example of introduction in research paper about restaurant

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

• Break through writer’s block. Write your research paper introduction with Paperpal Copilot

Table of Contents

What is the introduction for a research paper, why is the introduction important in a research paper, craft a compelling introduction section with paperpal. try now, 1. introduce the research topic:, 2. determine a research niche:, 3. place your research within the research niche:, craft accurate research paper introductions with paperpal. start writing now, frequently asked questions on research paper introduction, key points to remember.

The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

Write a Research Paper Introduction in Minutes with Paperpal

Paperpal Copilot is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal Copilot helps authors write better and faster with:

• Real-time writing suggestions
• In-depth checks for language and grammar correction
• Paraphrasing to add variety, ensure academic tone, and trim text to meet journal limits

With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

How to use Paperpal to write the Introduction section

Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction

Step 2: Add your unstructured notes or initial draft, whether in English or another language, to Paperpal, which is to be used as the base for your content.

Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.

Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.

You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• Scientific Writing Style Guides Explained
• 5 Reasons for Rejection After Peer Review
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects
• 8 Most Effective Ways to Increase Motivation for Thesis Writing 

Practice vs. Practise: Learn the Difference

Academic paraphrasing: why paperpal’s rewrite should be your first choice , you may also like, how to write a high-quality conference paper, academic editing: how to self-edit academic text with..., measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence, phd qualifying exam: tips for success , ai in education: it’s time to change the..., is it ethical to use ai-generated abstracts without..., what are journal guidelines on using generative ai..., quillbot review: features, pricing, and free alternatives, what is an academic paper types and elements , should you use ai tools like chatgpt for....

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Research Paper Introduction – Writing Guide and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Paper Introduction

Research paper introduction is the first section of a research paper that provides an overview of the study, its purpose, and the research question (s) or hypothesis (es) being investigated. It typically includes background information about the topic, a review of previous research in the field, and a statement of the research objectives. The introduction is intended to provide the reader with a clear understanding of the research problem, why it is important, and how the study will contribute to existing knowledge in the field. It also sets the tone for the rest of the paper and helps to establish the author’s credibility and expertise on the subject.

How to Write Research Paper Introduction

Writing an introduction for a research paper can be challenging because it sets the tone for the entire paper. Here are some steps to follow to help you write an effective research paper introduction:

• Start with a hook : Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing statement, a question, or a surprising fact that will make the reader interested in reading further.
• Provide background information: After the hook, provide background information on the topic. This information should give the reader a general idea of what the topic is about and why it is important.
• State the research problem: Clearly state the research problem or question that the paper addresses. This should be done in a concise and straightforward manner.
• State the research objectives: After stating the research problem, clearly state the research objectives. This will give the reader an idea of what the paper aims to achieve.
• Provide a brief overview of the paper: At the end of the introduction, provide a brief overview of the paper. This should include a summary of the main points that will be discussed in the paper.
• Revise and refine: Finally, revise and refine your introduction to ensure that it is clear, concise, and engaging.

Structure of Research Paper Introduction

The following is a typical structure for a research paper introduction:

• Background Information: This section provides an overview of the topic of the research paper, including relevant background information and any previous research that has been done on the topic. It helps to give the reader a sense of the context for the study.
• Problem Statement: This section identifies the specific problem or issue that the research paper is addressing. It should be clear and concise, and it should articulate the gap in knowledge that the study aims to fill.
• Research Question/Hypothesis : This section states the research question or hypothesis that the study aims to answer. It should be specific and focused, and it should clearly connect to the problem statement.
• Significance of the Study: This section explains why the research is important and what the potential implications of the study are. It should highlight the contribution that the research makes to the field.
• Methodology: This section describes the research methods that were used to conduct the study. It should be detailed enough to allow the reader to understand how the study was conducted and to evaluate the validity of the results.
• Organization of the Paper : This section provides a brief overview of the structure of the research paper. It should give the reader a sense of what to expect in each section of the paper.

Research Paper Introduction Examples

Research Paper Introduction Examples could be:

Example 1: In recent years, the use of artificial intelligence (AI) has become increasingly prevalent in various industries, including healthcare. AI algorithms are being developed to assist with medical diagnoses, treatment recommendations, and patient monitoring. However, as the use of AI in healthcare grows, ethical concerns regarding privacy, bias, and accountability have emerged. This paper aims to explore the ethical implications of AI in healthcare and propose recommendations for addressing these concerns.

Example 2: Climate change is one of the most pressing issues facing our planet today. The increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has resulted in rising temperatures, changing weather patterns, and other environmental impacts. In this paper, we will review the scientific evidence on climate change, discuss the potential consequences of inaction, and propose solutions for mitigating its effects.

Example 3: The rise of social media has transformed the way we communicate and interact with each other. While social media platforms offer many benefits, including increased connectivity and access to information, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will examine the impact of social media on mental health, privacy, and democracy, and propose solutions for addressing these issues.

Example 4: The use of renewable energy sources has become increasingly important in the face of climate change and environmental degradation. While renewable energy technologies offer many benefits, including reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy independence, they also present numerous challenges. In this paper, we will assess the current state of renewable energy technology, discuss the economic and political barriers to its adoption, and propose solutions for promoting the widespread use of renewable energy.

Purpose of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper serves several important purposes, including:

• Providing context: The introduction should give readers a general understanding of the topic, including its background, significance, and relevance to the field.
• Presenting the research question or problem: The introduction should clearly state the research question or problem that the paper aims to address. This helps readers understand the purpose of the study and what the author hopes to accomplish.
• Reviewing the literature: The introduction should summarize the current state of knowledge on the topic, highlighting the gaps and limitations in existing research. This shows readers why the study is important and necessary.
• Outlining the scope and objectives of the study: The introduction should describe the scope and objectives of the study, including what aspects of the topic will be covered, what data will be collected, and what methods will be used.
• Previewing the main findings and conclusions : The introduction should provide a brief overview of the main findings and conclusions that the study will present. This helps readers anticipate what they can expect to learn from the paper.

When to Write Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper is typically written after the research has been conducted and the data has been analyzed. This is because the introduction should provide an overview of the research problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions or hypotheses that will be investigated.

Once you have a clear understanding of the research problem and the questions that you want to explore, you can begin to write the introduction. It’s important to keep in mind that the introduction should be written in a way that engages the reader and provides a clear rationale for the study. It should also provide context for the research by reviewing relevant literature and explaining how the study fits into the larger field of research.

Advantages of Research Paper Introduction

The introduction of a research paper has several advantages, including:

• Establishing the purpose of the research: The introduction provides an overview of the research problem, question, or hypothesis, and the objectives of the study. This helps to clarify the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the reader to follow.
• Providing background information: The introduction also provides background information on the topic, including a review of relevant literature and research. This helps the reader understand the context of the study and how it fits into the broader field of research.
• Demonstrating the significance of the research: The introduction also explains why the research is important and relevant. This helps the reader understand the value of the study and why it is worth reading.
• Setting expectations: The introduction sets the tone for the rest of the paper and prepares the reader for what is to come. This helps the reader understand what to expect and how to approach the paper.
• Grabbing the reader’s attention: A well-written introduction can grab the reader’s attention and make them interested in reading further. This is important because it can help to keep the reader engaged and motivated to read the rest of the paper.
• Creating a strong first impression: The introduction is the first part of the research paper that the reader will see, and it can create a strong first impression. A well-written introduction can make the reader more likely to take the research seriously and view it as credible.
• Establishing the author’s credibility: The introduction can also establish the author’s credibility as a researcher. By providing a clear and thorough overview of the research problem and relevant literature, the author can demonstrate their expertise and knowledge in the field.
• Providing a structure for the paper: The introduction can also provide a structure for the rest of the paper. By outlining the main sections and sub-sections of the paper, the introduction can help the reader navigate the paper and find the information they are looking for.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

How to Cite Research Paper – All Formats and...

Delimitations in Research – Types, Examples and...

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and...

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Research Paper Title – Writing Guide and Example

Research Paper Conclusion – Writing Guide and...

To read this content please select one of the options below:

Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, restaurant and foodservice research: a critical reflection behind and an optimistic look ahead.

International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management

ISSN : 0959-6119

Article publication date: 10 April 2017

The purpose of this paper is to present a review of the foodservice and restaurant literature that has been published over the past 10 years in the top hospitality and tourism journals. This information will be used to identify the key trends and topics studied over the past decade, and help to identify the gaps that appear in the research to identify opportunities for advancing future research in the area of foodservice and restaurant management.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper takes the form of a critical review of the extant literature that has been done in the foodservice and restaurant industries. Literature from the past 10 years will be qualitatively assessed to determine trends and gaps in the research to help guide the direction for future research.

The findings show that the past 10 years have seen an increase in the number of and the quality of foodservice and restaurant management research articles. The topics have been diverse and the findings have explored the changing and evolving segments of the foodservice industry, restaurant operations, service quality in foodservice, restaurant finance, foodservice marketing, food safety and healthfulness and the increased role of technology in the industry.

Research limitations/implications

Given the number of research papers done over the past 10 years in the area of foodservice, it is possible that some research has been missed and that some specific topics within the breadth and depth of the foodservice industry could have lacked sufficient coverage in this one paper. The implications from this paper are that it can be used to inform academics and practitioners where there is room for more research, it could provide ideas for more in-depth discussion of a specific topic and it is a detailed start into assessing the research done of late.

Originality/value

This paper helps foodservice researchers in determining where past research has gone and gives future direction for meaningful research to be done in the foodservice area moving forward to inform academicians and practitioners in the industry.

• Hospitality management
• Restaurants
• Food and beverage
• Foodservice research

DiPietro, R. (2017), "Restaurant and foodservice research: A critical reflection behind and an optimistic look ahead", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , Vol. 29 No. 4, pp. 1203-1234. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-01-2016-0046

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2017, Emerald Publishing Limited

Related articles

We’re listening — tell us what you think, something didn’t work….

Report bugs here

All feedback is valuable

Please share your general feedback

Join us on our journey

Platform update page.

Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates

Questions & More Information

Answers to the most commonly asked questions here

• Open access
• Published: 04 June 2020

Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants

• Amer Rajput 1 &
• Raja Zohaib Gahfoor 2  

Future Business Journal volume  6 , Article number:  13 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

180k Accesses

58 Citations

10 Altmetric

Metrics details

This study is to identify the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customers at fast food restaurants. Additionally, word of mouth is investigated as moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey from 433 customers of fast food restaurants through convenience sampling. Hypotheses of proposed model were tested using structural equation modeling with partial least squares SEM-PLS in SMART PLS 3. The results confirmed the positive association of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. However, word of mouth does not positively moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intentions of customers at fast food restaurants. This study emphasizes the importance of revisit intention as a vital behavioral reaction in fast food restaurants. This study reveals revisit intention’s positive association with food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction based on stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) theory. Furthermore, it is identified that social conformity theory does not hold its assumption when consumers experience quality and they are satisfied because word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer.

Introduction

Background of the study.

Hospitality industry is observing diversified changes in highly competitive environment for restaurants [ 1 ]. Consumers are becoming conscious of food quality (FQ), restaurant service quality (RSQ), and physical environment quality (PEQ) of the fast food restaurants. Consumers switch easily in case of just one evasive experience [ 2 , 3 ]. Fast food restaurants must attract new customers and retain the existing customers. There is a growing trend in Pakistani culture to dine out at fast food restaurants with family, friends, and colleagues [ 4 ]. Restaurants focus to provide a dining experience by combining tangible and intangible essentials [ 5 ]. Decisive objective is to achieve customer satisfaction (CS), word of mouth (WOM), and future revisit intention (RVI) at fast food restaurant.

Restaurants differ in offerings, appearance, service models, and cuisines; this classifies restaurants as downscale and upscale [ 6 , 7 ]. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to revisit a place due to satisfactory experience. Customer satisfaction generates a probability to revisit in presence or absence of an affirmative attitude toward the restaurant [ 8 ]. Revisit intention is a substantial topic in hospitality research [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. To date there has been little agreement on that word of mouth can affect revisit intention after experience of customer satisfaction. For instance, when a customer is satisfied at a fast food restaurant experience, however, the customer’s family and friends do not share the same satisfying experience. Will this word of mouth affect the customer’s revisit intention? Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience to affect consumer revisit intention. Fast food quality is substantially associated with customer satisfaction and it is an important predictor of behavioral intention [ 11 ]. Service quality is an essential factor to produce consumers’ revisit intentions [ 12 ]. Furthermore, physical environment quality affects behavior of consumers at restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 13 ]. Physical environment quality is a precursor of customer satisfaction [ 9 ]. This suggests that customer satisfaction is associated with fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and revisit intention.

Aims of the study

This study is to investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality with customer’s revisit intention through mediation of customer satisfaction using S-O-R theory and moderation of word of mouth on the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory. This study empirically tests a conceptual research framework based on S-O-R and social conformity theory adding value to the knowledge. Objectives of the study are given below.

To investigate the association of fast food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality with revisit intention through customer satisfaction based on S-O-R theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

To investigate moderation of WOM on relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention based on social conformity theory in the context of Pakistani fast food restaurants.

Furthermore, little empirical evidence is present about customer satisfaction with respect to fast food restaurant service quality [ 14 ]. Customer satisfaction is a post-consumption assessment in service industry. Customer satisfaction acts as the feedback mechanism to boost consumer experience [ 15 ]. Customer satisfaction brings competitive advantage to the firm and produces positive behavioral revisit intention [ 16 ]. Marketing literature emphasizes customer satisfaction in anticipation of positive word of mouth, revisit intention, and revisit behavior [ 5 ]. Behavioral intention is assessed through positive WOM, and it is important in service industry [ 15 ], whereas social influence in shape of WOM affects the behavior of individuals toward conformity leading to a driving effect based on social conformity theory [ 17 ].

• Food quality

Food quality plays a central role in the restaurant industry. Food quality is essential to satisfy consumer needs. Food quality is a substantial condition to fulfill the needs and expectations of the consumer [ 18 ]. Food quality is acknowledged as a basic component of the restaurant’s overall experience. Food quality is a restaurant selection’s most important factor, and it is considerably related to customer satisfaction [ 11 ]. Food quality affects customer loyalty, and customer assesses the restaurant on the basis of food quality [ 19 ]. Food quality entails food taste, presentation, temperature, freshness, nutrition, and menu variety. Food quality influences customers’ decisions to revisit the restaurant [ 20 ]. Academic curiosity is increasing in the restaurant’s menus, as variety of menu items is considered the critical characteristic of food quality [ 11 ]. Taste is sensual characteristic of food. Taste is assessed after consumption. Nonetheless, customers foresee taste before consumption through price, quality, food labels, and brand name. Taste of food is important to accomplish customer satisfaction. Presentation of food enhances dining customer satisfaction [ 21 , 22 ]. Customer’s concerns of healthy food substantially affect customer’s expectations and choice of a restaurant [ 23 ]. Freshness is assessed with the aroma, juiciness, crispness, and fresh posture of the food. Food quality enhances customer satisfaction [ 24 ].

• Restaurant service quality

Quality as a construct is projected by Juran and Deming [ 25 , 26 ]. Service quality is comparatively a contemporary concept. Service quality assesses the excellence of brands in industry of travel, retail, hotel, airline, and restaurant [ 27 ]. Restaurant service quality affects dining experiences of customers. Service quality creates first impression on consumers and affects consumers’ perception of quality [ 28 ]. Service industry provides good service quality to the customers to attain sustainable competitive advantage. Customer satisfaction depends on quality of service at the restaurant [ 29 ]. Service quality entails price, friendliness, cleanliness, care, diversity, speed of service, and food consistency according to menu. Customer satisfaction also depends on communication between restaurant’s personnel and the customers [ 30 ]. Consumer’s evaluation of service quality is affected by level of friendliness and care. Service quality leads to positive word of mouth, customer satisfaction, better corporate image, attraction for the new customers, increase revisits, and amplified business performance. Service quality increases revisits and behavioral intentions of customers in hospitality industry [ 12 ].

• Physical environment quality

PEQ is a setting to provide products and services in a restaurant. Physical environment quality contains artifacts, decor, spatial layout, and ambient conditions in a restaurant. Customers desire dining experience to be pleasing; thus, they look for a physical environment quality [ 31 ]. Physical environment quality satisfies and attracts new customers. PEQ increases financial performance, and it creates memorable experience for the customers [ 9 ]. Consumers perceive the quality of a restaurant based on cleanliness, quirky, comfortable welcoming, physical environment quality, and other amenities that create the ambiance [ 32 ]. Effect of physical environment quality on behaviors is visible in service businesses such as restaurants, hotels, hospitals, retail stores, and banks [ 33 ]. Physical environment quality is an antecedent of customer satisfaction [ 34 ]. Thus, restaurants need to create attractive and distinctive physical environment quality.

• Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction contains the feelings of pleasure and well-being. Customer satisfaction develops from gaining what customer expects from the service. Customer satisfaction is broadly investigated in consumer behavior and social psychology. Customer satisfaction is described “as the customer’s subjective assessment of the consumption experience, grounded on certain associations between the perceptions of customer and objective characteristics of the product” [ 35 ]. Customer satisfaction is the extent to which an experience of consumption brings good feelings. Customer satisfaction is stated as “a comparison of the level of product or service performance, quality, or other outcomes perceived by the consumer with an evaluative standard” [ 36 ]. Customer satisfaction constructs as a customer’s wholesome evaluation of an experience. Customer satisfaction is a reaction of fulfilling customer’s needs.

Customer satisfaction brings escalated repeat purchase behavior and intention to refer [ 37 ]. Dissatisfied consumers are uncertain to return to the place [ 38 ]. Satisfactory restaurant experience can enhance revisit intention of the consumer. Positive WOM is generated when customers are not only satisfied with the brand but they demand superior core offering and high level of service [ 15 ].

• Word of mouth

Word of mouth is described as “person-to-person, oral communication between a communicator and receiver which is perceived as a non-commercial message” [ 39 ]. WOM is also defined as “the informal positive or negative communication by customers on the objectively existing and/or subjectively perceived characteristics of the products or services” [ 40 ]. Moreover, [ 41 ] defines it as “an informal person to person communication between a perceived non-commercial communicator and a receiver regarding a brand, a product, an organization or a service”. WOM is described as a positive or negative statement made by probable, actual or former customers about a product or a company, which is made available through offline or online channels [ 42 , 43 ]. WOM is an important and frequent sensation; it is known for long time that people habitually exchange their experiences of consumptions with others. Consumers complain about bad hotel stays, talk about new shoes, share info about the finest way of getting out tough stains, spread word about experience of products, services, companies, restaurants, and stores. Social talks made more than 3.3 billion of brand impressions per day [ 44 ].

WOM has substantial impact on consumer’s purchasing decision; therefore, a vital marketing strategy is to initiate positive WOM [ 45 ]. However, negative WOM is more informative and diagnostic where customers express their dissatisfaction [ 38 ]. Word of mouth communications are more informative than traditional marketing communications in service sector. WOM is more credible than advertisement when it is from friends and family [ 46 ]. WOM is a vital influencer in purchase intention. WOM escalates affection that enhances commitment of consumer purchase intention. WOM is generated before or after the purchase. WOM helps the consumers to acquire more knowledge for the product and to reduce the perceived risk [ 47 ]. WOM in the dining experience is very important. People tend to follow their peers’ opinions when they are to dine out.

• Revisit intention

To predicting and to explain human behavior is the key determination of consumer behavior research. Consumer needs differ and emerge frequently with diverse outlooks. Revisit intention is to endorse “visitors being willing to revisit the similar place, for satisfactory experiences, and suggest the place to friends to develop the loyalty” [ 48 ]. Consumer forms an attitude toward the service provider based on the experience of service. This attitude can be steady dislike or like of the service. This is linked to the consumer’s intention to re-patronize the service and to start WOM. Repurchase intention is at the core of customer loyalty and commitment. Repurchase intention is a significant part of behavioral and attitudinal constructs. Revisit intention is described as optimistic probability to revisit the restaurant. Revisit intention is the willingness of a consumer to visit the restaurant again. Furthermore, the ease of visitors, transportation in destination, entertainment, hospitability, and service satisfaction influence visitor’s revisit intention.

Consumer behavior encircles the upcoming behavioral intention and post-visit evaluation. Post-visit evaluation covers perceived quality, experience, value, and the satisfaction. Restaurant managers are interested to understand the factors of consumer revisit intention, as it is cost effective to retain the existing customers in comparison with attract new customers [ 49 ]. Substantial consideration is prevailing in literature for the relationship among quality attributes, customer satisfaction, and revisit intention. There is a positive association between customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Indifferent consumer, accessibility of competitive alternatives and low switching cost can end up in a state where satisfied consumers defect to other options [ 2 ]. Consumer behavior varies for choice of place to visit, assessments, and behavioral intentions [ 50 ]. The assessments are about the significance perceived by regular customers’ satisfactions. Whereas, future behavioral intentions point to the consumer’s willingness to revisit the similar place and suggest it to the others [ 51 ].

S-O-R model is primarily established on the traditional stimulus–response theory. This theory explicates individual’s behavior as learned response to external stimuli. The theory is questioned for oversimplifying ancestries of the behaviors and ignoring one’s mental state. [ 52 ] extended the S-O-R model through integrating the notion of organism between stimulus and response. S-O-R concept is embraced to reveal individual’s affective and cognitive conditions before the response behavior [ 53 ]. S-O-R framework considers that environment comprises stimuli (S) leading changes to the individual’s internal conditions called organism (O), further leading to responses (R) [ 52 ]. In S-O-R model, the stimuli comprise of various components of physical environment quality, organism indicates to internal structures and processes bridging between stimuli and final responses or actions of a consumer [ 9 ]. Behavioral responses of an individual in a physical environment quality are directly influenced by the physical environment quality stimulus [ 54 ]. S-O-R framework is implemented in diverse service contexts to examine how physical environment quality affects customer’s emotion and behavior [ 55 ]. The effect of stimulation in an online shopping environment on impulsive purchase is investigated through S-O-R framework [ 56 ]. The effects of background music, on consumers’ affect and cognition, and psychological responses influence behavioral intentions [ 57 ]. Perceived flow and website quality toward customer satisfaction affect purchase intention in hotel website based on S-O-R framework [ 58 ]. Therefore, this study conceptualizes food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality as stimuli; customer satisfaction as organism; and revisit intention as response.

Moreover, social conformity theory (SCT) is to support the logical presence of WOM in the conceptual framework as a moderator on the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Social conformity influences individual’s attitudes, beliefs and behaviors leading to a herding effect [ 17 , 59 ]. Thus, social influence (WOM) moderates the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. Following hypotheses are postulated, see Fig.  1 .

Conceptual research framework

Food quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between food quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between restaurant service quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

Customer satisfaction mediates between physical environment quality and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant.

There are two research approaches such as deductive (quantitative) and inductive (qualitative). This study utilized the quantitative research approach as it aligns with the research design and philosophy. Quantitative research approach mostly relies on deductive logic. Researcher begins with hypotheses development and then collects data. Data are used to determine whether empirical evidence supports the hypotheses [ 60 ]. The questionnaires survey is used. This study chose the mono-method with cross-sectional time horizon of 6 months. Deductive approach is utilized in this study. Cross-sectional time horizon also known as “snapshot” is used when investigation is related with the study of a specific phenomenon at a particular time [ 61 ]. Questionnaire survey is mostly used technique for data collection in marketing research due to its effectiveness and low cost [ 62 ]. Data are collected through self-administered questionnaires. Following the footsteps of Lai and Chen [ 63 ] and Widianti et al. [ 64 ] convenience sampling is applied. Famous fast food restaurants in twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad) of Pakistan were chosen randomly. Furthermore, 650 questionnaires (with consideration of low response rate) were distributed to the customers at famous fast food restaurants. Moreover, researchers faced difficulty in obtaining fast food restaurant’s consumers data.

