of CCTV: An In-Depth Analysis

In the vast realm of modern security solutions, understanding the advantages and disadvantages of CCTV stands paramount. This technological tool, which has woven its way into the fabric of our security infrastructure, deserves a comprehensive analysis. Through this article, we shall embark on a journey, meticulously examining the nuances and intricate details surrounding the utility of CCTV systems.

Table of Contents

A Brief History of CCTV

Tracing back to the 1960s, the inception of CCTV marked a significant stride in surveillance capabilities. Initially conceived as a rudimentary tool designed for limited broadcast to a set of specific monitors, CCTV technology has undergone monumental evolution. Transitioning from grainy black-and-white analog systems, today’s CCTV mechanisms boast high-definition clarity, encompassing both wired and wireless configurations. This leap is not just a testament to technological advancement but also an indication of the increasing significance of surveillance in our societies.

Advantages and Disadvantages of CCTV

Certainly! Here’s a concise table summarizing the advantages and disadvantages of CCTV:

This table provides a clear and organized snapshot of the advantages and disadvantages of CCTV, allowing for an easy comparison of its benefits and challenges.

Advantages of CCTV

The surge in CCTV usage is no mere coincidence. Let’s delve into the profound benefits it brings to the table:

Crime Deterrence

It’s not just about capturing misdeeds; it’s about preventing them. The mere presence of CCTV cameras can dissuade potential criminals. Numerous studies have authenticated a tangible reduction in crime rates in areas fortified with CCTV surveillance.

Monitoring and Surveillance

A vigilant eye never sleeps. Advanced CCTV systems facilitate 24/7 monitoring, ensuring continuous surveillance. Innovations in the field now allow property owners to access their feed from any corner of the globe, courtesy of integrated mobile applications.

Evidence Collection

Legal battles hinge on compelling evidence. In incidents of dispute or criminal activities, high-resolution CCTV footage can serve as incontrovertible evidence, fortifying the pillars of justice.

Traffic and Public Area Monitoring

Beyond private properties, CCTVs play a pivotal role in urban management. They assist in traffic regulation, identifying bottlenecks, and ensuring orderly flow, especially during peak hours or public events.

Cost-Effective Security Solution

Financial prudence does not necessitate compromising security. When juxtaposed with other security apparatus, CCTV often presents a more economically viable yet efficacious alternative.

Disadvantages of CCTV

However, like all technologies, CCTVs come with their set of challenges:

Privacy Concerns

Surveillance, if unchecked, treads into the territory of privacy invasion. Ethical quandaries arise when monitoring transitions into unwarranted scrutiny, leading to potential breaches of personal boundaries.

Dependence on Electricity and Internet

CCTVs, for all their prowess, are tethered to consistent power and internet sources. Disruptions in these can render the systems ineffective, potentially creating vulnerabilities.

Maintenance and Costs

The initial installation cost is just the tip of the iceberg. Maintaining optimal functionality might necessitate periodic servicing, software upgrades, and occasional hardware replacements, incurring additional expenditures.

Potential for Misinterpretation

Visual data, though compelling, can sometimes be misleading. Camera angles, lighting, and obstructions can occasionally distort the narrative, leading to potential misinterpretations.

False Sense of Security

Sole reliance on CCTVs might engender complacency. It is vital to integrate them within a broader security framework, incorporating alarms, sensors, and human surveillance.

Choosing the Right CCTV for Your Needs

With a plethora of options available, informed decision-making is crucial:

Factors to Consider

Delve beyond just the price. Evaluate parameters like resolution, storage capabilities, connectivity options, and durability. Assessing these ensures that your chosen system aligns perfectly with your requirements.

Cost vs. Quality

The market is inundated with a spectrum of CCTVs, varying in cost and quality. While budgetary constraints are valid, it is imperative to ensure that cost-cutting does not compromise essential features or system longevity.

Integrating CCTV with Other Security Systems

A holistic security blueprint synergizes multiple tools. Integrate your CCTV framework with other security mechanisms to create a robust,

To conclude, while the advantages and disadvantages of CCTV are manifold, their judicious and informed utilization can significantly bolster security endeavors. By understanding their potential and pitfalls, users can harness their capabilities to the fullest, ensuring a safer and more secure environment. So, Foxmoor Security offers affordable, reliable, and professional CCTV installation services in Gloucestershire.

Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)

1. what is the primary purpose of cctv.

Answer: The primary purpose of CCTV is to provide surveillance and security. It helps deter crime, monitor activities, and provide recorded evidence when required.

2. Can I expect a complete reduction in crime rates with the installation of CCTV?

Answer: While CCTV acts as a significant deterrent and can reduce crime rates, it doesn’t guarantee a complete elimination. Other security measures and community involvement play a role in crime prevention.

3. Are there ethical concerns related to CCTV installation?

Answer: Yes, especially concerning privacy. While CCTVs serve security purposes, it’s essential to ensure they aren’t infringing on individuals’ privacy rights, particularly when installed in public spaces or near private areas.

4. What should I consider when choosing a CCTV system for my property?

Answer: Factors such as resolution, storage capabilities, connectivity options, and durability are vital. Also, consider the balance between cost and quality, and the possibility of integrating the CCTV with other security systems.

5. How do I address privacy concerns when installing CCTVs?

Answer: It’s crucial to be transparent with the intent of the surveillance. Avoid placing cameras in personal spaces like restrooms or changing rooms. If it’s a public or shared space, consider putting up signs indicating CCTV surveillance.

6. Are there any potential misconceptions based on CCTV footage?

Answer: Yes, sometimes visual data can be misleading due to camera angles, lighting conditions, or obstructions. It’s essential to interpret CCTV footage in context and consider other supporting evidence.

7. How does CCTV contribute to traffic management?

Answer: CCTVs help in monitoring traffic flow, identifying bottlenecks or accidents, and ensuring orderly movement, especially during peak hours or significant public events.

8. Do I need to regularly update or maintain my CCTV system?

Answer: Yes, like all technological devices, CCTVs require periodic maintenance to ensure optimal functionality. Regular software updates, hardware checks, and occasional replacements might be necessary.

9. Is the cost of installing a CCTV system a one-time expense?

Answer: While the bulk of the expense is during the installation, there might be ongoing costs related to maintenance, upgrades, and potential repairs.

10. What are some real-world examples demonstrating the effectiveness of CCTVs?

Answer: Many cities globally have documented reductions in crime rates, attributing them to comprehensive CCTV networks. Besides, there have been numerous instances where CCTVs have helped solve criminal cases by providing crucial evidence.

Navigating the intricacies of the advantages and disadvantages of CCTV is no small feat. Still, with informed choices, this powerful tool can be a formidable ally in our relentless pursuit of safety and security.

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CCTV Cameras: Surveillance and the Reduction of Crime Essay

Introduction, cctv and crime, online surveillance, privacy and confidentiality, surveillance society, surveillance and safety, reference list.

Government surveillance is an increasingly controversial topic. While some believe that increased surveillance is the principal solution to the problem of crime, others consider it ineffective and questionable in terms of ethics. In particular, the main concern associated with the use of surveillance in crime prevention is that it abuses people’s right to privacy and confidentiality of information. This discussion has become particularly prominent after Edward Snowden blew the whistle, revealing that the U.S. National Security Agency has been illegally collecting personal data of Americans for over a decade. Today, law enforcement and related security agencies have access to people’s phones and online communication, as well as footage from CCTV cameras. The scope of surveillance today is rather worrying for a lot of people, especially since there is little evidence of its positive effect on crime reduction. The present paper will seek to argue that greater surveillance is not a desirable answer to the problem of crime and that other solutions are required to reduce crime rates in the long term. In particular, the paper will consider the cost-effectiveness of surveillance, as well as its effects on privacy and security.

Research shows that surveillance of public spaces using CCTV cameras causes displacement of crime and is not suitable for preventing most types of crime. Although CCTV cameras are widely used in many settings, CCTV surveillance is not universal. When some areas or facilities are equipped with CCTV cameras, and some are not, crime will most likely prevail in places that do not have CCTV. For instance, research by Cerezo (2013) showed that equipping certain districts or streets with CCTV increases crime rates in neighboring areas with no CCTV. Some people believe that a solution to this problem is to establish universal CCTV surveillance so that there are no gaps in coverage. However, the effectiveness of CCTV surveillance itself is rather questionable. According to Welsh and Farrington (2014), in a large-scale US-based study, the use of CCTV in parking lots was the only effective application of the technology; in other settings, the results were insignificant. Therefore, even a universal CCTV will most likely fail to address the problem of crime, and thus extensive use of it would not contribute to security and will not be cost-effective.

Online surveillance and the use of ‘bid data’ to prevent crime are time-consuming and costly while having little effect on crime reduction. The use of ‘big data for crime prevention is a relatively new approach that followed the popularization of social networks and Internet communication as a whole. Indeed, many people use social media and e-mails as much as their phone, so gathering users’ information from online sources might help in preventing crimes. However, there are numerous challenges to online surveillance. For example, Gilmour (2014) reports the lack of clear jurisdiction for using online data in investigations and technical capacities of law enforcement as the key issues faced by online surveillance. Some argue that by spending additional resources on training and technology development, the government will be able to overcome these challenges and use online surveillance for crime prevention. In particular, Mateescu et al. (2015) state that new monitoring tools have made it possible to access and analyze large volumes of information in a short period of time. Nevertheless, one key challenge in online surveillance remains unaddressed: cyberspace is constantly evolving, and criminals constantly develop and use tools to mask their activity or identity. Therefore, online surveillance and ‘big data analysis will most likely require considerable financial resources while still being inefficient in the long term.

In addition, government surveillance counters people’s privacy and confidentiality of information while creating opportunities for abuse of data. This is one of the key concerns regarding the use of private data for crime prevention. The fact that individual employees in tens of thousands of agencies have access to citizens’ private information serves to diminish the line between private and public, thus violating people’s right to privacy. In addition, the use of personal data by the government remains highly unregulated and is not transparent, which is why it could lead to abuse of data (Rubinstein, Nojeim & Lee 2014). Surveillance was allegedly used to monitor phone and email conversations of politicians, and thus information obtained from surveillance can be used to impact the political climate of the country (Kelley 2015). The government insists that it is possible to establish sufficient controls and ensure that surveillance does not violate privacy or confidentiality. Nevertheless, this is untrue, as it is rather difficult to distinguish between confidential data and private data that can be used by law enforcement. If such distinction was made and the government imposed laws governing surveillance and the subsequent use of information, this would most likely reduce the effectiveness of surveillance, making it inefficient.

Another reason why surveillance is not a desirable answer to the problem of crime is that the government’s support of global surveillance will lead to the development of a ‘surveillance society, which will have a negative effect on people and businesses. ‘Surveillance society’ is a term that was introduced in the late 1990s when the government’s use of people’s private data became obvious. Von Drehle (2013) explains that, in a surveillance society, there will be no such thing as private and public information, as all data will be easily accessible to at least a number of organizations. CCTV, monitoring of online activity, tracking of phone and email communication all contribute to the creation of a surveillance society. Undoubtedly, this trend could affect individuals and organizations in various ways.

However, certain people argue that such a future is not a danger but rather a new step in the evolution of society. Indeed, it seems logical that, when no such thing as private information exists, it might be easier to control and prevent crime. Nevertheless, the costs associated with the development of a surveillance society expand far beyond its impact on society. In particular, surveillance is connected to a number of economic implications. Kehl et al. (2014) report on the impact of the NSA’s strategy on the economic development of the United States, stating that surveillance has a damaging influence on domestic business and international cooperation. The latter is partly due to the distrust between American companies and their prospective partners in Europe and the rest of the world in the wake of the 2013 surveillance scandal. These implications have the potential to undermine the development of the country’s economy, which, in turn, prevents further evolution of the society instead of facilitating it.

Lastly, based on the discussion above, it is evident that increased surveillance does not make people feel safer. One of the key goals of a successful crime reduction strategy is to create a visible effect on the community, thus causing people to be less fearful of crime. Greater surveillance would fail to do that. The main reason for this is that it does not have a significant effect on crime. As mentioned above, CCTV and online surveillance are not cost-efficient and are not viable solutions to the problem of crime. Surveillance has a set of distinctive flaws, and some might argue that resolving these flaws would lead to a better, more secure society. If surveillance was occurring in a different context, this could be true. However, at present, surveillance generates more concerns than benefits. In countries that are notable for the use of surveillance technologies, people fear that their private information will be exposed or abused. This shows that, for now, surveillance fails to fulfill its promise of making the world safer. Instead, it introduces a new threat while doing little to address the problem of crime.

Overall, greater surveillance is not a desirable way of reducing crime rates. One of its fundamental fallacies is that it does not have a prominent effect on security and is costly, which makes it highly inefficient. Both CCTV and government surveillance violate people’s privacy, and thus the ethics of this option is highly questionable. Moreover, incorporating surveillance in the government’s strategy of crime reduction affects economic development and business success. Therefore, although using some types of surveillance in certain areas (e.g., CCTV in park lots) would be beneficial, relying on it for minimizing crime rates is unwise. Developing new, innovative approaches to address crime rates at local and international levels is critical to ensure successful crime reduction with no implications for the economy, businesses, and citizens.

Cerezo, 2013, ‘CCTV and crime displacement: a quasi-experimental evaluation’, European Journal of Criminology , vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 222-236.

Gilmour, S 2014, ‘Policing crime and terrorism in cyberspace: an overview’, European Review of Organised Crime , vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 143-159.

Kelley, MB 2015, ‘Egregious cases of US Government employees abusing databases to spy on Americans’ , Business Insider , Web.

Kehl, D, Bankston, K, Greene, R & Morgus, R 2014, Surveillance costs: the NSA’s impact on the economy, internet freedom & cybersecurity , Web.

Von Drehle, D 2013, ‘The surveillance society’ , Time , Web.

Rubinstein, IS, Nojeim, GT & Lee, RD 2014, ‘Systematic government access to personal data: a comparative analysis’, International Data Privacy Law , vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 96-119.

Welsh, BC & Farrington, DP 2014, ‘CCTV and crime prevention’, in G Bruinsma & D Weisburd (eds.), Encyclopedia of criminology and criminal justice , Springer, New York, NY, pp. 310-319.

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The Value of CCTV Surveillance Cameras as an Investigative Tool: An Empirical Analysis

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Published: 21 April 2017
Volume 23 , pages 441–459, ( 2017 )

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There has been extensive research on the value of closed-circuit television (CCTV) for preventing crime, but little on its value as an investigative tool. This study sought to establish how often CCTV provides useful evidence and how this is affected by circumstances, analysing 251,195 crimes recorded by British Transport Police that occurred on the British railway network between 2011 and 2015. CCTV was available to investigators in 45% of cases and judged to be useful in 29% (65% of cases in which it was available). Useful CCTV was associated with significantly increased chances of crimes being solved for all crime types except drugs/weapons possession and fraud. Images were more likely to be available for more-serious crimes, and less likely to be available for cases occurring at unknown times or in certain types of locations. Although this research was limited to offences on railways, it appears that CCTV is a powerful investigative tool for many types of crime. The usefulness of CCTV is limited by several factors, most notably the number of public areas not covered. Several recommendations for increasing the usefulness of CCTV are discussed.

The effect of public surveillance cameras on crime clearance rates

Information processing challenges and research directions in CCTV surveillance

Is CCTV Surveillance as Effective as Popular Television Crime Series Suggest? Cognitive Challenges

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Closed-circuit television (CCTV) surveillance cameras are widely used in policing, but that use is controversial. The United Kingdom (UK) government has described CCTV as “vital” for detecting offenders (Porter 2016 ), while the Washington, DC, Metropolitan Police Department ( 2007 , p 2) argued that it is often “invaluable to police investigations”. On the other side of the debate, the campaign group (Liberty 2016 ) argued that extensive use of CCTV “poses a threat to our way of life” and that “widespread visual surveillance may well have a chilling effect on free speech and activity”. Similarly, the American Civil Liberties Union claimed that public CCTV surveillance creates “an almost Orwellian potential for surveillance and virtually invite[s] abuse” (Steinhardt 1999 ).

In the academic literature, there has been discussion of how CCTV fits into broader conceptions of surveillance (Hier 2004 ; Koskela 2003 ) and the extent to which it increases or changes the nature of state or corporate power over citizens (Fyfe and Bannister 1996 ; Norris and Armstrong 1998 ). Concerns have been raised that CCTV surveillance may restrict the diversity and vibrancy of life in public spaces (Bannister et al. 1998 ), or contribute to the exclusion of some groups in society (Reeve 1998 ). There has also been political debate about the proper balance between ensuring the effectiveness of CCTV and protecting the privacy of citizens (Sheldon 2011 ).

Although the debate about CCTV has been both long lasting and wide ranging, empirical evidence on the topic has so-far not covered all of its aspects. This article will attempt to provide evidence to inform one area of this debate about which evidence is currently limited: the extent to which CCTV is valuable for criminal investigations. The next section contains a review of the existing literature, followed by an explanation of the mechanisms that may influence the effectiveness of surveillance cameras in investigations. The following section will describe the data used in this study, derived from police reports of crimes on the railway network of Great Britain. The results section will describe how often CCTV has been useful in crime investigations, and in what circumstances. Finally, the implications of these results for policy makers and practitioners will be discussed.