It yielded a response rate of 68.92% with 448 returned questionnaires. Fifteen incomplete questionnaires are not included; thus, 433 responses are employed for data analysis from fast food restaurant customers. The obtained number of usable responses was suitable to apply structural equation modeling [ 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 ].

Sample characteristics describe that there are 39.7% females and 60.3% males. There are 31.4% respondents of age group 15–25 years, 48.3% of age group 26–35, 12.2% of age ranges between 36 and 45, 6.7% of age ranges between 46 and 55, and 1.4% of age group is above 56 years. The educational level of the respondents indicates that mostly respondents are undergraduate and graduate. Occupation of respondents reflects that 28.6% work in private organizations and 24.9% belong to student category. Monthly income of 29.3% respondents ranges between Rupees 20,000 and 30,000 and 25.6% have monthly income of Rupees 41,000–50,000. Average monthly spending in fast food restaurants is about Rupees 3000–6000, see Table  1 .

Measures of the constructs

Food quality is adopted from measures developed by [ 69 ]. Food quality contains six items such as: food presentation is visually attractive, the restaurant offers a variety of menu items, and the restaurant offers healthy options. Restaurant service quality is adopted with six items [ 70 ]. This construct contains items such as: efficient and effective process in the welcoming and ushering of the customers, efficient and effective explanation of the menu, efficient and effective process in delivery of food. Physical environment quality is adopted with four items [ 71 ], and one item is adopted from measures developed by [ 70 ]. The items are such as: the restaurant has visually striking building exteriors and parking space, the restaurant has visually eye-catching dining space that is comfortable and easy to move around and within, and the restaurant has suitable music and/or illumination in accordance with its ambience. Revisit intention is measured through four adapted items [ 8 ]; such as: I would visit again in the near future and I am interested in revisiting again. Customer satisfaction is measured by three adopted items [ 29 ]; such as: I am satisfied with the service at this restaurant, and the restaurant always comes up to my expectations. Word of mouth is measured with four adopted items such as: my family/friends mentioned positive things I had not considered about this restaurant, my family/friends provided me with positive ideas about this restaurant [ 72 ]. Each item is measured on 5-point Likert scale, where 1 = strongly disagree, 3 = uncertain, and 5 = strongly agree.

Results and discussion

Validity and reliability.

Validity taps the ability of the scale to measure the construct; in other words, it means that the representative items measure the concept adequately [ 73 ]. The content validity is executed in two steps; firstly, the items are presented to the experts for further modifications; secondly, the constructive feedback about understanding of it was acquired by few respondents who filled the questionnaires. Each set of items is a valid indicator of the construct as within-scale factor analysis is conducted.

The factor analyses allotted the items to their respective factor. Fornell and Lacker’s [ 74 ] composite reliability p is calculated for each construct using partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling and Cronbach’s coefficient α [ 75 ]. Cronbach’s α is used to evaluate the reliability of all items that indicates how well the items in a set are positively related to one another. Each Cronbach’s α of the instrument is higher than .7 (ranging from .74 to .91); see Table  2 .

Common method bias

Same measures are used to collect data for all respondents; thus, there can be common method bias [ 76 ]. Firstly, questionnaire is systematically constructed with consideration of study design. Secondly, respondents were assured for the responses to be kept anonymous [ 77 ]. Common method bias possibility is assessed through Harman’s single factor test [ 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 ]. Principal axis factor analysis on measurement items is exercised. The single factor did not account for most of the bias and it accounted for 43.82% variance that is less than 50%. Thus, common method bias is not an issue [ 80 , 81 ].

SEM-PLS model assessment

Survey research faces a challenge to select an appropriate statistical model to analyze data. Partial least squares grounded structural equation modeling (SEM-PLS) and covariance-based structural equation modeling (CB-SEM) are generally used multivariate data analysis methods. CB-SEM is based on factor analysis that uses maximum likelihood estimation. PLS-SEM is based on the principal component concept; it uses the partial least squares estimator [ 84 ]. PLS-SEM is considered appropriate to examine complex cause–effect relationship models. PLS-SEM is a nonparametric approach with low reservations on data distribution and sample size [ 84 ].

Measurement model assessment

To evaluate convergent validity measurement model (outer model) is assessed that includes composite reliability (CR) to evaluate internal consistency, individual indicator reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) [ 85 ]. Indicator reliability explains the variation in the items by a variable. Outer loadings assess indicator reliability; a higher value (an item with a loading of .70) on a variable indicates that the associated measure has considerable mutual commonality [ 85 ]. Two items RSQ 14 and PEQ 24 are dropped due to lower value less than .60 [ 86 ]. Composite reliability is assessed through internal consistency reliability. CR values of all the latent variables have higher values than .80 to establish internal consistency [ 85 ]; see Table  2 .

Convergent validity is the extent to which a measure correlates positively with alternative measures of the same variable. Convergent validity is ensured through higher values than .50 of AVE [ 74 ], see Table  2 . Discriminant validity is the degree to which a variable is truly distinct from other variables. Square root of AVE is higher than the inter-construct correlations except customer satisfaction to hold discriminant validity [ 74 ]. Additional evidence for discriminant validity is that indicators’ individual loadings are found to be higher than the respective cross-loadings, see Table  3 .

Structural model assessment

Structural model is assessed after establishing the validity and reliability of the variables. Structural model assessment includes path coefficients to calculate the importance and relevance of structural model associations. Model’s predictive accuracy is calculated through R 2 value. Model’s predictive relevance is assessed with Q 2 , and value of f 2 indicates substantial impact of the exogenous variable on an endogenous variable in PLS-SEM [ 85 ]. SEM is rigueur in validating instruments and testing linkages between constructs [ 87 ]. SMART-PLS produces reports of latent constructs correlations, path coefficients with t test values. The relationships between six constructs of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, customer satisfaction, word-of-mouth, and revisit intention are displayed in Fig.  2 after bootstrapping. Bootstrapping is a re-sampling approach that draws random samples (with replacements) from the data and uses these samples to estimate the path model multiple times under slightly changed data constellations [ 88 ]. Purpose of bootstrapping is to compute the standard error of coefficient estimates in order to examine the coefficient’s statistical significance [ 89 ].

Bootstrapping and path coefficients

Food quality is positively associated to customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 1 is supported as path coefficient = .487, T value = 8.349, P value = .000. Restaurant service quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction; H 2 is supported as path coefficient = .253, T value = 4.521, P value = .000. Physical environment quality is positively associated with customer satisfaction in fast food restaurant; H 3 is supported as path coefficient = .149, T value = 3.518, P value = .000. Customer satisfaction is positively associated with revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 4 is supported as path coefficient = .528, T value = 11.966, P value = .000. WOM positively moderates the relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant; H 8 is not supported as path coefficient = − .060, T value = 2.972, P value = .003; see Table  4 .

Assessing R 2 and Q 2

Coefficient of determination R 2 value is used to evaluate the structural model. This coefficient estimates the predictive precision of the model and is deliberated as the squared correlation between actual and predictive values of the endogenous construct. R 2 values represent the exogenous variables’ mutual effects on the endogenous variables. This signifies the amount of variance in endogenous constructs explained by total number of exogenous constructs associated to it [ 88 ]. The endogenous variables customer satisfaction and revisit intention have R 2  = .645 and .671, respectively, that assures the predictive relevance of structural model. Further the examination of the endogenous variables’ predictive power has good R 2 values.

Blindfolding is to cross-validate the model’s predictive relevance for each of the individual endogenous variables with value of Stone–Geisser Q 2 [ 90 , 91 ]. By performing the blindfolding test with an omission distance of 7 yielded cross-validated redundancy Q 2 values of all the endogenous variables [ 88 ]. Customer satisfaction’s Q 2  = .457 and RVI’s Q 2  = .501; this indicates large effect sizes. PLS structural model has predictive relevance because values of Q 2 are greater than 0, see Table  5 .

Assessing f 2

Effect size f 2 is the measure to estimate the change in R 2 value when an exogenous variable is omitted from the model. f 2 size effect illustrates the influence of a specific predictor latent variable on an endogenous variable. Effect size f 2 varies from small to medium for all the exogenous variables in explaining CS and RVI as shown Table  6 .

Additionally, H 5 : CS mediates between food quality and RVI is supported as CS partially mediates between FQ and RVI. Variation accounted for (VAF) value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable FQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effect of FQ on RVI is partially mediated through CS. Similarly, the VAF value indicates that 70% of the total effect of an exogenous variable RSQ and 35% VAF of PEQ on RVI is explained by indirect effect. Therefore, the effects of RSQ and PEQ on RVI are also partially mediated through CS. H 6 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between RSQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant. H 7 is supported as the effect of CS is partially mediated between PEQ and RVI of customer in fast food restaurant, see Table  7 . This clearly indicates that customer satisfaction mediates between all of our exogenous variables (food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality) and dependent variable revisit intention of customer in fast food restaurant [ 88 , 92 ] (Additional files 1 , 2 and 3 ).

This is interesting to note that food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction are important triggers of revisit intention at fast food restaurants. However, surprisingly, word of mouth does not moderate the relationship of customer satisfaction with revisit intention of customer at fast food restaurant. The results of the study correspond with some previous findings [ 15 , 29 , 32 , 69 , 93 ]. Positive relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention is consistent with the findings of the previous studies [ 5 , 8 , 94 , 95 , 96 ]. Food quality is positively associated with revisit intention; this result as well corresponds to a previous study [ 24 ]. Furthermore, interior and amusing physical environment is an important antecedent of revisit intention at a fast food restaurant; this finding is congruent with previous findings [ 29 , 70 , 97 , 98 ] and contrary to some previous studies [ 9 , 15 ].

Intensified competition, industry’s volatile nature, and maturity of the business are some challenges that fast food restaurants face [ 5 ]. Amid economic crunch, competition becomes even more evident, driving fast food restaurants to look for unconventional ways to appeal the customers. In fact, these findings somehow show that significance of physical environment quality in creating revisit intention is probably lower in comparison with food quality and restaurant service quality. Nonetheless, fast food restaurant’s management should not underrate the fact that physical environment quality considerably affects the revisit intention. Due to this, the importance of physical environment quality must not be overlooked when formulating strategies for improving customer satisfaction, revisit intention and creating long-term relationships with customers.

Managerial implications

The results imply that restaurant management should pay attention to customer satisfaction because it directly affects revisit intention. Assessing customer satisfaction has become vital to successfully contest in the modern fast food restaurant business. From a managerial point of view, the results of this study will help restaurant managers to better understand the important role of food quality, restaurant service quality and physical environment quality as marketing tool to retain and satisfy customers.

Limitations

There are certain limitations with this study. This study is cross sectional, and it can be generalized to only two cities of Pakistan. Scope of research was limited as the data were collected from two cities of Pakistan (Islamabad and Rawalpindi) using convenience sampling.

Future research

A longitudinal study with probability sampling will help the researchers to comprehensively investigate the relationships among the constructs. Moreover, it would be useful for future research models to add information overload as an explanatory variable and brand image as moderating variable in the research framework. Additionally, moderation of WOM can be investigated in other relationships of conceptual model.

The study encircles the key triggers of customer satisfaction and revisit intention in fast food restaurants. It also offers a model that defines relationships between three factors of restaurant offer (food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality), customer satisfaction, word of mouth, and revisit intention at fast food restaurants. The model specially focuses the revisit intention as dependent variable of conceptual model despite behavior intentions. The findings suggest the revisit intention is positively associated with customer satisfaction, food quality, restaurant service quality, and physical environment quality in a fast food restaurant.

However, contrary to the findings of a previous study [ 99 ], WOM do not positively moderate between the relationship of customer satisfaction and revisit intention. The empirical findings confirm the significant impact of food quality, restaurant service quality, physical environment quality, and customer satisfaction which are important antecedents of revisit intention at fast food restaurant through mediation of customer satisfaction. Moreover, findings of the research support the assumptions of SOR theory strengthening our conceptual model which states the external stimuli (FQ, RSQ, PEQ) produced internal organism (CS) which led to the response (RVI). However; assumption of social conformity theory failed to influence the satisfied customer. In other words, customer satisfaction plays dominating role over social influence (i.e. WOM) in making revisit intention. Therefore, WOM was not able to influence the strength of relationship of CS and RVI.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Social conformity theory

Stimulus-organism-response

Structural equation modeling with partial least squares

Rhou Y, Singal M (2020) A review of the business case for CSR in the hospitality industry. Int J Hosp Manag 84:102330

Google Scholar  

Berezina K, Cobanoglu C, Miller BL, Kwansa FA (2012) The impact of information security breach on hotel guest perception of service quality, satisfaction, revisit intentions and word-of-mouth. Int J Hosp Manag 24(7):991–1010

Shariff SNFBA, Omar MB, Sulong SNB, Majid HABMA, Ibrahim HBM, Jaafar ZB, Ideris MSKB (2015) The influence of service quality and food quality towards customer fulfillment and revisit intention. Can Soc Sci 11(8):138–144

Rana M, Lodhi R, Butt G, Dar W (2017) How determinants of customer satisfaction are affecting the brand image and behavioral intention in fast food industry of Pakistan. J Tour Hospit 6(316):2167-0269

Marinkovic V, Senic V, Ivkov D, Dimitrovski D, Bjelic M (2014) The antecedents of satisfaction and revisit intentions for full-service restaurants. Mark Intell Plan 32(3):311–327

Harun A, Prybutok G, Prybutok VR (2018) Insights into the antecedents of fast-food purchase intention and the relative positioning of quality. Qual Manag J 25(2):83–100

Qin H, Prybutok VR (2009) Service quality, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions in fast-food restaurants. Int J Qual Serv Sci 1(1):78–95

Chen JV, Htaik S, Hiele TM, Chen C (2017) Investigating international tourists’ intention to revisit Myanmar based on need gratification, flow experience and perceived risk. J Qual Assur Hosp Tour 18(1):25–44

Ali F, Amin M, Ryu K (2016) The role of physical environment, price perceptions, and consumption emotions in developing customer satisfaction in Chinese resort hotels. J Qual Assur Hosp Tour 17(1):45–70

Pareigis J, Edvardsson B, Enquist B (2011) Exploring the role of the service environment in forming customer’s service experience. Int J Qual Serv Sci 3(1):110–124

Ozdemir B, Caliskan O (2015) Menu design: a review of literature. J Foodserv Bus Res 18(3):189–206

Sadeghi M, Zandieh D, Mohammadi M, Yaghoubibijarboneh B, Nasrolahi Vosta S (2017) Investigating the impact of service climate on intention to revisit a hotel: the mediating role of perceived service quality and relationship quality. Int J Manag Sci Eng Manag 12(1):12–20

Blackston M, Lebar E (2015) Constructing consumer-brand relationships to better market and build businesses. In: Fournier S, Breazeale M, Avery J (eds) Strong brands, strong relationships. Routledge, Abingdon, p 376

Malik SA, Jaswal LH, Malik SA, Awan TM (2013) Measuring service quality perceptions of the customers of restaurant in Pakistan. Int J Qual Res 7(2):187–200

Sivadas E, Jindal RP (2017) Alternative measures of satisfaction and word of mouth. J Serv Mark 31(2):119–130

Ha Y, Im H (2012) Role of web site design quality in satisfaction and word of mouth generation. J Serv Manag 23(1):79–96

Zhang W, Yang J, Ding X-Y, Zou X-M, Han H-Y, Zhao Q-C (2019) Groups make nodes powerful: Identifying influential nodes in social networks based on social conformity theory and community features. Expert Syst Appl 125:249–258

Peri C (2006) The universe of food quality. Food Qual Prefer 17(1):3–8

Susskind AM, Chan EK (2000) How restaurant features affect check averages: a study of the Toronto restaurant market. Cornell Hotel Restaurant Adm Q 41(6):56–63

Jin N, Lee S, Huffman L (2012) Impact of restaurant experience on brand image and customer loyalty: moderating role of dining motivation. J Travel Tour Mark 29(6):532–551

Carins JE, Rundle-Thiele S, Ong DL (2020) Keep them coming back: the role of variety and aesthetics in institutional food satisfaction. Food Qual Prefer 80:103832

Josiam BM, Monteiro PA (2004) Tandoori tastes: perceptions of Indian restaurants in America. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 16(1):18–26

Choi J, Zhao J (2010) Factors influencing restaurant selection in south florida: Is health issue one of the factors influencing consumers’ behavior when selecting a restaurant? J Foodserv Bus Res 13(3):237–251

Ryu K, Han H (2010) Influence of the quality of food, service, and physical environment on customer satisfaction and behavioral intention in quick-casual restaurants: moderating role of perceived price. J Hosp Tour Res 34(3):310–329

Deming WE (1982) Quality, productivity, and competitive position. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Center for Advanced Engineering Study, Cambridge

Juran JM, Gryna FM, Bingham RS (1974) Quality control handbook. McGraw-Hill, Michigan

Dabholkar PA (2015) How to improve perceived service quality by increasing customer participation. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 1990 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) annual conference

Lai IK (2015) The roles of value, satisfaction, and commitment in the effect of service quality on customer loyalty in Hong Kong–style tea restaurants. Cornell Hosp Q 56(1):118–138

Jalilvand MR, Salimipour S, Elyasi M, Mohammadi M (2017) Factors influencing word of mouth behaviour in the restaurant industry. Mark Intell Plan 35(1):81–110

Wall EA, Berry LL (2007) The combined effects of the physical environment and employee behavior on customer perception of restaurant service quality. Cornell Hotel Restaurant Adm Q 48(1):59–69

Yuksel A, Yuksel F, Bilim Y (2010) Destination attachment: effects on customer satisfaction and cognitive, affective and conative loyalty. Tour Manag 31(2):274–284

Adam I, Adongo CA, Dayour F (2015) International tourists’ satisfaction with Ghanaian upscale restaurant services and revisit intentions. J Q Assur Hosp Tour 16(2):181–201

Baek E, Choo HJ, Yoon S-Y, Jung H, Kim G, Shin H, Kim H (2015) An exploratory study on visual merchandising of an apparel store utilizing 3D technology. J Global Fashion Mark 6(1):33–46

Wu H-C, Ko YJ (2013) Assessment of service quality in the hotel industry. J Qual Assur Hosp Tour 14(3):218–244

Pizam A, Shapoval V, Ellis T (2016) Customer satisfaction and its measurement in hospitality enterprises: a revisit and update. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 28(1):2–35

Westbrook RA, Oliver RL (1991) The dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfaction. J Consum Res 18(1):84–91

Prayag G, Hosany S, Muskat B, Del Chiappa G (2017) Understanding the relationships between tourists’ emotional experiences, perceived overall image, satisfaction, and intention to recommend. J Travel Res 56(1):41–54

Alegre J, Garau J (2010) Tourist satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Ann TTour Res 37(1):52–73

Arndt J (1967) Word of mouth advertising: a review of the literature. Advertising Research Foundation, New York

Bayus BL (1985) Word of mouth-the indirect effects of marketing efforts. J Advert Res 25(3):31–39

Harrison-Walker LJ (2001) The measurement of word-of-mouth communication and an investigation of service quality and customer commitment as potential antecedents. J Serv Res 4(1):60–75

Curina I, Francioni B, Hegner SM, Cioppi M (2020) Brand hate and non-repurchase intention: a service context perspective in a cross-channel setting. J Retail Consum Serv 54:102031

Hennig-Thurau T, Gwinner KP, Walsh G, Gremler DD (2004) Electronic word-of-mouth via consumer-opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the internet? J Interact Mark 18(1):38–52

Berger J, Schwartz EM (2011) What drives immediate and ongoing word of mouth? J Mark Res 48(5):869–880

Moliner-Velázquez B, Ruiz-Molina M-E, Fayos-Gardó T (2015) Satisfaction with service recovery: moderating effect of age in word-of-mouth. J Consum Mark 32(6):470–484

Royo-Vela M, Casamassima P (2011) The influence of belonging to virtual brand communities on consumers’ affective commitment, satisfaction and word-of-mouth advertising: the ZARA case. Online Inf Rev 35(4):517–542

Dhillon J (2013) Understanding word-of-mouth communication: a case study of banking sector in India. J Bus Manag 9(3):64–72

Chien M (2017) An empirical study on the effect of attractiveness of ecotourism destination on experiential value and revisit intention. Appl Ecol Environ Res 15(2):43–53

Abubakar AM, Ilkan M, Al-Tal RM, Eluwole KK (2017) eWOM, revisit intention, destination trust and gender. J Hosp Tour Manag 31:220–227

Chen C-F, Tsai D (2007) How destination image and evaluative factors affect behavioral intentions? Tour Manag 28(4):1115–1122

Allameh SM, Khazaei Pool J, Jaberi A, Salehzadeh R, Asadi H (2015) Factors influencing sport tourists’ revisit intentions: the role and effect of destination image, perceived quality, perceived value and satisfaction. Asia Pac J Mark Logist 27(2):191–207

Mehrabian A, Russell JA (1974) The basic emotional impact of environments. Percept Motor Skills 38(1):283–301

Zhang KZK, Benyoucef M (2016) Consumer behavior in social commerce: a literature review. Decision Support Syst 86:95–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2016.04.001

Article   Google Scholar  

Lee H-J, Yun Z-S (2015) Consumers’ perceptions of organic food attributes and cognitive and affective attitudes as determinants of their purchase intentions toward organic food. Food Qual Prefer 39:259–267

Yeh C-H, Wang Y-S, Li H-T, Lin S-Y (2017) The effect of information presentation modes on tourists’ responses in Internet marketing: the moderating role of emotions. J Travel Tour Mark 34(8):1018–1032

Lim SH, Lee S, Kim DJ (2017) Is online consumers’ impulsive buying beneficial for e-commerce companies? An empirical investigation of online consumers’ past impulsive buying behaviors. Inf Syst Manag 34:85–100

Wang L, Baker J, Wakefield K, Wakefield R (2017) Is background music effective on retail websites? J Promot Manag 23(1):1–23

Ali F (2016) Hotel website quality, perceived flow, customer satisfaction and purchase intention. J Hosp Tour Technol 7(2):213–228

Wang Z, Du C, Fan J, Xing Y (2017) Ranking influential nodes in social networks based on node position and neighborhood. Neurocomputing 260:466–477

Saunders MN (2011) Research methods for business students, 5/e. Pearson Education India, Bengaluru

Flick U (2015) Introducing research methodology: a beginner’s guide to doing a research project. Sage, Thousand Oaks

Zikmund WG, Babin BJ, Carr JC, Griffin M (2013) Business research methods. Cengage Learning, Boston

Lai W-T, Chen C-F (2011) Behavioral intentions of public transit passengers—the roles of service quality, perceived value, satisfaction and involvement. Transp Policy 18(2):318–325

Widianti T, Sumaedi S, Bakti IGMY, Rakhmawati T, Astrini NJ, Yarmen M (2015) Factors influencing the behavioral intention of public transport passengers. Int J Qual Reliab Manag 32(7):666–692

Hair JF Jr, Sarstedt M, Hopkins L, Kuppelwieser VG (2014) Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) An emerging tool in business research. Eur Bus Rev 26(2):106–121

Krejcie RV, Morgan DW (1970) Determining sample size for research activities. Educ Psychol Measur 30(3):607–610

Rahi S, Alnaser FM, Ghani MA (2019) Designing survey research: recommendation for questionnaire development, calculating sample size and selecting research paradigms. In: Economic and Social Development: Book of Proceedings, pp 1157–1169

Wahab S, bin Mohamad Shah MF, Faisalmein SN (2019) The relationship between management competencies and internal marketing knowledge towards internal marketing performance. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Regional Conference on Science, Technology and Social Sciences (RCSTSS 2016)

Namkung Y, Jang S (2007) Does food quality really matter in restaurants? Its impact on customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions. J Hosp Tour Res 31(3):387–409

Liu C-H, Chou S-F, Gan B, Tu J-H (2015) How “quality” determines customer satisfaction: evidence from the mystery shoppers’ evaluation. TQM J 27(5):576–590

Meng JG, Elliott KM (2008) Predictors of relationship quality for luxury restaurants. J Retail Consum Serv 15(6):509–515

Cham TH, Lim YM, Aik NC, Tay AGM (2016) Antecedents of hospital brand image and the relationships with medical tourists’ behavioral intention. Int J Pharm Healthc Mark 10(4):412–431

Sekaran U (2006) Research methods for business: a skill building approach. Wiley, New York

Fornell C, Larcker DF (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J Mark Res 18(1):39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312

Cronbach LJ (1951) Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika 16(3):297–334

Simonin BL (1999) Ambiguity and the process of knowledge transfer in strategic alliances. Strateg Manag J 20(7):595–623. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-0266(199907)20:7%3c595:aid-smj47%3e3.0.co;2-5

Robson MJ, Katsikeas CS, Bello DC (2008) Drivers and performance outcomes of trust in international strategic alliances: the role of organizational complexity. Organ Sci 19(4):647–665. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1070.0329

Greene CN, Organ DW (1973) An evaluation of causal models linking the received role with job satisfaction. Adm Sci Q 18(1):95–103

Konrad AM, Linnehan F (1995) Formalized HRM structures: Coordinating equal employment opportunity or concealing organizational practices? Acad Manag J 38(3):787–820

Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Lee J-Y, Podsakoff NP (2003) Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J Appl Psychol 88(5):879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879

Podsakoff PM, Organ DW (1986) Self-reports in organizational research: problems and prospects. J Manag 12(4):531–544. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920638601200408

Scott SG, Bruce RA (1994) Determinants of innovative behavior: a path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Acad Manag J 37(3):580–607

Simonin BL (2004) An empirical investigation of the process of knowledge transfer in international strategic alliances. J Int Bus Stud 35(5):407–427

Lowry PB, Gaskin J (2014) Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modeling (SEM) for building and testing behavioral causal theory: When to choose it and how to use it. IEEE Trans Prof Commun 57(2):123–146

Hair JF Jr, Hult GTM, Ringle C, Sarstedt M (2016) A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks

Nunnally JC (1978) Psychometric theory. McGraw-Hill, New York

Gefen D, Straub D, Boudreau M-C (2000) Structural equation modeling and regression: guidelines for research practice. Commun Assoc Inf Syst 4(1):7

Hair J (2013) Using the SmartPLS software. Kennesaw State University. Powerpoint presentation/lecture

Vinzi VE, Chin WW, Henseler J, Wang H (2010) Handbook of partial least squares: concepts, methods and applications. Springer, Berlin

Geisser S (1974) A predictive approach to the random effect model. Biometrika 61(1):101–107

Stone M (1974) Cross-validatory choice and assessment of statistical predictions. J R Stat Soc Ser B (Methodol) 36:111–147

Carrión GC, Nitzl C, Roldán JL (2017) Mediation analyses in partial least squares structural equation modeling: guidelines and empirical examples. In: Latan H, Noonan R (eds) Partial least squares path modeling. Springer, Berlin, pp 173–195

Lockyer T (2003) Hotel cleanliness—How do guests view it? Let us get specific. A New Zealand study. Int J Hosp Manag 22(3):297–305

Ha J, Jang SS (2010) Perceived values, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions: the role of familiarity in Korean restaurants. Int J Hosp Manag 29(1):2–13

Ryu K, Han H, Jang S (2010) Relationships among hedonic and utilitarian values, satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the fast-casual restaurant industry. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 22(3):416–432

Ryu K, Lee H-R, Gon Kim W (2012) The influence of the quality of the physical environment, food, and service on restaurant image, customer perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 24(2):200–223

Jang S, Liu Y, Namkung Y (2011) Effects of authentic atmospherics in ethnic restaurants: investigating Chinese restaurants. Int J Contemp Hosp Manag 23(5):662–680

Martín-Ruiz D, Barroso-Castro C, Rosa-Díaz IM (2012) Creating customer value through service experiences: an empirical study in the hotel industry. Tour Hosp Manag 18(1):37–53

Kuo Y-F, Hu T-L, Yang S-C (2013) Effects of inertia and satisfaction in female online shoppers on repeat-purchase intention: the moderating roles of word-of-mouth and alternative attraction. Manag Serv Qual Int J 23(3):168–187

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the conducive research environment support provided by Department of Management Sciences at COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus and Higher Education Commission Pakistan for provision of free access to digital library.

The authors declare that there was no source of funding for this research.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Wah Campus, G. T. Road, Wah Cantt., 47040, Pakistan

Amer Rajput

Management Sciences, Riphah International University, Al-Mizan IIMCT Complex, 274-Peshawar Road, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

Raja Zohaib Gahfoor

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

RG conceptualized the study while corresponding author AR furnished the data analysis and finalized the manuscript for the submission. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript..

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Amer Rajput .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Additional file 1..

PLS Algorithm.

Additional file 2.

Bootstrapping.

Additional file 3.

Blindfolding.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Rajput, A., Gahfoor, R.Z. Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants. Futur Bus J 6 , 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00021-0

Download citation

Received : 18 October 2019

Accepted : 26 February 2020

Published : 04 June 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00021-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Tracing knowledge evolution flows in scholarly restaurant research: a main path analysis

• Published: 22 June 2022
• Volume 57 , pages 2183–2209, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Abderahman Rejeb 1 ,
• Alireza Abdollahi 2 ,
• Karim Rejeb 3 &
• Mohamed M. Mostafa 4  

2958 Accesses

6 Citations

Explore all metrics

Restaurant research has received significant attention globally. This article aims to examine the evolution and the knowledge structure of restaurant research over the past decades. We also investigate the restaurant research hotspots and knowledge diffusion paths based on 1489 articles extracted from the Web of Science database. Furthermore, we conduct a keyword co-occurrence network analysis and four different types of main path analyses to scrutinize the historical formation of the restaurant research. Results revealed that restaurant research mainly focused on five research themes: consumer behavior, consumer satisfaction, social media, green restaurants, and authenticity. While consumer behavior has been the mainstream topic, the focus of this line of research has recently shifted from traditional to luxury and ethnic restaurants. Furthermore, our analysis has detected several recent changes in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. By examining the knowledge structure of restaurant research, we reveal its knowledge diffusion paths and provide avenues for future research in this vast and interdisciplinary research field.

Similar content being viewed by others

Social media influencer marketing: foundations, trends, and ways forward

Advances in social media research: past, present and future.

Digital transformation: a review, synthesis and opportunities for future research

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

In recent decades, the restaurant industry has attracted significant attention from both scholars and practitioners (Chuah et al. 2021 ; Liu et al. 2020a , b ; Rajput and Gahfoor 2020 ). According to DiPietro ( 2017 ), research on restaurants has increased considerably over the last three decades. To date, restaurant research represents one of the most important areas in the hospitality sector (Denizci Guillet and Mohammed 2015 ; Line and Runyan 2012 ). Indeed, as scholarly knowledge progresses in a scientific discipline, it becomes imperative for scholars to employ quantitative tools to review and uncover the knowledge domain’s intellectual structure (Mostafa 2020 ; Rivera and Pizam 2015 ). Ferreira et al. ( 2014 ) argued that as research fields mature and become increasingly complex, scholars should periodically attempt to evaluate the knowledge generated and amassed to identify new contributions, uncover new patterns and research traditions, and grasp the subjects discussed, the theories and methodologies applied, and investigate the intellectual structure and the potential research directions in a field.

Thus, given the enormous interest in restaurant research, it is imperative to examine this knowledge domain in a systematic and comprehensive manner. Currently, some efforts have been undertaken to review prior restaurant-related scholarly research. For example, DiPietro ( 2017 ) conducted a review of the foodservice and restaurant literature published over the past decade in the leading hospitality and tourism outlets. Rodríguez-López et al. ( 2020 ) investigated the development of the restaurant research by employing bibliometric analysis. The authors identified the structure of relationships between previous and emerging themes, outlined research trends and offered a longitudinal perspective on the scholarly work published between 2000 and 2018. Although these reviews provide valuable information regarding scholarly restaurant research, no prior studies have so far applied the main path analysis (MPA) to examine the knowledge structure and the evolution flows of this domain. This is surprising given that this technique has been used in the literature to analyze knowledge domains in several research fields (Fu et al. 2019 ; Xiao et al. 2014 ; Xu et al. 2020 ). To bridge this lacuna, we apply the objective MPA technique to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the knowledge/intellectual structure of restaurant research.

Thus, this review aims to employ a keyword co-occurrence network analysis and MPA to explore the scholarly restaurant domain over the last decades. Using these quantitative approaches, not only the research hotspots can be discovered, but also the critical points shaping the historical formation of the restaurant domain. In addition, four distinct main paths are analyzed to lucidly explain the knowledge dissemination flows and structure of this domain. The use of quantitative methods reduces the analysis bias that might result from subjective reasoning. The combination of keyword co-occurrence clustering and MPA can deepen scholars’ understanding of the complete history of restaurant research and help them understand the current state of this research domain and identify its future directions. By so doing, we believe that we make at least three contributions to the existing literature. First, by combining keyword co-occurrence clustering and MPA to examine the restaurant domain, we remedy a clear lacuna in previous research. Second, we provide a systematic analysis to investigate the knowledge transmission patterns from various angles, considering the local (forward and backward), global and key-route main paths, which helps reveal the “hidden structure” of the vast and multidisciplinary restaurant research. Third, by applying these fairly sophisticated quantitative methods, we vividly detect the evolutionary progress of the restaurant literature. More specifically, we aim to find answers to the following research questions (RQ):

RQ 1. What are the major topics/themes discussed in scholarly restaurant research?

RQ 2. What is the knowledge structure of restaurant research over the last decades?

RQ 3. What are the current trends/hotspots and the potential research directions in the field?

The structure of this paper is as follows. Section two deals with the data and methodology used to conduct the review. Section three presents the analysis of both the keyword co-occurrence network and the MPA approaches. Section four discusses the research findings, while Section five provides avenues for future research. Finally, Section six briefly concludes the research article.

2.1 Data collection

Data quality constitutes a precondition to meaningful and interpretable results. In this respect, the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) represents one of the most trustworthy and reliable sources covering several impactful journals (Rejeb et al. 2021b ; Xiao et al. 2014 ). Moreover, WoSCC is commonly utilized by researchers as it enables them to conduct bibliometric analyses in different scientific fields (Mostafa 2020 ; Rodríguez-López et al. 2020 ). Thus, in the current study, the WoSCC is utilized as the main platform for data collection. Figure  1 presents the detailed research procedure of the study. Following Rodríguez-López et al. ( 2020 ), the search query applied in the present work is the following: TI=(restaurant*) OR AK=(restaurant*), where TI and AK stand for the title field and author keywords field, respectively. The search in these fields is preferred in previous studies (Hernández et al. 2017 ; Sixto-Costoya et al. 2021 ; Villa et al. 2018 ) since it helps to avoid non-pertinent entries and achieve greater accuracy in the results (Alnajem et al. 2021 ; Gao and Ruan 2018 ). The review is based on four sub-databases within the WoSCC, namely Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED), Social Science Citation Index (SSCI), Art & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI), and Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI). The time interval extends from 1970 to 2021, and the publications were collected on August 8, 2021. Only journal articles and reviews in English language were selected for the final analysis. Furthermore, the subject area was limited to Hospitality, Leisure, Sport, Tourism; Management; Business; and Operations Research Management Science, thus helping to mitigate discrepancy in research results, ensure a thorough exploration of the restaurant field, and enable better generalizability and systematization (Rejeb et al. 2022 ). For the sake of clarity and transparency, the search query used for the retrieval of publications is presented in "Appendix 1". After manually going through all the articles’ metadata to exclude irrelevant (off-topic) publications, a total of 1489 documents were extracted and downloaded from the database.

Research procedure

2.2 Keyword co-occurrence network

To obtain an in-depth understanding of restaurant research, we constructed a keyword co-occurrence network. Similar to a co-citation network, a keyword co-occurrence network shows the respective relationships between co-occurring author-supplied keywords (Abdollahi et al. 2021 ; Rejeb et al. 2021a , b ; Yoon and Park 2020 ). Lee and Su ( 2010 ) noted that a keyword co-occurrence network analysis enables the researcher to identify research topics and capture the hotspots or research frontiers in a specific knowledge domain. Two keywords have a closer connection in the network if they appear in the same publications more frequently. By analyzing the keyword co-occurrence network, we aim to study the main content from the used keywords and portray the current structure of restaurant research. Owing to its high compatibility with the BibExcel tool, the software chosen for constructing this network is the VOSviewer. In this network, the radius of the node corresponds to the number of occurrences of each keyword, while the width of the links reflects the number of times each couple of keywords co-occur in publications. By clustering keywords, it is possible to determine the critical topics addressed in restaurant research.

Among various methods of citation-based analysis, we conducted cluster analysis and MPA. For the first, we adopted a keyword co-occurrence analysis. This bibliometric relational technique identifies the keywords used together more frequently in publications. These keywords are set as clusters, and a keyword co-occurrence network visualizes the association between them. The network could provide significant insights into different research foci and distribution of knowledge in a specified field (Börner et al. 2003 ; Rejeb et al. 2020 ).

MPA can complement cluster analysis by tracing a scientific domain’s knowledge diffusion and research paths. With the application of MPA, we endeavor to efficiently handle a huge number of papers and unearth the interrelationships and knowledge diffusion trajectories in a scientific discipline. Furthermore, we applied MPA because of its capability to identify the mainstream literature and related themes, which entail potential directions for future research (Chuang et al. 2014 ). MPA also allows researchers to detect the structural backbone of the formation of restaurant research and to estimate the direct and indirect influences of a paper, thereby providing a more accurate estimation of the value of the paper. The detailed information gained from the multiple main paths helps us ascertain the most important themes in the restaurant literature that surface in different periods and how these themes evolved. The restaurant-related topics stem from objective citation relationships among publications, which can more precisely reflect the current state of the restaurant field and eliminate researchers’ interpretations and judgments (Raghuram et al. 2010 ).

By conducting MPA and keyword co-occurrence network analysis, one could identify knowledge divergence, schools of thought, or paradigms and explore current and future trends in a research strand (Rejeb et al. 2022a ; Tseng et al. 2021 ; Xu et al. 2020 ).

Initially introduced by Hummon and Dereian ( 1989 ), MPA represents a popular method being adopted by an increasing number of scholars to reveal the outstanding publications that have made major contributions to various domains (Liu et al. 2013 ). MPA-related studies could be divided into two main strands: the ones that developed the MPA and those that applied MPA in different contexts (Liu et al. 2019 ). For example, works applying MPA include reviews on corporate social responsibility (Lu and Liu 2014 ), strategic management (resource-based view) (Lu and Liu 2013 ), social commerce (Tang 2017 ), data quality (Xiao et al. 2014 ), the Internet of Things (IoT) (Fu et al. 2019 ), blockchain technology (Tseng et al. 2021 ; Yu and Pan 2021 ; Yu and Sheng 2021 ), supply chain bullwhip effect (Yu and Yan 2021 ) and sustainable technology innovation ( Zhang et al. 2020 ).

To explain how MPA works, we presented a simple citation network (see Fig.  2 ). Consider two publications where one cites another. The publications are called nodes (e.g., A, B, and F), and a link is shaped from cited to citing node (e.g., A-C, A-D, and G-J). Nodes cited by others and do not cite other publications are called sources (e.g., A and B). Meanwhile, nodes not cited and only cite other documents are called sinks (e.g., H, I, and J).

 A simple citation network with SPC values

Traversal weight is a key concept in MPA. It refers to different methods to assign different values to links. Among various methods such as search path link count (SPLC), search path node pair (SPNP), and node pair projection count (NPPC) (Hummon and Dereian 1989 ), we applied search path count (SPC) (Batagelj 2003 ). To determine the SPC value, one should count different paths that traversed the link, starting from a source till reaching a sink. For example, the SPC value of E-J is 2 because two paths are traversing through E-J, namely, A-E-J and B-E-J.

The weighted network is extracted by calculating all the SPCs. The next step is to trace the main paths. In our study, we adopted local (forward and backward) main path analysis, global main path analysis, and key-route main path analysis to scrutinize the knowledge structure of restaurant research. These paths complement each other and could not be replaced (Yu and Sheng 2020 ). While the analysis of local main paths could determine the significant connections, the analysis of the global main path could reveal the path with the highest SPC. Contrary to these paths, the analysis of the key-route main path could extract knowledge divergence-convergence in a research field (Liu et al. 2013 ; Liu and Lu 2012 ).

To extract the forward local main path, we start with sources and compare their links. Then, the link(s) with the highest SPC are selected, and the nodes at the end of the selected link(s) are considered new starting points. We continue this process until reaching a sink. The resulted path is the forward local main path. In our example, it is presented by solid lines in Fig.  3 .

The forward local main path

While the forward local main path starts from sources and moves forward to sinks, the backward local main path moves backward from sinks to sources. The first depicts the publications with the most followers, where the latter portrays the ones that have taken the most ideas from previous papers (Liu and Lu 2012 ). Figure  4 illustrates the backward local main path for our example.

The backward local main path

Neither forward nor backward local paths are necessarily the path with the highest SPC value. For this reason, the analysis of the global main path is used to extract the path. The paths with the highest SPC value (24) in our sample are drawn with solid lines in Fig.  5 .

The global main path

None of the above-mentioned paths necessarily extract all the links with the highest SPCs. Thus, the key-route main path analysis is used starting from the links with the highest SPCs. Then, the path is determined by moving forward till reaching a sink and moving backward till reaching a source (Liu and Lu 2012 ; Rejeb et al. 2022a , b , c ). Figure  6 presents the key-route 2 main paths for our example. 2 refers to choosing 9 and 6 as the two highest SPCs. One could reveal more details by choosing more key-routes.

The key-route 2 main path

3.1 Keyword co-occurrence network results

We conducted a keyword co-occurrence network analysis to reveal the various research clusters in restaurant research. This helps us to identify critical research foci that have provided significant contributions to the field. We started by extracting, reviewing, and refining authors’ keywords as the unit of analysis. For example, the full-length keywords were abbreviated and replaced (e.g., Word of Mouth by WoM). To generate the network, we imported the data into the VOSviewer software. Then, we applied density-based spatial clustering using the full counting method, which calculates the total number of occurrences of a keyword in all publications (Kriegel et al. 2011 ). Unlike the fractional counting method, the full counting method is widely used by researchers due to its intuitiveness and ease of interpretation (Perianes-Rodriguez et al. 2016 ; Waltman and van Eck 2015 ). We set the threshold to six keyword occurrences. As a result, a network with six clusters was obtained (see Fig.  7 ). In the network, each node represents a keyword. The node’s color represents the cluster to which the node has been assigned. The node’s size is proportional to the number of keyword occurrences. Finally, the distance between nodes reveals the density. In other words, the higher the density, the closer the nodes. Furthermore, Table  1 lists the top 10 most frequent keywords in each cluster.

Restaurant research keyword co-occurrence network

From the figure, we see that the most significant cluster is the red one. It is a generic cluster and indicates the vital importance of consumer behavior in foodservice operations, restaurants, hotels, tourism, and overall hospitality industry research. Consumer behavior constitutes the result of multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors, such as the motivations of various consumers, food attributes, and the environments where food choices are made (Camillo et al. 2010 ). In the current cluster, the relationship between consumer behavior and innovation and how they impact one another have attracted scholars’ attention (Laužikas et al. 2015 ; Torabi Farsani et al. 2016 ). To offer a positive consumer experience, it is crucial to deploy information and communication technologies (ICT) applications and innovation in the foodservice sector. For example, in the study of Chuah et al. ( 2021 ), behavioral intentions are measured in terms of consumers’ innovativeness and willingness to pay more for robotic restaurants. Furthermore, the recent COVID-19 pandemic has significantly influenced consumer behavior and highlighted the role of innovation in ensuring responsiveness and business survival (Hemmington and Neill 2021 ), enhancing order accuracy, optimizing productivity, and improving customer relationships and satisfaction (Gavilan et al. 2021 ; Hakim et al. 2021 ; Linh et al. 2021 ; Min et al. 2021 ; Vig and Agarwal 2021 ). Finally, some researchers in this cluster have investigated the tipping behavior of consumers (Beer and Greitemeyer 2019 ; Kowalczuk and Gębski 2021 ; Lynn 2021 ; Maynard andMupandawana 2009 ; Seiter et al. 2011 , 2016 ; Thrane and Haugom 2020 ).

The second cluster in green revolves around customer satisfaction. Several researchers have focused on customer satisfaction in the restaurant context (Agrawal and Mittal 2019 ; Dwaikat et al. 2019 ; Mannan et al. 2019 ; Rajput and Gahfoor 2020 ; Ryu et al. 2008 ; Xia and Ha 2021 ). They have also investigated the relationship between customer satisfaction and service quality, emotion, trust, and perceived value and demonstrated how customer satisfaction could shape and impact behavioral intentions and customer loyalty in various types of restaurants, including full-service restaurants (Anggraeni et al. 2020 ; DiPietro and Levitt 2019 ; Mursid and Wu 2021 ; Tuncer et al. 2021 ).

The third cluster in blue emphasizes the importance of the corporate social responsibility (CSR) concept within the restaurant industry. As is the case with other industries, scholars in this field argue that it is not sufficient for restaurants to just maximize their financial performance. Instead, they should address social and environmental concerns as this would positively impact their reputation and enhance their financial performance (Theodoulidis et al. 2017 ; Yoon and Chung 2018 ). For example, CSR could positively influence job satisfaction, employee engagement, and, consequently, firm performance (Kim and Kim 2020 ). Furthermore, scholars have examined the moderating effects of CSR and its relationship with internationalization, franchising, as well as restaurant type and risk (Jung et al. 2018a , b ; Bora and Lee 2020 ).

The fourth cluster in yellow is labeled as online reviews, indicating the critical role of social media in customers’ communication and the effects of WoM and eWoM on restaurants’ success or failure. Customers are increasingly sharing their views on restaurant services and experiences. In this cluster, researchers focused on how these shared views impact emotions and intentions (Huifeng and Ha 2021 ; Oliveira and Casais 2019 ; Popy and Bappy 2020 ). In addition, studies sought to answer how restaurants could better exploit positive and negative reviews to make effective recovery strategies after service failures, improve reputation, and enhance social capital and performance (Chang and Cheng 2021 ; Kim and Velthuis 2021 ; Micu et al. 2017 ).

The fifth cluster in purple focuses on green restaurants and sustainability. Green restaurants have become widely prevalent due to environmental concerns and consumers’ needs for locally-grown and organic foods (Liu et al. 2020a , b ). Unlike traditional restaurants, green restaurants commit efforts to reduce waste, increase water efficiency, and use sustainable furnishings and building materials (Ham and Lee 2011 ). In general, researchers explored the theme of green restaurants from various perspectives, including customer intentions, restaurant performance, and adoption drivers of green practices (Tehrani et al. 2020 ; Teng and Wu 2019 ; TM et al. 2021 ). Theory of planned behavior seems to be very popular in explaining consumers’ attitudes, intentions and perceptions of the restaurant and the food choice differences between genders, ages, and regions (Jang et al. 2015 ; Kim et al. 2013 ; Moon 2021 ). Moreover, several studies have examined the impacts of green restaurant menus or organic menus on consumer intentions, highlighting menu labeling and design techniques (e.g., information about local foods) as a fundament to persuade consumers to buy green and sustainable foods (Cai et al. 2021 ; Cerdá Suárez et al. 2018 ; Shafieizadeh and Tao 2020 ; Shin et al. 2019 ).