Existing Literature

Given the controversial nature of CCTV, surprisingly little is known about how it is used and how effective it is in achieving many stated aims. CCTV has several potential applications for public safety, and has been deployed with the intention variously of preventing crime, detecting offences, improving the response to emergencies, assisting in the management of places and reducing public fear of crime (Ratcliffe 2011 , p 15). CCTV can also be used for purposes not related to public safety, such as monitoring transport-passenger flows and investigating complaints against facility staff (National Rail CCTV Steering Group 2010 , p 7).

Of these potential applications, almost all research attention to date has concentrated on the use of CCTV to prevent crime (Honovich 2008 ). Early studies by Mayhew et al. ( 1979 ) and Webb and Laycock ( 1992 ) suggested that CCTV was effective at reducing robberies at London Underground stations, although the evaluation methods used had some limitations. Since then, the subject has received substantial research attention with mixed empirical results. For example, several evaluations have found CCTV to be effective at reducing thefts in car parks (Poyner and Webb 1987 ; Tilley 1993 ) but others have shown it to have little or no impact on crime in residential areas (Gill and Spriggs 2005 ). A systematic review by Welsh and Farrington ( 2008 ) of 41 studies concluded that CCTV is effective at preventing some types of crime in some circumstances, but that the evidence suggests it has a more-limited impact than its widespread deployment may suggest.

In contrast to the extensive literature on the value of CCTV for crime prevention, there is little research on how useful cameras are for other purposes. Ditton and Short ( 1998 ) found that in the 2 years after the installation of a CCTV scheme in a Scottish town, the proportion of crimes that were solved by police increased from 50 to 58%, with some offences showing larger increases than others. However, no information was given about whether these changes were statistically significant, and rates were only provided for some types of crime (the primary focus of the study was on crime prevention). In Australia, Wells et al. ( 2006 ) found that monitored CCTV in two suburbs led to the early arrest of a small number of offenders at the scenes of crimes, but did not look at whether recordings were useful in the subsequent investigations.

Limited evidence can be found in research on solvability factors: the features of an offence that determine the likelihood of the case being solved. Paine ( 2012 ) found CCTV to not be associated with higher detection rates for residential burglary. For non-residential burglary, Coupe and Kaur ( 2005 ) found that CCTV being installed in a building was associated with double the rate of detections compared to other buildings, driven by the increased availability of suspect descriptions. Since this study used data from the year 2000, it is possible that subsequent developments in technology may have influenced the effectiveness of CCTV in solving this type of crime. For example, modern cameras are likely to provide higher-resolution images, and digital (as compared to tape-based) storage allows images to be retained for longer (Taylor and Gill 2014 ). Existing research on solvability factors is limited because it is largely focused on the investigation of a single crime type (burglary).

In the context of this limited academic evidence, several organisations have produced reports on the topic of the value of CCTV for investigation, some of dubious quality. For example, Davenport ( 2007 ) summarised an unpublished report by the Liberal Democrat political party which concluded that CCTV cameras were ineffective simply because London boroughs with more cameras did not have a higher all-crime detection rate. The group appeared to have made no attempt to control for confounding variables or for different types of crime. Despite the poor quality of the analysis, this report has subsequently been cited in the media (e.g. by Bates 2008 ) as proof that CCTV is ineffective in investigations.

Journalists have also carried out their own analyses. Staff from The Scotsman ( 2008 ) newspaper reported that in a 4-year period CCTV cameras in Scotland had observed more than 200,000 incidents, with responding police officers making arrests in 14% of cases. However, no details were given on whether those arrests led to charges, whether further suspects were identified later or how the headline statistic varied in different circumstances or for different types of crime. In San Francisco, journalists found that cameras had given detectives new avenues of investigation in seven of 33 violent felonies committed in a crime hotspot over a 2-year period (Bulwa and Stannard 2007 ). Meanwhile the London Borough of Hackney ( 2016 ) reported that over a 12-year period the use of CCTV had been associated with more than 27,000 arrests, although it gave no further details. Edwards ( 2009 ) reported that CCTV evidence was gathered in 86 of 90 murder investigations and was judged by senior police officers to have been valuable in 65 of those cases.

There appears to be some disagreement within the police service as to how effective CCTV cameras are in criminal investigations. Several news outlets summarised a report from the London Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) that appeared to be highly critical of its usefulness. Bowcott ( 2008 ) reported that “only 3% of street robberies in London were solved using CCTV images”, although other articles reported that the 3% statistic applied to all crime (e.g. Johnson 2008 ). In another article based on the same report, Edwards ( 2008 ) wrote that “up to 80 per cent of CCTV footage seized by police is of such poor quality that it is almost worthless for detecting crimes”. Hickley ( 2009 ) quoted a police spokesperson as saying that “in 2008 less than 1,000 crimes were solved using CCTV despite there being in excess of one million cameras in London”. However, to the present author’s knowledge, the report itself remains unpublished and no information is available on the methods used, nor any more details of the conclusions.

In contrast, the majority of British officers surveyed by Levesley and Martin ( 2005 ) believed that CCTV was a useful investigative tool. A report on the value of CCTV commissioned by Dyfed-Powys Police in Wales argued that cameras were valuable in the detection of crime, citing the opinions of police investigators and local prosecutors. However, the report also recommended that live-monitoring of CCTV cease because it was ineffective at preventing crime or improving the initial response to incidents (Instrom Security Consultants 2014 ). Several municipalities in Britain have decreased their investment in CCTV in response to recent budget cuts (Merrick and Duggan 2013 ).

Overall, little appears to be known about how the usefulness of CCTV for investigation varies across crime types or circumstances, which is likely to be important in any attempts to make CCTV more useful. The present exploratory study attempted to provide some evidence in these areas.

How Might CCTV Help Crime Investigations?

Before turning to the research questions addressed in this study, it is necessary to consider exactly how CCTV might provide useful evidence in a criminal investigation.

A criminal investigation can be thought of as a series of questions: who was involved in an incident, where did it happen, what happened, when did it happen, why did it happen and how were any offences committed, known as the ‘5WH’ investigation model (Cook et al. 2016 ; Stelfox 2009 ). CCTV may be useful in answering at least two of these questions: what happened and who was involved (La Vigne et al. 2011 ).

A good-quality recording could potentially allow investigators to watch an entire incident unfold in detail, providing information about the sequence of events, the methods used and the entry and exit routes taken by the offender. Even if this is not possible, CCTV may be useful in corroborating or refuting other evidence of what happened, such as witness testimony (College of Policing 2014 ). Recordings may also provide information that investigators can use to contextualise other evidence (Levesley and Martin 2005 ).

CCTV may assist in identifying who was involved in a crime either directly, as when a suspect is recognised by someone viewing the recording, or indirectly, such as when the recording shows a suspect touching a surface from which police are then able to recover forensic evidence (Association of Chief Police Officers 2011 ). Images can also be used to identify potential witnesses (La Vigne et al. 2011 , p 27). CCTV may be less useful in answering some of the other 5WH questions. For example, even a good-quality recording may shed little light on why a crime was committed.

In order for CCTV to be useful in answering investigative questions, certain circumstances are required. There are few legal restrictions on the ability of police officers to use CCTV recordings of public places during investigations. In the UK, for example, operators of camera systems can provide recordings to the police without a warrant (Information Commissioner’s Office 2015 ). In the United States (US) a similar system operates, as long as the recording is of a place in which people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy (Chace 2001 ). As such, the limiting factors on the use of CCTV are likely to take other forms.

Figure 1 summarises the process by which these circumstances may come about, broken down into three stages. In the first stage, CCTV evidence is not available, either because the police have not taken steps to obtain it or because no recording exists for technical reasons. In the second stage, a CCTV recording is available but—perhaps because of the recording quality—is not useful to the investigation. In the final stage, a recording is both available and useful to the investigation.

The process by which CCTV can be available and useful to an investigation

The present study aimed to explore the usefulness of CCTV for crime investigation by examining the stages in this process. Specifically, two research questions were addressed:

How often do CCTV cameras provide useful evidence in criminal investigations, and how does this vary for different types of crime?

In what circumstances is CCTV most likely to be useful in criminal investigations?

It might be thought that CCTV is useful in a case only if it leads to a suspect being convicted. However, this approach presents at least two problems. Firstly, it would require a potentially unreliable counterfactual test of the weight of evidence that would have been available in a particular case in the absence of CCTV recordings. Secondly, it ignores the potential value of video recordings in allowing officers to eliminate a suspect from their enquiries, or to identify where a person has made a false report of crime.

Data and Methods

Answering the research questions addressed in this study required a source of data on the investigative value of CCTV. Although police forces collect a wide range of information about investigations for administrative and legal purposes, that information is not always stored in a way that makes it accessible for secondary analysis for research purposes. For example, case files may contain information on whether CCTV recordings were used in a particular investigation, but such files are often held either on paper or in electronic formats that are not easily searchable. As a result, research based on case files (e.g. Jordan 2004 ; Cockbain et al. 2011 ) tends to use small samples, potentially limiting its power to detect differences between crime types, circumstances and so on.

The present research takes advantage of one police force having collected data on the value of CCTV over a long period of time and stored it in an accessible format. In 2010, British Transport Police (BTP)—the specialist police force for railways in Great Britain—added two questions to the electronic form that first-line supervisors are required to complete at the end of a criminal investigation conducted by an officer under their command. The first question asks the supervisor whether CCTV has been useful in the investigation and the second (required only if the answer to the first question is ‘no’) asks the supervisor to choose from a list of reasons why CCTV has not been useful in that case. From these two questions it is possible to construct a third variable showing whether a CCTV recording existed in a case, by combining those cases where CCTV was useful with those where a recording of the location at the relevant time did exist but was not useful (for example because the images were of insufficient quality or because the wrong images were extracted from the system).

The present study used the answers to these questions together with other data about each offence, such as whether a case had been ‘solved’. In common with standard practice among UK police forces, crimes were deemed to be solved if a prosecutor (or, in minor cases, a specially trained police officer) decided that there was sufficient evidence against a suspect to send the case to court. Again in common with police practice, such cases are referred to below as having been ‘detected’ (for further details, see Home Office 2016 ).

In the 5 years between January 2011 and December 2015, 251,195 notifiable crimes were recorded by BTP, or about 138 crimes each day. Footnote 1 Since the data on CCTV usefulness is gathered only at the conclusion of an investigation, data for this study were extracted from the BTP crime-recording system at the beginning of March 2016 to maximise the chance of the relevant questions having been completed. Data on the usefulness of CCTV were missing in 4,768 cases (1.9% of the total).

The use of data from BTP was valuable for two reasons. Firstly, that force had for several years been collecting data that were not widely recorded elsewhere, providing a large sample of offences to study. Secondly, the railway network policed by BTP has a very large number of CCTV cameras. The total number of cameras on the railway network is not known, since the 25 train operating companies each operate their own camera networks and there is no central registry of cameras. However, the BTP CCTV Hub is able to monitor around 30,000 cameras at railway stations around the country (British Transport Police 2016 ). There are also an unknown number of cameras installed on-board trains.

The large number of cameras means that CCTV will cover the sites of a substantial proportion of recorded crimes. This helps to deal with a potential limitation of the studies discussed above, which is that only a few of the offences reported to those forces are likely to have occurred close to a CCTV camera. This in turn would make it more difficult to answer the second research question.

While the availability of data from BTP made this study possible, the use of data from a specialist police force may limit the generalisability of the results. The mix of crimes investigated by BTP is likely to be different from that seen by local police forces.

Another limitation of this data source is that in cases where supervisors identified that CCTV had been useful in an investigation, it was not possible to identify in what way it had been useful. This is a limitation of the data collection, which in turn is likely to reflect a focus within the police on improving CCTV usefulness by focusing on the reasons why recordings were sometimes not useful. It is likely that supervisors classified cases with reasonable consistency, since the second question described above asked them to pick from a list of reasons (shown in Table 1 ) why recordings were not useful. Consistency is also likely to have been maintained by the questions asked of supervisors being constant over time. Nevertheless, it is not possible to be sure that supervisors categorised cases with complete consistency. Neither can the possibility of bias be excluded, although the author is aware of no obvious sources of bias.

The data did not distinguish between different types of CCTV. Systems can vary from extensive high-definition networks to single cameras that produce grainy images (Gill and Spriggs 2005 ; Taylor and Gill 2014 ). It is therefore likely that the effectiveness of systems will vary. Information about system type was not recorded in the BTP data and so it was not possible to explore these distinctions. However, there may be less variation in systems on railways compared to systems in other environments, because there are industry standards for rail CCTV networks (National Rail CCTV Steering Group 2010 ).

Despite these limitations, to the author’s knowledge the sample used here represents the best-available large-scale dataset on the value of CCTV for investigating crime. More-detailed data could have been collected for a smaller sample of crimes (for example by interviewing investigators or reviewing case files), but it would have been impractical to do this for a large-enough sample to allow analysis of different crime types and crimes occurring in different circumstances.

How often is CCTV Useful?

Using the distinction between availability and usefulness shown in Fig. 1 , CCTV was available in the investigation of 111,608 offences in the 5 years between 2011 and 2015—45.3% of all crimes recorded by BTP. CCTV was classified as being useful in 72,390 investigations—29.4% of all recorded crimes and 64.9% of crimes for which CCTV was available. Camera recordings were, for example, useful in the investigation of 1,223 assaults causing serious injury, 4,120 assaults causing minor injury, 1,365 personal robberies and 2,810 sexual offences. Table 1 provides further details.

Figure 2 shows the proportion of offences of different types for which CCTV was available and, within that, the proportion for which it was useful. There are large variations across crime types, with recordings being useful in 62.2% of robbery investigations but only 10.7% of drug investigations. There was also variation in the proportion of cases where CCTV is useful given that it is available : recordings were often available in cases of thefts from motor vehicles, but are often not useful; in drugs cases, images were rarely available but (when they were) they were almost-always useful. Figure 3 shows the detection rate for offences of each type in which there was or was not useful CCTV evidence. Where the difference is significant at p < 0.001 using a chi-squared test, the percentage-point difference is shown. Footnote 2

Proportion of crimes for which CCTV recordings were useful in the investigation

Probability of crime being solved if CCTV is useful or is not. Percentage difference is shown if significant at p < 0.001

Having useful CCTV evidence is associated with a significantly increased detection rate for all types of crime except drugs, fraud and public order. The largest change is for robbery, where the probability of detecting an offence increases from 8.9% without useful CCTV to 55.7% with it. Absent CCTV, detection rates for acquisitive crimes are very low (< 10 % ): only 2% of theft from the person offences are detected if no CCTV is available. For all types of acquisitive crime (except shop theft) useful CCTV evidence is associated with an increase in detection rates of at least 19 percentage points.

Detection rates in the absence of useful CCTV are higher for violent crimes than for acquisitive crimes. This may be because for violent offences there is always at least one witness (the victim) present at the scene. However, the existence of useful CCTV remains associated with significantly higher detection rates for all types of assault, and for sexual offences.

CCTV is only rarely useful in the investigation of drug or weapon offences (Fig. 2 ) and the proportion of those offences that are detected is not significantly different when CCTV is or is not available (Fig. 3 ). This may be because such offences are “intangible” (Chappell and Walsh 1974 , p 494): they typically only become known to the police when officers discover them through pro-active tactics such as stop and search. In such circumstances it is unlikely that officers will need CCTV, since the discovery that an offence has occurred also provides the evidence needed to solve it. Put another way, these crimes may be likely to be “self solving”, in that the identity of the perpetrator is obvious from an early stage in the investigation (Innes 2007 , p 257).

Unlike other types of theft, detection rates for shoplifting are relatively high in the absence of useful CCTV, which is only associated with a modest increase in detection rate. This may suggest that tangibility is not a binary state. Shoplifting offences are known to be substantially under-reported to the police (Home Office 2014 ), with some shopkeepers often only reporting offences when the thief has been caught, while others report all incidents of which they are aware. As such, shoplifting may be a ‘semi-tangible’ offence.

No significant association between CCTV usefulness and detection rates was found for fraud offences, but this may be for a different reason. While fraud can take many different forms, it is often an offence where physical action is less important than the offender’s intentions. As such, visual evidence such as that provided by CCTV may be less likely to be useful.

Overall it appears that CCTV is frequently useful in investigating a wide range of crimes, although its usefulness varies substantially between crime types. However, it is important to note that it is not possible to establish causation in non-experimental studies such as this. The analysis presented so far also does not take into account other variables that may explain the association between CCTV and crime detections. This is the focus of the following sections.

In What Circumstances is CCTV Most Likely to be Useful?

Based on the results presented in the previous section, five hypotheses were developed about the circumstances in which CCTV is most likely to be (a) available and (b) useful. Given that usefulness is dependent upon availability, the process by which CCTV might be useful was modelled in two stages. The first modelled whether or not a CCTV recording is available and the second modelled whether, if a recording is available , it would be useful or not. Separate binary logistic regressions were run for these two stages, with the same predictors used in both models.

The first hypothesis was that:

H1: the availability and usefulness of CCTV will depend upon the type of crime being investigated.

This hypothesis was based on the results shown in Figs. 2 and 3 , and was included to ensure that variations in availability or usefulness by crime type were controlled for in the model.