Finally, the last cluster in aqua deals with consumer-brand relationships. The vital role of brands in the restaurant industry has been portrayed by several scholars (Hwang et al. 2011 ; Jin et al. 2012 ; Kwon et al. 2020 ; Lu et al. 2015 ; Wang and Mattila 2015 ). The high frequency of the keywords “Authenticity” and “Ethnic Restaurant” indicates the heightened importance of providing an authentic consumer experience and promoting ethnic cuisines. Overall, studies in this cluster have focused on antecedent factors (e.g., servicescape, perceived quality, brand and restaurant experience, and advertisement) that impact consumer behavior and enhance brand-related concepts such as brand trust, brand loyalty, brand equity, brand image, and (perceived) authenticity. While most studies belong to the marketing and sustainability strands, other fields like supply chain management, strategic management, and digital transformation can enrich restaurant research and contribute to this amazing knowledge domain.

3.2 MPA results

We conducted local (forward and backward) main paths analysis, global main path analysis, and key-route main path analysis. These paths reveal the most important trajectories of restaurant research and complement each other. In the figures, each node represents a paper (i.e., unit of analysis) accompanied by the lead author’s name and publication year. The directed links depict the knowledge flow, and their thickness reflects their importance or a higher search path count (SPC) value.

3.2.1 Local main paths

Figures  8 and 9 present the local main paths, comprising 12 papers and 14 papers, respectively. Overall, the forward and backward local main paths do not share similar papers.

Restaurant research forward local main path

Restaurant research backward local main path

It is evident that Caldwell and Hibbert ( 2002 ) represents the first article on the forward local main path that marks the initial formation of restaurant research. In this study, the authors have examined different consumer behavior variables, including perceived and actual time spent in the restaurant, money, enjoyment of the experience, and future behavioral intentions. They further explored the impact of music tempo and preference on these variables. Strongly connected to the previous paper, Jang and Namkung ( 2009 ) have used the stimulus–organism–response framework to investigate the relationship between perceived quality (product, atmospherics, and service), emotions (positive and negative), and behavioral intentions. Results revealed that restaurateurs should devote more attention to enhancing service quality and atmospherics to create positive emotions and deliver quality products to alleviate customers’ negative emotions. Subsequently, Ha and Jang ( 2010 ) explored the impact of perceived service and food quality on customer satisfaction and loyalty and the moderating effect of the perception of atmospherics in Korean restaurants.

In an innovative research, Jeong and Jang ( 2011 ) scrutinized factors that cause customers to participate in positive eWOM. These factors include service and food quality, atmosphere, and price fairness. Ponnam and Balaji ( 2014 ) focused on casual dining restaurants and examined the relationship between visitation motives and restaurant attributes. At this point, authenticity or perceived authenticity has emerged in scholars’ keywords. For example, Lu et al. ( 2015 ) examined the relationship between authenticity, brand equity, and brand choice intention. The authors found that consumers’ authenticity perception constitutes a key determinant of brand equity, which considerably impacts consumers’ choice of ethnic restaurants. Youn and Kim ( 2017 ) investigated the effects of ingredients, names, and stories about food origins on perceived authenticity and purchase intentions. In the context of independent, full-service mainstream ethnic restaurants, the connections among perceived authenticity, perceived value, perceived quality, and behavioral intentions are examined by Liu et al. ( 2018 ). Results revealed that restaurant authenticity positively impacts perceived value and that respondents closely acquainted with Italian culture and food attribute more value to restaurant authenticity. Finally, Chen et al. ( 2020a ) looked into the effects of perceived authenticity on perceived quality, perceived value, and behavioral intentions in a traditional branded restaurant.

Two paths have emerged at the extremity of the forward main path analysis. One path contains two papers revolving around nostalgia. For instance, Chen et al. ( 2020b ) examined the role of nostalgia in affecting consumers’ loyalty intentions at traditional Chinese restaurants and found that consumers with nostalgic feelings tend to perceive a higher value of their dining experience, which results in higher loyalty intentions. In a similar vein, Gu et al. ( 2021 ) examined the impact of nostalgia-evoking stimuli on customers’ consequent assessment and post-purchase behavioral intention. The authors found that associations between nostalgia stimuli and epistemic, emotional, and nostalgia-seeking benefits were confirmed partially. The other path includes one paper. Building on signaling theory, Song and Kim ( 2021 ) explored the relationship between four aspects of time-honored restaurants, which are the restaurants that maintain good social recognition based on their establishment time. In addition, the relationship between brand heritage, brand evaluation, consumer experience, and behavioral outcomes are studied.

The above analysis uncovers several findings. First, consumer communication, WOM, and eWOM have a significant role in restaurant success in light of the emergence and enhancement of social media. Second, there is an emphasis on authenticity and its critical importance in brand attributes, consumer satisfaction, and purchasing intentions. Third, recent studies have focused on nostalgia as a psychological need that influences consumer behavior, revisit intention, and brand authenticity.

Unlike the previous path, the backward local main path moves backward and starts from sink nodes, which are not cited by other nodes but only cite other nodes in the citation network. By utilizing this variant, we can trace the roots of the latest publications. At the beginning of the backward local main path, three branch trajectories are revealed. In the first trajectory, earlier research on benefit segmentation in the restaurant industry was conducted by Lewis ( 1981 ) . This research has identified five attributes determining consumer choice, including food quality, menu variety, price, atmosphere, and convenience. Next, Law et al. ( 2008 ) explored the perceived importance of attributes related to selecting Hong Kong’s restaurants from the viewpoint of individual visit schemes and packaged travelers from Mainland China. In the second trajectory, Kim and Kim ( 2005 ) investigated the role of brand equity in luxury hotels and chain restaurants’ performance, and later, Hyun ( 2009 ) developed and tested a customer equity model for chain restaurant brand formation.

The third trajectory starts with Ladhari et al. ( 2008 ), who explored customer satisfaction with services and its determinants and consequences. Finally, this path continues with Hyun ( 2010 ) and converges at Hyun et al. ( 2011 ). Focusing on the chain restaurant industry, Hyun ( 2010 ) identified food quality, service quality, price, location, and environmental factors impacting customer loyalty formation. Also, the author highlighted the role of these factors in increasing customer satisfaction. In another study, Hyun et al. ( 2011 ) examined the relationship between advertising, emotional responses induced by advertising, perceived value, and behavioral intentions.

The backward local main path continues with Kim et al. ( 2012 ) and Chang ( 2013 ), who studied the relationship between brand attitude, utilitarian value, hedonic value, well-being perception, and behavioral intentions for the first, and perceived value, customer satisfaction, and corporate reputation for the latter. Similar to some papers in the forward local main path, the vital role of social media is stressed in the study of Kang et al. ( 2015 ). Their research focused on the relationship between members’ participation, monetary sales promotion, and customer-brand relationships in online communications.

Following the seminal work of Kang et al. ( 2015 ), three reviews appeared: one critical review of restaurant and foodservice research (DiPietro 2017 ), a systematic review of authenticity in dining restaurants (Le et al. 2019 ), and a bibliometric analysis of restaurant research (Rodríguez-López et al. 2020 ). Finally, the last paper in the path has investigated the antecedents and drivers of quality performance based on dynamic capability theory (Liu et al. 2020a ). The focus is also placed on micro, small, and medium hotels and restaurants, indicating the importance of small and medium enterprises in economic development.

Two new insights could be extracted based on the current analysis. The first is that some researchers in the restaurant industry, in parallel with other marketing scholars, felt the need to incorporate mathematical and financial concepts in marketing and brand management. Furthermore, structured reviews that systematize and summarize the restaurant literature have attracted scholars’ attention.

3.2.2 Global main path

While the local main paths look for the largest local SPC, the global main path searches for the overall largest SPC. As depicted in Fig.  10 , the global main path has four papers in common with the backward local main path and none in common with the forward local main path.

Restaurant research global main path

The dominant presence of marketing field research can be inferred from the analysis of the global main path. The papers in the path can be divided into three stages. In the primary stage (1981–2011), initial attempts were made to investigate the restaurant industry from the perspective of consumers’ intention and restaurant selection. The endeavors in this stage continued via addressing the chain restaurant industry utilizing existing and new concepts such as relationship quality, loyalty, emotional responses, and perceived value. The focus of the next stage (2012–2019), which witnessed a plethora of publications, is luxury restaurants. New concepts like brand prestige, price premiums, and willingness to pay emerged. For instance, Hwang and Hyun ( 2012 ) underscored the important role of brand prestige in customer satisfaction and positive behavioral intentions in luxury restaurants. The authors explore the factors and consequences influencing brand prestige formation. Furthermore, the influence of environmental and non-environmental cues on emotional responses and consequently on behavioral intentions is studied by Hyun and Kang ( 2014 ). Subsequently, Yang and Mattila ( 2016 ) were among the first to bring the concept of perceived value in the luxury industry, specifically in hospitality and restaurant research. They also investigated its relationship with purchase intentions. Moving further in this direction, Chen and Peng ( 2018 ) analyze this relationship for traveling consumers incorporating the “food image” factor to previous models. In another paper, Kiatkawsin and Han ( 2019 ) explored the psychological constructs of willingness to pay in luxury restaurants. Materialism, bandwagon effects, snobbism, and hedonic and gastronomic knowledge were identified as the most critical drivers for paying price premiums.

In the last stage (2020–2021), the pandemic crisis, specifically COVID-19, and the need for innovative and socially responsible solutions were highlighted. Although the focus of the first papers is on the vital role of knowledge of luxury gastronomy in enhancing destination attractiveness Batat ( 2021 a), a shift happens in the interest of researchers. As such, a divergence happens at Batat ( 2021 b), who investigated the response strategies of Michelin-starred chefs and the business transformation toward social bricolage entrepreneurial thinking during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the end of the global main path, authors aim to address COVID-19 challenges. For instance, Linh et al. ( 2021 ) examined the role of the pandemic in pushing customers toward online purchasing based on self-protective behavior theory. Finally, De Guzman et al. ( 2021 ) scrutinized the social responsibility-related initiatives undertaken by chefs during the pandemic.

In summary, at the start of the global main path, the link is much denser than the links at the middle and ending of the path, indicating that earlier research has received increased attention while recent research attracts a limited number of citations. Nevertheless, the appearance of those articles at the tail confirms the criticality of the successors in the global main path. The position of recent research has to be evaluated over time as more publications continue to appear.

3.2.3 Key-route main path

The key-route main path can reveal more details about the historical formation of scholarly restaurant research. To uncover additional insights, this study chooses the number of key-routes with a step size 5 and eventually selects 25. Meanwhile, the local method is used to generate the path. The key-route main path is depicted in Fig.  11 , which shows the knowledge structure of restaurant research. This path contains almost all the studies appearing on the local and global main paths, apart from seven new papers marked with aqua color. This section is devoted to the analysis of these papers.

Restaurant research key-route local main path

In the first paper, Mattila and Ro ( 2008 ) examined customers’ emotional responses after a service failure in a restaurant setting. According to the authors, customers with emotions of anger and disappointment are likely to make different dissatisfaction responses such as negative word-of-mouth, direct complaining, and switching. However, worried customers do not usually do the same. In general, customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction results from the interaction process between restaurant employees and customers. For example, the friendliness and attitude of employees may be closely related to customer satisfaction with foodservice. Therefore, restaurant managers should understand customers’ perception processes regarding emotion and cognition (Kim and Moon 2009 ). Inspecting the knowledge structure, Mattila and Ro ( 2008 ) and Kim and Moon ( 2009 ) merge in Liu and Jang ( 2009 ), who explored the relationships among dining atmospherics, emotional responses, perceived value, and behavioral intentions in the context of Chinese restaurants. It is argued that dining atmospherics influence customer positive emotions, negative emotions, and perceived value. Furthermore, Liu and Jang ( 2009 ) investigated customers’ perceptions of Chinese restaurants in the United States using the Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) approach. Findings revealed that environmental cleanliness and attentive service are two critical areas wherein Chinese managers can enhance their restaurants. The next two papers, Ryu and Han ( 2011 ) and Ryu et al. ( 2012 ), investigated the role of the physical environment in shaping customers’ experience in restaurants. Finally, Ha and Jang ( 2013 ) identified consumer-dining values for each restaurant segment using a means-end approach and found that convenience, success, and economic values are largely associated with fast-food restaurants. In contrast, casual dining restaurants offer emotional and belonging values. Fine dining restaurants are also found to be strongly linked to emotion and quality life values.

4 Discussion

This study aims to analyze the critical topics in the restaurant domain using a keyword co-occurrence network and an MPA citation network of a total of 1489 articles in the restaurant literature. Drawing on the largest subnetwork, several paths are generated to reveal the knowledge flows of the restaurant field from various perspectives. The historical formation of this research field has been vividly illustrated based on the study of the forward and backward local main paths. Moreover, the global main path was applied to determine the most significant path, while the key-route main path was used to reveal the complex knowledge structure of restaurant research.

The analysis of the keyword co-occurrence network and the MPA leads to several findings, which can be presented along these lines:

The analysis of the keyword co-occurrence network shows that restaurant research has focused on multiple foci, including consumer behavior, consumer satisfaction, social media, green restaurants, and authenticity. Research about consumer behavior occupies a high percentage. As a dynamic interaction of cognition, emotion, and physical activities, consumer behavior attracted significant attention in the past years due to the competitive nature of the restaurant industry. Related keywords to consumer behavior include tipping, behavioral intention, satisfaction, emotion, perceived value, etc.

Given the importance of customer satisfaction in the restaurant industry, studies about the determinants of good consumer experience, customer loyalty, revisit intention, and positive word of mouth have captured scholars’ interest. Recently, the restaurant industry has been hit severely by the COVID-19 pandemic. This was triggered mainly by public concern, lockdowns, and social distancing requirements. The pandemic has changed the way restaurants used to conduct their day-to-day operations and led to enormous declines in sales, layoffs, and disruptions.

The analysis of the four main paths confirms that consumer behavior has been the mainstream topic over the past decades. In the forward local main path, papers tend to focus on consumer behavior variables (e.g., purchase intention, consumer-brand relationship, attitudes, choice criteria). Research also concentrated on the impact of service quality, atmospherics, e-WOM, and authenticity. Papers at the end of the path researched the concept of nostalgia as an essential component in experiential consumer contexts. Unlike the forward local main path, the backward local main path reveals several papers examining the determinants of consumer choice, including food quality, menu variety, price, atmosphere, and convenience. Brand equity has also been a source of interest for scholars since it enables restaurant managers to improve customer satisfaction and retention. This study has several findings on the global main path. For instance, Lewis ( 1981 ) and Law et al. ( 2008 ), as the two articles on the beginning of the path, studied benefit segmentation and restaurant selection in the foodservice industry. Second, most of the articles on the path are devoted to examining relationship quality, loyalty, and emotional responses. In addition, researchers increasingly focused on luxury restaurants suggesting that this type of service provides customers with high-quality products that bring a high perception of the quality of life. In essence, the high quality of services and products in luxury restaurants offers consumers trust, which leads to savings in information costs. Furthermore, scholars have looked at the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performance of restaurants. Understanding this topic will evoke managers’ attention to implement innovative and socially responsible solutions to improve customer satisfaction and motivate future visitation. Finally, the new papers on the key-route main path predominately focus on customers’ emotional responses to the physical environment and dining atmospherics.

The research focus has shifted from traditional restaurants to luxury restaurants as customers become demanding and expect superior and exceptional restaurant services. In this regard, restaurants are regarded as places where consumers enjoy high-quality food and services that lend an increased perception of prestige, comfort, and quality of life. Recently, COVID-19 has stressed the importance of hygiene and sanitation for customers searching for risk-free food consumption and restaurant experience.

Finally, the success of restaurants has been attributed to several factors. First, most studies have emphasized the role of consumer communication, WOM, and eWOM to shape consumer experiences and increase purchase intentions. Second, the mounting demand for authenticity has resulted in substantial research that has associated restaurant aspects with restaurant authenticity and further related authenticity perceptions to customer satisfaction and revisit intentions. Recent literature has also linked nostalgia to consumer behavior, return intentions, and brand authenticity. This line of research has shown that the attraction of restaurants stems mainly from their capability to evoke nostalgia or memories and use them to improve business revenues and profits.

5 Future research directions

Based on the previous discussions, this study suggests several future research directions.

There is a need to integrate several theories and grasp the decision-making process customers engage in when selecting restaurants that have experienced the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the current predictors of customer behavior may not be comprehensive. Future studies may build on other theories and examine factors to explain customer behavior by including other constructs such as culture, target groups, and restaurant type.

Future research can focus on customers’ attitudes, perceptions, and behavior toward CSR initiatives in restaurants. For example, whether perceived CSR increases behavioral intentions of eliminating food waste remains understudied. Additionally, customer response to food waste prevention in restaurants should be evaluated, particularly for customers with higher levels of socially responsible consumption.

Online reviews represent vital decision support within consumers’ purchase decision-making processes in the restaurant industry (Fernandes et al. 2021 ; Lee and Kim 2020 ; Mejia et al. 2019 ). For example, Dixit et al. ( 2019 ) noted that the relevance of online reviews in the restaurant industry is substantiated by the fact that more than 75% of readers of online reviews from a sample of 2000 adults in the US reported that reviews significantly influenced their purchase decisions. Zhang et al. ( 2010 ) also noted that the volume of online reviews was positively related to restaurants’ online popularity. Accordingly, increased attention is required to study the determinants of the perceived usefulness of consumer-generated online reviews and their influence on consumer purchase and revisit decisions. Furthermore, a pending research question is how online reviews can reflect the current quality of restaurant products and services. Online reviews are expected to improve customer awareness of reviewed restaurants and decrease the perceived risk of information asymmetry. As a result, studies on the ways and techniques to ensure the credibility of online reviews are necessary to help restaurant managers understand their customers and enhance their performance.

Even though green restaurants are increasing in number, research on such a type of restaurants largely remains scarce (Hwang and Lee 2019 ). Therefore, proposed potential avenues of future research include exploring how green restaurants can compete competitively with traditional restaurants while being affordable for the guests.

Little research has been conducted to study the relationship between perceptions of restaurant authenticity and customer satisfaction. Consequently, the investigation of how perceptions of restaurant authenticity can impact customer satisfaction is encouraged as customers tend to attach importance to food-related features of restaurant authenticity (de Vries and Go 2017 ). Therefore, future studies should examine the impact of essential and peripheral features of authenticity on customer satisfaction and restaurant performance.

Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has remarkably affected the foodservice industry. The pandemic compels restaurant managers and operators to adopt practices that reduce frontline employees’ concerns and fears during crises to allay their feelings of job insecurity and emotional exhaustion (Chen and Eyoun 2021 ). From the consumer perspective, the fear of infection has led to substitute restaurant experiences with at-home consumption (Kim et al. 2021 ). While such circumstances constitute an opportunity for restaurateurs to increase their delivery and pick-up services, there is also a potential to integrate new technologies like service robots to maintain their conventional ways of delivering restaurant services and replace frontline employees. Hence, future research should be devoted to clarifying the role of emerging technologies such as big data, blockchain, drones, and artificial intelligence in increasing restaurant resilience against disruptions and disastrous events. Of additional interest is assessing how to engage consumers in technology-driven restaurant services. Empirical studies are also imperative to better understand the factors that enable or hinder the adoption of new technologies during crises caused by pandemics.

6 Conclusions

The restaurant industry plays a critical role in the economy. Recently, restaurant research has gained significant interest from both researchers and practitioners. On the basis of 1489 articles extracted from the WoSCC, this study employs two quantitative approaches, namely a keyword co-occurrence network analysis and MPA to reveal the core topics and the influential publications that make impactful contributions to restaurant research and the knowledge transmission structure and patterns over the past five decades with the support of different main paths, including the local (forward and backward), global, and key-route main paths.

The clusters of the keyword co-occurrence network show that consumer behavior is the most critical theme in the restaurant literature. The local main path comprehensively portrays the restaurant domain’s dynamic formation, indicating that the scholarly focus has been moved from traditional restaurants to luxury and ethnic restaurants over the study period. The analysis of the global main shows that the links from Lewis ( 1981 ) to Law et al. ( 2008 ) and Hyun and Kang ( 2014 ) to Yang and Mattila ( 2016 ) have the highest SCP values, which are the most critical links in the development of restaurant research. Moreover, the analysis of the key-route main path shows the knowledge transmission trajectories contributing to this domain more comprehensively.

To the best of authors’ knowledge, no studies have combined keyword co-occurrence network and MPA to examine the knowledge dissemination trajectories of the whole restaurant field. The analysis of different main paths reveals a clear picture of the dynamic formation process from different perspectives, which provides profound insights for scholars to improve their comprehension of the initiation of restaurant research over the past decades. Unlike conventional review methods and bibliometric studies, this study provides novel ideas for analyzing the restaurant literature. On the one hand, MPA aids scholars in determining the most critical activities in developing the restaurant domain and unearthing its knowledge flows comprehensively and systematically. Furthermore, some future research directions are suggested to enrich existing restaurant research.

Despite its contributions, this study has some limitations. First, we relied only on one academic database to extract the articles. As a result, relevant publications not indexed in this database may be omitted from the analysis. Thus, the findings of the MPA may change as more articles are indexed in other databases. In this work, the keywords were searched in the title and keywords fields. Therefore, future studies may replicate the search query considering the abstract field to capture any potentially relevant but missing publications. Similarly, the results may not entirely uncover the formation of the whole restaurant domain. While the four main paths unearth the knowledge transmission trajectories from diverse perspectives, some relevant publications may not be discussed in this work. In other words, the MPA presents some limited research works, which cannot offer enough information on the full evolution process of the restaurant domain. Therefore, how to extract suitable data and apply a proper method to explain the comprehensive progress of this academic discipline can be considered in future works.

Second, this study does not consider the difference in terms of importance between the citing articles and the cited articles. Therefore, the importance of the articles included in the citation network should be considered in future studies. Finally, we limited articles to English and some specific subject areas, which implies that some important research papers in other languages and from different subject areas are not included in this analysis. Future research may combine databases and articles published in different languages to test the robustness of our results.

Abdollahi, A., Rejeb, K., Rejeb, A., Mostafa, M.M., Zailani, S.: Wireless sensor networks in agriculture: insights from bibliometric analysis. Sustainability. 13 (21), 12011 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su132112011

Article   Google Scholar  

Agrawal, S.R., Mittal, D.: How does transparency complement customer satisfaction and loyalty in the restaurant business? Global Bus. Rev. 20 (6), 1423–1444 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150919848935

Alnajem, M., Mostafa, M.M., ElMelegy, A.R.: Mapping the first decade of circular economy research: a bibliometric network analysis. J. Ind. Prod. Eng. 38 (1), 29–50 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/21681015.2020.1838632

Anggraeni, A., Sulistyo, L.I.H., Affandy, N.: The Antecedents of Satisfaction and Revisit Intention for Full-Service Restaurants: An Empirical Study of the Food and Beverage Industry in Jakarta. Int. J. Asian Bus. Inform. Manage. (IJABIM). 11 (3), 101–118 (2020)

Google Scholar  

Batagelj, V.: Efficient algorithms for citation network analysis. arXiv preprint cs/0309023 (2003)

Batat, W.: The role of luxury gastronomy in culinary tourism: an ethnographic study of Michelin-starred restaurants in France. Int. J. Tour. Res. 23 (2), 150–163 (2021)

Beer, A., Greitemeyer, T.: The effects of background music on tipping behavior in a restaurant: a field study. Psychol. Music. 47 (3), 444–450 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735618755887

Börner, K., Chen, C., Boyack, K.W.: Visualizing knowledge domains. Ann. Rev. Inf. Sci. Technol. 37 (1), 179–255 (2003)

Cai, C.H., Ding, A., Legendre, T.S.: Exploring persuasive sales techniques to improve customer acceptance of sustainable but unfamiliar menu in restaurants. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2021)

Caldwell, C., Hibbert, S.A.: The influence of music tempo and musical preference on restaurant patrons’ behavior. Psychol. Mark. 19 (11), 895–917 (2002)

Camillo, A., Kim, W.G., Moreo, P.J., Ryan, B.: A model of historical development and future trends of Italian cuisine in America. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 29 (4), 549–558 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.09.002

Cerdá Suárez, L.M., Ramírez, R., Palos Sánchez, P.R.: The influence of health and environment-focused values on restaurateur satisfaction in organic restaurants: a descriptive analysis in Spain. (2018)

Chang, K.-C.: How reputation creates loyalty in the restaurant sector. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2013)

Chang, K.-C., Cheng, Y.-S.: How online service recovery reviews influence behavioral intentions in the hospitality context: Regulatory focus and loss aversion perspectives. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 46 , 440–455 (2021)

Chen, A., Peng, N.: Examining consumers’ intentions to dine at luxury restaurants while traveling. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 71 , 59–67 (2018)

Chen, H., Eyoun, K.: Do mindfulness and perceived organizational support work? Fear of COVID-19 on restaurant frontline employees’ job insecurity and emotional exhaustion. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 94 , 102850 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102850

Chen, Q., Huang, R., Hou, B.: Perceived authenticity of traditional branded restaurants (China): impacts on perceived quality, perceived value, and behavioural intentions. Curr. Issues Tourism. 23(23), 2950–2971 (2020a)

Chen, Q., Huang, R., Zhang, A.: A bite of nostalgia: The influence of nostalgia in consumers’ loyalty intentions at traditional restaurants. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 45, 604–614 (2020b)

Chuah, S.H.-W., Aw, E.C.-X., Cheng, C.-F.: A silver lining in the COVID-19 cloud: examining customers’ value perceptions, willingness to use and pay more for robotic restaurants. J. Hospitality Mark. Manage. 0 (0), 1–28 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2021.1926038

Chuang, T.C., Liu, J.S., Lu, L.Y.Y., Lee, Y.: The main paths of medical tourism: From transplantation to beautification. Tour. Manag. 45 , 49–58 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.03.016

De Guzman, A.B., Mesana, J.C.B., Roman, J.A.M.: Examining Chefs’ Social Responsibility (CSR) during the COVID-19 pandemic. Anatolia,1–11. (2021)

de Vries, H.J., Go, F.M.: Developing a common standard for authentic restaurants. Serv. Ind. J. 37 (15–16), 1008–1028 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2017.1373763

Denizci Guillet, B., Mohammed, I.: Revenue management research in hospitality and tourism: a critical review of current literature and suggestions for future research. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 27 (4), 526–560 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-06-2014-0295

DiPietro, R.: Restaurant and foodservice research: A critical reflection behind and an optimistic look ahead. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2017)

DiPietro, R.B., Levitt, J.: Restaurant authenticity: factors that influence perception, satisfaction and return intentions at regional American-style restaurants. Int. J. Hospitality Tourism Adm. 20 (1), 101–127 (2019)

Dixit, S., Jyoti Badgaiyan, A., Khare, A.: An integrated model for predicting consumer’s intention to write online reviews. J. Retailing Consumer Serv. 46 , 112–120 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2017.10.001

Dwaikat, N.Y., Khalili, S.A., Hassis, S.M., Mahmoud, H.S.: Customer Satisfaction Impact on Behavioral Intentions: the case of pizza restaurants in Nablus City. J. Qual. Assur. Hosp. Tourm. 20 (6), 709–728 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2019.1616040

Fernandes, E., Moro, S., Cortez, P., Batista, F., Ribeiro, R.: A data-driven approach to measure restaurant performance by combining online reviews with historical sales data. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 94 , 102830 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102830

Ferreira, M., Pinto, C.F., Serra, F.R.: The transaction costs theory in international business research: a bibliometric study over three decades. Scientometrics. 98 (3), 1899–1922 (2014)

Fu, H., Wang, M., Li, P., Jiang, S., Hu, W., Guo, X., Cao, M.: Tracing knowledge development trajectories of the internet of things domain: a main path analysis. IEEE Trans. Industr. Inf. 15 (12), 6531–6540 (2019)

Gao, C., Ruan, T.: Bibliometric analysis of global research progress on coastal flooding 1995–2016. Chin. Geogr. Sci. 28 (6), 998–1008 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-018-0996-9

Gavilan, D., Balderas-Cejudo, A., Fernández-Lores, S., Martinez-Navarro, G.: Innovation in online food delivery: Learnings from COVID-19. Int. J. Gastronomy Food Sci. 24 , 100330 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100330

Gu, Q., Li, M., Kim, S.S.: The role of nostalgia-evoking stimuli at nostalgia-themed restaurants in explaining benefits, consumption value and post-purchase behavioral intention. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 96 , 102955 (2021)

Ha, J., Jang, S.S.: Effects of service quality and food quality: The moderating role of atmospherics in an ethnic restaurant segment. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 29 (3), 520–529 (2010)

Ha, J., Jang, S., Shawn: Attributes, consequences, and consumer values: a means-end chain approach across restaurant segments. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 25 (3), 383–409 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111311311035

Hakim, M.P., Zanetta, L.D., da Cunha, D.T.: Should I stay, or should I go? Consumers’ perceived risk and intention to visit restaurants during the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil. Food Res. Int. 141 , 110152 (2021)

Ham, S., Lee, S.: US Restaurant companies’ green marketing via company websites: impact on financial performance. Tour. Econ. 17 (5), 1055–1069 (2011). https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2011.0066

Hemmington, N., Neill, L.: Hospitality business longevity under COVID-19: The impact of COVID-19 on New Zealand’s hospitality industry. Tour. Hosp. Res. 1467358421993875 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1177/1467358421993875

Hernández, J.B., Chalela, S., Arias, J.V., Arias, A.V.: Research trends in the study of ICT based learning communities: a bibliometric analysis. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 13 (5), 1539–1562 (2017). https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2017.00684a

Huifeng, P., Ha, H.-Y.: Temporal effects of online customer reviews on restaurant visit intention: the role of perceived risk. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management ,1–20. (2021)

Hummon, N.P., Dereian, P.: Connectivity in a citation network: The development of DNA theory. Soc. Netws. 11 (1), 39–63 (1989)

Hwang, J., Hyun, S.S.: The antecedents and consequences of brand prestige in luxury restaurants. Asia Pac. J. Tour. Res. 17 (6), 656–683 (2012)

Hwang, J., Yoon, Y.-S., Park, N.-H.: Structural effects of cognitive and affective reponses to web advertisements, website and brand attitudes, and purchase intentions: the case of casual-dining restaurants. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 30 (4), 897–907 (2011)

Hwang, K., Lee, B.: Pride, mindfulness, public self-awareness, affective satisfaction, and customer citizenship behaviour among green restaurant customers. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 83 , 169–179 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.05.009

Hyun, S.S.: Creating a model of customer equity for chain restaurant brand formation. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 28 (4), 529–539 (2009)

Hyun, S.S.: Predictors of relationship quality and loyalty in the chain restaurant industry. Cornell Hosp. Quart. 51 (2), 251–267 (2010)

Hyun, S.S., Kang, J.: A better investment in luxury restaurants: environmental or non-environmental cues? Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 39 , 57–70 (2014)

Hyun, S.S., Kim, W., Lee, M.J.: The impact of advertising on patrons’ emotional responses, perceived value, and behavioral intentions in the chain restaurant industry: The moderating role of advertising-induced arousal. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 30 (3), 689–700 (2011)

Jang, S.S., Namkung, Y.: Perceived quality, emotions, and behavioral intentions: application of an extended Mehrabian–Russell model to restaurants. J. Bus. Res. 62 (4), 451–460 (2009)

Jang, S.Y., Chung, J.Y., Kim, Y.G.: Effects of environmentally friendly perceptions on customers’ intentions to visit environmentally friendly restaurants: An extended theory of planned behavior. Asia Pac. J. Tourism Res. 20 (6), 599–618 (2015)

Jeong, E., Jang, S.S.: Restaurant experiences triggering positive electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) motivations. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 30 (2), 356–366 (2011)

Jin, N., Lee, S., Huffman, L.: Impact of restaurant experience on brand image and customer loyalty: moderating role of dining motivation. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 29 (6), 532–551 (2012)

Jung, S.Y., Dalbor, M., Lee, S.: Internationalization as a determinant of systematic risk: the role of restaurant type. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. (2018a)

Jung, S., Kim, J.H., Kang, K.H., Kim, B.: Internationalization and corporate social responsibility in the restaurant industry: risk perspective. J. Sustain. Tour. 26(7), 1105–1123 (2018b)

Kang, J., Tang, L.R., Fiore, A.M.: Restaurant brand pages on Facebook: do active member participation and monetary sales promotions matter? Inte. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2015)

Kiatkawsin, K., Han, H.: What drives customers’ willingness to pay price premiums for luxury gastronomic experiences at michelin-starred restaurants? Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 82 , 209–219 (2019)

Kim, B., Velthuis, O.: From reactivity to reputation management: online consumer review systems in the restaurant industry. J. Cult. Econ. 1–19. (2021)

Kim, B., Lee, S.: The impact of material and immaterial sustainability on firm performance: the moderating role of franchising strategy. Tour. Manag. 77 , 103999 (2020)

Kim, H., Kim, W.G.: The relationship between brand equity and firms’ performance in luxury hotels and chain restaurants. Tour. Manag. 26 (4), 549–560 (2005)

Kim, I., Jeon, S.M., Hyun, S.S.: Chain restaurant patrons’ well-being perception and dining intentions: the moderating role of involvement. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2012)

Kim, J., Kim, J., Wang, Y.: Uncertainty risks and strategic reaction of restaurant firms amid COVID-19: evidence from China. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 92 , 102752 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102752

Kim, M., Kim, J.: Corporate social responsibility, employee engagement, well-being and the task performance of frontline employees. Manage. Decis. (2020)

Kim, W.G., Moon, Y.J.: Customers’ cognitive, emotional, and actionable response to the servicescape: a test of the moderating effect of the restaurant type. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 28 (1), 144–156 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.06.010

Kim, Y.J., Njite, D., Hancer, M.: Anticipated emotion in consumers’ intentions to select eco-friendly restaurants: augmenting the theory of planned behavior. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 34 , 255–262 (2013)

Kowalczuk, I., Gębski, J.: Factors influencing restaurant tipping behaviour–the case of Poland. Int. J. Cult. Tour. Hosp. Res. (2021)

Kriegel, H.-P., Kröger, P., Sander, J., Zimek, A.: Density-based clustering. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Data Min. Knowl. Discov. 1 (3), 231–240 (2011)

Kwon, J.-H., Jung, S.-H., Choi, H.-J., Kim, J.: Antecedent factors that affect restaurant brand trust and brand loyalty: focusing on US and Korean consumers. J. Product Brand Manage. (2020)

Ladhari, R., Brun, I., Morales, M.: Determinants of dining satisfaction and post-dining behavioral intentions. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 27 (4), 563–573 (2008)

Laužikas, M., Tindale, H., Tranavičius, L., Kičiatovas, E.: Effects of consumer behaviour on innovations in fast food industry. Entrep Sustain. Issues. 3 (1), 85 (2015)

Law, R., To, T., Goh, C.: How do Mainland Chinese travelers choose restaurants in Hong Kong?: An exploratory study of individual visit scheme travelers and packaged travelers. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 27 (3), 346–354 (2008)

Le, T.H., Arcodia, C., Novais, M.A., Kralj, A.: What we know and do not know about authenticity in dining experiences: a systematic literature review. Tour. Manag. 74 , 258–275 (2019)

Lee, J., Kim, Y.-K.: Online reviews of restaurants: expectation-confirmation theory. J. Qual. Assur. Hosp. Tour. 21 (5), 582–599 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1080/1528008X.2020.1712308

Lee, P.-C., Su, H.-N.: Investigating the structure of regional innovation system research through keyword co-occurrence and social network analysis. Innovation. 12 (1), 26–40 (2010). https://doi.org/10.5172/impp.12.1.26

Lewis, R.C.: Restaurant advertising-appeals and consumers intentions. J. Adv. Res. 21 (5), 69–74 (1981)

Line, N.D., Runyan, R.C.: Hospitality marketing research: recent trends and future directions. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 31 (2), 477–488 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.07.006

Linh, D.H., Dung, N.D., Son, H.N., Kingsbury, A.: The responses of consumers to the online ordering and delivery of meals by restaurants during COVID-19: a case study of Thai Nguyen City, Vietnam. J. Electron. Commer. Organ. (JECO). 19 (3), 65–84 (2021)

Liu, H., Li, H., DiPietro, R.B., Levitt, J.A.: The role of authenticity in mainstream ethnic restaurants: evidence from an independent full-service Italian restaurant. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. (2018)

Liu, J.S., Lu, L.Y.: An integrated approach for main path analysis: development of the Hirsch index as an example. J. Am. Soc. Inform. Sci. Technol. 63 (3), 528–542 (2012)

Liu, J.S., Lu, L.Y., Ho, M.H.-C.: A few notes on main path analysis. Scientometrics. 119 (1), 379–391 (2019)

Liu, J.S., Lu, L.Y., Lu, W.-M., Lin, B.J.: Data envelopment analysis 1978–2010: a citation-based literature survey. Omega. 41 (1), 3–15 (2013)

Liu, J.-M., Borazon, E.Q., Santamaria, J.G.O.: Antecedents of quality performance in the Philippine micro, small, and medium hospitality sector. Asia Pac. Bus. Rev. 1–24 (2020a)

Liu, K.-N., Hu, C., Lin, M.-C., Tsai, T.-I., Xiao, Q.: Brand knowledge and non-financial brand performance in the green restaurants: mediating effect of brand attitude. Int. J. Hospitality Manage. 89 , 102566 (2020b). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020b.102566

Liu, Y., Jang, S.: (Shawn). The effects of dining atmospherics: an extended Mehrabian–Russell model. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 28 (4), 494–503. (2009a). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.01.002

Liu, Y., Jang, S., Shawn, the U.S.:). Perceptions of Chinese restaurants in : What affects customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions?. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 28 (3, 338–348. (2009b). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.10.008

Lu, A.C.C., Gursoy, D., Lu, C.Y.: Authenticity perceptions, brand equity and brand choice intention: the case of ethnic restaurants. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 50 , 36–45 (2015)

Lu, L.Y., Liu, J.S.: An innovative approach to identify the knowledge diffusion path: the case of resource-based theory. Scientometrics. 94 (1), 225–246 (2013)

Lu, L.Y., Liu, J.S.: The knowledge diffusion paths of corporate social responsibility–from 1970 to 2011. Corp. Soc. Responsib. Environ. Manag. 21 (2), 113–128 (2014)

Lynn, M.: Effects of the Big Five personality traits on tipping attitudes, motives, and behaviors. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 92 , 102722 (2021)

Mannan, M., Chowdhury, N., Sarker, P., Amir, R.: Modeling customer satisfaction and revisit intention in Bangladeshi dining restaurants. J. Model. Manage. 14 (4), 922–947 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1108/JM2-12-2017-0135

Mattila, A.S., Ro, H.: Discrete negative emotions and customer dissatisfaction responses in a casual restaurant setting. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 32 (1), 89–107 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348007309570

Maynard, L.J., Mupandawana, M.: Tipping behavior in Canadian restaurants. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 28 (4), 597–603 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.03.011

Mejia, J., Mankad, S., Gopal, A.: A for effort? Using the crowd to identify moral hazard in New York City Restaurant Hygiene Inspections. Inform. Syst. Res. 30 (4), 1363–1386 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2019.0866

Micu, A., Micu, A.E., Geru, M., Lixandroiu, R.C.: Analyzing user sentiment in social media: implications for online marketing strategy. Psychol. Mark. 34 (12), 1094–1100 (2017)

Min, J., Yang, K., Kim, J.: The role of perceived vulnerability in restaurant customers’ co-creation behavior and repatronage intention during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Vacat. Market.,13567667211014932. (2021)

Moon, S.-J.: Investigating beliefs, attitudes, and intentions regarding green restaurant patronage: An application of the extended theory of planned behavior with moderating effects of gender and age. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 92 , 102727 (2021)

Mostafa, M.M.: A knowledge domain visualization review of thirty years of halal food research: themes, trends and knowledge structure. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 99 , 660–677 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2020.03.022

Mursid, A., Wu, C.H.-J.: Halal company identity and halal restaurant loyalty: the role of customer satisfaction, customer trust and customer-company identification. J. Islam. Market. (2021)

Oliveira, B., Casais, B.: The importance of user-generated photos in restaurant selection. J. Hosp. Tour. Technol. (2019)

Perianes-Rodriguez, A., Waltman, L., van Eck, N.J.: Constructing bibliometric networks: a comparison between full and fractional counting. J. Inform. 10 (4), 1178–1195 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2016.10.006

Ponnam, A., Balaji, M.S.: Matching visitation-motives and restaurant attributes in casual dining restaurants. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 37 , 47–57 (2014)

Popy, N.N., Bappy, T.A.: Attitude toward social media reviews and restaurant visit intention: a Bangladeshi perspective.South Asian J. Bus. Stud. (2020)

Raghuram, S., Tuertscher, P., Garud, R.: Research note—mapping the field of virtual work: a cocitation analysis. Inform. Syst. Res. 21 (4), 983–999 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.1080.0227

Rajput, A., Gahfoor, R.Z.: Satisfaction and revisit intentions at fast food restaurants. Future Bus. J. 6 (1), 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00021-0

Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Abdollahi, A., Zailani, S., Iranmanesh, M., Ghobakhloo, M.: Digitalization in food supply chains: a bibliometric review and key-route main path analysis. Sustainability. 14(1), 83 (2022a). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010083

Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Zailani, S.: Are halal food supply chains sustainable: a review and bibliometric analysis. J. Foodserv. Bus. Res. 24(5), 554–595 (2021a). https://doi.org/10.1080/15378020.2021a.1883214

Rejeb, A., Rejeb, K., Zailani, S., Kayikci, Y.: Knowledge diffusion of halal food research: a main path analysis. J. Islamic Market. (2022b). https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-07-2021-0229

Rejeb, A., Suhaiza, Z., Rejeb, K., Seuring, S., Treiblmaier, H.: The Internet of Things and the circular economy: a systematic literature review and research agenda. J. Clean. Prod. 350, 131439 (2022c). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022c.131439

Rejeb, A., Treiblmaier, H., Rejeb, K., Zailani, S.: Blockchain research in healthcare: a bibliometric review and current research trends. J. Data Inform. Manage. 3(2), 109–124 (2021b). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42488-021-00046-2

Rejeb, M.A., Simske, S., Rejeb, K., Treiblmaier, H., Zailani, S.: Internet of Things research in supply chain management and logistics: a bibliometric analysis Internet of Things,100318. (2020)

Rivera, M.A., Pizam, A.: Advances in hospitality research: “from Rodney Dangerfield to Aretha Franklin. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 27 (3), 362–378 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-03-2014-0146

Rodríguez-López, M.E., Alcántara-Pilar, J.M., Barrio-García, D., Muñoz-Leiva, F.: A review of restaurant research in the last two decades: a bibliometric analysis. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 87 , 102387 (2020)

Ryu, K., Han, H.: New or repeat customers: How does physical environment influence their restaurant experience? Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 30 (3), 599–611 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.11.004

Ryu, K., Han, H., Kim, T.-H.: The relationships among overall quick-casual restaurant image, perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 27 (3), 459–469 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.11.001

Ryu, K., Lee, H., Gon Kim, W.: The influence of the quality of the physical environment, food, and service on restaurant image, customer perceived value, customer satisfaction, and behavioral intentions. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 24 (2), 200–223 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111211206141

Seiter, J.S., Brownlee, G.M., Sanders, M.: Persuasion by way of example: does including gratuity guidelines on customers’ checks affect restaurant tipping behavior? J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 41 (1), 150–159 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00706.x

Seiter, J.S., Givens, K.D., Weger, H.: The effect of mutual introductions and addressing customers by name on tipping behavior in restaurants. J. Hosp. Mark. Manage. 25 (5), 640–651 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/19368623.2015.1040140

Shafieizadeh, K., Tao, C.-W.W.: How does a menu’s information about local food affect restaurant selection? The roles of corporate social responsibility, transparency, and trust. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 43 , 232–240 (2020)

Shin, Y.H., Im, J., Jung, S.E., Severt, K.: Motivations behind consumers’ organic menu choices: the role of environmental concern, social value, and health consciousness. J. Qual. Assur. Hosp. Tour. 20 (1), 107–122 (2019)

Sixto-Costoya, A., Castelló-Cogollos, L., Aleixandre-Benavent, R., Valderrama-Zurián, J.C.: Global scientific production regarding behavioral addictions: an analysis of the literature from 1995 to 2019. Addict. Behav. Rep. 14 , 100371 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abrep.2021.100371

Song, H., Kim, J.-H.: Developing a brand heritage model for time-honoured brands: extending signalling theory.Curr. Issues in Tourism 1–18 (2021)

Tang, K.-Y.: The development of social commerce research: a main path analysis of the literature (pp. 1–5). Presented at the 2017 Portland International Conference on Management of Engineering and Technology (PICMET), IEEE. (2017)

Tehrani, M., Fulton, L., Schmutz, B.: Green cities and waste management: the restaurant industry. Sustainability. 12 (15), 5964 (2020)

Teng, Y.-M., Wu, K.-S.: Sustainability development in hospitality: the effect of perceived value on customers’ green restaurant behavioral intention. Sustainability, 11(7), 1987. (2019)

Theodoulidis, B., Diaz, D., Crotto, F., Rancati, E.: Exploring corporate social responsibility and financial performance through stakeholder theory in the tourism industries. Tour. Manag. 62 , 173–188 (2017)

Thrane, C., Haugom, E.: Peer effects on restaurant tipping in Norway: an experimental approach. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 176 , 244–252 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.04.010

TM, A., Kaur, P., Ferraris, A., Dhir, A.: What motivates the adoption of green restaurant products and services? A systematic review and future research agenda. Bus. Strategy Environ. 30 (4), 2224–2240 (2021)

Torabi Farsani, N., Sadeghi, R., Shafiei, Z., Shahzamani Sichani, A.: Measurement of satisfaction with ICT services implementation and innovation in restaurants (Case study: Isfahan, Iran). J. Travel Tourism Mark. 33 (2), 250–262 (2016)

Tseng, F.-M., Gil, E.I.N.P., Lu, L.Y.: Developmental trajectories of blockchain research and its major subfields. Technol. Soc. 66 , 101606 (2021)

Tuncer, Ä., Unusan, C., Cobanoglu, C.: Service quality, perceived value and customer satisfaction on behavioral intention in restaurants: an integrated structural model. J. Qual. Assur. Hospitality Tourism. 22 (4), 447–475 (2021)

Vig, S., Agarwal, R.N.: Repercussions of COVID-19 on small restaurant entrepreneurs: the Indian context. Strategic Change. 30 (2), 145–152 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1002/jsc.2398