Some offences are “aoristic” (Ratcliffe and McCullagh 1998 ), in that the time at which they occur is not known precisely. Instead, the police typically only know the first and last possible times at which the crime occurred, such as the time a victim left their car unattended and the time at which they returned to find it had been stolen (Ashby and Bowers 2012 ). The window of opportunity between these two points expresses the period over which the offence could have occurred. A related issue for transport crime is that offences can occur between two locations (such as a bag stolen at an unknown point during a train journey), which Newton et al. ( 2014 ) referred to as “interstitial” offences.

If the aoristic window is long, it is possible that the investigating officer will be less likely to request or view CCTV. For example, if a bag is stolen from a car that has been left unattended for a week, the officer may decide not to seize recordings from any cameras in the area because viewing such a large volume of material would be unfeasible. As such it was hypothesised that:

H2: the longer the window of opportunity in which a crime could have occurred, the less likely it will be that CCTV will be available or useful.

In the present data, the aoristic window was less than 10 minutes in 54.0% of crimes, between 10 minutes and one hour in 19.4%, between 1 and 24 hours in 20.2% and greater than 24 hours in 6.4% (median = 6 minutes, inter-quartile range = 81 minutes). Since this variable was skewed, it was transformed using a natural logarithm before inclusion in the models.

As discussed above, some types of crime (such as drug possession) are often detected very quickly because they are self solving. This may also be the case where the evidence is overwhelming, or where the suspect rapidly admits the offence. In such circumstances the investigating officer may decide that retrieving CCTV is not necessary, and so any recording will not be useful to the investigation, whether or not if it exists. As such:

H3: CCTV will be less likely to be available or useful in cases that are detected quickly.

To test this hypothesis, offences were categorised according to whether or not they were detected within 72 hours of occurring, as was the case in 9.9% of crimes.

The value of CCTV may vary according to the type of location at which the offence occurred. For example, offences occurring at the side of railway lines may be less likely to produce useful CCTV than offences in station ticket halls. To account for this:

H4: The availability and usefulness of CCTV will depend upon the type of place in which the offence occurred.

Offences were categorised (based on a variable recorded by BTP) as occurring either at stations (37%), onboard trains (33% of offences), on or alongside railway lines (7%), in car parks (4%) or at other locations (19%).

It is unlikely that all types of crime will be equally important to investigators. One reason why officers may prioritise particular investigations (and therefore be more likely to identify CCTV evidence) is that they involve crimes that are believed to be particularly serious because of their impact on individuals or society. As such:

H5: The more serious that a crime is, the more likely it will be that CCTV will be available and useful.

Operationalising the severity of individual crimes is problematic, since harm comes in many forms. One method that has been discussed in recent literature is to use the severity of punishment expected for a particular offence as a proxy for the harm caused by it (see, for example, Sherman 2013 ; Ratcliffe 2014 ). More specifically, sentencing guidelines can be used to determine the number of days in prison likely to be imposed on a first-time offender before any aggravating or mitigating factors are taken into consideration. For the present study, these starting-point sentences were obtained from the Magistrates’ Court Sentencing Guidelines (Sentencing Guidelines Council 2008 ). Following (Sherman et al. 2016 ), in cases in which the starting point was a community penalty (which is typically specified as a number of hours of, for example, unpaid work) this was converted to days imprisonment based on an eight-hour working day.

Current sentencing guidelines in England and Wales set monetary penalties based on an offender’s weekly income (see Sentencing Guidelines Council 2008 , p 148), so fines were converted to days of imprisonment based on how long it would have taken for an offender to earn the money to pay the fine. For example, the starting-point sentence for cannabis possession is a fine equal to 100% of the offender’s weekly earnings. Given a 5-day working week, for the purposes of severity this could be converted to 5 days of imprisonment, since that is for how long the offender would have to work to earn that money.

Once a sentence had been converted to days of imprisonment, the variable was scaled to 28-day periods of imprisonment to give a range of values that could be interpreted more easily. The median severity, expressed as the equivalent months in prison, was 1.0 months, with an inter-quartile range of 0.74 months. However, some offences had much higher values: 195 months (16 years) for murder and 130 months (11 years) for rape of a child. Since this variable was skewed, it was transformed using a natural logarithm.

Table 2 shows the results of a binary logistic regression model with the availability of CCTV as the dependant variable, based on 250,665 cases. For each variable, the table shows the estimate ( β ), the standard error (SE) and associated p value, the odds ratio ( e β ) and the estimated percentage change associated with a one-unit increase in the value of each predictor ( e β − 1). Table 3 shows the same information for the model used to predict whether CCTV would be useful in cases in which it was available, based on 111,344 cases. Footnote 3

Overall, compared to a null model with no predictors, the models were significantly better at predicting whether CCTV would be available ( χ 2 (19) = 44,206, p < 0.001, Nagelkerke R 2 = 0.22) and—if so—whether it would be useful ( χ 2 (19) = 18,465, p < 0.001, Nagelkerke R 2 = 0.21). Generalised variance inflation factors (used because some predictors were not binary) were less than 2.4 for all the predictors, suggesting no concerns about multi-collinearity.

As discussed in the previous section, the likelihood of CCTV being both available and useful varied between different types of crime, in line with the prediction of H1. For intangible offences such as the possession and supply of drugs or weapons, CCTV was less likely to be available than for other offences. However, if a recording was available then it was much more likely to be useful. Conversely, recordings were more likely to be available in investigations of thefts of or from vehicles or pedal cycles but (when available) were less likely to be useful. This is interesting because it is for offences in car parks that the crime-prevention benefits of CCTV have been most often demonstrated (Welsh and Farrington 2008 ). The present finding may be because vehicle and cycle thefts are typically not interstitial, and so it is easy for officers to identify what CCTV recordings to obtain. However, such offences commonly are aoristic (Ashby and Bowers 2012 ), so it may be difficult to obtain useful evidence from the recording when it is viewed because of the difficulty of identifying an offender (or even an offence occurring) among many hours of recordings.

The circumstances of the offence were significant predictors of both availability and usefulness. The greater the window of time of which an offence could have occurred, the less likely CCTV was to be available and (when available) to be useful, in accordance with the prediction of H2.

CCTV was only half as likely to be available in cases that were detected within 3 days of being reported as in those that were not, supporting the prediction of H3. However, in quickly detected cases for which CCTV was available, it was more than four times as likely to be useful as in cases that were not detected quickly, contrary to the prediction.

In accordance with H4, the type of place in which an offence occurred was a significant predictor of both the availability and usefulness of CCTV. Compared to offences that occurred in stations, recordings were less likely to be available for offences occurring at the side of railway lines or on trains. This almost certainly reflects the distribution of cameras, since CCTV equipment is ubiquitous in stations but not so along the many thousands of kilometres of track. Fewer cameras may also mean less overlap between the areas covered by each camera, and so a greater likelihood that an area will be covered only at the periphery of a camera’s coverage. This may explain why CCTV is less likely to be useful at the line side even when it is available.

While cameras are becoming common in trains, recordings are often kept for a shorter period than in other types of CCTV system (National Rail CCTV Steering Group 2010 ), meaning that any delay in requesting images from a train-operating company may mean that on-train images have been overwritten when this would not be the case if the offence had happened in a station. Lack of cameras cannot, however, explain the apparent lower availability of recordings for offences in car parks, since CCTV has long been used in such locations (Poyner and Webb 1987 ).

As predicted by H5, the more serious an offence, the more likely it was that CCTV would be available to officers. There are several potential reasons for this. Firstly, the operators of CCTV systems may have developed them with their use against serious crimes particularly in mind. For example banks have for many years deployed CCTV systems around automated teller machines (ATMs) to combat robbery of customers (Scott 2001 ). Secondly, victims may have been more likely to report more-serious offences promptly, making it more likely that recordings would be available to officers. Thirdly, investigating officers may be more likely to invest the time and effort required to obtain and view CCTV in more-serious cases. In any case, where CCTV was available, seriousness was not associated with any change in the likelihood of the recording being useful.

The factors considered in this section suggest that CCTV is more useful in certain circumstances than in others. However, the Nagelkerke R 2 values for the models ( R 2 = 0.22 for availability and R 2 = 0.21 for usefulness) suggest that there is substantial variation in the availability and usefulness of CCTV that is not associated with these factors.

This study produced several potentially useful findings. Firstly, CCTV is frequently useful in the investigation of crime (Fig. 2 ): recordings were useful in an average of 14,478 BTP investigations a year, including 3,363 assaults, 2,378 vehicle thefts, 562 sexual offences and 273 robberies. The availability of CCTV was associated with substantial increases in the likelihood of most types of offences being solved, with some types of crime very unlikely to be solved when CCTV was not available (Fig. 3 ).

Secondly, a number of situational factors appear to be associated with the likelihood of CCTV being available and (if so) useful. Recordings were less likely to be available for offences occurring in locations such as on trains or (in particular) at the side of the track (Table 2 ). CCTV was also less likely to be available if an offence occurred during a long window of opportunity. In cases in which recordings were available, they were less likely to be useful for offences in car parks or involving thefts from the person (Table 3 ).

Thirdly, it appears that the apparent low usefulness of CCTV reported in previous studies such as the unpublished report produced by the MPS may be a function of CCTV being only infrequently available to some investigators. The present study was able to distinguish between the availability and usefulness of CCTV, in contrast to other work that has not made that distinction, artificially lowering the apparent usefulness of camera systems. Failing to make this distinction is somewhat akin to saying that witness evidence is not helpful in cases where no witnesses were present: true, but not particularly insightful. In short, it may be that if CCTV is not often useful that is because the area in question does not have much CCTV. Future studies on this topic should distinguish between the availability and usefulness of CCTV to take this issue into account.

These findings suggest several recommendations for practice. The most important is that if CCTV is made available to investigators then it is likely to be useful in a substantial proportion of cases. At least in the case of railway crime, CCTV appears to be a powerful investigative tool, particularly for more-serious crimes.

This does not mean, however, that place managers should necessarily install CCTV cameras in all types of place, since several other considerations are relevant. Firstly, it may not be possible to replicate the extremely high density of cameras found in many parts of the railway environment. The cost of CCTV systems has reduced over time, but in some cases the investment may not be justified. This is likely to be particularly true where the probability of a crime occurring is low. Lack of data on the location and type of cameras installed meant that this study was not able to consider the costs of CCTV systems, but this is likely to be a relevant consideration for any potential system operator. Installation may be more likely to be justified where the chances of a crime occurring are high (particularly if those crimes are likely to be serious or very frequent), or where CCTV images can be used for multiple purposes. For example, in many railway CCTV systems images are monitored in real time to facilitate crowd management, with any investigative benefit being secondary to their primary purpose of public safety (a diffusion of benefit). In other circumstances it may be that other interventions are likely to be more effective than CCTV in assisting investigations, or preventing crimes from happening in the first place (Ratcliffe 2011 , p 21).

The present findings also suggest ways in which investigators could make better use of CCTV. In particular, the findings point to the importance of officers identifying potential sources of CCTV images whenever possible. While officers were more likely to request CCTV in more-serious cases (Table 2 ), the likelihood of available images being useful was not associated with the degree of seriousness (Table 3 ). This suggests that if officers are able to seize CCTV in less-serious cases, they are as likely to be useful as in more-serious cases. This accords with previous research by Roman et al. ( 2008 ) showing that DNA evidence is valuable in investigations of high-volume, less-serious offences as well as in the investigation of major crime, but that despite this officers often only look for it in serious cases.

There will sometimes be good reasons why CCTV is not requested in a particular case, for example if the police have already obtained overwhelming evidence from other sources. However, it is possible that there remain cases where CCTV could have been useful but in which the investigating officer did not make a request for it. A recent small-scale study of newly installed cameras in two violent-crime hotspots in Stockholm found that investigators requested CCTV recordings in only 20% of cases in which they were available (Marklund and Holmberg 2015 ). It is crucial that officers take reasonable and proportionate steps to identify CCTV evidence in every case in which it may be available.

The generalisability of the present results may be limited by the specific characteristics of the railway environment. For example, it is unlikely that many police agencies could achieve widespread CCTV coverage of streets and other public areas to the same degree of saturation that is experienced on railway networks in the UK. Specifications for installing new or upgraded railway CCTV systems in Britain recommend that at least 90% of areas such as platforms, ticket halls and car parks are covered by cameras (National Rail CCTV Steering Group 2010 , p 11). In contrast, many non-railway CCTV systems cover only parts of a local area. CCTV is also likely to be useful less-often for offences that typically take place where cameras are rarely present, such as private dwellings. Even in dwellings, however, there have been examples of CCTV providing effective evidence after being installed to protect particularly vulnerable people (e.g. Phillips 1999 ).

BTP investigators also benefit from most railway cameras being operated by a small number of rail companies. In contrast, local police may have to identify CCTV recordings that could be held by a large number of public and private organisations. Retrieving recordings in such cases may be both more difficult and more time-consuming. In particular, the lack of a national register of CCTV systems may mean that officers investigating an offence in a street may have to speak to every property owner in the area to determine whether they operate a camera system or not.

The data used in this study could not be used to identify whether CCTV made the difference between an offence being detected and not being detected. It is also not possible to determine the nature of causality in the relationships described here without an experimental study. Nevertheless, this study represents the most-detailed published analysis of the value of CCTV in criminal investigations.

Further research in this field would be valuable, particularly given the scarcity of evidence on the use of CCTV for investigation. While the lack of existing research means that there are many potential avenues for investigation, the present results suggest some questions that could usefully be prioritised. Firstly, when CCTV is useful in investigations, what is the mechanism by which it acts? Identifying how CCTV works would be useful if it allowed investigators to prioritise the search for CCTV in certain types of case, or allowed researchers to identify potential barriers to effective use of CCTV that could not be found using the present data. Secondly, it appears that investigators do not request CCTV recordings in some cases in which they could be potentially useful. Why does this happen and what can be done to facilitate the acquisition of CCTV evidence whenever practicable? This information would help to remove any barriers to ensuring the availability of recordings. Thirdly, why is CCTV not useful in cases where it is available? Fourthly, what can be done to minimise the number of cases in which CCTV is available but proves not to be useful? Better understanding of the reasons for this could help to improve the evidence available to investigators.

In England and Wales, police forces are required to notify the Home Office of how many crimes occur of each type. However, very minor offences—such as failing to stop at a red traffic light or travelling on a train without a ticket—are excluded from this requirement. All other offences are included and so are referred to as ‘notifiable’ offences. For further details, see Home Office ( 2011 ). Crime statistics and almost all research on crime in England and Wales are based on notifiable-crime data.

Results for the chi-squared tests are not shown for reasons of space, but are available from the author on request.

To produce a model with a manageable number of variables, different types of assault and of vehicle-related theft were combined into a single category in each case.

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Acknowledgments

Thank you to British Transport Police in particular Ashley Auger, Rhys Gambold,Will Jordan and Vanita Patel for providing the data used in this research. Although relevant BTP officers were given advanced access to the results of this study, control of the content and responsibility for any mistakes lay solely with the author. Thank you also to Manne Gerell of Malm¨o University for providing a summary translation of a Swedish-language report by Marklund and Holmberg ( 2015 ), and to Rebecca Thompson, Andromachi Tseloni and two anonymous reviewers for commen ts on an earlier draft. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors

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Ashby, M.P.J. The Value of CCTV Surveillance Cameras as an Investigative Tool: An Empirical Analysis. Eur J Crim Policy Res 23 , 441–459 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-017-9341-6

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Assessing the impact of CCTV

James kelly, chief executive at the british security industry association (bsia) outlines why cctv remains a crucial pillar to public safety and highlights the importance of implementing standards across the sector as a whole.

With between 4 million and 5.9 million CCTV surveillance cameras in the UK alone, the CCTV industry, both in the UK and globally, is one of the largest sectors within the security landscape. The application of CCTV is wide-ranging and, as such, is constantly changing and improving in order to keep up with the requirements of modern-day society. It is not just understandable to question the function of CCTV cameras in the UK in order to ensure that cameras are being utilised correctly for their intended purpose – it is essential.

Crime detection

In terms of crime detection, CCTV cameras are unrivalled in their ability to gather real-time intelligence instantly throughout a designated area – not only facilitating speedy responses from the police but securing much-needed convictions in court. Similarly, CCTV cameras in the UK also serve to save money for the public purse; in court, criminals are much more likely to plead guilty when faced by the undeniable evidence of being caught on camera.

According to Hugh Marriage, former Home Office Crime Reduction Officer for the south-east of England, “A court hearing with a guilty verdict saves around £3,000 to £5,000 and CCTV pictures mean there has been an enormous increase in guilty verdicts.” 1 Indeed, in 2010 alone, the Met Police stated that 1 in 6 crimes are solved thanks to CCTV solutions.

While CCTV cameras have the ability to aid convictions in this way, it is important that they are installed and maintained properly in order to ensure that they are not badly positioned, out of focus, broken, or simply outdated and providing poor quality images. As Professor Laycock from the Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science at University College London comments, “It depends on what cameras are being used for and if they are maintained properly.” 2

The importance of Standards

Speaking in more detail about the current CCTV standards climate, Simon Adcock, Chairman of the BSIA’s CCTV section commented, “In 2012, the Protection of Freedoms Act3 formalised the government’s intention to drive CCTV best practice forward.