Villa, E., Ruiz, L., Valencia, A., Picón, E.: Electronic commerce: factors involved in its adoption from a bibliometric analysis. J. Theoretical Appl. Electron. Commer. Res. 13 (1), 39–70 (2018). https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-18762018000100104

Waltman, L., van Eck, N.J.: Field-normalized citation impact indicators and the choice of an appropriate counting method. J. Informetrics. 9 (4), 872–894 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2015.08.001

Wang, C.-Y., Mattila, A.S.: The impact of servicescape cues on consumer prepurchase authenticity assessment and patronage intentions to ethnic restaurants. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 39 (3), 346–372 (2015)

Xia, Y., Ha, H.-Y.: Does customer orientation matter? Direct and indirect effects in a service quality-sustainable restaurant satisfaction framework in China. Sustainability. 13 (3), 1051 (2021). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031051

Xiao, Y., Lu, L.Y., Liu, J.S., Zhou, Z.: Knowledge diffusion path analysis of data quality literature: a main path analysis. J. Informetrics. 8 (3), 594–605 (2014)

Xu, S., Hao, L., An, X., Pang, H., Li, T.: Review on emerging research topics with key-route main path analysis. Scientometrics. 122 (1), 607–624 (2020)

Yang, W., Mattila, A.S.: Why do we buy luxury experiences? Measuring value perceptions of luxury hospitality services. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. (2016)

Yoon, B., Chung, Y.: The effects of corporate social responsibility on firm performance: a stakeholder approach. J. Hospitality Tourism Manage. 37 , 89–96 (2018)

Yoon, J., Park, H.W.: Pattern and trend of scientific knowledge production in North Korea by a semantic network analysis of papers in journal titled technological innovation. Scientometrics. 124 (2), 1421–1438 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03497-3

Youn, H., Kim, J.-H.: Effects of ingredients, names and stories about food origins on perceived authenticity and purchase intentions. Int. J. Hospitality Manage. 63 , 11–21 (2017)

Yu, D., Pan, T.: Tracing the main path of interdisciplinary research considering citation preference: a case from blockchain domain. J. Informetrics. 15 (2), 101136 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2021.101136

Yu, D., Sheng, L.: Knowledge diffusion paths of blockchain domain: the main path analysis. Scientometrics. 125 (1), 471–497 (2020)

Yu, D., Sheng, L.: Influence difference main path analysis: evidence from DNA and blockchain domain citation networks. J. Informetrics. 15 (4), 101186 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2021.101186

Yu, D., Yan, Z.: Knowledge diffusion of supply chain bullwhip effect: main path analysis and science mapping analysis. Scientometrics. 126 (10), 8491–8515 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-021-04105-8

Zhang, B., Ma, L., Liu, Z.: Literature Trend identification of sustainable technology innovation: a bibliometric study based on co-citation and main path analysis. Sustainability. 12 (20), 8664 (2020)

Zhang, Z., Ye, Q., Law, R., Li, Y.: The impact of e-word-of-mouth on the online popularity of restaurants: a comparison of consumer reviews and editor reviews. Int. J. Hospitality Manage. 29 (4), 694–700 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.02.002

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Management and Law, Faculty of Economics, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Columbia, 2, 00133, Rome, Italy

Abderahman Rejeb

Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Management, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran

Alireza Abdollahi

Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, Tunis, Tunisia

Karim Rejeb

Gulf University for Science and Technology, Hawally, Kuwait

Mohamed M. Mostafa

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Abderahman Rejeb .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare. All co-authors have seen and agree with the contents of the manuscript and there is no financial interest to report. We certify that the submission is original work and is not under review at any other publication.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Search query: TI=(restaurant*) OR AK=(restaurant*)) AND LANGUAGE: (English) AND DOCUMENT TYPES: (Article OR Review)

Refined by: WEB OF SCIENCE CATEGORIES: ( HOSPITALITY LEISURE SPORT TOURISM OR MANAGEMENT OR BUSINESS OR OPERATIONS RESEARCH MANAGEMENT SCIENCE )

Timespan: All years. Indexes: SCI-EXPANDED, SSCI, A&HCI, ESCI.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Rejeb, A., Abdollahi, A., Rejeb, K. et al. Tracing knowledge evolution flows in scholarly restaurant research: a main path analysis. Qual Quant 57 , 2183–2209 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-022-01440-7

Download citation

Accepted : 18 May 2022

Published : 22 June 2022

Issue Date : June 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-022-01440-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Restaurant research
• Consumer behavior
• Consumer satisfaction
• Keyword co-occurrence
• Main path analysis
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Restaurant - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Restaurants are businesses that prepare and serve food and drinks to customers. Essays might discuss the culinary arts, the restaurant industry’s economic or social impact, the experience of dining out, or the cultural significance of restaurants in different societies. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Restaurant you can find at Papersowl. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Your Favorite Fast Food Restaurant

This paper will be about an operational audit of Chick-fil-A. Chick-fil-A is an American restaurant headquartered in College Park, GA. It counts as one of the largest fast-food restaurants in the U.S. While I’m doing this process “Operational Audit”, I found that Chick-fil-A restaurant is running with high standards and performances. Also, this restaurant has high rates on most websites. I believe that this restaurant cares a lot about their customers, and the staff of this restaurant makes the customers […]

Exploring the Culinary Empire: a Deep Dive into Darden Restaurants’ Subsidiaries

Darden Restaurants, a name synonymous with dining excellence, is more than just a company; it's an empire that has reshaped the American dining landscape. With a diverse portfolio of subsidiaries, Darden has not only captured but also catered to the evolving tastes and preferences of diners across the United States. This essay will explore the intricacies and unique aspects of Darden's subsidiaries, shedding light on how this conglomerate has managed to stay at the forefront of the dining industry. At […]

Cooking is my Passion

The passion for cooking appeared in childhood, then we lived in Tallinn. I often watched my grandmother make pancakes. I have always wondered how she kneads the dough, how the ingredients behave, why, with the help of some chemical processes, the desired consistency is obtained. In second grade, I was presented with a small aluminum frying pan that I used to fry my first pancakes. Another interesting story is connected with a trip to a toy store with my mother: […]

We will write an essay sample crafted to your needs.

Restaurant Review: Lenoir Dining Hall – the Heart of Campus Cuisine

Lenoir Dining Hall, situated at the heart of a bustling college campus, is more than just a place for students to grab a meal between classes. It stands as a vibrant community hub, where culinary diversity meets the pulse of student life. This essay delves into the unique aspects of Lenoir Dining Hall, exploring its role in student life, its commitment to culinary diversity and sustainability, and its impact on campus culture. From the moment one steps into Lenoir Dining […]

The Diverse Dining Portfolio: an Exploration of Darden Restaurants’ Subsidiaries

The culinary industry, with its myriad of flavors and styles, is a dynamic realm that has seen the rise of various restaurant chains catering to the different tastes of food enthusiasts worldwide. One company that has undeniably left a significant mark in this domain is Darden Restaurants. Known for its diverse array of dining establishments, Darden has successfully crafted a portfolio that resonates with various customer demographics. Delving into the tapestry of its subsidiaries offers an insight into Darden’s strategic […]

Food Menu and its Design

Introduction Food menu is designed in a manner which creates a good impression of a hotel or a restaurant. Similarly, it is also supposed to reflect the quality of food, services, and drinks offered in the given hotel or restaurant. It consequently works as an overview of the restaurant, hence providing the customer with an understanding of what the restaurant has to offer. Customers may either like or dislike a restaurant, just because of the disorganization of its food menu. […]

The Divine Cluck: a Look Inside Holy Chicken Restaurant

When one hears the name Holy Chicken Restaurant, images of a quaint, perhaps even idyllic, dining establishment might flutter through the mind. The concept of "holy" often evokes a sense of purity, an untouched sanctity that's as rare in the culinary world as it is in modern life. Yet, Holy Chicken Restaurant isn’t a figment of pastoral imagination, but rather a real and grounded place where food and ethos blend in a way that's meant to raise the bar for […]

The Ritual of Fast Food by Margaret Visser

Visser was born in 1940 in South Africa, Margaret Visser was raised in Zambia and lived in England, France, lraq, and the United States before settling in Toronto, Ontario. (She is a naturalized citizen of Canada.) In this short essay, The Ritual of Fast Food. The author, Margret Visser, carefully as well as precisely dismembers the fast food experience. Visser dives in and vigour's behind the scene to explains the art of the fast -food experience. It is imperative to […]

How to Become a Chef after Growing up Nowadays

It often happens that a cook has finished courses, received a diploma, but on the first working day he cannot make even an elementary dish. After all, it's one thing - a measured pace and a clear sequence of actions in educational conditions, and quite another thing - the cuisine of a popular restaurant during peak hours. There are dozens of dishes at work at the same time, there are screams, haste, movement and, as it often seems to beginners, […]

Describing Work Experience: from Shyness to Leadership at KFC

Describing Work Experience: My First Steps and Challenges at KFC Everyone’s first job can be special, but there are a couple of reasons for this. The experience is burned in one memory, it gives you the practice you need to fulfill other positions, and it teaches you about the value of money. Of course, we do jobs around the house when we are young, like cleaning the dishes and doing laundry and etc. But we don’t get paid for doing […]

The Rise of Fast-Casual Restaurants: Beyond Chipotle’s Success

In recent years, the fast-casual dining sector has experienced a meteoric rise, reshaping the landscape of the restaurant industry. At the forefront of this movement is Chipotle Mexican Grill, a chain that has not only captivated the taste buds of millions but also set a precedent for what consumers expect from fast-casual dining. This essay explores the essence of fast-casual dining through the lens of Chipotle and similar establishments, delving into the factors that have contributed to their widespread appeal […]

Bisbee Breakfast Club: a Restaurant with Heart in Arizona

Nestled in the picturesque town of Bisbee, Arizona, the Bisbee Breakfast Club has become more than just a place to enjoy the first meal of the day; it's a destination that captures the essence of community and the rich history of the area. Since opening its doors, this charming eatery has woven itself into the fabric of local life, offering both residents and visitors alike a taste of home-cooked goodness that harks back to simpler times. The story of the […]

A Toast to Tradition: the Olive Garden Drink Menu Restaurant Explored

The Olive Garden, an American eatery renowned for its fusion of Italian-American gastronomy, also presents a beverage selection that's both extensive and reflective of its culinary principles. This menu, a homage to Italian dining customs, proffers a plethora of options spanning from traditional wines to innovative cocktails and non-alcoholic alternatives. This discourse explores the constituents that render the Olive Garden beverage menu a testament to the restaurant's commitment to furnishing a comprehensive Italian dining experience. Primarily, the wine assortment at […]

Why Chick-fil-A Chose to Close its Restaurants on Sundays

Chick-fil-A, a beloved fast-food chain known for its delicious chicken sandwiches and exceptional customer service, stands out in the industry for its unique practice of closing its doors on Sundays. This decision, deeply rooted in the company's values and history, has sparked curiosity and speculation among customers and observers alike. So, why exactly does Chick-fil-A choose to close on Sundays? At the heart of Chick-fil-A's decision to close on Sundays lies its founder's devout Christian faith. S. Truett Cathy, the […]

Fancy a Bite to Eat Restaurant? the Opening of Wendy’s is Waiting for you

In the bustling rhythm of modern life, where time is of the essence, knowing the operational hours of your favorite eateries becomes a crucial detail. Among the plethora of dining options available, Wendy's stands as a beacon for those seeking quality fast food fare. So, when does Wendy's open its doors to eager patrons? Wendy's, renowned for its fresh and flavorful offerings, operates with a commitment to convenience and accessibility. The question of "What time does Wendy's open?" is one […]

Waffle House’s Digital Revolution: the Launch of a New Restaurant Portal”

Let's talk about how the iconic Waffle House, that beacon of waffles and hash browns at any hour, is getting a tech makeover. Yep, you heard that right. The place where you've had some of your best 2 AM breakfasts is stepping into the digital age with its very own portal. This isn't just a tiny step; it's a giant leap for diner-kind. This essay peeks behind the curtain of the Waffle House portal, showing how it's changing the game […]

Additional Example Essays

• Drunk Driving
• Informative Speech Outline Halloween
• What's Better Halloween or Christmas
• A Place I Would Like To Visit Again
• Substance Abuse and Mental Illnesses
• Personal Philosophy of Leadership
• "Mother to Son" by Langston Hughes
• Gender Roles in the Great Gatsby
• Socioautobiography Choices and Experiences Growing up
• The Rise of Baseball
• Hamlet Madness
• Reasons Why Hamlet Is Not Insane

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Elsevier - PMC COVID-19 Collection

Transformation in culinary behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic: In-depth interviews with food gatekeepers in urban India

Lakshmi menon.

a Dr. Bhanuben Mahendra Nanavati College of Home Science, Mumbai, 400019, Maharashtra, India

Dripta Roy Choudhury

b Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, 400076, Maharashtra, India

Rimante Ronto

c Department of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Human Sciences, Macquarie University, NSW, 2109, Australia

Rupali Sengupta

Sangeeta kansal.

d Department of Community Medicine, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, Uttar Pradesh, India

COVID-19 and its associated regulatory measures including lockdowns, curfews, and physical distancing norms have significantly affected individual's dietary and culinary behaviours. Although there is ample empirical evidence available on dietary changes within the Indian context, very limited evidence exists about the factors influencing these dietary modifications and changes in culinary behaviours during COVID-19 lockdown. Therefore, the aim of this qualitative study was to explore the views of Indian household food gatekeepers towards meal planning, food purchasing, and meal preparation during the pandemic and its associated lockdowns. A convenience sample of 34 female gatekeepers from the Mumbai metropolis participated in online interviews. Interviews were conducted in English and Hindi (then translated in English), audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Underpinned by Template Analysis technique, transcribed data were analysed manually and using the NVivo software program. The interview structure guided the development of themes. The emerging themes included were: Increased household cooking; Involvement of children and male members in food-related activities; Experimentation in the kitchen; Adoption of meal planning skills; Increase in online food shopping; Bulk buying; Shortage of food items; Reduced consumption of outside home food; Increased variety of home-cooked meals; Increase in snacking and overall food intake; Determinants of food choices; and Family meals-a new norm. In the light of these findings, developing family-focussed, web-based nutrition programs to enhance gatekeepers' and their families' food literacy including declarative and procedural nutritional knowledge would be beneficial. The importance of organisational culinary behaviours such as planning meals in advance, shopping with a food list should be promoted to prevent hoarding and subsequently reduce strain on the food supply system. With a surge in domestic cooking, low cost nutritious recipes with the use of local and seasonal produce should be emphasized promoting healthy eating among the gatekeepers and their family members. The inclusion of food studies in the school curriculum will facilitate the development of culinary skills among children and youth. Also, there is a need for further research and surveillance to strengthen understanding of sustainability of healthy culinary behaviours practiced during the pandemic.

1. Introduction

The World Health Organization in March 2020 declared the Coronavirus outbreak as a global pandemic ( World Health Organization, 2020 ). The Indian government initiated a nation-wide lockdown as a counteractive measure from March 25, 2020 to May 31, 2020 ( Ghosh et al., 2020 ). According to the stringency index by Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OxCGRT), this lockdown was identified as one of the most stringent lockdowns implemented worldwide ( Hale et al., 2021 ). Citizens were given a 4-h notice to prepare for the restrictions to be imposed. This immediate closure policy caused disarray in many aspects of civilian life such as bottlenecks in the food supply chain ( Narayanan & Saha, 2021 ).

The alarming rate of spread of the novel COVID-19 virus was cause for unprecedented changes in food availability and pandemic restrictions which resulted in an overall shift in food behaviors ( Snuggs & McGregor, 2021 ). This led to Indian families hoarding food by identifying stores and points of purchase to stock up on food supplies considered as staples and essentials ( Bandyopadhyaya & Bandyopadhyaya, 2021 ). Services of online food and grocery applications and local grocery stores were sought due to imposed social distancing norms and restrictions on physical movement ( Bandyopadhyaya & Bandyopadhyaya, 2021 ).

Food skills such as meal planning and cooking have an impact on dietary practices ( Murphy et al., 2021 ). The practice of home cooking has been ever changing in India witnessing a greater use of dine out and food ordering mobile applications ( Roy & Zain, 2018 ). During the lockdown, Indians ( Basu et al., 2020 ) like other population groups ( Ben Hassen et al., 2020 ; De Backer et al., 2020 ; Murphy et al., 2021 ; Ronto et al., 2021 ) had developed a renewed outlook towards home cooking with available ingredients to suit the needs of all members in a family. Interestingly, food choice motivations over lockdown were identified amongst families in UK indicating family involvement as one of the key motivators in meal preparation during the lockdown ( Snuggs & McGregor, 2021 ). Increased time spent at home due to flexible ‘work from home’ opportunities and high rates of unemployment have contributed to gravitating towards home cooking as cited in our recently published Australian study ( Ronto et al., 2021 ). However, whether these reasons for increased household cooking are also applicable in the Indian context needs to be verified.

1.1. COVID-19 pandemic and diet in India

Several online surveys have been conducted in India to collect quantitative data on dietary intakes during the COVID-19 lockdown ( Basu et al., 2020 ; Paul et al., 2020 ; Rawat et al., 2021 ). These surveys have been able to provide some insights to changes in diets of the Indian population ( Basu et al., 2020 ; Paul et al., 2020 ; Rawat et al., 2021 ). For example, it was found that overall food consumption increased ( Rawat et al., 2021 ), with enhanced preference for fresh produce like fruits and vegetables to boost immunity ( Paul et al., 2020 ) as well increased consumption of sugar and fat ( Rawat et al., 2021 ). This overeating was coupled with reduced physical activity resulting in weight gain ( Rawat et al., 2021 ). These lifestyle changes have been linked with stress and psychosocial factors ( Arora & Grey, 2020 ). Paul and colleagues further reported an increased intake of herbal tonics and vitamin supplements in their participants whereas few of their participants became vegans during confinement ( Paul et al., 2020 ). Likewise, Basu and coworkers also reported a rampant use of ginger and garlic as well as multivitamins as immunity boosters by their surveyed participants ( Basu et al., 2020 ).

Although there is ample empirical evidence available on dietary changes within the Indian context, very limited evidence exists about the factors influencing these dietary modifications and changes in culinary behaviours (e.g. meal preparation, meal planning, family meals, and grocery shopping). Therefore, the current study aims to gain an in-depth understanding of culinary behaviours of food gatekeepers in Indian households in Mumbai city during this unprecedented crisis. The views of household food gatekeepers are integral to this study as they have the biggest influence on the food behaviours of their family members that are related to food preparation, health, and food acquisition ( Burton et al., 2017 ; Reid et al., 2009 ). In India, women have culturally served as nutritional gatekeepers at the household level ( Rathi et al., 2017 , 2020 ). In addition, this exploratory study aimed to identify food preparation behaviours that could be adopted among Indian families for healthier food consumption (e.g. greater intake of nutrient dense, low energy density foods; reduced intake of energy dense, nutrient poor foods) post COVID-19 and prepare for future disruptions.

2.1. Study design

The present study implemented a qualitative research design ( Sandelowski, 2000 ) which was informed by the social constructivism paradigm ( Creswell, 2014 ). Through this interpretative paradigm, the investigators aim to capture useful insights from participants' experiences and interactions with the members of the society ( Creswell, 2014 ). The use of social constructivism framework in the current context proved valuable as it allowed the researchers to investigate the household food gatekeepers' experiences regarding meal preparation, food shopping, and meal planning during COVID-19 and its associated lockdowns in India. The research methodology described here has already been used previously in an Australian context with similar research objectives and study design ( Ronto et al., 2021 ). The SMES's (Seva Mandal Education Society's) Institutional Ethics Committee approved the research protocol for this project in February 2021 (SMES/IEC/125).

2.2. Sample and recruitment

Indian household food gatekeepers were selected as informants for this study as they are primarily responsible for food-related activities including cooking, grocery shopping, meal planning in their respective households ( Burton et al., 2017 ; Wijayaratne et al., 2018 ). Convenience sampling was used to recruit gatekeepers from Mumbai, India through professional links. None of the interviewees shared any kind of personal associations with the authors. Mumbai is a cosmopolitan city and therefore the study sample was expected to be representative of urban India rather than one particular state or region. Food gatekeepers were approached to participate in the study over the phone where the researchers provided a detailed description of the intended study. A recruitment pack including a Plain Language Statement and a Consent Form was sent to all the interested participants via email. Upon receipt of signed consent forms over email, the participants were asked to share their preferred time and day for the online interview with the researchers (LM & NR).

2.3. Data collection

Online, in-depth interviews were used to collect data on culinary behaviours between March and June 2021. Two interviewers (LM & NR – Fluent in both English and Hindi) facilitated the online discussion either in English or Hindi using Zoom. Prior to the commencement of the interviews, the gatekeepers were verbally informed that the conversation would be audio recorded and they were ensured of their right to confidentiality ( King, 2004a ). They were further notified that their participation was voluntary, and they could withdraw from the interview any time ( King, 2004a ). Data analysis was carried out simultaneously with the data collection which assisted the researchers in determining data saturation ( Patton, 1990 ). Data saturation was reached at 30th interview as no new themes were reported. However, four additional interviews were carried out to confirm saturation of themes. The duration of the online discussions ranged from 12 min to 45 min. No gifts or inducements were provided to the interviewees for their participation.

An interview guide ( Table 1 ) with a series of open-ended questions was designed and pre-tested with five informants to confirm the face validity of the interview guide. These questions were based on the study aim and the literature on culinary behaviours. Besides these questions, socio-demographic information on age, occupation, employment status, income, number of family members living in the household was also sought from the interviewees. Since, no modifications in the phrasing and deletions or additions were made in the interview guide, the pre-tested data were merged with data derived from the full-scale study.

Open-ended questions posed to the household food gatekeepers.

2.4. Data analysis

A professional transcription service was employed to transcribe and translate digital recordings verbatim; while two competent researchers (LM & NR) in both English and Hindi languages checked 25% of the translated transcripts to ensure the accuracy. Subsequently, all gatekeepers were invited to review their transcripts and provide feedback on accuracy and completeness of the transcribed information. Nevertheless, none of the gatekeepers provided any additional inputs. Adopting the Template Analysis technique ( King, 2004b ), the transcribed data were thematically analysed both manually as well as by using the NVivo 12 software program (QSR International Pvt Ltd. 2010). This technique of thematic analysis demonstrates rigor in qualitative study ( Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006 ) as it involves both the data-driven inductive approach (codes were found directly from the raw data) and the deductive approach of designing a priori template (codes are identified based on research questions and previous research). On the basis of a subset of data (20% of transcripts), four researchers (LM, DRC, RR, & NR) developed a set of codes (‘template’) representing themes derived from the interviewee accounts. Thereafter, the remaining transcripts were coded by two investigators (LM & NR) and the pre-defined ‘template’ was further modified, refined, and applied to the complete data set. Additionally, three professionals (one psychologist, one home economist, and one dietician) independently analysed a subset of five transcripts to confirm inter-rater reliability ( Marques & McCall, 2005 ). In case of any discrepancy, the template was amended until a consensus was reached that the identified themes were representative of the transcribed information ( Creswell, 2014 ). Moreover, the engagement of authors from different disciplines further minimised the likelihood of any personal or disciplinary biases. LM and DRC are nutritionists, RR is a public health professional, RS is a biochemist, SK is a medical doctor and NR is a Home Economist. Finally, the direct narratives from the interviewees were linked to the template themes and subthemes. A comprehensive analysis of the interviewees' culinary experiences associated with the themes and descriptive quotations is presented in the results section.

3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the interviewees

Online interviews were conducted with 34 female primary food gatekeepers. The sociodemographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 2 . Most of the gatekeepers were aged between 41 and 50 years of age. Half the gatekeepers (53%) had completed their undergraduate collegiate education. A similar proportion (50%) of the sample was employed before the lockdown was announced due to COVID-19; while the employment status reduced to 35% during the lockdown period. A large section of the sample (71%) reported reduction in the household income during lockdown. Based on self-reported household income, around three-fifth of the interviewees belonged to upper class ( Khairnar et al., 2021 ). Participants were from diverse regional backgrounds including Indian states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. All our participants were responsible for feeding their family members including children (both below and above 16 years), husbands, and in-laws residing in their households.

Socio-demographic characteristics of the primary food gatekeepers (N = 34).

3.2. Themes

The interview structure guided the development of themes. A number of themes were developed through analysis of the 34 interviews which included: Increased household cooking; Involvement of children and male members in food-related activities; Experimentation in the kitchen; Adoption of meal planning skills; Increase in online food shopping; Bulk buying; Shortage of food items; Reduced consumption of outside home food; Increased variety of home-cooked meals; Increase in snacking and overall food intake; Determinants of food choices; and Family meals - a new norm. These themes were categorised into three groups of food-related behaviours as follows: i) Changes in cooking behaviours; ii) Changes in meal planning and food shopping behaviours; and iii) Changes in food choices and behaviours. These three groups along with their themes are described below. Representative quotes for each theme are presented in Table 3 . Each quote is followed by a Participant ID, number of adults and children living in the household e.g. P4, 4A (4 adults), 1C (1 child less than 16 years of age).

Themes associated with culinary and dietary behaviours during the COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns.

3.2.1. Changes in cooking behaviours

3.2.1.1. increased household cooking.

The majority of the household food gatekeepers reported spending more time in the kitchen cooking homemade meals during the lockdown phase. Participants stated that the main reasons contributing to increased home cooking were increased availability of free time, the presence of all family members at home from morning to night and the preparation of all three meals i.e. breakfast, lunch, and dinner. As one of the gatekeepers explained:

“ When you are free and all, we tend to think more about food and eating. So, we had free time and more time to cook food during lockdown … Also all the members were at home from morning to night. So, comparatively the frequency of cooking food increased. Like when we go to office, we cook everything at one time and leave … ” (P4, 4A,1C)

3.2.1.2. Involvement of children and male members in food-related activities

Half of the gatekeepers complained about excessive workload during lockdown which was attributed to the absence of domestic help. They reported that usually, Indian food gatekeepers are supported by domestic helps/maids/cooks (i.e. paid help) in completing the household chores including cooking. Since the lockdown restricted the movement of people including domestic help, the gatekeepers were overburdened with household tasks. Nevertheless, family members including children, partners, parents-in-law shared responsibilities (e.g. chopping vegetables, kneading the dough etc.) with the gatekeepers to minimize their workload. This was viewed as a positive change by the participants as they received very limited support from family members particularly from male family members in pre-pandemic times. The following response exemplifies this:

“ … One problem was that maid's absence due to which there was too much load. But everyone at home helped me. Both my girls and husband helped me in cooking. So, it became a little easier. ” (P8, 4A)

3.2.1.3. Experimentation in the kitchen

COVID-19 and its associated lockdowns offered exciting opportunities for the gatekeepers to learn new culinary skills, in particular baking was identified as the most popular cooking skill. Besides baking, participants tried experimenting with different cuisines like Chinese, Italian, and Mexican. This need for experimenting resulted from two main reasons: participants had more free time in hand; and participants and their family members could not relish outside food. The new recipes were derived from a range of sources, for example family, friends, and the internet.

“ Yeah, we tried new things like Mexican, Italian cuisine … We made ras malai (an Indian dessert - steamed cottage cheese dumplings served in sweetened condensed milk) for the first time. It was very nice and soft. We also made burrito bowl … We even tried baking and made some cakes. ” (P3, 3A, 1C)

3.2.2. Changes in meal planning and food shopping behaviours

3.2.2.1. adoption of meal planning skills.

Besides the development of new cooking skills, nearly half of food gatekeepers also gained meal planning skills over the course of lockdown. They started planning their menus in advance depending on the availability of ingredients as well as preparing food shopping lists to avoid frequent, unnecessary visits to the supermarkets. Moreover, unlike the pre-pandemic times when stores were open round the clock and food availability was not an issue, the grocery stores and supermarkets were only functional for limited duration during the lockdown which compelled gatekeepers to adopt meal planning skills.

“ … Before lockdown there were no issues … Even at 7.00 pm if we planned on cooking something, it was possible. Unlike during lockdown where we had to plan and get the ingredients beforehand … So, we would write the whole list and go for shopping.” (P31, 3A, 1C)

3.2.2.2. Increase in online food shopping

Overcrowded marketplaces, long queues in supermarkets, and physical distancing norms during the pandemic deterred gatekeepers and their family members to curtail their outdoor visits for purchasing food items. In pre-COVID days, the gatekeepers reported usually engaging in food shopping on a daily basis but since the pandemic started, they consciously reduced their visits to the supermarkets as they were afraid of being infected by the virus. The following quotation as an example of this:

“ Before lockdown I used to go to the market every day. But in lockdown I used to bring vegetables for a week, even milk I used to bring more and store it in the freezer. I was scared if I go every day, I may get infection. ” (P2, 3A, 1C)

Nearly half of the participants who were hesitant to venture outdoors for food shopping amidst the lockdown opted for online shopping as it was considered safe and convenient. Undeniably, a considerable rise in the online shopping of food products was observed during the crisis period.

“ … In Dadar (name of a locality in Mumbai) there was a market put up by the Government, but we didn't go due to the rush and therefore ordered from Amazon … ” (P3, 3A, 1C)

Nonetheless, online shopping received mixed views i.e. a couple of participants expressed dissatisfaction over the quality of food delivered through online portal. As one interviewee explained:

“ Yes, we did online shopping of fruits, but the quality was not good. Fruits were not fresh. ” (P26, 4A)

On the other hand, there were some gatekeepers who were quite happy purchasing grocery items and fresh produce via online shopping apps, as this gatekeeper reports:

“ … Basically, we did try online shopping during lockdown because we didn't want to go out … Definitely there was fear of infection … It was a nice experience to buy vegetables and stuff online. We used to get fresh vegetables and door to door service. The rates were also not that high as we expected. ” (P9, 4A, 1C)

3.2.2.3. Bulk buying

At the onset of the lockdown, there was lot of confusion and panic among the consumers regarding the availability of food items which in turn compelled some of our gatekeepers to buy staples in bulk for future use. The following quote illustrates how one of the gatekeepers hoarded food products such as dry grains:

“ Actually, at the start of lockdown there was lot of confusion and rumours that things will not be available, so I brought rice and stuff in bulk … ” (P5, 4A, 1C)

3.2.2.4. Shortage of food items

During the lockdown, the interviewees reported facing challenges in procuring essential food items like fruits and vegetables, animal-derived products, and grains. In view of this shortage, the interviewees had to modify their recipes and food choices accordingly, indicative of high order food skills. Here is what one of the interviewees had to say about this issue:

“ Actually, we weren't getting any meat or fish during the lockdown, all the shops were shut. Chicken we used to order from a shop close by; but we did face shortage of meat and fish … even, we didn't get all the vegetables we wanted so had to settle with whatever was available in the market. ” (P3, 3A, 1C)

3.2.3. Changes in food choices and behaviours

3.2.3.1. reduced consumption of outside home food.

The fear of infection associated with the COVID crisis inhibited several participants from ordering outside home food. The interviewees further acknowledged that home cooked food was much healthier and hygienic than restaurant food. Nevertheless, they further reported that they wanted to consume take away food but could not get it or order it. The constraints on consuming outside food led to disappointment particularly among the children and adolescents within the household. However, our interviewees efficiently tackled this disappointment by preparing restaurant-like food at home, therefore, satisfying the tastebuds of their younger ones. The following quote, as an example of this:

“ … All outside food was stopped. Because of the lockdown we couldn't order food from outside or go to the hotels. So, we had to prepare those food in house only and have it. ” (P24, 4A)

3.2.3.2. Increased variety of home-cooked meals

In contrast to pre-COVID times, an increase in the variety of home cooked meals during the lockdown was noted by some gatekeepers. Given that all family members were at home and had different food preferences, the gatekeepers tried to prepare a variety of meals and snacks to fulfil their demands. Also, the interviewees pointed out that no such demands were observed before lockdown as the members had the liberty to consume or order food of their choice from restaurants.

“ … In lockdown everyone was at home. So, we used to have more variety in our meals. ” (P3, 3A, 1C)

3.2.3.3. Increase in snacking and over all food intake

According to the interviewees, COVID and its associated lockdowns had altered the snacking patterns in many households. They further explained that sitting idle at home led to binge eating. Ready-made packaged snacks (e.g. nachos, popcorn) and home-made snacks (e.g. samosas, pizza, burgers – pizza and burger are commonly recognised as snacks in urban India which is contrary to the Western world where they are regarded as meals) were commonly consumed during the period of crisis as demonstrated by this quote:

“ Usually, we don't eat snacks but during lockdown our snacking patterns changed as we were at home, so we started preparing and eating more snacks than usual. Like we used to eat samosa, pakoras (deep fried vegetables coated with roasted gram flour batter), pizza, burger … ” (P27, 5A, 2C)

In addition to increased snacking, some gatekeepers also reported an increase in overall food intake while they were in lockdown. The subsequent quotation highlights this increase:

“ … Because everyone was tensed and thinking about what's going to happen with the Corona situation, we started eating more. ” (P15, 3A)

3.2.3.4. Determinants of food choices

Amidst the lockdown, health and immunity, family members’ food preferences and taste, and food availability were cited as the main determinants of food choice.

Health and immunity: Due to the fear of being infected by COVID-19, about half of food gatekeepers incorporated healthy changes in their meal preparation. For example, some reported using of lemon juice, ginger and garlic, some refrained from using refined and processed foods and making healthy modifications in the recipes by using whole grains. They also refrained from preparing and consuming food high in fat because they associated the same with increase in calories. Moreover, since all gymnasiums and parks were closed during the nationwide shutdown, the gatekeepers could not engage in physical activity and therefore avoided the intake of food high in fat. Another significant dietary change was identified by informants such as increase in fresh fruits and vegetable intake. These healthy alterations were made to achieve a healthy body and to keep illness at bay.

“ So, we used to cook food keeping the health factor in mind because everybody was very much in shock and everyone was afraid that we shouldn't fall ill. So, we used ginger, garlic and likewise immunity booster items more … ” (P4, 4A, 1C)

Family members’ preferences and taste: Some participants stated that they were bound to prepare dishes as per the demands of their children (both sons and daughters) and partners. For example, two interviewees stated:

“ … whatever my son liked, or my husband liked, I had to prepare. ” (P15, 3A)

“… since both the girls were at home, everything was prepared as per their choice …” (P21, 4A, 1C)

Food availability: Some food gatekeepers also talked about the impact of the availability of food ingredients in their households on their food preparation choices as discussed by one of the interviewees:

“ I used to open my fridge, I used to see what is available in the house and used it to make my breakfast, lunch and dinner. ” (P20, 4A, 1C)

3.2.3.5. Family meals - a new norm

Eating meals with the family was viewed as one of the most favourable outcomes of the pandemic crisis. Before the pandemic, because of different work schedules, family members could hardly enjoy the pleasurable experience of having family meals as reported by majority of participants. The following quote explicitly demonstrates the happiness of the gatekeeper in savouring all her meals with her loved ones:

“ … After so many years we all sat together and ate. When the kids were small, I had only got 3 months of maternity leave. After that the kids were at home only while I went for job. So, since their birth, it's the first time that I have been able to spend 9 months straight with them. My husband was never there at home for such a long duration. This was a very nice experience and we enjoyed it to our fullest. We were eating all meals in the day together. We enjoyed a lot … ” (P18, 5A)

4. Discussion

This qualitative study explored the culinary behaviours and practices adopted by Indian primary household food gatekeepers due to COVID-19 lockdown-imposed restrictions. We observed that primary food gatekeepers experienced significant changes in their cooking behaviours as compared to the pre-pandemic times such as increased time spent on food preparation and experimentation in the kitchen, increased food literacy in terms of food planning and increase in food intake. Also, the food gatekeepers identified a number of factors impacting the food preparation and intake which could be important in developing strategies to improve food preparation and dietary behaviours. These findings contribute to the current literature on culinary behaviours in several ways.

The majority of participants reported an increase in the frequency of cooking including the number of meals during the day as all family members were at home and experimentation with different recipes during the lockdown period. This finding aligns with other studies showing an increase in cooking during the lockdown period in other countries, for example in Australia ( Ronto et al., 2021 ), Croatia ( Pfeifer et al., 2021 ), China ( Dou et al., 2021 ), and the United States of America ( Dou et al., 2021 ). This is a positive change for several reasons: the unavailability of domestic help and increased chores led to shared responsibilities of food preparation and home management amongst the family members including children and there was less reliance on take-away food. In fact, active engagement of children in cooking was found to positively impact the intakes of healthier foods like fruits and vegetables ( DeCosta et al., 2017 ; Radtke et al., 2019 ). However, most of the home cooking was done by females, which confirms the findings of a study conducted, which looked at the gender differences of home cooking frequency at a global scale prior to COVID-19 pandemic showing that females cooked more often ( Wolfson et al., 2021 ). Nonetheless, the increase in home cooking can be seen as a solution towards better diet quality ( Lavelle et al., 2020 ; Uggioni et al., 2020 ) and it leads to lesser reliance on take-away food which can be seen as a positive outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic ( Wilkins, 2020 ).

The majority of our participants reported an increase in meal planning behaviours, a finding which was also highlighted in another qualitative study carried out in the Australian context ( Ronto et al., 2021 ). They reported that during the pre-pandemic times, there used to be instantaneous meal planning, but during the lockdown they were forced to plan their meals due to restricted availability of food, and this, in some instances, led to healthier food choices. Previous findings demonstrate the significance of meal planning as an important determinant of meal size and energy intake ( Fay et al., 2011 ). In addition, higher frequency of meal planning has been associated with greater weight loss as observed in a 40-week behavioural weight loss intervention conducted in the US ( Hayes et al., 2021 ). Meal planning has been identified as one of the most important food skills, which assists individuals to choose, purchase, and prepare nutritious snacks and meals on a day-to-day basis for themselves and their family members ( Fernandez et al., 2020 ). Meal planning is often referred to as a potential strategy to overcome the main barrier to healthy eating i.e. lack of time ( Fernandez et al., 2020 ). Other advantages related to meal planning include helping individuals reduce stress and an increase in the number of family meal episodes ( Fernandez et al., 2020 ).

Our participants reported that they adopted online grocery shopping behaviours, since online grocery shopping offered delivery services without causing the consumers to worry about physical movement or geographical boundaries. Online shopping for groceries was also triggered by limited time allotted for opening of stores which did not match the busy work-from-home schedules of many. Similar shopping behaviours were observed in other countries such as Australia ( Ronto et al., 2021 ), New Zealand ( Martin-Neuninger & Ruby, 2020 ), Italy ( Alaimo et al., 2020 ), Taiwan ( Chang & Meyerhoefer, 2021 ), Saudi Arabia ( Alhusseini & Alqahtani, 2020 ), and the United States of America ( Dou et al., 2021 ; Ellison et al., 2021 ; Loxton et al., 2020 ). The need to maintain social distancing in public spaces and avoid crowding has added to this shift. Koch and coworkers reported that consumers were not concerned about the quality and price of the online purchases made during the pandemic but the ease of shopping ( Koch et al., 2020 ). Researchers claim that online food shopping provides convenience and flexibility as the shopping hours are not limited and the consumers have the liberty to shop at all hours ( Chocarro et al., 2013 ). Indian primary food gatekeepers further reported limited availability of certain food items during the lockdown which led them to adopt different food purchasing behaviours such as bulk and/or panic buying. Likewise, panic buying has been frequently reported in other countries such as Italy ( Di Renzo et al., 2020 ), Russia ( Ben Hassen et al., 2021 ), Saudi Arabia ( Alhusseini & Alqahtani, 2020 ), and Australia ( Ronto et al., 2021 ). Panic buying was positively influenced by customers' attitude, subjective norms, scarcity, perceived competition, and time pressure as observed in a Fijian study ( Singh et al., 2021 ). Studies from the USA and Australia highlights social media as a significant determinant of panic buying behaviour. According to a systematic review, panic buying is influenced by four factors, which are as follows: (i) consumers’ perception of the fear of viral crisis and the scarcity of products; (ii) the fear of the unknown which is triggered by negative emotions and insecurity; (iii) coping behaviour (iv) social psychological factors ( Yuen et al., 2020 ). Panic buying can have long-term negative effects like disruption in the supply chain management. Therefore, government bodies and policymakers should be prepared (e.g. keeping contingency plans in place); in future to minimize the unfavourable and unintended consequences of panic buying ( Prentice et al., 2020 ).

A significant change from dining out and purchasing take-a-ways from restaurants to cooking at home emerged with fear of spread of infection. This coupled with the varied likes and dislikes of foods among family members prompted the need to prepare a variety of meals and snacks which in turn led to an increase in bingeing of main meals and snacks. In the same vein, people in New Zealand ( Gerritsen et al., 2021 ), the UK ( Snuggs & McGregor, 2021 ) and Iran ( Galali, 2021 ) also reported bingeing on unhealthy sweet and savoury items. Drastic changes in lifestyle during the COVID-19 lockdown have been identified with negative emotions such as stress and fear, which in turn has caused emotional eating and overeating during the lockdown around the world have been attributed to psychological factors such as anxiety, boredom, or lower motivation ( Ammar et al., 2020 ). Likewise, a scoping review noted that there were associations between unhealthy dietary choices and mental health conditions including depression and anxiety, and sedentary time and weight gain ( Bennett et al., 2021 ). Disappointingly, if bingeing on comfort food sustains post pandemic, it is likely to result in negative health outcomes across various population groups. Therefore, public health professionals should design interventions which will reinforce the maintenance of healthy lifestyle habits in order to prevent long-term health consequences of the on-going viral disease.

Our study participants also highlighted some factors that determined the food preparation and intake during the COVID-19 lockdown. One of the factors was health and immunity, since the gatekeepers made a conscious effort to select plant-based foods that provided health and nutritional value to the meals. In fact, there has been an increased consumption of fruits and vegetables both among children and adults during the confinement as reported in a recent review analysing studies from several countries e.g. China, India, Spain, Italy, France, Poland etc ( Bennett et al., 2021 ). Perhaps, this increased intake of fresh produce could be attributed to the World Health Organization's extensive promotion of the importance of consuming fruits and vegetables during the coronavirus pandemic-induced lockdown ( Bennett et al., 2021 ). Interestingly, a recent review endorses the effectiveness of plant-based foods in enhancing immunity of individuals against COVID-19 virus ( Arshad et al., 2020 ). Another factor which surfaced during the interviews was food availability which was consistent with findings from another local study ( Parmar & Rathod, 2020 ). Certainly, triple A factors namely availability, accessibility, and affordability have been well documented as being influential in developing food choices and food behaviours ( Leng et al., 2017 ). For example, both accessibility and availability of fruits and vegetables at home and in the neighbourhood have consistently been associated with healthier population dietary intakes as indicated by higher intake of fresh fruits and vegetables ( Bodor et al., 2008 ; Loth et al., 2016 ; Moayyed et al., 2017 ). On the other hand, unhealthy food consumption can be curtailed by limiting access to unhealthy foods as seen in a Netherlands based study where the researchers made the unhealthy snacks less accessible by placing them further away which in turn reduced the likelihood and amount of intake of these snacks ( Maas et al., 2012 ). In this light, weight-loss focussed environmental interventions can adopt the manipulation of food accessibility as a viable strategy to reduce overeating and overweight ( Faith et al., 2007 ).

Despite the reduction in income in nearly three quarters of the households, paradoxically, no impact of the reduced income was observed on the culinary behaviours in our study. This could be partially explained by the fact that the majority of our interviewees belonged to either upper or upper middle class. Moreover, since the lockdown was not prolonged the impact of income on the culinary behaviours was not so apparent. Contrary to our findings, studies from urban settings in other lower-middle income countries (LMICs) like Bangladesh ( Mandal et al., 2021 ), Kenya ( Kansiime et al., 2021 ), and Uganda ( Kansiime et al., 2021 ) clearly depict the impact of reduced income on food behaviour. For example, in Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh, fish consumption per household and the frequency of grocery shopping decreased during the pandemic as an outcome of pay cuts or loss of job ( Mandal et al., 2021 ). As a coping measure, Bangladeshis reduced the intake of highly priced food ( Mandal et al., 2021 ). Nevertheless, richer segments were less affected by the income reduction ( Mandal et al., 2021 ). In this view, the future studies in India should include sample from different socio-economic strata to explore the implications of pay cuts on culinary and dietary behaviours.

Finally, our gatekeepers threw light on the increased frequency of family meals during the lockdown, a dining experience also reported in other cultural contexts including the USA ( Hammons & Robart, 2021 ), Russia ( Ben Hassen et al., 2021 ), and Qatar ( Ben Hassen et al., 2020 ). They thoroughly enjoyed having all their meals and snacks with their loved ones, which was rarely witnessed prior to the COVID-19. Sharing mealtimes provides an opportunity for families to feel connected during times of uncertainty such as the unprecedented pandemic and its resultant lockdown restrictions ( Hammons & Robart, 2021 ). Empirical evidence portrays mealtimes as a setting for difficult conversations to take place between family members ( Skeer et al., 2018 ), thus offering relief to the families during times of stress ( Hammons & Robart, 2021 ). Besides offering solace, family meals have also shown to have a positive impact on diet among children ( Dwyer et al., 2015 ), youth, and adults ( Fulkerson et al., 2014 ).

4.1. Research limitations and future scope

This research inquiry provides some valuable insights on the Indian primary food gatekeepers’ experiences with regards to culinary behaviours during the COVID-19 lockdown. The choice of selecting a cosmopolitan city like Mumbai has largely helped to understand the culinary practices of persons with different cultural and regional backgrounds as our participants were natives of five different Indian states. However, some limitations of our study should be acknowledged while interpreting the findings. The findings of this study cannot be generalized to the Indian population on the whole because this study was based primarily on an urban sample. Perhaps, to improve the generalisability of the findings, there is a need to execute this study in different geographical settings (diet in India varies from one state to another) as well as rural settings. The use of convenience sampling could have also impacted the generalisability of our results. Simple random sampling or stratified random sampling could have been employed. Nevertheless, researchers often recommend the use of convenience sampling in qualitative research ( Luborsky & Rubinstein, 1995 ; Moser & Korstjens, 2018 ; Polit & Beck, 2010 ; Robinson, 2014 ) because the aim of qualitative studies is not to generalize but rather to provide an in-depth understanding of some aspect of human experience (e.g. transformation in culinary behaviour) through an intensive inquiry of the situation under study ( Polit & Beck, 2010 ). In addition, Moser and Korstjens (2018) note, “ In qualitative research, you sample deliberately, not at random .” Convenience sampling is a form of deliberate sampling strategy ( Moser & Korstjens, 2018 ). Moreover, convenience sampling is affordable, quick, and the participants are easily accessible to the researchers ( Etikan et al., 2016 ). Considering the on-going pandemic and its associated restrictions as well as the qualitative nature of our study, the use of convenience sampling was considered viable in the present context.