“The CCTV Code of Practice4 – made up of 12 guiding principles – aimed to define best practice in a way wherein public protection was paramount. While the Code of Practice was undoubtedly a ‘step in the right direction’, it is flawed.

“Presently, the Code of Practice only extends to publicly-owned systems. However, the private sector is a key player in the CCTV arena; only 1 out of every 70 CCTV cameras in use are publicly owned, according to BSIA research released last year. The majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are privately owned and, as such, do not fall under the remit of the current code of practice dictated by government.

“Logically, the next step for the current CCTV Code of Practice is the application of its 12 guiding principles to cover privately-owned systems. Not only do they form the majority of CCTV coverage in the UK, they are also responsible for providing significant evidence to Police.”

Promoting Community Safety

As Simon highlights, research conducted by the BSIA in 2013 suggested that only 1 out of every 70 CCTV cameras is owned by public bodies. Despite this, both publically and privately owned cameras have the potential to promote community safety. For example, CCTV operators often contact medical services if they see people in the street suffering from illness of injury, as a result of criminal activity or otherwise. In fact, Squires (2000)5 found that police are called on average 10 to 20 times for every 700 hours of observation.

Given the lack of resources available to the police, achieving these levels of detection would be impossible through patrolling alone. Aside from the fact this would require considerably more manpower; most members of the public would agree that CCTV cameras are preferable to an increased police presence, which could appear overbearing. In fact, one particular study (Brown6) found that police commanders believed that assaults on police had been reduced due to cameras allowing them to determine the appropriate level of response to an incident – either by sending more officers where necessary, or by limiting the number of officers to a minor incident to avoid inadvertently inflaming the situation.

Beyond crime, cameras can be used for other purposes to help the public, such as aiding in the search for lost children, monitoring traffic flow and providing updates or to determine if alarms have been activated unnecessarily. Camera footage can also help identify potential witnesses who might not otherwise realise that they could be vital to an investigation.

The surveillance state myth

To conclude, despite a certain level of scaremongering from the press, the strong CCTV presence in the UK should not be viewed negatively. Indeed the significant number of CCTV cameras in operation are privately owned, rather than state-owned. Despite this, communication between CCTV control room staff and the police presents major benefits for law abiding citizens in terms of ensuring their safety on a day to day basis, as well as presenting assurance that in the event of them falling victim to opportunist criminals, the likelihood of those responsible being convicted is much more likely. Looking to the future, it is crucial that adequate standards are adopted across the entire CCTV sector in order to cement these benefits. The British Security Industry Association is the trade association for the private security industry in the UK. Our members provide over 70% of UK security products and services and adhere to strict quality standards.

For more information, visit the BSIA’s website at www.bsia.co.uk .

1 http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2071496.stm

3 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2012/9/contents/enacted

4 https://ico.org.uk/media/for-organisations/documents/1542/cctv-code-of-practice.pdf

5 http://www.petersquires.net/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/CCTV_and_crime_reduction_in_Crawley.pdf

6 http://www.popcenter.org/responses/video_surveillance/pdfs/brown_1995_full.pdf

James Kelly

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Top 8 Pros and Cons of Surveillance Cameras in Public Places

In a debate about whether surveillance cameras should be put in public areas, like schools, stores, libraries, airports, bars, and clubs, some individuals feel more secure with the cameras, while other citizens and privacy advocates feel nervous about the fact that they are under surveillance every time they are out in public. Let’s take a closer look at the pros and cons of CCTV in public places.

In the discussion of pros and cons of surveillance cameras in public places, the key information is as follows:

Are Security Cameras an Invasion of Privacy

Pros of surveillance cameras in public places, cons of security cameras in public places, conclusion of installing public surveillance cameras.

In a public surveillance cameras good or bad debate, the first question is whether the surveillance cameras in public places are an invasion of privacy. 42% say yes and 58% say no , according to the debeate.org in the security cameras and privacy discussion.

When you are walking down the street, driving in your car, or hanging out with boyfriends and girlfriends, you will be monitored with cameras placed in public. This creates a complete picture of the private life of an individual. We all have a private life and we don’t want others or the government to know.

Surveillance Cameras Invasion of Privacy

Yet, public surveillance does help with the investigation and protect us. For example, if your car is stolen , public security cameras may provide useful evidence. There are no laws that prohibit surveillance cameras in public places. And more than half of the reviewed citizens think that cameras would not be an invasion of privacy if they were put in places that are not private, like in the parking lots or in business.

In fact, laws on surveillance cameras in public places are sparse and only a few of the states in the United States pass statues that regulate the public usage of the video surveillance.

For example, in New York, police can only use video surveillance as a part of the investigation into the alleged criminals after obtaining a warrant from local authorities.

However, putting hidden security cameras in public places, like bathrooms, changing rooms and other places where an individual has a reasonable expectation of privacy , are prohibited in most cases (click here to learn why). Further Reading: Check this post to learn whether it is legal to set up security cameras in workplaces.

*Read the infographic below to find the pros and cons of surveillance cameras in public places if you are in a rush.

Why are the benefits of surveillance cameras in public places? Here list several advantages of why we need public surveillance.

Pro 1. Public Video Surveillance Improves Public Safety

When we install a home security camera , we gain increased house safety. Just like that, the main benefit of surveillance cameras in public spaces is also the increase in public safety. Public surveillance cameras help you stay safe while clubbing, shopping, and traveling.

The public security cameras can be used as a way to keep an eye out for crimes. PTZ security cameras put in public spaces, like a crossroad, a retail store, parking lots, museums, concert halls, do an excellent job in providing 360° seamless surveillance solutions.

Additionally, crimes can be deterred before they even begin in some cases. If a suspicious individual or individuals or items are seen in an area, the appropriate authorities can be contacted to move into the area before any damage is done or any crime is committed. Moreover, any people in the area can be cleared as a precaution.

Since public safety is guaranteed, people’s fear of crime can also be reduced, while their sense of security is created.

According to a survey by the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2015, nearly 80% of public schools put up surveillance systems in public places to secure campuses.

To ensure students’ safety, administrators of Broward County School have announced that they will introduce AI-powered facial recognition security systems to the campuses after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in 2018 that led to the death of 17 students and staff.

Pro 2. Public Surveillance Cameras Reduce Crime Rate

Video surveillance statistics show that camera surveillance does reduce crime – after security cameras were put in public, crime incidents in Humboldt Park dropped 20% .

If an individual knows that there are live surveillance cameras in a certain area, they may be less willing to commit a crime near the location for the fear of being caught.

Some authorities place public cameras in Walmart and other shops, hoping that the cameras will help prevent crimes from being committed.

Surveillance Camera in Public Places Pros

Pro 3. Public Video Surveillance Helps Catch Criminals

If a crime is committed in an area where a public surveillance camera has been set up, the chances of catching the criminal are much higher.

Facial recognition software has improved greatly over the years. So, if criminals are captured by security cameras in public places, the local authority is able to recognize and catch them easier with facial recognition technology. Posters can be created and the images can be aired on network television to help spread the word about the criminal.

Without the surveillance cameras in public places, it can be extremely difficult to gain a quality description of the person who committed the crime, even if there were eyewitnesses.

Catching criminals is one of the best benefits of surveillance cameras in public places. The bombing at Boston Marathon is a good example. It only took the FBI three days to release blurry shots of the two suspects, taken by a surveillance camera installed in a department store.

Pro 4. Video Cameras in Public Locations Provide Evidence and Gather Clues

Another benefit of surveillance is that any footage that captures a crime being committed can be used in a court of law as evidence against the accused.

In some cases, if there were no CCTV security camera systems in public places, there would be little or no evidence to convict the person of the crime and the individual may go free. With night vision security cameras on watch, robbers can be recognized even if they commit a crime in dark areas.

Additionally, in some cases, the public video surveillance footage can also help prove someone’s innocence if they have been accused of a crime that they did not commit.

Pro 5. Public Video Surveillance Brings Convenience for Everyday Life

Some cities have placed cameras on stop lights as a way to help prevent people from speeding or from going through a red light.

And also, relevant authorities can monitor road conditions with the live surveillance cameras. So they can make real-time traffic reports, helping people choose the right time and road when going out.

Surveillance Cameras in Public Places Essay

While there are advantages of CCTV, there are disadvantages.

What’s wrong with public video surveillance? Here are some bad points of public CCTV cameras.

Con 1. Surveillance Systems Are Easily Abused

A con of surveillance cameras in public places is that these security cameras may be abused. One example of how a public camera may be misused is that information gathered by law enforcement can be used as a form of blackmail.

Another form of abuse is voyeurism. Spying on women with public surveillance cameras is quite common, which becomes quite an issue that needs to be dealt with.

Overall, the simple lack of control or limits on public camera use is one of the biggest problems. Until now, there is no a good check-and-balance system, in order to prevent abuses from occurring.

Surveillance Camera in Public Place Cons

Con 2. Effectiveness of a Public Security Camera Is Doubted

Another controversy of the use of surveillance cameras in public places is that its effectiveness has not been proven. While there has been a push for more public CCTV cameras to be placed in public places because of the threat of terrorist attacks, it is quite clear that a suicidal bomber is not going to be deterred by the fact that there is a camera in place.

Con 3. Public Camera Surveillance Is Expensive

One of the arguments against the widespread use of public surveillance cameras is that it costs big money. Since it is not effective enough to deter crimes and theft, why would we spend too much money in it, which not only fails to make us safer but also violates our personal rights?

Surveillance Cameras in Public Places Debate

According to the American Civil Liberties Union, officials in Michigan have been proposing to put up public video surveillance for years, but ended up concluding that the limited results could not justify high maintenance and personnel costs.

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In today’s world, public cameras can be extremely helpful.

After the Orlando nightclub shooting , how to stay safe in public places, say, a night club, has been a hot topic. Needless to say, placing cameras in strategic areas throughout a city can help ensure public safety, protect property, and prevent crimes.

On the other hand, there are always crimes that are not deterred by surveillance cameras. And the abuse of public video cameras would violate privacy and personal rights. Therefore, how to balance public safety and personal privacy needs to be considered further.

As far as I am concerned, the benefits of surveillance outweigh the disadvantages greatly.

According to FBI statistics on surveillance cameras, there were an estimated 1,165,383 violent crimes 8,277,829 property crimes reported in 2014, and the crime rate has been rising in recent years.

I can’t imagine how bad the situation would be if there were no public security cameras. There is no much about the concern of privacy violation when you behave yourself in public places. Security in public places should always be put on top of priority.

If you have nothing to hide, you have nothing to worry about. What do you think about surveillance cameras in public places? Feel free to share your ideas by leaving a comment below!

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CCTV Surveillance in Schools | Notable Benefits and Challenges

The work of schools is to offer safe learning surroundings for students, teachers, and faculty. To do this, school districts are mandated to keep weapons, violence, predators, and unwanted behavior out of school environments. However, with the recent surge in cases of bullying and issues of gun violence, administrators can no longer assume that their current school security systems can cope.

Schools require all the assistance they can get to ensure the safety of learning environments. Recently, debates have centered on the potential use of security cameras and video surveillance systems in the security structures of schools, with divergent views. This article examines some pros and cons of using CCTV surveillance in schools.

Why Do Schools Need Video Surveillance?

One of the main jobs of schools is to offer students and teachers a safe environment to share knowledge and facilitate learning. The assumption is that video surveillance is the school’s way of boosting its security systems. The goal is to help administrators address some of the common challenges experienced in institutions, including theft, bullying, absenteeism, violence, trespassing, and violence. Here are some notable benefits of this kind of surveillance.

Prevention of Harmful Events

The main benefit of video surveillance in schools is that it allows institutions to prevent incidents that could affect student safety and well-being. Prevention is vital when managing students` welfare. The understanding is that having cameras placed in crucial areas in the school would deter potential offenders from committing crimes.

The experience is that students tend to behave better when they know they are being watched. Also, video footage can be used as evidence when it comes to enforcing disciplinary actions. Institutions can integrate cameras with security systems, mobile phone apps, and video verification to address safety incidents quickly and effectively. Students shouldn’t worry as the cameras won’t be a problem when they decide to buy essay online .

Assisting in Access Control

Proponents of video surveillance in schools indicate that the tool provides an additional layer of access control to the institution’s premises. By integrating the cameras into the school security system, schools can track exactly who accesses specific areas of the school. The cameras may provide an additional tool to confirm credentials and visual information before providing access. The tools greatly support the guards manning the institution, allowing them to focus on important areas.

Deterrence of Theft

Another reason why many schools are embracing the idea of having cameras around their facilities is to deter theft. Theft cases are quite common in learning institutions, mostly regarding school equipment and student valuables. Video surveillance offers a useful tool that can help administrators prevent theft from taking place. Schools can deter theft and unwanted habits when installing cameras in important areas and vulnerable spots. Schools can also use the information from the security cameras to evaluate resource use and ensure efficiency and responsible behavior.

Monitoring Attendance

Regular attendance is one of the most important determinants of academic success among students. According to research, the overall growth of a student increases considerably over time when they attend school regularly and have strong connections to all the elements of class and school learning. The findings demonstrate a crucial relationship between successful learning and attending school regularly.

Although we recognize that students may be periodically absent from sessions, being available for lectures, group discussions, and academic tasks is important for supporting assigned readings and independent research.

Surveillance cameras allow teachers and school administrators to assess students’ whereabouts during learning activities. While teachers can take class attendance lists, their efforts may not help when looking at involvement outside the traditional classroom. Cameras can be used to support the efforts of teachers and administrators by allowing them to verify attendance and assist in student location. This is an important step in ensuring the safety of students within the school premises.

Promote Safety During Emergencies

Although school emergencies may seem infrequent, their occurrence can have serious implications for students and faculty. When emergencies happen, schools need to be prepared if the unfortunate happens. When emergencies happen and evacuations need to happen, video surveillance can be instrumental in locating bottlenecks and identifying available exit points.

Problems With Video Surveillance

Schools in the United States are increasingly turning to security cameras as a tool to monitor and enhance student safety. However, most schools still lack a standard setup for their security cameras and video surveillance, leading to several challenges and privacy fears.

According to a recent comprehensive study on exclusion, security cameras in the classroom can make certain kids feel alienated and result in negative views of the learning environment. Some parents have also registered worries and discomfort over the idea of their children being recorded by schools without their clear authorization.

When it comes to the learning environment, the presence of video surveillance in the classroom is considered by some to be an infringement on the privacy of learners and educators. While video monitoring is legal and widespread, some teachers, students, and parents are concerned about installing some gadgets improperly. In areas where privacy is required, such as restrooms and locker rooms, cameras must never be installed.

Another possible challenge with school security cameras is the financial implication of their installation and management. Most schools cannot afford to purchase the equipment and run the features required for safe and effective use. Remember, the total cost of your system will depend on the number and quality of cameras you desire for your institution.

The Bottom Line

The debate on surveillance cameras in schools is ongoing, and the result will depend on what stakeholders feel is best in addressing learners’ needs. Data shows that, when properly used, the devices can support student safety, prevent incidences, and help manage attendance. However, developing issues relating to privacy and pricing need to be addressed before schools fully benefit from the advantages of CCTV surveillance.

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What are the advantages and disadvantages of using CCTV cameras to fight crime?

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Essay on Surveillance

Example Of Cctv Essay

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Surveillance , Crime , Cyber Crimes , Police , Society , Privacy , Security , Social Issues

Words: 1800

Published: 02/12/2020

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Introduction

The increase in security threats across the world has facilitated the introduction of technology to assist security agencies. Security agents are using surveillance systems such as Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) to enhance safety precautions to the public. A CCTV is a surveillance system that consists of cameras, recorders and displays for monitoring activities. Installation of CCTVs around the streets has raised mixed reactions from the public (Cieszynski, 2006, p. 6). Some people claim that the system has reduced crime rates in the recent past while others feel insecure in the absence of police officers in the street. The presence of both police officers and CCTV videos in the streets contributes to reduction or increase of crime rates. Although CCTVs are digital and efficient because they are in strategic places, the cost of maintenance, privacy concerns and societal perceptions are affecting their significance.

The cost of acquiring CCTV cameras is economical compared to the recruitment of hiring police officers. This is because police officers consume a lot of money during training, hiring and salaries. These monies can be placed at other vital projects instead of hiring many police officers. CCTVs are cost effective because they are cheap to acquire and install with limited expenses. The cameras help officer to monitor the movement of suspected persons in the streets without their notice. This saves the number of officers in the streets who can alert the criminals through their presences (Coleman & Mccahill 2011, p. 6). However, some people claim that the presence of police officers is crucial in the streets because they feel safe. This is untrue since the police officers collude with thugs for bribes and other may inform criminals about their patrol schedules. This makes the CCTV economical due to detailed coverage of all events that take place within the town centres. The only cost incurred by the installation of CCTVs is the high maintenance costs. The machines require regular maintenance to ensure their effectiveness and reliability. It is also costly to hire experts to install and maintain the devices since it is a technological initiative that needs experts only. Sometimes the devices wore out or damaged by extreme weather conditions, which is uneconomical to taxpayers money. The devices also face vandalism or manipulation from the public due to reduction of employment opportunities. Decrease in equipment costs and increased production of CCTV equipment has enabled even the small-scale businesses to acquire this visual surveillance technology. For instance, wholesalers, security retailers, and Internet dealers offer a variety of products for a varied choice of security needs at cheap prices. This increases security details at homes and neighbourhoods without over-reliance on police personnel (Coleman & Mccahill 2011, p. 15). Additionally, the low costs have influenced security managers to incorporate security-monitoring systems, which combine boundary access, fire and invasion alarms, and observation video into a single safety network. Wireless machinery allows security workers to observe cameras from laptops, handheld gadgets, and even mobile phones.

Another issue that influences that use of CCTVs is the societal perception. The project is a crucial initiative that aims at reducing crime rates, yet the public does not appreciate its importance. The public misconception of the devices that it monitors the activities of all people affects its services. Traditionally, the presence of police officers in the streets has helped in scaring criminals. Failures in technology have also enabled criminals break into businesses or homes unnoticed (Goold 2004, p. 27). Public support is based upon the often-erroneous belief that the cameras are universally subject to regular, routine and systematic monitoring. Consequently, societal involvement in the use of CCTV enables the operations of a police officer to be smooth because they report any occurrences. This implies that the role of the police is a major aspect in the operation and success of CCTV as a resource to fight crime and the fear of crime. There are core variances in approaches between police forces and the public with some keen to own and operate camera systems while others have planned and implemented the removal of CCTV systems from the police stations. The society feels that CCTVs should be controlled from intelligence departments and not police since they take time to reach crime scenes. The society supports this project because of the recent creation of police contact centres and the introduction of the airwaves radio system, which have changed the nature of channels of communication and information from CCTV control rooms to police response resources (Goold 2004, p. 45). This enables the society to contact the police about any vandalism or breakages observed in the streets or crimes that happen in areas with few CCTV cameras. Public involvement in the use of CCTV is also essential because they support and sustain the project financially through local authorities’ kitty. As a result, a core of committed CCTV managers and operators who strive daily to deliver high quality services, monitoring and recording CCTV images underpins this investment (Cieszynski 2006, p. 10). This is because CCTV cameras are an intelligence source, which depend on, other partners, to provide appropriate and effective responses to the images or the information they generate.

Privacy is another concern that influences the use of CCTVs. This is because developments in technology and economical access to CCTV cameras have resulted in an increase in the number of protests about attacks of privacy by fellow citizens. The cameras are installed, on every street in major towns, to monitor the operations of people. This makes the public feel that the government is supervising its citizens (Hess 2009, p. 159). Criminals are also aware of the existence of the camera and can execute their activities during blackouts or rainy periods. CCTVs are raising privacy concerns because individuals are monitored without their knowledge in public constructions, train locations, stores, lifts, storerooms, and school halls. They are also caught at ATMs and when confronted by the police in patrol vehicles. There are instances when the cameras are helpful to the public since the features that have enabled the distribution of CCTV also promote the collection of information about an individual. This helps security agencies to access information that can help in future investigations or court cases that arise due to personal identities. Privacy is a vital matter that concerns the lives of people, but the government insists that installation of surveillance cameras help in identifying criminals before they execute their ill intentions (Cieszynski 2006, p. 17). The only hindrance that arises from the system is that, despite the existence of video surveillance, applications in the current security structures have been restricted compared to those of surveillance equipment (Hess 2009, p. 170). There is also the risk that information collected from the surveillance machines can extend to spying on government officials or prominent personalities. In order to address the problems that originate from the communication of technological advances in video investigation and individual confidentiality necessities, the signal processing community can offer explanations such as the introduction of smart cameras. The smart cameras can be used to insert privacy restrictions in the strategy of a surveillance system (Deflem 2008 p. 262). Smart cameras are investigation cameras furnished with a digital signal processor (DSP). In surveillance operations such as street and transport control, the DSP is encoded to selectively de-identify persons. Additionally, an explanation of the constitution provisions allows security departments to monitor the operations in the towns. For instance, in the US, privacy issues associated with the use of CCTV surveillance are in the Fourth Amendment of the United States Constitution, which defends a resident from arbitrary pursuits and seizures by law administration and other government organizations (Deflem 2008, p. 260). Consequently, a number of cases maintain the use of technical strategies to improve the natural facility of vision and audible range police officers could install on the street if they were there in person. The courts cannot withdraw the use of surveillance equipment because it helps in maintaining the safety of all citizens. This implies that law can only restrain the right to confidentiality when it is essential to do so in an independent society for motives such as national safety, public protection, the avoidance of crime or defense of the rights and liberties of others. Any restriction on this privilege must be equivalent.

CCTVs are essential surveillance equipment that helps police agencies in strengthening the safety of all citizens. These services monitor the movement of all people within crime prone areas and protected regions such as government offices. There are restrictions that hinder effective operations of CCTVs because of the public beliefs and perceptions. For instance, the cost of obtaining CCTV cameras is inexpensive compared to the staffing or hiring police constables. This makes the CCTV effective due to detailed exposure of all events that happen within the town centres. The only cost suffered by the connection of CCTVs is the high maintenance costs. There are reductions in equipment costs and increased manufacture of CCTV equipment that has allowed even the small-scale industries to obtain this visual surveillance technology. The other crucial issue that influences installation of CCTVs is the perception of the community. Although the project is a crucial initiative that aims at reducing crime rates, the public do not appreciate its prominence because of unclear circumstances. As a result, the commitment of CCTV managers and operators is to strive daily to provide high quality facilities of monitoring and recording CCTV images, which underpins this investment. The society offers support to this project with the creation of the recent police contact centres and the introduction of the airwaves radio system. Lastly, the privacy of the images and information collected through the cameras raise security concerns to the innocent citizens. This is because the cameras monitor individuals without their knowledge in public buildings and ATMs. This helps security agencies to access information that can help in future investigations. The government can introduce smart cameras to reduce instances of privacy concerns since these cameras monitor distinct events only. I think despite all the concerns that surround installation of CCTVs compared to recruitment of police officers; they are effective in reducing crime rates.

List of References

Coleman, r., & Mccahill, M. (2011). Surveillance & crime. London, SAGE. Cieszynski, J. (2006). Closed Circuit Television. Burlington, Elsevier. Print. Deflem, M. (2008). Surveillance and governance: crime control and beyond. Bingley, UK, Emerald/JAI. Goold, B. J. (2004). CCTV and policing: public area surveillance and police practices in Britain. Oxford [u.a.], Oxford Univ. Press. Hess, K. M. (2009). Introduction to private security. Belmont, CA, Cengage Learning. kruegle, H. (2007). CCTV surveillance analogue and digital video practices and technology. Burlington, MA, Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann. Matchett, A. R. (2003). CCTV for security professionals. Amsterdam, Butterworth- Heinemann.

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What's Wrong With Public Video Surveillance?

Published March 2002

The Four Problems With Public Video Surveillance

Video cameras, or closed-circuit television (CCTV), are becoming a more and more widespread feature of American life. Fears of terrorism and the availability of ever-cheaper cameras have accelerated the trend even more. The use of sophisticated systems by police and other public security officials is particularly troubling in a democratic society. In lower Manhattan, for example, the police are planning to set up a centralized surveillance center where officers can view thousands of video cameras around the downtown – and police-operated cameras have proliferated in many other cities across America in just the past several years.

Although the ACLU has no objection to cameras at specific, high-profile public places that are potential terrorist targets, such as the U.S. Capitol, the impulse to blanket our public spaces and streets with video surveillance is a bad idea. Here are four reasons why:

1. VIDEO SURVEILLANCE HAS NOT BEEN PROVEN EFFECTIVE The implicit justification for the recent push to increase video surveillance is the threat of terrorist attacks. But suicide attackers are clearly not deterred by video cameras – and may even be attracted to the television coverage cameras can ensure – and the expense of an extensive video surveillance system such as Britain’s – which sucks up approximately 20 percent of that nation’s criminal justice budget – far exceeds the limited benefits that the system may provide in investigating attacks or attempted attacks after the fact ( see fact sheet on Surveillance Cameras and the Attempted London Attacks ).

The real reason cameras are usually deployed is to reduce much pettier crimes. But it has not even been demonstrated that they can do that. In Britain, where cameras have been extensively deployed in public places, sociologists studying the issue have found that they have not reduced crime. “Once the crime and offence figures were adjusted to take account of the general downward trend in crimes and offences,” criminologists found in one study , “reductions were noted in certain categories but there was no evidence to suggest that the cameras had reduced crime overall in the city centre.” A 2005 study for the British Home Office also found that cameras did not cut crime or the fear of crime (as had a 2002 study , also for the British government).

In addition, U.S. government experts on security technology, noting that “monitoring video screens is both boring and mesmerizing,” have found in experiments that “after only 20 minutes of watching and evaluating monitor screens, the attention of most individuals has degenerated to well below acceptable levels.”

2. CCTV IS SUSCEPTIBLE TO ABUSE One problem with creating such a powerful surveillance system is that experience tells us it will inevitably be abused. There are five ways that surveillance-camera systems are likely to be misused:

Criminal abuse Surveillance systems present law enforcement “bad apples” with a tempting opportunity for criminal misuse. In 1997, for example, a top-ranking police official in Washington, DC was caught using police databases to gather information on patrons of a gay club. By looking up the license plate numbers of cars parked at the club and researching the backgrounds of the vehicles’ owners, he tried to blackmail patrons who were married. Imagine what someone like that could do with a citywide spy-camera system.

Institutional abuse Sometimes, bad policies are set at the top, and an entire law enforcement agency is turned toward abusive ends. That is especially prone to happen in periods of social turmoil and intense conflict over government policies. During the Civil Rights movement and the Vietnam War, for example, the FBI – as well as many individual police departments around the nation – conducted illegal operations to spy upon and harass political activists who were challenging racial segregation and the Vietnam War. This concern is especially justified since we are in some respects enduring a similar period of conflict today.

Abuse for personal purposes Powerful surveillance tools also create temptations to abuse them for personal purposes. An investigation by the Detroit Free Press , for example, showed that a database available to Michigan law enforcement was used by officers to help their friends or themselves stalk women, threaten motorists after traffic altercations, and track estranged spouses.

Discriminatory targeting Video camera systems are operated by humans who bring to the job all their existing prejudices and biases. In Great Britain, camera operators have been found to focus disproportionately on people of color. According to a sociological study of how the systems were operated, “Black people were between one-and-a-half and two-and-a-half times more likely to be surveilled than one would expect from their presence in the population.”

Voyeurism Experts studying how the camera systems in Britain are operated have also found that the mostly male (and probably bored) operators frequently use the cameras to voyeuristically spy on women. Fully one in 10 women were targeted for entirely voyeuristic reasons, the researchers found. Many incidents have been reported in the United States. In one, New York City police in a helicopter supposedly monitoring the crowds at the 2004 Republican Convention trained an infrared video camera on an amorous couple enjoying the nighttime “privacy” of their rooftop balcony.

3. THE LACK OF LIMITS OR CONTROLS ON CAMERAS USE Advanced surveillance systems such as CCTV need to be subject to checks and balances. Because the technology has evolved so quickly, however, checks and balances to prevent the kinds of abuses outlined above don’t exist. Two elements in particular are missing:

A consensus on limits for the capability of public CCTV systems. Unfortunately, history has shown that surveillance technologies put in place for one purpose inevitably expand into other uses. And with video technology likely to continue advancing, the lack of any clear boundaries for what CCTV systems should be able to do poses a significant danger.

In just the past several years, many cities, including Washington, New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles, have for the first time installed significant numbers of police-operated cameras trainined on public spaces. And once these surveillance facilities are put in place, police departments will be in a position to increase the quality of its technology and the number of its cameras – and will inevitably be tempted or pressured to do so. Do we want the authorities installing high-resolution cameras that can read a pamphlet from a mile away? Cameras equipped to detect wavelengths outside the visible spectrum, allowing night vision or see-through vision? Cameras equipped with facial recognition, like those that have been installed in airports and even on the streets of Tampa, Florida ? Cameras augmented with other forms of artificial intelligence, such as those deployed in Chicago ?

As long as there is no clear consensus about where we draw the line on surveillance to protect American values, public CCTV is in danger of evolving into a surveillance monster.

Legally enforceable rules for the operation of such systems. A societal consensus about how cameras should be used is important, but in the end we are a nation of laws and rights that have their root in law. While the Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution offers some protection against video searches conducted by the police, there are currently no general, legally enforceable rules to limit privacy invasions and protect against abuse of CCTV systems. Rules are needed to establish a clear public understanding of such issues as whether video signals are recorded, under what conditions, and how long are they retained; what the criteria are for access to archived video by other government agencies, or by the public; how the rules would be verified and enforced; and what punishments would apply to violators.

There have long been well-established rules governing the audio recording of individuals without their consent (there is a reason surveillance cameras never have microphones). It makes no sense that we don’t have equivalent laws for video recording.

4. VIDEO SURVEILLANCE WILL HAVE A CHILLING EFFECT ON PUBLIC LIFE The growing presence of public cameras will bring subtle but profound changes to the character of our public spaces. When citizens are being watched by the authorities – or aware they might be watched at any time – they are more self-conscious and less free-wheeling. As syndicated columnist Jacob Sullum has pointed out , “knowing that you are being watched by armed government agents tends to put a damper on things. You don’t want to offend them or otherwise call attention to yourself.” Eventually, he warns, “people may learn to be careful about the books and periodicals they read in public, avoiding titles that might alarm unseen observers. They may also put more thought into how they dress, lest they look like terrorists, gang members, druggies or hookers.” Indeed, the studies of cameras in Britain found that people deemed to be “out of time and place” with the surroundings were subjected to prolonged surveillance.

THE BOTTOM LINE: A LACK OF PROPORTION BETWEEN BENEFITS AND RISKS Like any intrusive technology, the benefits of deploying public video cameras must be balanced against the costs and dangers. This technology (a) has the potential change the core experience of going out in public in America because of its chilling effect on citizens, (b) carries very real dangers of abuse and “mission creep,” and (c) would not significantly protect us against terrorism. Given that, its benefits – preventing at most a few street crimes, and probably none – are disproportionately small.

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The Use of Home Security Systems to Prevent Robberies

Categories: Robbery Security

About this sample

Words: 713 |

Published: Mar 28, 2019

Words: 713 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

Works Cited

Bayley, D. H. (1994). Police for the future. Oxford University Press.
Gilling, D., & Pawson, J. (1985). Crime, poverty and the environment. Longman.
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1996). Fixing broken windows: Restoring order and reducing crime in our communities. Simon and Schuster.
National Institute of Justice. (2015). Understanding property crime. Retrieved from https://www.nij.gov/topics/crime/property-crime/Pages/welcome.aspx
National Police Foundation. (2017). Police corruption: An analytical look into police ethics. Retrieved from https://www.policefoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/An-Analytical-Look-into-Police-Ethics.pdf
O’Reilly, T. (2016). Security camera system design and implementation for industrial and commercial applications. Wiley.
Pease, K. (1998). Repeat victimization. Criminal Justice Press.
Rosenbaum, D. P., & Lurigio, A. J. (1994). Crime and the economy. Sage Publications.
Smith, D. A., & Jarjoura, G. R. (1988). Social structure and criminal victimization. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 25(1), 27-52.
Wilson, J. Q., & Kelling, G. L. (1982). Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety. The Atlantic Monthly, 249(3), 29-38.

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Advantages of cctv Essay Example

Pages: 6 (1474 words)
Published: July 1, 2016
Type: Essay

Crime prevention has been somewhat a battle that most authorities face as they try to come up with new measures to deter crime and anti-social behaviour among citizens. One of the ways to prevent these problems is by using Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) in places where there are crime risks such as shopping malls and banks. The CCTV can be defined as the use of video cameras to transmit signals or images to a specific place or set of monitors, which allows close monitoring and surveillance. Nowadays, CCTVs are widely used to prevent crimes and some are installed in public areas. I agree that it plays an important role in preventing crime and anti-social behaviour. Since crime and anti-social behaviours such as theft, rape, and other inconsiderate acts can cause damage to our society, measures such as

installing CCTVs in certain areas can be used to deter such acts.

The act of breaking the law or anti-social behaviour such a vandalism of government property are done because the criminals believe that there is no one or no authorized personnel watching their wrongdoings. They believe that they can escape from the law because there is no evidence or witness to the crime. By installing CCTVs in areas where the crime rate is high, for example, parking lots or car parks, crimes like car theft can be reduced. In a survey done by Northeastern University, it was analysed that the surveillance cameras have helped in crime reduction, with a decline of 51% crime rates in parking lots. Recently, more people are installing CCTVs in their private residence to stop break-ins. Criminals become discouraged whe

they see these devices. This is because the cameras may record the criminal’s actions and their faces. The cameras’ presence in the area can curb the criminals from committing the crime for fear of being recorded on tape. Besides that, the technology of surveillance cameras have improved throughout the years, providing high quality and high definition videos and images that can capture the details of people’s physical appearance with the exact time and place. This may well instil hesitation and fear in the hearts of law-offenders, thus dampening their urge to commit crimes.

The CCTVs do not only discourage the acts of crime, but it serves as providing critical evidence for certain crimes. For example, CCTVs were substantially useful in the murder of James Bulger in England in the year of 1993. As James’ mother was momentarily distracted in the shopping mall where they were shopping, the surveillance cameras in the shopping mall recorded scenes of how 2-year-old James was abducted by two 10-year-old boys, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson. They brought him out from the shopping mall and to several places before finally murdering him near a cemetery. The video footage documented by the CCTVs of the shopping mall were attained and displayed in national television by the media. A woman who knew Venables and that he had played truant with Thompson that day, saw the video and recognized him. She immediately contacted the police and the two boys were arrested. Clearly, if it had not been for the video, the boys would not have been recognized, and they may have caused other murders or anti-social behaviours which pose a definite threat to people,

in this case, small children. The CCTVs have helped to create hard evidence that is unchallenged.

CCTVs have been a very modern measure in reducing crime rates, but some people argue that it actually displaces crime, rather than deterring it. Easily-available mini CCTVs have been known to be used for criminal activity. It can be install at automatic teller machines (ATM) to steal people’s personal identification number without them knowing it. Apart from the fact that it may violate people’s privacy, the CCTVs’ videos are easily hacked and obtained. Some may use these videos illegally for their own use, usually for artistic purposes. In addition, some people think that the CCTVs cannot prevent crime, because crime prevention can only be done through education or correction of behaviour. They think that the surveillance cameras do nothing to inhibit crime, as in some occasions, crime still occur even though the cameras are present. For instance, a bank can still be robbed even with CCTVs operating for 24 hours. During robbery, the robbers can very well conceal their faces from the recording cameras simply by wearing a mask or cloth to avoid recognition. Their acts may be recorded, but their faces have been hidden. As a result, the videos obtained might prove non-useful. That is why some people believe that the CCTVs actually have no role in preventing crime.

In conclusion, crime prevention using CCTVs is not the only way to combat crime and anti-social behaviour, but it is one of the practical ways that should be implemented. There are some countries that install CCTVs in public areas for the purpose of deterring crime and anti-social

behaviour such as United Kingdom. A survey by University of Cambridge stated that the installations of the cameras have reduced crime and anti-social activity rates in public locations with a drop of 7%. In highways in some countries, CCTVs are fixed to poles or in trees to detect road-bullies and drivers who exceed the speed limits. So, I strongly believe that the CCTVs are particularly useful in both private housing and public places, as it can create the uncomfortable feeling of being closely observed as offenders commit misconduct. This feeling can generate a consciousness in them, making them reluctant to break the law. Looking at the figures, these methods have positive effects in controlling crime. Therefore, the CCTVs have a significant role in preventing crime and anti-social behaviour.

DISADVANTAGES OF CCTV

CCTV Cameras are very useful when it comes to offering reliable monitoring and surveillance to a particular location. They are efficient equipment which help in the prevention of crime; they help keep criminals from breaking inside residences and also stealing valuables. However,I strongly believe that having CCTV security cameras at home has more disadvantages than advantages. Apart from their strengths, CCTV Cameras are disadvantageous when it comes to personal privacy. Homeowners who’ve got CCTV camera systems set up in their own homes are going to be monitored 24/7. They won’t have the capacity to perform what they wish to do because they are being watched every single second, every single minute, every single day! It could be very annoying and also troublesome to appear in a video clip in which you have picked out your nose. It could be really irritating that

the smallest motion that you try is going to be captured inside a video. Getting several CCTV Cameras and installing the best CCTV cameras at home can certainly help protect against as well as discourage crooks and also intruders. Yet, you’re also limited from performing a lot of things without restraint. There are a few of the disadvantages of CCTV cameras to people’s personal space such as no more personal discussions. Each family member can easily know what you and your pal is discussing over the phone. Your conversation won’t be recorded completely, but it will capture whatever you have said in your conversation. So if it is something against one of the members of the family, everyone will know. Besides that, no more surprises. You can’t plan for your mother’s surprise birthday party together with your brothers and sisters because it will be documented on video. There are security CCTV cameras which can record not only the video footage but also the audio clearly. If perhaps you are thinking about surprising your own mommy for her 50th birthday celebration along with your siblings, don’t plan it inside your home because it is going to be found by your mother in case she reads the cameras’ recorded videos. In addition, You’re conscious constantly. Having CCTV Cameras observing you will make you sense mindful. You need to act normally and even severely. You can’t carry out outrageous things like running undressed in your home when you’re home alone. You can’t fart or perhaps burp anywhere indoors. Picking your nose is actually a no-no, too. These will simply embarrass you if your father begins to check out the

videos and discovers everything you did.

Last but not least, you cannot emote. In case you don’t want somebody see you cry, then moping and crying even inside your bedroom shouldn’t be done. Let us say the man you’re dating just broke up with you and you wanted to be by yourself in your room to weep as well as let your emotions out. But you will find cameras installed inside. Crying inside the bedroom is going to be little bit uncomfortable since everyone will see you moping and crying.

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More From Forbes

How cloud providers can foster security, trust and collaboration.

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Akshay Shetty, Deputy CISO at Guidewire Software .

Software development lifecycles and well-known maturity models have traditionally defined the evolution and setup of security programs. There are various software development security frameworks and industry standards that can be referenced to understand how an organization performs its security functions; however, I find that they are seldom described from a customer's perspective.

I find that transparency into a cloud product/service provider’s security functions can help build trust with customers. Furthermore, when customers understand these functions, it can allow them to effectively perform their responsibilities as defined in a provider’s shared responsibility model.

So, how should a provider describe its security functions so they are easily understood and related to by their customers?

I have had the privilege of leading security programs at companies both born in the cloud and those that have gone through an on-premise to cloud transformation. While leading these security programs, I was constantly faced with the need to effectively describe these programs to customers in a way that assured them about the security of their data and, in turn, their businesses.

Below is a framework I've designed for structuring security programs. It elucidates the setup and execution as mapped to a customer’s journey when adopting and operationalizing cloud products/services.

Sony Is Making A Truly Terrible Mistake With Helldivers 2 Update Sony Reverses Course

Google tests much needed google photos feature upgrade, ‘baby reindeer’: stephen king writes essay praising netflix stalker series, the typical customer journey.

Here is the typical customer journey while using a cloud product/service:

1. Awareness. First, the customer identifies potential solutions to solve their business problems.

2. Consideration. They then consider various options to determine best fit.

3. Onboarding. Once the acquisition decision is made, customers are onboarded through product overviews and implementation procedures.

4. Retention. This is followed by the longest period of this journey where customer satisfaction influences product/service retention.

5. Advocacy. Throughout this process, the product/service provider proactively leads advocacy practices by staying current on industry trends, innovations and customer feedback.

But all through this journey, what should the product/service provider do from a security perspective, and what should a customer expect in order to understand what the provider offers and hold them accountable?

Aligning Security Activities With The Customer Journey Phases

Below are a few common security activities, mapped to the above-described customer journey phases. These activities can be modified based on your security team’s industry of focus to make them more applicable.

1. Product Awareness

• Launch and maintain a trust page on your company website that lists values and security principles to drive transparency.

• Research geographical security and compliance requirements and develop toolkits to help customers, as partners, navigate them.

• As a vendor, ensure that your risk scores on some of the heavily used vendor risk management portals (which evaluate the security of publicly visible assets) are in the top tier.

2. Consideration/Acquisition

• Deliver a live (in-person or virtual) walkthrough of the security features and operations to expect from your product/service.

• Respond promptly to any request for information (RFIs) related to security, and over time build intelligence into it in order to scale as your business grows.

• Review security and privacy exhibits in customer contracts and be available for any detailed discussions on deal-sensitive topics.

3. Customer Onboarding

• Document and publish security best practices for product implementations and service configurations. Review and maintain them periodically.

• Evaluate security risks and provide guidance if customer implementations deviate from previously defined secure reference architectures.

4. Customer Engagement/Retention

• Ensure secure product/service operations, including secure software development lifecycle processes, vulnerability management and incident response.

• Based on the nature of your business, attest to security and compliance industry certifications.

• Assist customers with their security audits for requirements not fulfilled by your attested security and compliance industry certifications.

5. Advocacy

• Participate in private trusted forums with peer companies to share insights and collaborate on collective defense.

• Invest in security research within your industry and publish results on blogs.

• Conduct business advisory council meetings with select customer representatives to align on a cumulative security strategy.

The general tendency is to look within one’s own organization and align with the general industry to implement and mature a security program. But building customer empathy into your program can go a long way toward executing business-defined objectives and delivering customer success.

I encourage you to leverage the above-described framework and align it with your own security functions, or if appropriate, require that your third-party vendors use it. I believe that doing so can provide you with a better understanding of your shared security responsibilities.

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Schumer announces $400 million in federal funds for security at places of worship

A $400 million increase in federal funding is available for security in places of worship, Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer announced Sunday.

The boost in money comes as concerns rise over threats against Jewish and Muslim communities , fueled in part by the Israel-Hamas war.

“This is a persistent cascade of intolerance and even violence, and the state of hate has become a boiling point in America, and it demands a much stronger response,” Schumer said.

Places like synagogues and mosques could apply to use the money to hire security personnel or install cameras under the new increase in funding to the existing federal Nonprofit Security Grant Program, Schumer, a Democrat, said from New York City.

“Synagogues, mosques, churches and other houses of worship can get both security personnel to guard their institutions as well as cameras, fencing, windows that would resist any kind of attack,” Schumer said.

Houses of worship will need to apply by May 21 to tap into the first round of funds.

“We’re going to keep funding so that no synagogue or other religious institution is going to have to live in the fear that they now live with,” Schumer said.

The program allocated $305 million last year to nonprofits to help protect their facilities from potential attacks.

Three New York City synagogues, including Congregation Rodeph Sholom on the Upper West Side, and the Brooklyn Museum received bomb threats through email on Saturday, a spokesperson for the New York Police Department said. The threats prompted two synagogues to evacuate, though no explosives were found.

Gov. Kathy Hochul said Saturday on X, formerly known as Twitter, that “those responsible must be held accountable for their despicable actions.”

We are actively monitoring a number of bomb threats at synagogues in New York. Threats have been determined not to be credible, but we will not tolerate individuals sowing fear & antisemitism. Those responsible must be held accountable for their despicable actions. — Governor Kathy Hochul (@GovKathyHochul) May 4, 2024

World Energy Needs and Nuclear Power

The world will need significantly increased energy supply in the future, especially cleanly-generated electricity.
Electricity demand is increasing about twice as fast as overall energy use and is likely to rise by more than half to 2040.
Nuclear power provides about 10% of the world's electricity, and 18% of electricity in OECD countries.
Almost all reports on future energy supply from major organizations suggest an increasing role for nuclear power as an environmentally benign way of producing reliable electricity on a large scale.

Growth in the world's population and economy, coupled with rapid urbanisation, will result in a substantial increase in energy demand over the coming years. The United Nations (UN) estimates that the world's population will grow from 7.8 billion in 2020 to around 8.5 billion in 2030 and 9.7 billion by 2050. The process of urbanization – which currently adds a city the size of Shanghai to the world's urban population every four months or so – will result in approximately two-thirds of the world's people living in urban areas by 2050 (up from about 55% at present). The challenge of meeting rapidly growing energy demand, whilst reducing harmful emissions of greenhouse gases, is considerable. In 2019 global energy-related carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions rose to 33.3 Gt, the highest on record, and about 45% above the total in 2000 (23.2 Gt). In 2020, due to the response to the coronavirus pandemic, primary energy demand dropped by nearly 4%, and CO 2 emissions fell by 5.8%. In 2021 CO 2 emissions bounced back to pre-pandemic levels, rising by 5% to 33 Gt.

Electricity demand growth has outpaced growth in final energy demand for many years. Increased electrification of end-uses – such as transport, space cooling, large appliances, and ICT – are key contributors to rising electricity demand. The number of people without access to electricity has fallen substantially, and is now below one billion. However, despite significant progress, 733 million people – 9.4% of the world’s population – mostly in rural areas, live without access (data for 2020).

Aside from the challenges of meeting increasing demand and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, cleaner air is a vital need. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution is the world's largest environmental risk. The WHO estimates that about seven million people die prematurely as a result of air pollution. Much of the fine particulate matter in polluted areas arises from industrial sources such as power generation or from indoor air pollution which could be averted by electricity use.

Nuclear energy is a low-emitting source of electricity production and is also specifically low-carbon, emitting among the lowest amount of carbon dioxide equivalent per unit of energy produced when considering total life-cycle emissions. It is the second largest source of low-carbon electricity production globally (after hydropower), and provided about 30% of all low-carbon electricity generated in 2019. Almost all reports on future energy supply from major organizations suggest an expanded role for nuclear power is required, alongside growth in other forms of low-carbon power generation, to create a sustainable future energy system.

In June 2019 the OECD’s International Energy Agency (IEA) published a report, Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System , which concluded that a failure to invest in existing and new nuclear plants in advanced economies would make global efforts to transition to a cleaner energy system drastically harder and more costly.

In June 2022 the IEA report on Nuclear Power and Secure Energy Transitions concluded that nuclear energy can “help make the energy sector's journey away from unabated fossil fuels faster and more secure,” with nuclear being “well placed to help decarbonise electricity supply”. The report emphasizes the significant role nuclear plants can play in securing the global pathway to net zero.

Primary energy and electricity outlook

There are many outlooks for primary energy and electricity published each year, many of which are summarized below. Among the most widely-referenced organizations in this regard is the IEA. Each year, the IEA releases its World Energy Outlook (WEO), setting out the current situation and presenting a number of forward-looking scenarios. The report's 'Current Policies Scenario' considers only policies firmly enacted at the time of writing, whilst the 'New Policies Scenario' – the central scenario, renamed 'Stated Policies Scenario' in WEO 2019 – incorporates policies firmly enacted as well as an assessment of the results likely to stem from announced policy intentions. In each recent WEO report, a third scenario is included that starts with a vision of how and over what timeframe the energy sector needs to change – primarily to decarbonize – and works back to the present. In each WEO released over 2008-2016, the main decarbonisation scenario had been the '450 Scenario'; a scenario consistent with limiting the rise in average global temperatures to 2°C. In WEO-2017, the 450 Scenario was replaced by a new, 'Sustainable Development Scenario'. This presents a pathway that would address three principal objectives for building a sustainable, modern energy system: access to affordable, clean and reliable energy; reduction of air pollution; and effective action to combat climate change. For more information on sustainability, see information page on Nuclear Energy and Sustainable Development .

In the WEO 2021 'Stated Policies Scenario' ('STEPS'), global energy needs rise by about 26% to 2050, and global electricity demand nearly doubles. Growth in demand comes largely from emerging markets and developing economies. Almost all net growth in demand is met by low emissions sources, but annual emissions remain at about current levels.

In the STEPS scenario, China’s energy demand reduces slightly between 2030 and 2050, but in 2050 still accounts for 45% of world total.

There are many changes ahead in the sources of primary energy used. The dominance of fossil fuels is reduced modestly across the scenarios, declining from 79% of total primary demand in 2020, to 66% by 2050 in the STEPS scenario and 33% in the Sustainable Development Scenario. Despite the relative decrease, the absolute amount of energy consumed either directly or indirectly through the burning of fossil fuels increases by over 5% to 2050 in the STEPS scenario, and decreases by about 55% in the Sustainable Development Scenario. The proportion of final energy consumption that is in the form of electricity increases from 19% in 2020, to 26% by 2050 in the STEPS scenario, and to 40% in the Sustainable Development Scenario.

As the use of electricity grows significantly, the primary energy sources used to generate it are changing. In 2020, 61% of the electricity generated globally was through the burning of fossil fuels. Whilst the STEPS scenario sees this figure reduced to 32% of the total, absolute electricity generation in 2050 from fossil fuels remains at 98% of 2020 levels. The Sustainable Development Scenario sees the fossil fuel share of generation markedly reduced to just 7% of total generation by 2050, with absolute generation 21% of that in 2020. In both scenarios, generation from all low-carbon sources of electricity is required to grow substantially.

Nuclear power for electricity in published scenarios

Nuclear power generation is an established part of the world's electricity mix providing about 10% of world electricity. It is especially suitable for meeting large-scale, continuous electricity demand where reliability and predictability are vital – hence ideally matched to increasing urbanisation worldwide.

MIT Future of Nuclear Energy in a Carbon-Constrained World

A major two-year study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Energy Initiative (MITEI) published in September 2018 underlined the pressing need to increase nuclear power generation worldwide. It outlined measures to achieve this, including moves to reduce the cost of building new nuclear capacity and creating a level playing field that would allow all low-carbon generation technologies to compete on their merits. "While a variety of low- or zero-carbon technologies can be employed in various combinations, our analysis shows the potential contribution nuclear can make as a dispatchable low-carbon technology. Without that contribution, the cost of achieving deep decarbonisation targets increases significantly," the study finds. The MIT study is designed to serve as a balanced, fact-based, and analysis-driven guide for stakeholders involved in nuclear energy, notably governments.

With high carbon constraints, the system cost of electricity without nuclear power is twice as high in the USA and four times as high in China according to the MIT study.* Scenarios envisage nuclear comprising over half of capacity in the USA and over 60% in China if overall carbon emissions are reduced to 50 g/kWh.

* Nominal overnight capital cost of nuclear is $5500/kW in the USA and $2800/kW in China, possibly reducing to $4100 and $2100/kW.

IEA: World Energy Outlook

Annual editions of WEO from the OECD IEA make clear the increasing importance of electricity, with all scenarios expecting demand growth to outpace that of total final energy demand. Also clear across successive reports is the growing role that nuclear power will play in meeting global energy needs, while achieving security of supply and minimising carbon dioxide and air pollutant emissions.

WEO 2021 , referred to above, presents electricity generation growth of between 75% and 116% over 2020-2050 across its three main scenarios. In the report's Sustainable Development Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 2022 TWh (75%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 254 GW, or 61%.

WEO 2020 presents electricity generation growth of between 46% and 51% over 2018-2040 across its two main scenarios (the 2020 publication did not include a New Policies Scenario). In the Stated Policies Scenario, the report's central scenario, annual nuclear generation increases by 729 TWh (27%) between 2018 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of 59 GW, or 14%. In the report's Sustainable Development Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 1610 TWh (60%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 179 GW, or 43%.

WEO 2019 presents electricity generation growth of between 51% and 67% over 2017-2040 across its three scenarios. In the Stated Policies Scenario, the report's central scenario, annual nuclear generation increases by 839 TWh (32%) between 2017 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of 69 GW, or 17%. In the report's Sustainable Development Scenario nuclear generation increases by 1773 TWh (67%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 188 GW, or 46%.

WEO 2018 presents electricity generation growth of between 49% and 72% over 2016-2040 across its three scenarios. In the New Policies Scenario, the report's central scenario, annual nuclear generation increases by 1121 TWh (43%) between 2016 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of about 100 GW, or 25%. In the report's Sustainable Development Scenario nuclear generation increases by 2355 TWh (90%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 265 GW, or 65%.

WEO 2017 presents electricity generation growth of between 48% and 75% over 2015-2040 across its three scenarios. In the New Policies Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 1273 TWh (50%) between 2015 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of about 100 GW, or 25%. In the report's Sustainable Development Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 2774 TWh (108%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 300 GW, or 75%.

WEO 2016 presents electricity generation growth of between 43% and 78% over 2014-2040 across its three scenarios. In the New Policies Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 1997 TWh (78%) between 2014 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of about 200 GW, or 45%. In the report's 450 Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 3566 TWh (141%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 300 GW, or 95%.

WEO 2015 presents electricity generation growth of between 45% and 84% over 2013-2040 across its three scenarios. In the New Policies Scenario, nuclear generation increases by 2128 TWh (86%) between 2013 and 2040, requiring an increase in capacity of about 220 GW, or 55%. In the report's 450 Scenario, nuclear generation increases 3765 TWh (152%) over the same period, requiring capacity growth of about 450 GW, or 115%.

In June 2015 the IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2015 Special Report on Energy and Climate Change was published, which “has the pragmatic purpose of arming COP21 negotiators with the energy sector material they need to achieve success in Paris in December 2015”. It outlines a strategy to limit global warming to 2°C, but is very much focused on renewables.

The report recommended a series of measures including increasing energy efficiency, reducing the use of inefficient coal-fired power plants, increasing investment in renewables, reducing methane emissions, and phasing out fossil fuels subsidies. Half of the additional emissions reductions in its 450 Scenario come from decarbonisation efforts in power supply, driven by high carbon price incentives. In this scenario, an additional 245 GWe of nuclear capacity is built by 2040 compared with a moderate ‘Bridge’ option. The IEA acknowledges that nuclear power is the second-biggest source of low-carbon electricity worldwide after hydropower and that the use of nuclear energy has avoided the release of 56 billion tonnes of CO 2 since 1971, equivalent to almost two years of global emissions at current rates. The report suggests that intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) submitted by countries in advance of COP21 will have trivial effect, and its purpose is clearly to suggest more ambitious emission reduction targets in its ‘Bridge’ scenario.

While the report confirms that nuclear energy needs to play an important role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, it projects nuclear capacity of only 542 GWe (38% increase), producing 4005 TWh, by 2030 in its main ‘Bridge’ scenario. Most of the new nuclear plants are expected to be built in countries with price-regulated markets or where government-owned entities build, own, and operate the plants, or where governments act to facilitate private investment.

WEO-2014 had a special focus on nuclear power, and extended the scope of scenarios to 2040. In its New Policies Scenario, installed nuclear capacity growth is 60% through 543 GWe in 2030, and to 624 GWe in 2040 out of a total of 10,700 GWe, with the increase concentrated heavily in China (46% of it), plus India, Korea, and Russia (30% of it together) and the USA (16%), countered by a 10% drop in the EU. Despite this, the percentage share of nuclear power in the global power mix increases to only 12%, well below its historic peak. The 450 Scenario gives a cost-effective transition to limiting global warming assuming an effective international agreement in 2015, and this brings about a more than doubling of nuclear capacity to 862 GWe in 2040, while energy-related CO 2 emissions peak before 2020 and then decline. In this scenario, almost all new generating capacity built after 2030 needs to be low-carbon.

"Despite the challenges it currently faces, nuclear power has specific characteristics that underpin the commitment of some countries to maintain it as a future option," it said. "Nuclear plants can contribute to the reliability of the power system where they increase the diversity of power generation technologies in the system. For countries that import energy, it can reduce their dependence on foreign supplies and limit their exposure to fuel price movements in international markets."

Carbon dioxide emissions from coal use level off after 2020 in the New Policies Scenario, though CCS is expected to be negligible before 2030. CO 2 emissions from gas grow strongly to 2040.

WEO-2014 expressed concern about subsidies to fossil fuels, “which encourage wasteful consumption” and totalled $548 billion in 2013, over half of this for oil. Ten countries account for almost three-quarters of the world total for fossil-fuel subsidies, five of them in Middle East (notably Iran and Saudi Arabia) or North Africa where much electricity is generated from oil, and where nuclear power plants and renewables would be competitive, but for those subsidies. The report advocates ensuring “that energy prices reflect their full economic value by introducing market pricing and removing price controls.” Renewables subsides in 2013 are put at $121 billion and rising, $45 billion of this being solar PV. Geographically this is $69 billion for EU and $27 billion in USA. The report was unable to assign a figure for nuclear subsidies, which at present don’t exist.

Following the Fukushima accident, WEO-2011 New Policies Scenario had a 60% increase in nuclear capacity to 2035, compared with about 90% the year before. "Although the prospects for nuclear power in the New Policies Scenario are weaker in some regions than in [ WEO-2010 ] projections, nuclear power continues to play an important role, providing base-load electricity. ... Globally, nuclear power capacity is projected to rise in the New Policies Scenario from 393 GW in 2009 to 630 GW in 2035, around 20 GW lower than projected last year." In this scenario the IEA expected the share of coal in total electricity to drop from 41% now to 33% in 2035. WEO-2011 also included a "Low Nuclear Case (which) examines the implications for global energy balances of a much smaller role for nuclear power. Its effect would be to "increase import bills, heighten energy security concerns and make it harder and more expensive to combat climate change."

IEA: Net Zero by 2050

Net Zero by 2050 , released in May 2021, outlines a possible roadmap for the global energy sector to achieve net zero emissions by mid-century. In the roadmap, the amount of energy provided by nuclear nearly doubles between 2020 and 2050. To achieve this, new capacity additions reach 30 GW per year in the early 2030s.

The amount of energy consumption that is in the form of electricity increases from about 20% today to about 50% by 2050. Whilst absolute supply from nuclear increases, its relative contribution to the electricity mix decreases from about 10.5% in 2020 to about 8% in 2050.

The report warned: “Failing to take timely decisions on nuclear power ... would raise the costs of a net-zero emissions pathway and add to the risk of not meeting the goal.”

IEA: Energy Technology Perspectives

Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) 2020 from the IEA says that, with a rising share of electricity in final consumption, “the technological transformation of the power generation sector is a central element of the clean energy transition. Decarbonisation drives down the carbon intensity of electricity generation: it falls from 463 grams of CO 2 per kilowatt-hour in 2019 to below zero in net terms around 2055.” However, in its Sustainable Development scenario with a threefold increase in total power generation, it projects only 780 GWe nuclear providing 8% in 2070. To support its projection of 84% from renewables, it projects 2100 GWe of utility-scale storage including 300 GWe pumped hydro, the rest being mainly by batteries with an average discharge duration of five hours.

ETP 2017 analyses various energy sector development paths to 2060 and notes: “In the power sector, renewables and nuclear capacity additions supply the majority of demand growth... Innovative transportation technologies are gaining momentum and are projected to increase electricity demand." Rising living standards will increase demand. “Nuclear power benefits from the stringent carbon constraint in the [Beyond 2 Degrees Scenario], with its generation share increasing to 15% by 2060 and installed capacity compared with today more than doubling to 1062 GWe by 2060. Of this, 64% is installed in non-OECD countries, with China alone accounting for 28% of global capacity... Achieving this long-term deployment level will require construction rates for new nuclear capacity of 23 GWe per year on average between 2017 and 2060." (p295)

ETP-2016 focused on the urban environment, since cities “represent almost two-thirds of global primary energy demand and account for 70% of carbon emissions in the energy sector.” Its 2DS scenario to 2050 gives a major role to renewables in reducing emissions and much less to nuclear power, while maintaining optimism on CCS. For electricity, generation is almost completely decarbonized by 2050, achieved with 67% renewables including hydro (30% solar PV and wind), 12% coal and gas with CCS, and 16% nuclear (about 7000 TWh, from 914 GWe). Electric vehicles will account for 450 TWh. However, it notes that CCS development is languishing and “is not on a trajectory to meet the 2DS target of 540 Mt CO 2 being stored per year in 2025,” and in 2015 “only 7.5 Mt/yr (27%) of the captured CO 2 is being stored with appropriate monitoring and verification.”

ETP-2015 developed the earlier scenarios. In the main 2DS scenario, the share of fossil fuels in global primary energy supply drops by almost half – from 80% in 2011 to just over 40% in 2050. Energy efficiency, renewables and CCS make the largest contributions to global emissions reductions under the scenario. Under the 2DS scenario, some 22 GWe of new nuclear generating capacity must be added annually by 2050.

Launching ETP 2015, the IEA said: "A concerted push for clean-energy innovation is the only way the world can meet its climate goals," and that governments should help boost or accelerate this transformation."

ETP-2014 developed the ETP 2012 scenarios. In the 2DS one which is the main focus, some 22 GWe of new nuclear generating capacity must be added annually by 2050. However, the IEA notes that global nuclear capacity "is stagnating at this time" and by 2025 will be 5% to 25% below needed levels, "demonstrating significant uncertainty." It suggests that the high capital and low running costs of nuclear create the need for policies that provide investor certainty.

The IEA estimated that an additional $44 trillion in investment was needed in global electricity systems by 2050. However, it says that this represents only a small portion of global GDP and is offset by over $115 trillion in fuel savings.

Launching the ETP 2014 report, the IEA executive director said: "Electricity is going to play a defining role in the first half of this century as the energy carrier that increasingly powers economic growth and development. While this offers opportunities, it does not solve our problems; indeed, it creates many new challenges."

International Atomic Energy Agency

In the 2022 edition of the International Atomic Energy Agency's (IAEA's) Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050 , the high case projection has global nuclear energy capacity increasing from 390 GWe in 2021 to 479 GWe by 2030, 676 GWe by 2040 and 873 GWe by 2050. In the high case, 5.3% of generating capacity is provided by nuclear in 2050, up from 4.8% in 2021.

The IAEA's low case projection assumes a continuation of current market technology and resource trends with few changes to policies affecting nuclear power. It is designed to produce "conservative but plausible" estimates. It does not assume that all national targets for nuclear power will be achieved. Under this projection, nuclear capacity decreases to 381 GWe by 2030, before recovering slightly to 392 GWe by 2040 and 404 GWe by 2050.

These projections represent an increase from those presented in the 2020 edition of Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period up to 2050 , where nuclear generating capacity increases to 475 GWe by 2030, 622 GWe by 2040 and 715 GWe by 2050 in the high case. Low case projections have also increased from 369 GWe by 2030, 349 GWe by 2040, and 363 GWe by 2050.

Earlier projections from the IAEA had suggested a significantly stronger growth outlook for nuclear energy. For example, in the 2012 edition of Energy, Electricity and Nuclear Power Estimates for the Period to 2050 , the IAEA's low projection showed a nuclear capacity increase from 370 GWe in 2011 to 456 GWe in 2030; the high case for that year was 740 GWe. For 2050 it projected 469 GWe and 1137 GWe respectively. The projected figures in the 2012 edition for the year 2020 ranged from 421 GWe (low case) to 528 GWe (high case); the actual figure for nuclear capacity in 2020 was 393 GWe.

OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

The 2015 edition of the joint NEA-IEA Nuclear Technology Roadmap asserts that “current trends in energy supply and use are unsustainable,” and “the fundamental advantages provided by nuclear energy in terms of reduction of GHG emissions, competitiveness of electricity production and security of supply still apply” (from 2010). It puts forward a 2050 carbon-limited energy mix scenario providing about 40,000 TWh in which 930 GWe of nuclear capacity supplies 17% of electricity but plays an important role beyond that. "The contributions of nuclear energy – providing valuable base-load electricity, supplying important ancillary services to the grid and contributing to the security of energy supply – must be fully acknowledged." Governments should "review arrangements in the electricity market so as to... allow nuclear power plants to operate effectively."

"Clearer policies are needed to encourage operators to invest in both long-term operation and new build so as to replace retiring units," said the report. "Governments should ensure price transparency and the stable policies required for investment in large capital-intensive and long-lived base-load power. Policies should support a level playing field for all sources of low-carbon power projects." This is particularly important to OECD countries, where nuclear power is the largest source of low-carbon electricity, providing 18% of their total electricity. Even though the use of electricity grows over the timeframe to 2050, the increase of nuclear power from 377 GWe today would contribute 13% of the emissions reduction needed to limit global warming.

In the near term, small modular reactors "could extend the market for nuclear energy" and even replace coal boilers forced into closure in order to improve air quality. "Governments and industry should work together to accelerate the development of SMR prototypes and the launch of construction projects (about five projects per design) needed to demonstrate the benefits of modular design and factory assembly." In the longer term the IEA wants so-called Generation IV reactor and fuel cycle designs to be ready for deployment in 2030-40.

US Energy Information Administration

The US Energy Information Administration (EIA) publishes an annual report called International Energy Outlook (IEO).

In IEO-2021 , electricity from renewables is projected to increase by more than 200% between 2020 and 2050, accounting for 56% of global electricity generation by 2050. Nuclear generation is projected to increase by 15% during this period, but relative to total generation, the share of nuclear generation would fall by one-third from 10.5% of total electricity generation in 2020 to 7.2% in 2050.

In IEO-2017 , renewable energy and natural gas are forecast to be the world’s fastest growing energy sources over 2015-2040. Renewables increase at 2.8%/year, and by 2040 will provide 31% of electricity generation, equal to coal; natural gas increases by 2.1%/year. Generation from nuclear is forecast to increase by 1.6% each year. The net nuclear capacity increase is all in non-OECD countries (growth in South Korea is offset by decreases in both Canada and Europe), and China accounts for 67% of the capacity growth. By 2032, the outlook sees China surprass the United States as the country with the most nuclear generating capacity.

In IEO-2016 , nuclear power and renewable energy are forecast to be the world's fastest-growing energy sources from 2012 to 2040. Renewables increase 2.6% per year, from 22% to 29% of total. Nuclear increases by 2.3% per year, from 4% of total to 6%, 2.3 PWh to 4.5 PWh. Generation from non-hydro renewables increases by 5.7% each year. Net nuclear capacity increase is all in non-OECD countries (growth in South Korea is offset by decrease in Canada and Europe), and China accounts for 61% of the capacity growth.

Institute of Energy Economics, Japan

The Asia/World Energy Outlook 2016 report by the Institute of Energy Economics, Japan (IEEJ) shows nuclear energy helping Asian countries achieve future economic growth, energy security and environmental protection. In the reference scenario, global installed nuclear generating capacity would increase from 399 GWe in 2014 to 612 GWe in 2040. Over this period, nuclear electricity generation would increase from 2535 TWh to 4357 TWh but its share of total global electricity generation will remain unchanged at around 11.5%.

In the high nuclear scenario, the IEEJ says that nuclear in effect "becomes the base power source" for many emerging countries, such as Asian and Middle Eastern countries. This scenario assumes that nuclear energy "will benefit from lower level costs, and that nuclear technology transfer will be properly made from developed countries of nuclear technology, such as Japan, to emerging countries." Under this scenario, nuclear generating capacity in Asia would increase about seven-fold between 2014 and 2040. The IEEJ notes: "The development of nuclear in the future is significantly uncertain. It is not only due to countries' or regions' circumstances of energy, economy, and development level of social infrastructure, but also a matter of international relations."

World Energy Council

In October 2016, World Energy Council (WEC) published new scenarios developed in collaboration with Accenture Strategy and the Paul Scherrer Institute as The Grand Transition . WEC notes that while global energy demand has more than doubled since 1970, the rate of growth for primary energy will now reduce and per capita demand will peak before 2030. However, electricity demand will double by 2060. Furthermore, "limiting global warming to no more than a 2°C increase will require an exceptional and enduring effort, far beyond already pledged commitments, and with very high carbon prices." WEC says global cooperation, sustainable economic growth, and technology innovation are needed to balance the energy trilemma: energy security, energy equity and environmental sustainability. Under its main scenario, where 'intelligent' and 'sustainable' economic growth models emerge as the world seeks a low-carbon future, nuclear accounts for 17% of electricity generation, or 7617 TWh, in 2060, from global installed capacity of 989 GWe. More than half of nuclear capacity additions throughout the period are in China, reaching 158 GWe in 2030 and 344 GWe in 2060. India follows China, with nuclear capacity reaching 137 GWe in 2060.

WEC’s World Energy Resources 2016 report released in the same month showed that total global renewable energy generating capacity had almost doubled over the past decade, from 1037 GWe in 2006 to 1985 GWe by the end of 2015 (61% of this hydro, 22% wind), and that renewable sources including hydro now account for 23% of total 24,098 TWh generation. The report also said: "The outlook for nuclear up to 2035 will depend largely on the success of the industry in constructing plants to agreed budgets and with predictable construction periods. It is evident in a number of countries that median construction times are stable.” Beyond 2035, the report expects fast reactors to make "an increasing contribution in a number of countries by building on the experience of operating these reactors in Russia and with developing the Generation IV prototypes, such as the Astrid reactor being designed in France.”

In November 2011 the World Energy Council (WEC) published a report: Policies for the future: 2011 Assessment of country energy and climate policies , which ranked country performance according to an energy sustainability index, meaning how well each country performs on "three pillars" of energy policy – energy security, social equity, and environmental impact mitigation (particularly low-carbon emissions), or simply environmental sustainability. The five countries with the "most coherent and robust" energy policies included large shares of nuclear energy in their electricity fuel mix. The best performers, according to the report, were: Switzerland (40% nuclear), Sweden (40% nuclear), France (75% nuclear), Germany (30% nuclear prior to reactor shutdowns earlier 2011), and Canada (15% nuclear). The report said that countries wanting to reduce reliance on nuclear power must work out how to do so without compromising energy sustainability. In Germany this would be a particular challenge without increasing the reliance on carbon-based power generation "since the renewable infrastructure currently does not have the capability to do so."

The 2013 version of this WEC World Energy Trilemma report gave top rating to Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Spain as being the only countries that historically demonstrate their ability to manage the trade-offs among the three competing energy policy dimensions coherently. These all have, or depend upon, a high level of nuclear contribution. Germany had notably dropped down the list on energy security and sustainability criteria, as had France on energy security. Canada plunged from 2011 due to environmental sustainability, though at top on the other two. In the 2014 edition, WEC gave top honours to Switzerland, Sweden and Norway. Germany, Spain, and Japan dropped down the rankings.

European Commission

In December 2011 the European Commission (EC) published its Energy 2050 Roadmap , a policy paper. This was very positive regarding nuclear power and said that nuclear energy can make "a significant contribution to the energy transformation process" and is "a key source of low-carbon electricity generation" that will keep system costs and electricity prices lower. "As a large scale low-carbon option, nuclear energy will remain in the EU power generation mix." The paper analysed five possible scenarios leading to the EU low-carbon energy economy goal by 2050 (80% reduction of CO 2 emissions), based on energy efficiency, renewables, nuclear power and carbon capture and storage (CCS). All scenarios show electricity will have to play a much greater role than now, almost doubling its share in final energy demand to 36%-39% in 2050. The EC high-efficiency scenario would reduce energy demand by 41% by 2050 (compared with 2005); the diversified supply technologies scenario would have a combination of high carbon prices, nuclear energy and introduction of CCS technologies; a high-renewables scenario suggests they might supply 75% of total energy supply by 2050; a "delayed CCS" scenario has nuclear power playing a major role; and a low-nuclear power scenario had coal plants with CCS providing 32% of total energy (ie 82-89% of EU electricity). The highest percentage of nuclear energy would be in the delayed CCS and diversified supply technologies scenarios, in which it would account for 18% and 15% shares of primary energy supply respectively, ie 38-50% of EU electricity. Those scenarios also had the lowest total energy costs.

World Nuclear Association Harmony programme

The World Nuclear Association has published its Harmony vision for the future of electricity, developed from the International Energy Agency’s ‘2°C Scenario' (2DS) in reducing CO 2 emissions*. This IEA scenario adds 680 GWe of nuclear capacity by 2050, giving 930 GWe then (after 150 GWe retirements from 2014’s 396 GWe), providing 17% of world electricity. Harmony sets a further goal for the nuclear industry, drawing on the experience of nuclear construction in the 1980s.

* See section above on the 2015 edition of the International Energy Agency's Energy Technology Perspectives .

The Harmony goal is for the nuclear industry to provide 25% of global electricity and build 1000 GWe of new nuclear capacity by 2050. The World Nuclear Association says this requires an economic and technological level playing field, harmonized regulatory processes to streamline nuclear construction, and an effective safety paradigm which focuses safety efforts on measures that make the most difference to public wellbeing. The build schedule would involve adding 10 GWe per year to 2020, 25 GWe per year to 2025, and 33 GWe per year from then. This rate compares with 31 GWe per year in the mid-1980s. The Harmony goal is put forward at a time when the limitations, costs and unreliability of other low-carbon sources of electricity are becoming politically high-profile in several countries.

BP's latest Energy Outlook includes ‘Rapid’, ‘Net Zero’ and ‘Business-as-usual' scenarios. Growth in primary energy consumption is expected across all three scenarios, ranging from about 8% to about 25% by 2050. Growth in nuclear energy is driven by China, with generation in the country increasing by 2050 to between 3967 TWh and 4767 TWh across BP’s three scenarios. Output from renewables globally increases to about 29% of power generation by 2040.

Generation options

In electricity demand, the need for low-cost continuous, reliable supply can be distinguished from peak demand occurring over a few hours daily and able to command higher prices. Supply needs to match demand instantly and reliably over time. There are a number of characteristics of nuclear power which make it particularly valuable apart from its actual generation cost per unit – MWh or kWh. Fuel is a low proportion of power cost, giving power price stability, its fuel is on site (not depending on continuous delivery), it is dispatchable on demand, it has fairly quick ramp-up, it contributes to clean air and low-CO 2 objectives, it gives good voltage support for grid stability. These attributes are mostly not monetized in merchant markets, but have great value which is increasingly recognized where dependence on intermittent sources has grown, and governments address long-term reliability and security of supply.

The renewable energy sources for electricity constitute a diverse group, from wind, solar, tidal, and wave energy to hydro, geothermal, and biomass-based power generation. Apart from hydro power in the few places where it is very plentiful, all of the renewables have limitiations, either intrinsically or economically, in potential use for large-scale power generation where continuous, reliable supply is needed.

This diagram shows that much of the electricity demand is in fact for continuous 24/7 supply (base-load), while some is for a lesser amount of predictable supply for about three quarters of the day, and less still for variable peak demand up to half of the time.

Apart from nuclear power the world relies almost entirely on fossil fuels, especially coal, to meet demand for base-load electricity production. Most of the demand is for continuous, reliable supply on a large scale and there are limits to the extent to which this can be changed.

Natural gas is increasingly used as fuel for electricity generation in many countries. The challenges associated with transport over long distances and storage are to an extent alleviated through liquefaction. However much storage remains underground, in depleted oilfields, especially in the USA, and this can be dangerous. In 2015 the Aliso Canyon storage field in California leaked for some months, releasing about 66 tonnes of methane per hour, causing widespread evacuation and neutralising the state’s efforts to curb CO 2 emissions (methane having 25 times the global warming potential).

Implications of Electric Vehicles

Future widespread use of electric vehicles, both pure electric and plug-in hybrids, will increase electricity demand modestly – perhaps up to 15% in terms of kilowatt-hours. But this increase will mostly come overnight, in off-peak demand, so will not significantly increase systems' peak capacity requirement in gigawatts. Overnight charging of vehicles will however greatly increase the proportion of that system capacity to be covered by base-load power generation – either nuclear or coal. In a typical system this might increase from about 50-60% to 70-80% of the total, as shown in the Figures below.

This then has significant implications for the cost of electricity. Base-load power is generated much more cheaply than intermediate- and peak-load power, so the average cost of electricity will be lower than with the present pattern of use. And any such major increase in base-load capacity requirement will have a major upside potential for nuclear power if there are constraints on carbon emissions. So potentially the whole power supply gets a little cheaper and cleaner, and many fossil fuel emissions from road transport are avoided at the same time.

Drivers for increased nuclear capacity

The first generation of nuclear plants were justified by the need to alleviate urban smog caused by coal-fired power plants. Nuclear was also seen as an economic source of base-load electricity which reduced dependence on overseas imports of fossil fuels. Today's drivers for nuclear build have evolved:

Increasing energy demand

Global population growth in combination with industrial development will lead to strong growth in electricity consumption in the decades ahead. Besides the expected incremental growth in demand, there will be there will be the challenge of renewing a lot of existing generating stock in the USA and the EU over the same period. An increasing shortage of fresh water calls for energy-intensive desalination plants See first section above for recent projections.

Climate change

Increased awareness of the dangers and effects of global warming and climate change has led decision makers, media, and the public to realize that the use of fossil fuels must be reduced and replaced by low-emission sources of energy, such as nuclear power – the only readily available large-scale alternative to fossil fuels for production of a continuous, reliable supply of electricity.

Security of Supply

A major topic on many political agendas is security of supply, as countries realize how vulnerable they are to interrupted deliveries of oil and gas. The abundance of naturally occurring uranium makes nuclear power attractive from an energy security standpoint.

As carbon emission reductions are encouraged through various forms of government incentives and trading schemes, the economic benefits of nuclear power will increase further.

Insurance against future price exposure

A longer-term advantage of uranium over fossil fuels is the low impact that variable fuel prices have on final electricity production costs. This insensitivity to fuel price fluctuations offers a way to stabilize power prices in deregulated markets.

In practice, is a rapid expansion of nuclear power capacity possible?

It is noteworthy that in the 1980s, 218 power reactors started up, an average of one every 17 days. These included 47 in USA, 42 in France and 18 in Japan. The average power was 923.5 MWe. So it is not hard to imagine a similar number being commissioned in a decade after about 2015.

See also the page in this series: Heavy Manufacturing of Power Plants.

Clean Air and Greenhouse Gases

On a global scale nuclear power currently reduces carbon dioxide emissions by some 2.5 billion tonnes per year (relative to the main alternative of coal-fired generation, about 2 billion tonnes relative to the present fuel mix). Carbon dioxide accounts for half of the human-contributed portion of the global warming effect of the atmosphere. Nuclear power has a key role to play in reducing greenhouse gases.

In August 2015 the Global Nexus Initiative (GNI) was set up by the US Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) and the Partnership for Global Security. It aims to explore the links between climate change, nuclear energy and global security challenges through a working group of 17 multidisciplinary policy experts from the non-governmental, academic and private sectors in Denmark, France, Japan, Sweden, the United Arab Emirates and the USA. The group will convene for a series of meetings and workshops, through which it aims to produce policy memoranda identifying the challenges and offering recommendations. These will feed into a cumulative report at the end of the two-year project. GNI points out that climate change, energy security and global security are all issues that cut across national borders, have significant economic and social impacts, and require input from the full spectrum of stakeholders. This means policies must be coordinated at national, regional and global levels.

See also information page on Nuclear Energy and Sustainable Development .

Related information

RSA CEO Rohit Ghai says emergent 5G technology increases the need to protect critical networks

RSA CEO Rohit Ghai advises security services to verify users' identities and device integrity.
Ghai sees the intersection of 5G and AI as the most exciting area for innovation.
This article is part of " 5G and Connectivity Playbook ," a series exploring some of our time's most important tech innovations.

Emergent 5G technology is faster and more secure than ever. It has also created a new world when it comes to cybersecurity.

"Most actors try to attack new technology because they have new things that haven't been patched," Rohit Ghai, the CEO of security company RSA, told Business Insider. "Over the last two years, there has been a pretty dramatic focus on cybersecurity in critical networks."

To limit vulnerabilities and protect users accessing 5G networks on unmanaged devices, for instance, Ghai says security services should verify that the people using devices are who they claim to be and ensure that the devices are not compromised.

"There's a huge amount of intellectual property and corporate data that sits on mobile devices," Ghai said. "Making sure that data is not compromised — there's a huge area of vulnerability from a 5G-network perspective."

Everyone can take basic steps to protect their accounts and devices. Ghai points to the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency's four recommendations of recognizing and reporting phishing, using strong passwords, using multifactor authentication, and updating software.

BI spoke with Ghai ahead of the annual RSA conference focused on cybersecurity. It's taking place from Monday to Thursday in San Francisco.

The following has been edited for clarity and length.

How have 5G and connectivity transformed your business?

At the highest level, the change we're focused on is protecting corporate IT networks since the advent of 5G. Two things have happened: There is a lot more focus on end devices. Protecting and securing business workflows that are happening on the end user mobile devices is a huge, new area because of 5G.

Secondly, the threat actors are now targeting 5G. In the last two to three years, critical infrastructure and industrial companies have become targets. They are now more invested in cybersecurity, more concerned about cybersecurity, and want to protect against threat actors.

What are your tips and advice for adding 5G and connectivity to your business?

We have to realize technology is a double-edged sword. With new capabilities, the bad guys can exploit the new technologies.

Whenever you deploy new technology, you have to keep up with patching and updates and make sure security updates are applied quickly.

The other component is identity. The perimeter has dissolved in the new 5G era of networking. Where there is no inside or outside, you need to apply a zero-trust strategy for cybersecurity.

What are the most exciting innovations and advancements in 5G today?

The most exciting area is the intersection of 5G and AI . An example is an autonomous car. A car has intelligence and the ability to consult back and seek services that were not possible in the past.

It comes with a lot of risk, as I said. You have to make sure any of the 5G mobile devices that are unmanaged are protected and not jailbroken or under control. Any edge device, be it a phone or a car, can be compromised. A threat actor can take control and use that for malicious activity. They can use mobile phones to get access to corporate networks and steal data.

Asking if those end-point devices have been compromised and being able to answer that question in a very robust way ensures we can take advantage of 5G services.

What are the biggest trends in 5G cybersecurity?

Applying AI — that's a big trend. 5G networks are very, very dynamic. It's changing all the time. Current approaches to security must be able to keep up with the dynamic nature of the network.

The other change is using identity and access governance to make sure privileged access to IT and OT [operational technology] networks is managed. Most cybersecurity attacks on critical infrastructure happen because of compromised credentials.

What are the cybersecurity risks of 5G?

What 5G does is create a large edge network. In that regard, it expands the attack surface. Thinking about the human network, if there are 100 employees, each employee is part of the attack surface. If you have a network and edge devices, the more devices, the larger the attack surface. 5G exponentially increases the attack surface.

How are 5G attacks carried out?

Most attacks start with an identity compromise. It's not a very new pattern. Somehow, they get in. Then, they move laterally in the network to other computing devices. They stay inside. They don't attack right away. They actually hide, moving laterally from one computer to another and another. Then they go after the data or the ransomware or whatever it is they're targeting.

That same pattern follows in 5G networks. It's just that they're exploiting different types of vulnerabilities and moving quickly because of speed.

What does the future of 5G cybersecurity look like?

You have more and more cybersecurity intelligence that lives on the edge and determines whether edge devices are safe, vulnerable, or attacked in any way. Shifting that intelligence from a central nervous system to a more distributed architecture is where the future of cybersecurity is heading.

Another shift is the concept of passwordless .

Passwords are a very old kind of capability that's been used in human networks for centuries. In the 5G network, we have the opportunity to not start with a password-based solution where an edge device is using a password to authenticate into the network. Since 5G is a new technology, we should start with a passwordless approach. Passwords cause security problems and are complicated to manage.

We're introducing and working with an industry standard called FIDO [fast identity online]. I think that has a lot of promise to enable passwordless.

Main content

The U.S. is updating its Social Security estimates. Here’s what you need to know.

A government report due later on Monday will issue fresh projections on how long the trust funds for Social Security and Medicare will last.

A government report due out later Monday will issue fresh estimates of the budget outlook for Social Security, which provides critical benefits for retirees, workers’ survivors and some people with disabilities. The report is expected to warn of automatic benefit cuts starting in the 2030s because the program is paying out more than it takes in, which will eventually exhaust its trust fund.

A similar warning is expected regarding Medicare, the federal health insurance program for Americans 65 and older and those with disabilities.

Here’s what you need to know about how Social Security works, what steps could bring it to solvency, and how to prepare for potential benefit cuts.

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Essay on CCTV Camera

100 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

Uses of CCTV Cameras

Benefits of CCTV Cameras

Concerns About CCTV Cameras

250 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

How They Work

Privacy Concerns

500 Words Essay on CCTV Camera

The Purpose of CCTV Cameras

How CCTV Cameras Work

The Advantages of CCTV Cameras

The Concerns About CCTV Cameras

The Future of CCTV Cameras

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Role of CCTV Cameras: Public, Privacy and Protection

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About the Authors

Leighton Walter Kille

Martin Maximino

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Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)

2. Can I expect a complete reduction in crime rates with the installation of CCTV?

3. Are there ethical concerns related to CCTV installation?

4. What should I consider when choosing a CCTV system for my property?

5. How do I address privacy concerns when installing CCTVs?

6. Are there any potential misconceptions based on CCTV footage?

7. How does CCTV contribute to traffic management?

8. Do I need to regularly update or maintain my CCTV system?

9. Is the cost of installing a CCTV system a one-time expense?

10. What are some real-world examples demonstrating the effectiveness of CCTVs?

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