Another limitation could be that the gatekeepers provided socially laudable responses. The predominance of upper and upper middle class gatekeepers in the study sample could have further limited the generalisability of the findings. Interestingly, the dietary and culinary behaviours among the richer segments in other LMICs like Bangladesh (one of our neighbouring countries) were minimally impacted during the on-going pandemic ( Mandal et al., 2021 ) as observed in our study. Nonetheless, the views of gatekeepers belonging to economically weaker sections of the society are also critical for designing nutrition interventions. For example, studies from Kenya ( Kansiime et al., 2021 ), Uganda ( Kansiime et al., 2021 ), and Bangladesh ( Mandal et al., 2021 ) highlight the impact of reduced income on food behaviour amidst the pandemic. Thus, to gain a comprehensive view on the present topic, future studies should also investigate the perspectives of gatekeepers living in low-income settings on the newly adopted dietary and culinary behaviours during the pandemic.

Overall, both healthy and unhealthy culinary behaviours were practised during the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated lockdowns. Unhealthy dietary behaviours have negative repercussions for nutritional and overall health. Therefore, it would be useful to develop web-based nutrition education programs (e.g. videos demonstrating recipes incorporating seasonal, indigenous, low calorie food ingredients) for gatekeepers and their families to enhance their declarative as well as procedural nutritional knowledge, which in turn, will improve their culinary practices and diet quality. There is scope for development in the areas of food skills and healthy eating practices for gatekeepers. The importance of organisational culinary behaviours such as planning meals in advance and shopping with a food list should be promoted to forestall hoarding and reduce strain on the food supply system. With a surge in household cooking, economical recipes with the use of indigenous and seasonal produce should be emphasized for promoting healthy eating among the gatekeepers and their families. In addition, for the purpose of developing effective public health policies, the sustainability of the healthy culinary behaviours practised during the pandemic need to be verified through a follow-up study after the end of COVID-19 crisis. Also, there is a need for further research and surveillance to strengthen understanding of sustainability of healthy culinary behaviours practiced during the pandemic.

Authors contributions

N.R. and R.R. conceived the study and its original design. L.M. and N.R. collected the data. L.M., D.R.C, R.R., R.S., and N.R. analysed the data. L.M., R.R., R.S., and N.R. drafted the initial form and all revisions of this paper. L.M., D.R.C, R.R., R.S., S.K., and N.R. reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Funding statement

This research received no external funding. NR acknowledges the support of Institution of Eminence program of Ministry of Education as Malaviya Post Doctoral Fellow.

Ethical statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the SMES's (Seva Mandal Education Society's) Institutional Ethics Committee (SMES/IEC/125)). The procedures performed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the committee. Written informed consent was obtained from all respondents before commencement of the study.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this research article.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all our participants for their valuable time in contributing to this study.

• Alaimo L.S., Fiore M., Galati A. How the covid-19 pandemic is changing online food shopping human behaviour in Italy. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (22) doi: 10.3390/su12229594. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Alhusseini N., Alqahtani A. COVID-19 pandemic's impact on eating habits in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Public Health Research. 2020; 9 (3) doi: 10.4081/jphr.2020.1868. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ammar A., Brach M., Trabelsi K., Chtourou H., Boukhris O., Masmoudi L., Bouaziz B., Bentlage E., How D., Ahmed M., Müller P., Müller N., Aloui A., Hammouda O., Paineiras-Domingos L.L., Braakman-Jansen A., Wrede C., Bastoni S., Pernambuco C.S.…Consortium O.B.o. t.E.-C. Effects of COVID-19 home confinement on eating behaviour and physical activity: Results of the ECLB-COVID19. International Online Survey. 2020; 12 (6):1583. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/6/1583 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arora T., Grey I. Health behaviour changes during COVID-19 and the potential consequences: A mini-review. Journal of Health Psychology. 2020; 25 (9):1155–1163. doi: 10.1177/1359105320937053. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Arshad M.S., Khan U., Sadiq A., Khalid W., Hussain M., Yasmeen A., Asghar Z., Rehana H. Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and immunity booster green foods: A mini review. Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2020; 8 (8):3971–3976. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.1719. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.1719. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ] Retracted
• Bandyopadhyaya V., Bandyopadhyaya R. Understanding the impact of COVID-19 pandemic outbreak on grocery stocking behaviour in India: A pattern mining approach. Global Business Review. 2021:1–21. doi: 10.1177/0972150921988955. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Basu S., Karmakar A., Bidhan V., Kumar H., Brar K., Pandit M., Narayanan L. Impact of lockdown due to COVID-19 outbreak: Lifestyle changes and public health concerns in India. International Journal of Indian Psychology. 2020; 8 (2):1385–1411. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ben Hassen T., El Bilali H., Allahyari M.S. Impact of COVID-19 on food behavior and consumption in Qatar. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (17) doi: 10.3390/su12176973. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ben Hassen T., El Bilali H., Allahyari M.S., Berjan S., Fotina O. Food purchase and eating behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional survey of Russian adults. Appetite. 2021; 165 doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105309. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bennett G., Young E., Butler I., Coe S. The impact of lockdown during the COVID-19 outbreak on dietary habits in various population groups: A scoping review. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2021; 8 :53. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnut.2021.626432 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bodor J.N., Rose D., Farley T.A., Swalm C., Scott S.K. Neighbourhood fruit and vegetable availability and consumption: The role of small food stores in an urban environment. Public Health Nutrition. 2008; 11 (4):413–420. doi: 10.1017/S1368980007000493. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Burton M., Reid M., Worsley A., Mavondo F. Food skills confidence and household gatekeepers' dietary practices. Appetite. 2017; 108 :183–190. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chang H.-H., Meyerhoefer C.D. COVID-19 and the demand for online food shopping services: Empirical evidence from Taiwan. American Journal of Agricultural Economics. 2021; 103 (2):448–465. doi: 10.1111/ajae.12170. doi: 10.1111/ajae.12170. [ CrossRef ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Chocarro R., Cortiñas M., Villanueva M.-L. Situational variables in online versus offline channel choice. Electronic Commerce Research and Applications. 2013; 12 (5):347–361. doi: 10.1016/j.elerap.2013.03.004. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Creswell J.W. 4 ed. SAGE Publications; 2014. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. [ Google Scholar ]
• De Backer C., Teunissen L., Cuykx I., Decorte P., Pabian S., Gerritsen S., Matthys C., Al Sabbah H., Van Royen K., Group C.C.S.S. An evaluation of the COVID-19 pandemic and perceived social distancing policies in relation to planning, selecting, and preparing healthy meals: An observational study in 38 countries worldwide. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2020; 7 doi: 10.3389/fnut.2020.621726. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• DeCosta P., Møller P., Frøst M.B., Olsen A. Changing children's eating behaviour - a review of experimental research. Appetite. 2017; 113 :327–357. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2017.03.004. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Di Renzo L., Gualtieri P., Cinelli G., Bigioni G., Soldati L., Attinà A., Bianco F.F., Caparello G., Camodeca V., Carrano E. Psychological aspects and eating habits during covid-19 home confinement: Results of EHLC-COVID-19 Italian online survey. Nutrients. 2020; 12 (7):2152. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Dou Z., Stefanovski D., Galligan D., Lindem M., Rozin P., Chen T., Chao A.M. Household food dynamics and food system resilience amid the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-national comparison of China and the United States [10.3389/fsufs.2020.577153] Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 2021; 4 :212. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fsufs.2020.577153 [ Google Scholar ]
• Dwyer L., Oh A., Patrick H., Hennessy E. Promoting family meals: A review of existing interventions and opportunities for future research. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics. 2015; 6 :115–131. doi: 10.2147/ahmt.s37316. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ellison B., McFadden B., Rickard B.J., Wilson N.L.W. Examining food purchase behavior and food values during the COVID-19 pandemic. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. 2021; 43 (1):58–72. doi: 10.1002/aepp.13118. doi: 10.1002/aepp.13118. [ CrossRef ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Etikan I., Musa S.A., Alkassim R.S. Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics. 2016; 5 (1):1–4. [ Google Scholar ]
• Faith M.S., Fontaine K.R., Baskin M.L., Allison D.B. Toward the reduction of population obesity: Macrolevel environmental approaches to the problems of food, eating, and obesity. Psychological Bulletin. 2007; 133 (2):205–226. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.205. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fay S.H., Ferriday D., Hinton E.C., Shakeshaft N.G., Rogers P.J., Brunstrom J.M. What determines real-world meal size? Evidence for pre-meal planning. Appetite. 2011; 56 (2):284–289. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2011.01.006. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fereday J., Muir-Cochrane E. Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods. 2006; 5 (1):80–92. doi: 10.1177/160940690600500107. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fernandez M., Desroches S., Marquis M., Provencher V. Meal planning as a strategy to support healthy eating. Nutrition Science en évolution. 2020; 17 (3):12–16. doi: 10.7202/1068830ar. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Fulkerson J.A., Larson N., Horning M., Neumark-Sztainer D. A review of associations between family or shared meal frequency and dietary and weight status outcomes across the lifespan. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 2014; 46 (1):2–19. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2013.07.012. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Galali Y. The impact of COVID-19 confinement on the eating habits and lifestyle changes: A cross sectional study. Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2021; 9 (4):2105–2113. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.2179. doi: 10.1002/fsn3.2179. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Gerritsen S., Egli V., Roy R., Haszard J., Backer C.D., Teunissen L., Cuykx I., Decorte P., Pabian S.P., Van Royen K., Te Morenga L. Seven weeks of home-cooked meals: Changes to New Zealanders' grocery shopping, cooking and eating during the COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 2021; 51 (sup1):S4–S22. doi: 10.1080/03036758.2020.1841010. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ghosh A., Arora B., Gupta R., Anoop S., Misra A. Effects of nationwide lockdown during COVID-19 epidemic on lifestyle and other medical issues of patients with type 2 diabetes in north India. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research Reviews. 2020; 14 (5):917–920. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.05.044. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hale T., Angrist N., Goldszmidt R., Kira B., Petherick A., Phillips T., Webster S., Cameron-Blake E., Hallas L., Majumdar S., Tatlow H. A global panel database of pandemic policies (Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker) Nature Human Behaviour. 2021; 5 (4):529–538. doi: 10.1038/s41562-021-01079-8. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hammons A.J., Robart R. Family food environment during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study. Children. 2021; 8 (5) doi: 10.3390/children8050354. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hayes J.F., Balantekin K.N., Fitzsimmons-Craft E.E., Jackson J.J., Ridolfi D.R., Boeger H.S., Welch R.R., Wilfley D.E. Greater average meal planning frequency predicts greater weight loss outcomes in a worksite-based behavioral weight loss program. Annals of Behavioral Medicine. 2021; 55 (1):14–23. doi: 10.1093/abm/kaaa021. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kansiime M.K., Tambo J.A., Mugambi I., Bundi M., Kara A., Owuor C. COVID-19 implications on household income and food security in Kenya and Uganda: Findings from a rapid assessment. World Development. 2021; 137 doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105199. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Khairnar M., Kumar P., Kusumakar A. Updated BG prasad socioeconomic status classification for the year 2021 [Letter to the editor] Journal of Indian Association of Public Health Dentistry. 2021; 19 :154. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A670927561/AONE?u=anoñ7572e07b&sid=googleScholar&xid=8bb8d74a [ Google Scholar ]
• King N. In: Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research. Catherine C., Gillian S., editors. Sage Publications Ltd; 2004. Using interviews in qualitative research; pp. 11–21. [ Google Scholar ]
• King N. In: Essential guide to qualitative methods in organizational research. Cassell C., Symon G., editors. SAGE Publications; 2004. Using templates in the thematic analysis of text; pp. 256–268. [ Google Scholar ]
• Koch J., Frommeyer B., Schewe G. Online shopping motives during the COVID-19 pandemic—lessons from the crisis. Sustainability. 2020; 12 (24) doi: 10.3390/su122410247. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lavelle F., Bucher T., Dean M., Brown H.M., Rollo M.E., Collins C.E. Diet quality is more strongly related to food skills rather than cooking skills confidence: Results from a national cross‐sectional survey. Nutrition and Dietetics. 2020; 77 (1):112–120. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Leng G., Adan R.A.H., Belot M., Brunstrom J.M., de Graaf K., Dickson S.L., Hare T., Maier S., Menzies J., Preissl H., Reisch L.A., Rogers P.J., Smeets P.A.M. The determinants of food choice. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 2017; 76 (3):316–327. doi: 10.1017/S002966511600286X. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Loth K.A., MacLehose R.F., Larson N., Berge J.M., Neumark-Sztainer D. Food availability, modeling and restriction: How are these different aspects of the family eating environment related to adolescent dietary intake? Appetite. 2016; 96 :80–86. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2015.08.026. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Loxton M., Truskett R., Scarf B., Sindone L., Baldry G., Zhao Y. Consumer behaviour during crises: Preliminary research on how coronavirus has manifested consumer panic buying, herd mentality, changing discretionary spending and the role of the media in influencing behaviour. Journal of Risk and Financial Management. 2020; 13 (8) doi: 10.3390/jrfm13080166. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Luborsky M.R., Rubinstein R.L. Sampling in qualitative research: Rationale, issues, and methods. Research on Aging. 1995; 17 (1):89–113. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Maas J., de Ridder D.T.D., de Vet E., de Wit J.B.F. Do distant foods decrease intake? The effect of food accessibility on consumption. Psychology and Health. 2012; 27 (sup2):59–73. doi: 10.1080/08870446.2011.565341. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Mandal S.C., Boidya P., Haque M.I.-M., Hossain A., Shams Z., Mamun A.-A. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fish consumption and household food security in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Global Food Security. 2021; 29 doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100526. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Marques J.F., McCall C. The application of interrater reliability as a solidification instrument in a phenomenological study. Qualitative Report. 2005; 10 (3):439–462. [ Google Scholar ]
• Martin-Neuninger R., Ruby M.B. What does food retail research tell us about the implications of coronavirus (COVID-19) for grocery purchasing habits? Frontiers in Psychology. 2020; 11 (1448) doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01448. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moayyed H., Kelly B., Feng X., Flood V. Is living near healthier food stores associated with better food intake in regional Australia? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2017; 14 (8) doi: 10.3390/ijerph14080884. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Moser A., Korstjens I. Series: Practical guidance to qualitative research. Part 3: Sampling, data collection and analysis. The European Journal of General Practice. 2018; 24 (1):9–18. doi: 10.1080/13814788.2017.1375091. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Murphy B., Benson T., McCloat A., Mooney E., Elliott C., Dean M., Lavelle F. Changes in consumers' food practices during the COVID-19 lockdown, implications for diet quality and the food system: A cross-continental comparison. Nutrients. 2021; 13 (1) doi: 10.3390/nu13010020. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Narayanan S., Saha S. Urban food markets and the COVID-19 lockdown in India. Global Food Security. 2021; 29 doi: 10.1016/j.gfs.2021.100515. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Parmar G., Rathod R.M. Impact of covid-19 situation on food consumption. Journal of Interdisciplinary Cycle Research. 2020; 12 :1393–1406. [ Google Scholar ]
• Patton M. 2 ed. SAGE publications; 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research methods. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paul G., Sharma S., Singh G., Singh G., Sharma S., Paul B.S., Gautam P.L. Assessment of knowledge gaps and perceptions about COVID-19 among health care workers and general public-national cross-sectional study. Journal of Anaesthesiology Clinical Pharmacology. 2020; 36 (3):337–344. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Pfeifer D., Rešetar J., Kljusurić J.G., Krbavčić I.P., Bender D.V., Rodríguez-Pérez C., Ruíz-López M.D., Šatalić Z. Cooking at home and adherence to the Mediterranean diet during the COVID-19 confinement: The experience from the Croatian COVIDiet study. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2021; 8 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8044460/ [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Polit D.F., Beck C.T. Generalization in quantitative and qualitative research: Myths and strategies. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2010; 47 (11):1451–1458. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2010.06.004. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Prentice C., Quach S., Thaichon P. Antecedents and consequences of panic buying: The case of COVID-19. International Journal of Consumer Studies. 2020 doi: 10.1111/ijcs.12649. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Radtke T., Liszewska N., Horodyska K., Boberska M., Schenkel K., Luszczynska A. Cooking together: The IKEA effect on family vegetable intake. British Journal of Health Psychology. 2019; 24 (4):896–912. doi: 10.1111/bjhp.12385. doi: 10.1111/bjhp.12385. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rathi N., Riddell L., Worsley A. Food and nutrition education in private Indian secondary schools. Health Education. 2017; 117 (2):193–206. doi: 10.1108/HE-04-2016-0017. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rathi N., Riddell L., Worsley A. “Do you think adolescents' food intake is satisfactory?” – views of Indian parents and teachers. Appetite. 2020; 153 doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2020.104740. [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rawat D., Dixit V., Gulati S., Gulati S., Gulati A. Impact of COVID-19 outbreak on lifestyle behaviour: A review of studies published in India. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research Reviews. 2021; 15 (1):331–336. doi: 10.1016/j.dsx.2020.12.038. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reid M., Worsley A., Mavondo F. 2009. Gatekeeper influence on food acquisition, food preparation and family diet. https://ro.uow.edu.au/hbspapers/276 Retrieved 18th July 2009 from. [ Google Scholar ]
• Robinson O.C. Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: A theoretical and practical guide. Qualitative Research in Psychology. 2014; 11 (1):25–41. doi: 10.1080/14780887.2013.801543. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Ronto R., Nanayakkara J., Worsley A., Rathi N. COVID-19 & culinary behaviours of Australian household food gatekeepers: A qualitative study. Appetite. 2021; 167 doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105598. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Roy A., Zain Z. Online food delivery: A competitor for Indian kitchens. International Journal of Advance and Innovative Research. 2018; 5 (4):415–420. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sandelowski M. Whatever happened to qualitative description? Research in Nursing & Health. 2000; 23 (4):334–340. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Singh G., Aiyub A.S., Greig T., Naidu S., Sewak A., Sharma S. Exploring panic buying behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic: A developing country perspective. International Journal of Emerging Markets. 2021 doi: 10.1108/IJOEM-03-2021-0308. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Skeer M.R., Sonneville K.R., Deshpande B.R., Goodridge M.C., Folta S.C. Going beyond frequency: A qualitative study to explore new dimensions for the measurement of family meals. Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2018; 27 (4):1075–1087. doi: 10.1007/s10826-017-0967-2. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Snuggs S., McGregor S. Food & meal decision making in lockdown: How and who has Covid-19 affected? Food Quality and Preference. 2021; 89 doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2020.104145. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Uggioni P.L., Elpo C.M.F., Geraldo A.P.G., Fernandes A.C., Mazzonetto A.C., Bernardo G.L. Cooking skills during the Covid-19 pandemic. Revista de Nutrição. 2020; 33 doi: 10.1590/1678-9865202033e200172. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wijayaratne S.P., Reid M., Westberg K., Worsley A., Mavondo F. Food literacy, healthy eating barriers and household diet. European Journal of Marketing. 2018; 52 (12):2449–2477. doi: 10.1108/EJM-10-2017-0760. [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wilkins J.L. Challenges and opportunities created by the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 2020; 52 (7):669–670. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Wolfson J.A., Ishikawa Y., Hosokawa C., Janisch K., Massa J., Eisenberg D.M. Gender differences in global estimates of cooking frequency prior to COVID-19. Appetite. 2021; 161 doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105117. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• World Health Organization . 2020. WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020.In World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020 Retrieved. from. [ Google Scholar ]
• Yuen K.F., Wang X., Ma F., Li K.X. The psychological causes of panic buying following a health crisis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17 (10) doi: 10.3390/ijerph17103513. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

[1] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[2] Poliwoda, S., Noor, N., Downs, E., Schaaf, A., Cantwell, A., Ganti, L., Kaye, A. D., Mosel, L. I., Carroll, C. B., Viswanath, O., & Urits, I. (2022). Stem cells: a comprehensive review of origins and emerging clinical roles in medical practice.  Orthopedic reviews ,  14 (3), 37498. https://doi.org/10.52965/001c.37498

[3] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk ; Kimmelman, J., Hyun, I., Benvenisty, N.  et al.  Policy: Global standards for stem-cell research.  Nature   533 , 311–313 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/533311a

[4] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2023). Laboratory-based human embryonic stem cell research, embryo research, and related research activities . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/blog-post-title-one-ed2td-6fcdk

[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

Sandel M. J. (2004). Embryo ethics--the moral logic of stem-cell research.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 207–209. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048145 ; George, R. P., & Lee, P. (2020, September 26). Acorns and Embryos . The New Atlantis. https://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/acorns-and-embryos ; Sagan, A., & Singer, P. (2007). The moral status of stem cells. Metaphilosophy , 38 (2/3), 264–284. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24439776 ; McHugh P. R. (2004). Zygote and "clonote"--the ethical use of embryonic stem cells.  The New England journal of medicine ,  351 (3), 209–211. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp048147 ; Kurjak, A., & Tripalo, A. (2004). The facts and doubts about beginning of the human life and personality.  Bosnian journal of basic medical sciences ,  4 (1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.17305/bjbms.2004.3453

[6] Vazin, T., & Freed, W. J. (2010). Human embryonic stem cells: derivation, culture, and differentiation: a review.  Restorative neurology and neuroscience ,  28 (4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2010-0543

[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

[25] Li, X.-T., & Zhao, J. (2012). Chapter 4: An Approach to the Nature of Qi in TCM- Qi and Bioenergy. In Recent Advances in Theories and Practice of Chinese Medicine (p. 79). InTech.

[26] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[68] Gert, B. (2007). Common morality: Deciding what to do . Oxford Univ. Press.

[69] World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA , 310(20), 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.281053 Declaration of Helsinki – WMA – The World Medical Association .; see also: National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research. (1979).  The Belmont report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.  https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/read-the-belmont-report/index.html

[70] Zakarin Safier, L., Gumer, A., Kline, M., Egli, D., & Sauer, M. V. (2018). Compensating human subjects providing oocytes for stem cell research: 9-year experience and outcomes.  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  35 (7), 1219–1225. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-018-1171-z https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6063839/ see also: Riordan, N. H., & Paz Rodríguez, J. (2021). Addressing concerns regarding associated costs, transparency, and integrity of research in recent stem cell trial. Stem Cells Translational Medicine , 10 (12), 1715–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/sctm.21-0234

[71] Klitzman, R., & Sauer, M. V. (2009). Payment of egg donors in stem cell research in the USA.  Reproductive biomedicine online ,  18 (5), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60002-8

[72] Krosin, M. T., Klitzman, R., Levin, B., Cheng, J., & Ranney, M. L. (2006). Problems in comprehension of informed consent in rural and peri-urban Mali, West Africa.  Clinical trials (London, England) ,  3 (3), 306–313. https://doi.org/10.1191/1740774506cn150oa

[73] Veatch, Robert M.  Hippocratic, Religious, and Secular Medical Ethics: The Points of Conflict . Georgetown University Press, 2012.

[74] Msoroka, M. S., & Amundsen, D. (2018). One size fits not quite all: Universal research ethics with diversity.  Research Ethics ,  14 (3), 1-17.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016117739939

[75] Pirzada, N. (2022). The Expansion of Turkey’s Medical Tourism Industry.  Voices in Bioethics ,  8 . https://doi.org/10.52214/vib.v8i.9894

[76] Stem Cell Tourism: False Hope for Real Money . Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI). (2023). https://hsci.harvard.edu/stem-cell-tourism , See also: Bissassar, M. (2017). Transnational Stem Cell Tourism: An ethical analysis.  Voices in Bioethics ,  3 . https://doi.org/10.7916/vib.v3i.6027

[77] Song, P. (2011) The proliferation of stem cell therapies in post-Mao China: problematizing ethical regulation,  New Genetics and Society , 30:2, 141-153, DOI:  10.1080/14636778.2011.574375

[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .