essay period meaning

Periods: When to Use Periods in Writing (Examples)

When it comes to punctuation, periods are one of the most commonly used marks, so it comes in handy knowing how to use them. This article will teach you everything you need to know to use periods competently.

• A period is a tiny dot used at the end of some sentences, abbreviations, and in some computing and mathematical contexts.

This guide is part of our free online Grammar Book .

What Are Periods?

So let's start with the basics: what exactly are periods in writing? That's an easy one: they're a form of punctuation .

The other main ones are:

• question marks
• exclamation marks
• quotation marks
• apostrophes

That's quite a lot, isn't it? I bet it's more than you thought. But the only other two that can be used to end a sentence are the question mark and the exclamation mark . And of all these, the most used punctuation in English is the period . It's also known as the full stop in the U.K. and other British English-speaking countries.

Periods are placed at the end of a sentence to mark a pause . It's a much longer pause than you'd observe with a comma or other forms of punctuation.

Place your periods directly after the last word at the end of your sentences without a space in between. Do leave a space between the period and the first word of the following sentence (some even leave two spaces - it's a stylistic choice).

Do you want to know how and when to use periods? Great, because that's what you'll learn in this article. I will start by telling you when not to use periods because it's a much shorter list!

When Not to Use Periods

With periods being the most commonly used form of punctuation, it's much easier for me to tell you when not to use them. There are three significant instances in which you shouldn't use periods.

Questions - also known as interrogative sentences - are a way to elicit information from someone.

• They should always end with a question mark and never with a period .

Here are a few examples:

Good morning , how are you? How did he get here? Should we grab Italian or Mexican?

Watch out for indirect questions, though - they will end with a period and not a question mark, but that's because an indirect question is actually a declarative sentence. More on that later.

Exclamations

Exclamations - also known as exclamatory sentences - allow you to express emotion within your sentence. Usually, this will be a pretty intense emotion like surprise, anger, or disgust rather than sadness or disappointment.

• These sentences are another example of when you won't use a period. Instead, you'll use an exclamation mark.

You got here so fast! Quick, run!  That's gross, Stefan!

You use an exclamation mark because this punctuation communicates emotion, whereas a full stop is relatively neutral. Look at the two following sentences, which are identical, but one has a period, and one has an exclamation mark. They communicate a completely different message, and how they would sound when you read them aloud is entirely different.

Oh, you're here. Oh, you're here!

Depending on the context, the first sentence could indicate disappointment, sarcasm, or even complete neutrality. The second, however, shows excitement or surprise.

Citing Content That Ends With a Question or Exclamation Mark

If you're citing a title or quote that ends with a question or exclamation mark, you won't use a period at the end of the sentence, even if it is a declarative sentence. That's because we never use two punctuation marks in succession. Think about it - that would look a little silly.

Here is an example to show you what I mean:

As soon as he saw me he yelled out, "Danny, I'm over here!"

The quoted sentence 'Danny, I'm over here!' is exclamatory, but the sentence it is contained in is a declarative one. It's just somebody reporting what somebody else has said. So technically, the sentence should end with a period. But since the quoted sentence is at the end of the main sentence and ends with an exclamation mark, to use a period would mean to use two punctuation marks in succession. So instead, we use the exclamation mark and leave the period.

Here's another example, this time using a movie title and a question mark:

The group voted and we all watched Dude, Where's My Car?

Even though the sentence above isn't a question, the fact the movie title ends with a question mark and is at the end of the sentence means the sentence ends with a question mark despite being a declarative sentence.

If you want to avoid ambiguity, you can always move the citation so it's not at the end of the sentence. Here's one way you could do that with the previous example:

The group voted and we all watched Dude, Where's My Car? on the big screen. 

When to Use Periods

Alright! Now we've covered when not to use periods, let's talk about when you  should use periods. In this section, you'll see that periods are pretty versatile: they can be used to end a sentence, which is how most people know them, but that's not all they can do.

Types of Sentence

We'll start with the two types of sentences you can and should use periods with.

Declarative

Declarative sentences are also known as assertive sentences, and their purpose is to state a general truth or an opinion, give information or make requests in a non-forceful way . The lack of an exclamation mark gives it a calm energy and shows you are simply making a statement. Use a period to end these types of sentences .

Here are some examples:

It's nice to meet you, my name's Carly. I'll be there in one hour . Sorry to hear that you lost your job.

Don't forget: indirect questions are a type of declarative sentence, too . They're just a way of telling someone about a question someone else asked. Here's an example of an actual question (interrogative sentence) and an indirect question (declarative sentence).

What is the square root of four? The teacher asked us what the square root of four was. 

Notice how the former ends with a question mark and the latter ends with a period.

Imperative sentences allow you to give commands. They can sometimes end with an exclamation mark, but often a period will suffice .

Please, take a seat. Sally, be a darling and pass me the salt. Don't go in there.

Abbreviations

As I mentioned earlier, periods are not only used as a way to end sentences; they also have a few other functions. And one of those is to help us form abbreviations. What's an abbreviation, you ask?

• They're a shortened version of a word or phrase . And sometimes, they require a period after a letter or word.

Here are some common abbreviations:

• U.S.A. - United States of America
• R.S.V.P. - Répondez, s'il vous plaît (French for "please reply”)
• E.T.A. - estimated time of arrival
• min. - minute
• Mrs . - missus
• approx. - approximately

Usually, the period comes after the letters if each letter stands for a word, and it comes after the word if the abbreviation only shortens a single word.

Note that depending on your preferred style guide and the country you live in, you might not need to use periods with all abbreviations. I'm sure you see 'USA' without periods just as often as you've seen 'U.S.A.' with periods. So it's really up to you to decide... or refer to your chosen style guide.

Another form of abbreviation is initials. If you only know the first letter of someone's first name (and sometimes middle name), or you only want to disclose the first letter of your own name, then you can do that and follow each letter with a period. Here are some examples of famous people who do that:

• George R. R. Martin
• J. K. Rowling
• Samuel L. Jackson
• J. F. Kennedy
• Hunter S. Thompson

If a sentence ends with an abbreviation period, you shouldn't add another period, even if it's a declarative or imperative sentence. You can, however, add a different punctuation mark.

I'm going to need your R.S.V.P.. ❌ I'm going to need your R.S.V.P.  ✅ I'm going to need your R.S.V.P., but it can wait until tomorrow. ✅

Ellipsis, while not exactly a period, comprises three periods, so I thought it deserved mention here, especially since it can sometimes replace a period.

The role of an ellipsis is to either add suspense, show a thought trailing off, or show that words have been removed from a quote. If an ellipsis is at the end of the sentence, you don't need to add another full stop afterward, even if it's a declarative or imperative sentence.

I was sure I'd locked the door... You look surprised to see me... Now where did I put my...

Periods are also used in other contexts outside of grammar. For example, to get to this article, you had to head to a website address that contained a period. Although in this context, it would be called a 'dot.'

Www.writingtips.org Www [dot] writing tips [dot] org

You'll also find this period in file names to separate the file name from the file extension.

whentouseperiods.pdf

And I'm sure you'll find it used in many more ways within the computing and programming world.

Another place you'll often see a period is in mathematics. For instance, to separate the decimals from the whole number:

While some use a comma for this, a period is also perfectly acceptable. It's also sometimes used as an alternative for the multiplication sign, although you'll find it placed in the vertical middle of the line:

How to Use Periods

We've covered most of what you need to know regarding when and when not to use periods. There are just a couple of special cases I want to go over with you.

Quotation Marks and Periods

Quotation marks are used when you quote what somebody else has said, cite works, or draw attention to a word.

I mentioned in the first section that you should place your periods at the very end of the sentence, after the final word. But there's one case where there'll be one thing separating the last word from the period, and that's when using single or double quotation marks . Look at the following example:

He responded, " It takes two to tango ."

In this example of reported direct speech , the narrator is telling us what somebody else said by quoting it directly, so it requires quotation marks. Notice that the sentence's closing period comes before the closing quotation marks. This is definitely stylistic and is less commonly seen in the U.K., for example, where they tend to place the period after the quotation marks.

Here are some more examples:

The book described her as 'tall' and 'intimidating.' I love his poem "The Raven."

Parentheses and Periods

Parentheses - also known as brackets - are a way to add nonessential information to a sentence while keeping it separate and making it clear the info's nonessential.

Though they're convenient, you should know a few things about using periods with them.

Don't use a period when the part in brackets isn't a complete sentence.

When I arrived at the station (much earlier than planned), I headed to the ticket office.

When the part in brackets is a complete sentence, use a period.

I arrived at the station. (I got there much earlier than planned.) I headed to the ticket office.

Notice how the period is placed inside the brackets because the sentence is complete.

Concluding Thoughts

That concludes this article on periods. I hope you found it helpful and feel you have a good command over when and how to use a period.

Let's summarize what we've learned:

• Periods end a sentence and mark a pause before the following sentence.
• They should be placed at the end of a sentence, with no space after the final word.
• It is one of three punctuation marks that can end a sentence.
• Declarative and imperative sentences use a period.
• You can also use periods with abbreviations and initials and make ellipsis.
• Periods are also used in computing and mathematics.
• Place your period before the closing quotation mark.
• Periods are placed inside parentheses when it's a complete sentence and outside if it isn't.

If you enjoyed this article, head over to our Grammar Book, a free online database where you'll find many more articles like this one.

Learn More:

• Homophones: What Is a Homophone? (Meaning and Examples)
• Parallelism: What Is Parallelism? Definition and Examples
• Imperative Sentences: What Are Imperative Sentences? Definition and Examples
• Language Register in English Writing: Definition, Meaning, and Examples
• Articles: What Are Articles? Definition and Types (Examples)
• What is a Plural Noun? Definition and Examples
• Conjunctions: What Are Conjunctions? Definition and Type (Examples)
• Determiners: What Are Determiners? Definition and Examples
• Indirect Objects: What Are Indirect Objects? Definition and Examples
• Regular vs Irregular Verbs: Definitions, Differences, Examples
• Mood in Verbs: What Is Verb Mood? Definition and Types (Examples)
• Auxiliary Verbs: What Are Auxiliary Verbs? Definitions and Examples
• Modal Verbs: What Are Modal Verbs? Definition and Examples
• Interrogative Sentences: What Are Interrogative Sentences? Definition and Examples
• Conditional Sentences: What Are Conditional Sentences? Definition and Examples

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Periods: When to Use Them in Writing with Clear Examples

Marcus Froland

March 28, 2024

Writing isn’t just about putting words on paper. It’s about making those words work together to express an idea, tell a story, or convey a message. One tiny mark that plays a huge role in this process is the period. Simple, right? But it’s surprising how this small dot can cause big confusion.

The period might seem straightforward, but it holds the power to break or make a sentence . Knowing when to use it is essential for clear communication. You think you know all there is about periods? Well, there might be more than meets the eye. What if I told you there are specifics that could elevate your writing with just this one punctuation mark?

Using periods correctly is key to clear writing. Place a period at the end of a sentence to show it’s finished. Use periods with abbreviations , like U.S.A., and with initials , like J.K. Rowling. If you’re listing items and use a single letter for each, follow it with a period (A. Apples, B. Bananas). Don’t put periods inside or after question marks or exclamation points. Remember, periods are also used in decimal numbers , like 3.14. Knowing these rules helps make your writing easy to read and understand.

Understanding the Role of a Period in English Grammar

The period, often referred to as a full stop , is a crucial punctuation mark that plays a significant role in English grammar . In this punctuation guide , we will discuss the two primary functions of periods: ending sentences and indicating omissions in abbreviated words or letters. Understanding period usage is essential to ensure clear communication in all forms of writing.

When it comes to ending sentences , periods are used to conclude declarative and imperative sentences . These are sentences that provide information or give orders and commands. By placing a period at the end of these sentences, readers can quickly identify the separation between distinct thoughts, ideas, or instructions.

It’s vital to note that periods should not be used at the end of exclamatory sentences or direct questions. In these instances, exclamation marks or question marks are the appropriate punctuation choices.

“I love grammar!” (exclamatory sentence) “Is grammar fun for you?” (direct question)

A period can also indicate omissions within abbreviated words or letters, like “i.e.” (id est) or “Dr.” (Doctor). While not every abbreviation will feature a period, it is crucial to use them where necessary for improved readability and comprehension.

Periods help create a definitive break between thoughts when written language mirrors spoken language. This role of the period underscores the importance of their correct usage in facilitating clear and effective communication.

Correct period usage is an integral part of English grammar mastery. With a comprehensive understanding of their primary functions in the language, you’ll be better equipped to present your thoughts and ideas with clarity and precision, resulting in improved communication across all your writing endeavors.

Decoding the Full Stop: Types of Sentences That Demand a Period

While there is a broad range of sentence types in the English language, periods mainly find their usage in three specific categories: declarative sentences , imperative sentences , and indirect questions . Let’s delve into each of these types to fully comprehend the significance and proper application of the full stop .

The End of Declarative Sentences: Delivering Information with a Full Stop

Declarative sentences primarily serve the purpose of providing information in a neutral or calm manner. These sentences, which constitute a majority of written and spoken statements, consistently end with a period. Such an example is:

“The sun rises in the east.”

However, when a declarative sentence uses an exclamation mark instead of a full stop , it adds emotional emphasis or excitement to the statement, transforming it into an exclamatory sentence, such as:

“The sun is finally rising after the storm!”

Imperative Sentences and Periods: Making Commands Clear

Imperative sentences are often used to give commands, make requests, or provide specific instructions, all of which ordinarily end with a period. For example:

“Please water the plants.”

It is important to note that, at times, imperative sentences can also convey urgency or strong emotions, which would require the use of an exclamation mark instead of a period:

“Quick, water the plants – they’re wilting!”

Periods and Indirect Questions: Subtly Conveying Inquiries

Indirect questions are statements that relay the content of a question without using the direct interrogative form, and they commonly end with a period. These sentences allow the speaker or writer to convey inquiries or thoughts subtly and conversationally, negating the need for a question mark. For instance:

“She asked whether the meeting would be rescheduled.”

Below is a table that summarises the different sentence types that require end punctuation and the appropriate punctuation mark to use:

Understanding when and how to use periods in sentence construction is an essential aspect of mastering written language. Familiarizing yourself with the different sentence types that require periods and the appropriate punctuation will help improve your writing clarity and effectiveness.

Abbreviations and Initials: Navigating Period Placement

Period use in abbreviations and initials varies with regional differences, style guides, and individual cases. American English typically uses periods with formal titles and certain abbreviations, including times of day and Latin abbreviations. When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that includes a period, a second period is not added, although it is acceptable to follow it with commas, semicolons, or colons.

In this section, we’ll cover the essential guidelines for using periods with abbreviations and initials in American English, as well as some common examples for each.

Formal Titles and Abbreviations

Using periods with abbreviations in American English often depends on the context and the type of abbreviation. Formal titles, Latin abbreviations, and times of day generally require periods. Here are some examples:

• Dr. Smith (Doctor)
• Mr. Johnson (Mister)
• a.m. (ante meridiem, Latin for before noon)
• p.m. (post meridiem, Latin for after noon)

Initials and Acronyms

Initials refer to the first letters of a person’s first, middle, and last names, while acronyms are commonly formed by using the initial letters of a series of words to create a new term. Periods are used with initials, but not generally with acronyms. For example:

• Initials: J.K. Rowling (Joanne Rowling)
• Acronym: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)

Ending Sentences with Abbreviations

When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that already includes a period, a second period is not added. However, if the abbreviation is followed by commas, semicolons, or colons, it is acceptable to use the punctuation after the abbreviation’s period. Consider the following examples:

“I have an appointment with Dr. Brown at 2:30 p.m.” (No second period needed)

“During my trip, I visited Washington, D.C., New York, and Boston.” (Comma follows the period)

As seen in these examples, the correct placement of periods in abbreviations and initials is crucial in conveying the intended meaning clearly and maintaining proper American English writing standards.

Special Instances: Periods with Quotations, Parentheses, and Ellipses

Common period usage involves ending sentences and applying them to abbreviations. However, the punctuation mark’s integration with quotation marks, parentheses, and ellipses can create some confusion. To ensure proper usage, it is crucial to understand these particular instances.

Periods and Quotation Marks

In American English, periods are placed inside closing quotation marks, regardless of whether the quote is a complete sentence or a fragment. This rule applies both to single and double quotation marks. Take note of the following examples:

She said, “Please bring me my book.” Joanna’s favorite word is “supercalifragilisticexpialidocious.”

Periods and Parentheses

Period placement with parentheses depends on the complete sentence’s nature. When the entire sentence is within parentheses, the period is placed inside the closing parenthesis. However, if the parentheses only enclose a fragment, the period is positioned outside the closing parenthesis. Consider these examples:

I have never been to Paris. (My sister went last year.) He finally took out the trash (after much nagging).

Periods and Ellipses

An ellipsis, typically comprising three spaced periods, is used to indicate an omission, pause, or unfinished thought. When employing an ellipsis within a quote, use it to signify that part of the original text has been left out. In other cases, an ellipsis can indicate a pause or unfinished thought in informal writing. In both scenarios, space each period within the ellipsis.

According to the article, “Peanut butter is high in protein […], making it a popular choice for athletes.” I just don’t know what to say… I’m speechless.

Understanding these special instances of period usage helps you confidently use periods with quotation marks , parentheses, and ellipses in American English. By mastering these nuances, you can create clear and correctly punctuated written content.

Mastering Punctuation: The Dos and Don’ts of Period Usage

In this section, we’ll discuss the essential rules of period usage in written English, focusing on proper period spacing , capitalization , abbreviation punctuation , and end-of-sentence punctuation . Following these guidelines will ensure that your writing is clear, concise and adheres to standard English conventions.

Spacing and Capitalization After Periods: Setting the Standard

The modern convention of period spacing requires the use of one space before starting a new sentence. This practice replaced the older typewriter standard of using two spaces, which has since been largely abandoned in professional writing. In addition, always remember to capitalize the first letter of a new sentence following a period. This helps to visually separate sentences and maintain proper grammar structure.

Concluding Abbreviations and Acronyms: When to Dot

As for abbreviation punctuation , periods play a vital role in identifying shortened words and acronyms. In American English, periods are commonly used with formal titles (e.g., “Mr.” and “Dr.”), Latin abbreviations (e.g., “i.e.” and “e.g.”), and specific times of day (e.g., “a.m.” and “p.m.”). It’s essential to be aware of any regional or style guide variations when using periods in abbreviations, as British English may apply different rules to American English.

Tip: When working with different style guides or writing for international audiences, double-check the usage of periods with abbreviations to ensure consistency and accuracy.

Ending Sentences with Abbreviations: One Dot or Two?

Finally, when a sentence ends with an abbreviation containing a period, do not add an additional period. The abbreviation’s period will suffice to indicate the end of the sentence. However, that period can be followed by commas, semicolons, or colons if required in the sentence syntax.

By mastering period usage in your writing, you will communicate more effectively with your audience and demonstrate a strong command of English grammar. Paying attention to standard rules for period spacing , capitalization , and abbreviation punctuation will substantially improve the clarity and professionalism of your written work.

Punctuation Harmony: Combining Periods with Other Punctuation Marks

As you continue to refine your punctuation skills, it’s crucial to understand period combination rules when working with other punctuation marks . Achieving punctuation harmony is essential for maintaining clarity, consistency, and proper English grammar in your writing.

First and foremost, periods should not be combined with other sentence-ending marks like exclamation points or question marks. Not only does this create redundancy, but it can also lead to confusion in the tone or purpose of your sentences. If a sentence requires an exclamation point or question mark, be sure to use those marks exclusively and avoid adding a period.

Periods also interact with other punctuation marks , like quotation marks and parentheses, in specific ways. In American English, periods are placed inside closing quotation marks, enhancing readability and preserving punctuation harmony . Additionally, if a complete sentence enclosed in parentheses stands alone, it’s appropriate to place the period inside the closing parenthesis. Mastering these periods and other marks combinations is key to producing polished, error-free writing.

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When to Use a Period

Use a period as follows:

• To end a sentence
• To mark the end of an incomplete sentence (or sentence fragment)
• In abbreviations with lowercase letters ( e.g. , i.e. )
• To separate initials before a surname ( L.M. Montgomery )
• At the end of a sentence that sounds like a question but is actually a request or an order
• At the end of individual points in a list if they are complete sentences

A period isn’t needed at the end of a sentence that already ends in a question mark or an exclamation point.

What is a period?

A period or full stop (.) is a punctuation mark that marks the end of a thought. It indicates a longer pause than a comma or a semicolon and tells readers they have reached the end of a sentence . Periods are also used in abbreviations, after initials in names, and to mark the end of a fragment or minor sentence.

• We need more time.
• We spoke with Dr. Dash.
• This book was written by L. M. Montgomery.
• Everything was louder. The tick of the clock. The whirring fan. The horns honking themselves hoarse through rush-hour traffic.

Spacing around periods

Don’t insert a space before a period; do insert one after.

• Lulu likes to be happy. Whenever life lets her, she smiles, she dances, she sings. If you ask why she is endlessly cheerful, she says, “If I have nothing to be sad about, I’m happy.” Of course this gets on everybody’s nerves. They love her, but her chirpiness can be slightly creepy, especially on Monday mornings.

In general, insert one space, not two, after a period. Two spaces were useful when typing on typewriters, where all the letters were the same size. But on computers today, we generally use proportional fonts—where, for example, the letter “i” occupies less space than “m”—and one space suffices to visually separate sentences for the reader.

Periods with other punctuation

If a sentence already ends in a question mark or an exclamation point , omit the period.

• Incorrect In college I read Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? . Correct In college I read Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?
• Incorrect Tumkin’s favorite Terry Pratchett novel is Guards! Guards! . Correct Tumkin’s favorite Terry Pratchett novel is Guards! Guards!

Question marks and exclamation points are terminal punctuation , just like periods—that is, they appear at the end of sentences. To avoid redundancy, don’t use a period after you’ve already used these punctuation marks.

An abbreviation that ends in a period may appear at the end of a sentence. Don’t add another period after it.

• The living room was full of knickknacks: clocks, photos, shells, etc. The abbreviation etc. ends in a period; no additional period is required to end the sentence.
• In the nineties, Farley worked as a test driver for Acme Inc.

With quotation marks

In American English, periods always go inside the quoted text—before the closing quotation mark .

• Tumkin said, “I leave for Denmark on Friday.”
• Poco will, of course, claim to be an “expert.”
• Maya’s favorite poem is Auden’s “As I Walked Out One Evening.”

In British English , whether a period (or full stop) goes within or outside quotation marks depends on where it belongs. If it belongs to the text enclosed by quotation marks, it goes inside. If not, it appears after the closing quotation mark.

• Tumkin said, ‘I leave for Denmark on Friday.’ The period belongs to the quoted text, so it goes inside. Note also that single quotation marks are generally preferred in British English, with double quotation marks being reserved for quotes within quotes.
• Poco will, of course, claim to be an ‘expert’. The word inside quotation marks doesn’t own the period, so it goes after.
• Maya’s favorite poem is Auden’s ‘As I Walked Out One Evening’.

With parentheses or brackets

If the text inside parentheses (or brackets) is nested within another sentence, the period belongs to the entire sentence and appears after the closing parenthesis.

• At the space station, we have scientists of all species (Terran, Martian, and Durandian).
• This shelter is for all small animals (including birds and turtles).
• I’ll eat anything you serve (except eggs, bread, cereal, milk, cheese, juice, and sausages).

If the enclosed text is meant to stand alone as a sentence, it gets its own period, which goes inside the parentheses.

• At the space station, we have scientists of all species. (We are an equal-opportunity employer.)
• This shelter is for all small animals. (We provide a home to dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, and turtles.)

Sometimes, the text enclosed in parentheses may be a complete sentence but still belong to another sentence. To indicate this relationship, place the period after rather than before the closing parenthesis. Don’t use two periods.

• At the space station, we have scientists of all species (we are an equal-opportunity employer).
• This shelter is for all small animals (we provide a home to dogs, cats, rabbits, birds, and turtles).
• Oh, I’m not fussy about breakfast (I’ll eat anything you serve except eggs, bread, cereal, milk, cheese, juice, and sausages).

If the final word in the enclosed text is an abbreviation that ends in a period, place periods both before and after the closing parenthesis.

• Incorrect This shelter is for all small animals (dogs, cats, rabbits, etc.) Correct This shelter is for all small animals (dogs, cats, rabbits, etc.).

In abbreviations

Periods are often used in abbreviations , especially ones with lowercase letters or those that are contracted forms of longer words.

Abbreviations don’t always contain periods (PhD, MBA, USA). Differences also exist between British and American English. For a complete discussion, see Periods in Acronyms and Abbreviations .

After initials in names

Periods are often used after initials that appear before a person’s surname.

• A. A. Milne
• T. S. Eliot
• A. S. Byatt
• M. Night Shyamalan
• Ernest J. Gaines

When initials are used by themselves to stand for an entire name (without a surname), no periods are used ( John F. Kennedy but JFK ).

Periods are generally not used to punctuate items or bullet points in a list , unless they are complete sentences.

• World peace
• Blue flowers
• Three more wishes

If the individual items in a list are complete sentences, punctuate them using periods.

• Rub the side of the magic lamp.
• Insert your credit card in the slot under the spout.
• Tap the lid three times to confirm payment.

To mark a fragment

Use a period not just at the end of a complete sentence but also to mark the end of a thought that may be only a fragment (or an incomplete sentence). Fragments , considered poor style in formal writing , appear often in fiction, creative nonfiction, and marketing materials.

• There are counsellors at the ready. Kindness and understanding. Life is harder for some, we’re told. Not their fault, even if the blows are purely imaginary. Felt just as keenly by the recipient, or the non recipient, as the case may be. — Alice Munro , Dear Life (2012)
• Everything moved me. A dog following a stranger. That made me feel so much. A calendar that showed the wrong month. I could have cried over it. I did. Where the smoke from the chimney ended. How an overturned bottle rested at the edge of a table. — Jonathan Safran Foer , Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close (2005)
• Your favorite detergent. Now free with our brand new washing machine. Buy today!

In an ellipsis

An ellipsis is a punctuation mark comprising three periods in a series. It indicates omitted material in quoted text.

• And so . . . I still have a dream. — Martin Luther King, Jr. , I Have a Dream (delivered August 28, 1963)

Period vs. question mark

Not all sentences end in a period. Questions, for example, end in question marks rather than periods. This affects intonation—how the sentence is read aloud. In casual communication, a sentence structured as a declarative may end in a question mark.

• You didn’t call him? Question: Rising intonation
• You didn’t call him. Statement: Falling intonation

Requests framed as questions

Sometimes, a request or an order is framed as a question . Despite its structure, you can end such a sentence with a period instead of a question mark if it isn’t meant to be read aloud as a question.

• Will you please sit down. An instruction rather than a question (imperative, not interrogative). Compare this with the tone used to say, “Would you like to sit down?”
• Can everybody stop talking for a minute, so I can hear what the Durandians are saying. The intonation is not meant to be interrogatory but imperative (not a question but a request or a command).

In reported questions

A question mark appears at the end of a question when you quote it directly.

• Direct speech: Maya asked, “Why are we singing?”
• Direct speech: Tumkin wondered, “What are we fighting for?”

When you report such questions, they become declarative sentences that should end in a period rather than a question mark.

• Incorrect Reported speech: Maya asked why they were singing? Correct Reported speech: Maya asked why they were singing.
• Incorrect Reported speech: Tumkin wondered what they were fighting for? Correct Reported speech: Tumkin wondered what they were fighting for.

Period vs. semicolon

You can separate two sentences with a period. But if you want to juxtapose two thoughts, perhaps to show a connection or contrast, you can use a semicolon instead of a period.

• Farley continued eating his pasta; he didn’t know his boots were on fire. A semicolon signifies a closer connection between the clauses than that indicated by a period.
• Poco said he would send help; he lied.

A semicolon represents a shorter pause than a period but a longer one than a comma. By using it between two balanced sentences, you tell your reader that although your first thought has ended, the next one is closely connected to it; the sentence hasn’t yet ended.

Period vs. comma

A comma is used within a sentence, while a period is used to end it.

• We had oranges, but we didn’t have a blender.

In formal writing, don’t use a comma where a period should go—between two sentences. This error, called the comma splice , is frowned upon greatly in academic and business writing.

• Poor Poor: We had oranges, but we didn’t have a blender, we had to squeeze the pulp out by hand. Better Better: We had oranges, but we didn’t have a blender. We had to squeeze the pulp out by hand.

In creative writing, however, a writer may use a comma instead of a period to indicate a shorter pause and pull the reader through to the end of a thought.

• At last she was finished, we stepped off our machines, I passed her a towel, we walked together to the editing room. — Zadie Smith , Swing Time (2016)

When not to use a period

Don’t use a period after headings, subheadings, captions, headlines, or titles of books or movies and other works.

• Introduction
• War and Peace
• The Dark Side of the Moon
• Table 1:Long-Term Side Effects

Periods are also omitted in addresses.

• Editing Inc. 33 Markup Drive Dashenham, New Manuscript Commaland

Don’t use a period when you sign off in a letter or an email.

• Yours sincerely, Minerva Dash
• Regards, Maya

Examples from literature

Here are some examples of first sentences from famous novels. Note how they all end in a period.

• Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself. — Virginia Woolf , Mrs. Dalloway (1925)
• I write this sitting in the kitchen sink. — Dodie Smith , I Capture the Castle (1948)
• I am an invisible man. — Ralph Ellison , Invisible Man (1952)
• It was a pleasure to burn. — Ray Bradbury , Fahrenheit 451 (1953)
• It was love at first sight. — Joseph Heller , Catch-22 (1961)
• Time is not a line but a dimension, like the dimensions of space. — Margaret Atwood , Cat’s Eye (1988)

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A question in reported speech takes the structure of a statement rather than a question. Use a period instead of a question mark at the end of such a sentence.

The period goes inside quotation marks when it belongs to the quoted text.

In American usage, a period always goes inside quotation marks.

Periods are used to punctuate list items only if the listed points are complete sentences.

In academic and business writing, avoid using a comma to join two sentences.

If a sentence already ends in an exclamation point or a question mark, it doesn’t need a period.

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Period Punctuation: Rules and Examples

The period punctuation mark is the most common ending punctuation mark in English. Today, we’ll learn what the period is and when to use it.

What Is the Period Symbol?

The period symbol is a dot that marks the end of a sentence. The other punctuation marks that end a sentence are exclamation points and question marks .

There are four main types of sentences. An interrogative sentence is a question and uses a question mark.

An exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation point and shows excitement or another strong emotion.

An imperative sentence is a command. You can use an exclamation point or a period with this type of sentence.

A declarative sentence is a statement; it’s not a question, command, or exclamation. Periods usually end declarative sentences. Most sentences are declarative sentences; in fact, every sentence in this article thus far has been declarative.

ProWritingAid’s free grammar checker can make sure you’re always using the correct punctuation with each sentence type.

What Does the Period at the End Signify?

A period signifies that a sentence is complete. It also tells you you’ve read either a declarative or imperative sentence.

Knowing the type of sentence helps you understand the tone. You’ll know that the sentence doesn’t carry an abundance of emotion, nor should it end with an inflection like a question.

When to Use a Period in a Sentence

While the primary function of a period is to end a sentence, there are several other uses. Here are four additional rules for using periods.

Periods and Sentence Fragments

Sometimes, we use sentence fragments in our writing. This is especially true in creative writing , whether fiction or non-fiction, as well as informal writing, like social media posts and texts.

A period isn’t just for complete sentences . It can also mark the end of a sentence fragment. In creative writing, sentence fragments with periods can add emphasis to an important idea.

The period helps pack a punch because it’s saying the fragment is just as important as a declarative sentence.

Example: Never again. I’ll never trust another person as long as I live. Not in five years. Not in a hundred.

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Periods and Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are a tricky type of punctuation because they override other punctuation rules.

While they aren’t considered an ending punctuation, closing quotation marks can appear at the very end of a sentence.

However, there must be an ending punctuation mark before the final quotation mark.

In American English, always place a period before the closing quotation mark. You end the sentence, then you end the quote.

Example: Emily Dickinson wrote, “If I can stop one heart from breaking, I shall not live in vain.”

Periods and Parentheses

Parentheses are even more confusing than quotation marks because there are two rules involving them and periods.

First, if parentheses enclose a complete sentence, place the period inside the closing parenthesis.

Example: I rode the bus to my meeting. (The bus was late, of course.) The meeting went well and ended early, so I grabbed a bite to eat before calling a taxi.

The second rule is if the parentheses are inside an existing sentence, place the period after the closing parenthesis.

Example: To get to my meeting, I rode the bus (which was late).

Periods and Abbreviations

Periods also belong in certain abbreviations . In American English, use a period at the end of titles, like Mr. , Mrs. , Ms. , Sr. , and Dr.

You will also use a period with someone’s initials if they use initials in part of their name, like F. Scott Fitzgerald and A.A. Milne. Omit the period for a name that is all initials, like MLK.

Always use a period with Latin abbreviations, like e.g. , i.e. , n.b. , and etc. Use periods in non-metric measurement abbreviations (e.g. lbs. ) but not metric abbreviations (e.g. cm ).

Shortened forms of month and day names use periods, like Dec. for December and Tues. for Tuesday.

The punctuation in other abbreviations, including acronyms , depends on the individual situation and style guide being used.

Period Punctuation Examples

Let’s take a look at a few more examples of period punctuation in sentences.

• I told him to leave. To walk away and never look back.
• Martin Luther King Jr. said, “The arc of the moral universe is long, but it bends toward justice.”
• Dr. Smith is a great doctor (and affordable).
• On Nov. 13, my son was 27 in. long.

Learning these period punctuation rules will ensure you use periods correctly every time.

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Whether you are writing a novel, essay, article, or email, good writing is an essential part of communicating your ideas., this guide contains the 20 most important writing tips and techniques from a wide range of professional writers., common questions about period punctuation: rules and examples, how many spaces should you leave between words and sentences, should i use a period after titles like "mrs", "dr", and "capt", learn more about punctuation:, your personal writing coach.

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• Punctuation

The end of a complete sentence should be marked by a period , a question mark , or an exclamation point . If a sentence is not complete and it is terminated by a period, we have a sentence fragment as in the sentence below.

Correcting the Problem

Rule to remember.

The end of a complete sentence should be marked by a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.

Sentence fragments are discussed in a different section of this tutorial. This section will explore the uses of punctuation marks used to mark the end of sentences.

End of Sentence

A period is used to signal the end of a complete sentence .

A period is also used at the end of an indirect question .

Polite requests can be followed either by a period or by a question mark.

Abbreviations

A period should be placed after every part of the abbreviation:

Question Mark

Direct questions are followed by a question mark.

Exclamation Point

Exclamatory sentences should be followed by an exclamation point.

• Capitalization
• Parentheses
• Comma Splice
• Run-on Sentences
• Sentence Fragments
• Organization

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Periods, and how to write them

No, not the punctuation mark. Yes, the other thing.

Periods tend not to show up in fiction, probably for the same reasons that urine and shit don’t show up in fiction. They’re quotidian elements that don’t really add anything to narrative unless they’re indicating sickness or a dramatic turn — pregnancy, miscarriage, sudden reproductive potential, and so on. But the fact is that unless your novel or short story takes place in a span of less than 28 days, your female characters of reproductive age are going to experience them. You could brush over this, but it’s a missed opportunity to actually explore some things with character, setting, and worldbuilding. For example, in Charlie Stross’ Glasshouse , one of the protagonists swaps sexes for an anthropology experiment in historical modelling, and she has a rude awakening upon realizing how exactly periods work. I loved this because it reminded me of a moment I had in adolescence. I was at theatre camp (yes, theatre camp ) and I’d made friends with all the older kids (or they’d sort of adopted me, I guess, speaking of anthropology experiments) and one girl, Dallas, told us all about the horrified reaction her boyfriend had when he realized how periods worked.

“He was like, Don’t you just get up and take care of it? And I was like, Well, yeah, but it’s an ongoing process. And he’s like What do you mean, ongoing process? What, it like, lasts a long time or something? And I was all, Uh, yeah, it lasts like five days , and he was totally terrified.”

Then she showed us this really sweet letter he’d written in her yearbook with silver pen. So. Here are some things you should know, if you have to depict somebody having their period.

• Everybody’s period is different. Your period and your best friend’s are probably different. You might have easy ones and she might have hard ones. Or the reverse. Think about what has the most dramatic potential and go with that. Don’t just give your lady easy periods so you won’t have to talk about it. That’s lazy. And if you try to weasel out of it because of post-humanism, or the Singularity, then fuck you . You’re a thoughtless, cowardly asshole who doesn’t want to to any of the real work of thinking.
• Period blood is not always red. Fresh blood is. Old blood oxidizes and rusts like all other blood. If you don’t know this, it’s because you’ve a) never experienced your own periods, or b) never handled a woman’s underwear in a domestic setting.
• Periods change over time. Sometimes they’re really tough when you’re a teenager, and they get easier into adulthood. Or they’re super easy before you have kids, and they suck afterward. Or the reverse. Hormones change, so periods change too. My periods were never fun, but after I turned 25 they turned awful. Now I’m 30 and I take special prescription drugs to deal with them.
• Sometimes a doctor will prescribe you a birth control pill to deal with your periods. Or an IUD. Or high-octane painkillers. Sometimes you don’t have health insurance, but you do have Jack and Coke with microwave popcorn. Or orgasms. Those help. But they’re another post entirely.
• Red meat helps. Or rather, foods with high amounts of iron help. This is why women’s mutivitamins have iron in them, and men’s don’t. We need the iron. It’s also why you’ll sometimes find women who take iron supplements even if they don’t take any other vitamins or supplements. Because sometimes you get up from a toilet and it’s full of blood, and that’s kind of rough on the ol’ bone marrow. So red meat helps. Lentils, spinach, and tofu help, if you don’t eat meat. But I find that eating red meat once a month works for me. Once my tongue senses animal blood spreading through my mouth, I feel other systems coming back online. (“Iron? Check. Protein? Check. Ladies and gentlemen, we are go for launch. Let’s take Carrie to the prom.”) Ditto Guinness. Guinness makes everything better.
• Sometimes you’re late because you’re stressed out. Or you’re early because you’re stressed out. Once I got my period early after a really spectacular fall in my kitchen. I got soaked in the rain and slipped in a puddle of my own drippings, and for a while there I just lay on the floor trying to breathe and figure out whether or not I’d broken a toe, knowing that there wasn’t much I could do if I’d broken it and that my best bet would likely be some popsicle sticks and duct tape and was the tool box too high for me reach? Probably. Then my period came.
• PMS is a real thing. But really, the fact that a woman snaps at you (or your character snaps at someone else) just before or during her period has nothing to do with her period, and everything to do with the simmering pot of rage she keeps a lid on for the rest of the month. She’s angry at you because you fucked up during a time when she’s bleeding and in pain. Your timing was bad, but so was your fuckup. If you want people to not be angry with you, consider not fucking up.
• Cramps are not universal. Some women never cramp, but have terrible mood swings and wind up crying alone in the shower because Facebook says that bitch who was mean to them in seventh grade just got engaged and they’re single and they’re going to be single forever and they should just start saving for their time in the retirement home where maybe some guy in his eighties will mistake them for his wife because he has Alzheimer’s and they’ll take it because it’s better than nothing, right?
• Sometimes it’s just migraines. Only there’s no such thing as “just migraines,” because migraines are the kind of headaches where you can’t move without vomiting. Now imagine that happening once a month.
• Cramping is awful, but it can be less awful or more awful depending on the month. Sometimes it just feels like those virginity tests they’d administer during the Salem witch trials. Sometimes it feels like Joan Crawford is slowly wringing out your uterus between her trembling, white-knuckled fists. Sometimes the cramping is just in the front. Sometimes it’s just in the back. Sometimes it’s the whole sacrum. But basically what’s happening is you’re having contractions. You know, like a pregnant lady. Only you’re not pregnant. That’s why it feels like someone’s digging out your insides with a rusty trowel/tuning fork/Excalibur.
• You can feel blood clots leaving your body. You know how it feels to swallow tapioca pearls whole? Now imagine them passing through your vagina.
• It’s often easier to just sit over a toilet for a while.
• Not least because you’ll be doing some epic shitting, because all the muscles in your lower body got the “let go” message at the same time.
• It’s normal to feel dizzy when standing up.
• Sometimes your joints will swell up during your period. Totally unrelated joints, too, like your knees and ankles. Maybe this what it feels like when your bones go to work making more red blood cells. Or maybe God just hates you.
• The first day is usually the worst. Or the awfulness will be spread across all the days, if you’re on the pill. Sometimes your period will seem to have finished, and then it’ll come back the next day, like a masked killer in a teen slasher movie. Surprise! More blood!
• For as bad as all this is, menopause is worse. When you’re going through menopause, you start keeping a mental catalogue of all the cleanest public bathrooms in your general area, because there’s no telling when you might start hemorrhaging. One woman I knew got out of her car to go grocery shopping and noticed a pool of blood in the driver’s seat when she stood up. You start keeping a change of clothes in the trunk. At the job I had in high school, working retail at Value Village, I once found a puddle of fresh red blood under a rack of used blouses. At the time, I had no idea how it had gotten there. Had someone’s stitches opened up, or something? But no. Probably not stitches.
• Dogs know you’re on your period. Dogs sniff crotches eight days a week, but when you’re on your period they get this panicked look on their face that says: “Oh no! Are you okay? What’s going on? Why did your pack leader let you go outside? WHY ISN’T EVERYONE IN THIS ROOM SCREAMING?!” So if you’re writing a story about, say, werewolves, and they don’t know that your protagonist is riding the crimson wave, turn back to Page 1 and start over. Ditto vampires. Ditto mer-folk. Ditto monsters in general.
• Kittens will occasionally try to play with your tampon strings.
• Gym teachers will tell you that exercise can help with cramping. If your gym teacher tells you this, ask her when she had her hysterectomy. She obviously hasn’t had a period in a while.
• Some people really love having period sex. Sometimes period sex will only work (i.e. lead to orgasms) if you’re in one position and not another. Experiment. Take notes. Put down some towels.
• Sometimes you’ll crave sex right before your period arrives. Usually this happens when your skin looks like pizza and your breasts are really sore. And you’re like, “What the fuck, body?” and your body’s like, “I don’t know. It was worth a shot.”
• Getting your first period does not make you a woman. It makes you reproductively available. Your womanhood is not measured by your ability to reproduce sexually.
• If you miscarry, or you have trouble conceiving, it’s not because God hates you or your body is wrong or the universe is telling you that you’re an unfit mother. It’s because conception is actually really difficult . It’s about as difficult as sending a small missile down a tiny opening at the end of a narrow trench. A direct hit, and only a direct hit, can initiate the chain reaction. May the Force be with you.

That’s a long list, I know. Please feel free to add to it in the comments. But really, my point is that this is an experience that will probably grab at least some of your character’s emotional, physical, and attentional bandwidth in a story. Don’t just write it off. Use it.

Oh, and mainstream radio? This song isn’t about menstruation.

23 thoughts on “Periods, and how to write them”

Excellent post! Couple of notes about IUDs- sometimes your body goes through the hormonal motions of a period without ever bleeding so you will get PMS but you won’t bleeds, so you wont realize it’s That Time and you’ll wonder why everything around you is absolute shit all of a sudden. And sometimes the IUD only hurts a little going in and sometimes it’s excruciating. Also, sometimes your labor feels like cramps (times a billion) – meaning if you have back cramps you will have back labor. Except if you have a change in labor pains, that can also change your post-birth cramps. It’s weird.

OMG PHANTOM PERIODS?! Jesus, at least when the world suddenly turns to shit (in a less reasonable way than it normally is), there’s usually a bloody explanation for it later on. I’m not sure I could handle the emotional cycling without some kind of physical payoff. (I guess not getting pregnant is the payoff, but it still feels like getting the fuzzy end of the lollipop. Yay womanhood!)

I experienced something like that when I started transition. I was prescribed estrogen injections every two weeks. It was a crash-and-bounce cycle twice a month for about a year, getting easier as I learned to deal with it, but never really going away until I switched to pills. (Pro tip: if your doctor ever tries to convince you to stab yourself an inch and a half deep with a 23 gauge needle every other week for the rest of your life, don’t let her.) I don’t have a uterus, so none of the other symptoms manifested, but it was quite an educational experience.

I always wonder how people handle bleeding in stories. I know it could be artificial for an author to include the details, but I’m still curious. Hell, authors talk about other clothing technologies, so maybe it wouldn’t seem too artificial to include. I remember one novel covering this, The Moon and the Sun .

For a future story where bleeding is optional, there’s “Even the Queen” by Connie Willis. I loved that story.

I think the idea that they would be artificial is part of the problem. It’s just another moment in the long history of treating bodies as inherently bad, ugly, dirty, etc. For example: when Alfred Hitchcock was going over Psycho with the studio censor at Paramount, the censor says that no American film until that point has featured a toilet, much less one that is shown flushing. That was the early 1960’s. Now, of course, things are very different. But the attitude (don’t depict it! you’ll gross out the audience! you’ll hurt their widdle fee-fees!) is still very much a part of how we view, appreciate, and judge stories.

I think maybe this post explains why you write about cannibal robots, Madeline, and I…don’t 🙂

And now I feel guilty that my PMS consists mainly of a sudden craving for chocolate (and extra wincing when my cat – coincidentally named Madeline – tries to stand on my boobs. Ow!). Pent-up rage? Yeah, no.

It’s true, I have a lot of rage. But I find that acknowledging it, naming it, and owning it can help me deal with it. That and therapy. What I find tough is a) the fact that most people are terrified of female anger, and b) learning how to recognize the validity of my anger without indulging in expressing it. It’s a fine balance.

I can’t imagine living with that – 99.999% of the time I’m either ridiculously laid back, or mildly manic.

My peeve: all fictional first periods are the same. They are often used in fantasy like a switch– bleeding, now MAGIC or something. But some first periods are ‘woke up with blood on thighs and sheets’ and some are ‘my panties are dirty and brown. Am I experiencing anal leakage?’ for a day or two and six weeks later the brown comes back, but the next day it’s red and you figure it out.

Cramps come in weird places. I get cramps where I don’t have muscles, I think.

PMS is an amplification of everything. I use it as an early warning system. If something really, really upsets me before my period comes, that means I should fix it in the next three weeks because I’m ignoring it.

Ooh, that’s a really lovely bit of wisdom regarding the early warning system. Will try to remember.

And yeah, the first periods always bug me, too. Carrie , the de Palma film edition, is the worst. I’d have been so very pleased for my first period to be such an easy, steady stream of cherry Kool-Aid, and not the sticky clotted mess it was.

This is awesome, & something every man should read regardless of whether he’s writing or not. (Also, “you’ll hurt their widdle fee-fees!” is the funniest line I’ve read in ages!) (Also also, I’m now going out to find & read your books, because if they’re as good as this post then I need to read them.)

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i believed that once: that my anger correlates with my period. on closer and more careful studies i realized that was bullshit. we´re trained to believe that and ower awareness is programmed that way 😉

I’ll just be really optimistic here and assume lots of people write cross-generational female stories and say: Some stuff about periods seems to be inherited. Some of it isn’t. (Which is actually a great reason for parents of girls to gather info about periods: hers won’t necessarily be like her mom’s.)

-Some women don’t bleed at night, at least after the first few days. -Period sex may have benefits, or at least period masturbation: some women find orgasms still cramps for a while. It can also sometimes speed up flow, shortening overall period length. -Exercise can help (I promise, I am neither a PE teacher nor have I had a hysterectomy) but it kind of has to be consistent. Like, a warrior woman protagonist probably gets fewer cramps than she would if she were an innkeeper, but that innkeeper doing jumping jacks is grossly unlikely to help. -Most women get tender breasts. This can mean different things for different women — actual pangs, or having to wear the right bra to armor the suddenly sensitive nipples, and/or (and I think this is most common?) a return to the sore bosom of puberty (when they are growing in and any impact is a supernova of pain.) -oh oh oh! DON’T automatically write your characters’ cycles syncing up. Evidence is that it’s very rare and largely anecdotal and confirmation bias: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=do-women-who-live-together-menstruate-together but many authors, especially men, seem to take it as given and assume it happens right away. Also note what it says in the article: women’s cycles vary a lot. If Amazon Annie has 5 days every 29, and Sidekick Sally seven days every 32, it just ain’t happening. Just…don’t. Please.

I do want to emphasize the “periods are different” thing here, in case it has slipped readers’ minds once they get past the later litany of horror: some people DO have easy periods. It does exist. But it also may be a mixed bag of easy and not-easy. Like, one lady will get no cramps, but a ten-day period (Not that uncommon from the discussions I’ve seen) and another may have heavy flow (this varies soooo much, some people never buy the big tampon size) but have it be over in four days. I just want to emphasize that for many people, it isn’t a giant big deal, even if it is lazy and overly convenient for you to write all your female characters as having lucked out on every single count: duration, cramps, headaches, body aches & fatigue, etc. Writing it as a Big Dramatic Event for everyone would also be a little weird.

Yeah, there’s a need to depict the mixed bag that it really is, and the impact that drugs/diet/lifestyle can have on how each month goes. I think you’ve nailed it: it’s lazy to just throw it away as a one-line event, when in fact it’s a thing you actively have to prepare for and which can ruin a good time if you’re not adequately prepared (like if you get it while on a backwoods vacation, i.e. average epic fantasy setting). It’s a balance.

Yeah, there’s so much variance: I, for example, either can’t orgasm at all close to/during my period or if I can the orgasm brings on cramps (or makes them dramatically worse if I already have them). I can count on one hand the number of times I’ve had enjoyable period sex and have four fingers left over.

While I exercise regularly, when I have my period my normal exercise routine will usually make the cramps worse and if I’m not careful I can end up dizzy or even fainting; my period drains me of energy and my cramps are usually bad enough that lying around uselessly is the best way of coping. I once passed out on the kitchen floor after riding my bike home as a teenager, and it was definitely not exercise outside of my usual routine. I don’t disbelieve that exercise (or orgasms) can help for some women, but both are terrible for my cramps.

Trivia: I don’t know how common it is, but my bleeding rate will slow or even temporarily stop if it’s late in my period if I’m immersed in water, like if I take a bath or go swimming (in natural bodies of water! I don’t bleed all over public swimming pools).

Also in 16 years of having periods, mine have never become regular or predictable–the only constant is I usually bleed heavily for three days and lightly for two, but cycle length and cramp intensity and whether cramps start before the bleeding or with the first blood and amount of blood are all wildly variable. (I once had my entire period in two days, which I don’t recommend; luckily it was a weekend so I spent it in bed moaning pathetically, even after I took vicodin.)

I’d also like to say here for the record that for some women a period is not a big deal at all, it’s just messy and annoying. I’m not sure highlighting all the most extreme symptoms that some people have during their period is going to do much to demystify/dehorrify the process, or to help men understand that periods are not things that should disqualify women from jobs that require continuous competence.

I’d say most women have cramps of some variety, but I don’t need to take any kind of pain medication to deal with mine, and nor do many if not most of the women I know. Most of my friends, I wouldn’t know they were having their periods if they didn’t tell me. That said, my sister and best friend have pretty debilitating periods.

Another common misconception: women do not actually lose huge quantities of blood during a period. You lose about three tablespoons’ worth the entire five days. Furthermore it’s not exactly the same mechanism as bleeding from an injury. The uterine lining is heavily composed of blood vessels meant to provide nourishment to a growing fetus. The blood you see in menstruation is caused by the fact that as the lining breaks down and sheds, so do the blood vessels, and the blood that was in them. A small amount of blood can turn a huge volume of liquid very, very red. But you are not continuously bleeding from some sort of open wound for five days; the blood is all part of a more or less closed system no longer connected to your body. Any dizziness or weakness you may experience during your period is due to hormonal shifts rather than blood loss. If iron makes you feel better, it’s a placebo effect, but if it works, don’t fix it!

Source: growing up with a gynecologist who was not shy about telling me the gory details… at every given opportunity… including at dinner…

If anything, I’d think that highlighting the worst symptoms would indicate to the people that don’t endure them that the women who do endure them, and do go to work every day, are tough as fucking nails. And for anemic women, or women with low blood pressure, that small amount of blood loss can still feel pretty major. So while it is a closed system, its impact on each woman’s body is different. For example, you got off light, but your sister and your best friend didn’t.

I don’t really read YA, but at least in other types of fiction women never seem to have their periods when it would be inconvenient. (That one I’ve written in one of my novels.)

Endometriosis is a very common in women and often badly exacerbated during the period. (In another novel of mine.)

Monthly hormonal variations can exacerbate many illnesses, and not always at the same time of the month, depending on the illness (e.g. autoimmune diseases, psychiatric conditions and hormonal issues not otherwise related to estrogen and progesterone). Some medications can also work differently depending on the part of the cycle.

Speaking as someone who has regular bouts of anaemia due to heavy periods, that three tablespoons thing gets trotted out every time. It might be true for most but it’s still an average, and there are outliers. When you find yourself standing up from your desk at work and blood runs down your legs and all over your office chair despite the hefty sanitary protection you’re using… not fun. And all the accoutrements and compromising, no wearing skimpy clothes to nightclubs, the spare underwear in the desk drawer (no it’s not for one night stands) and the rearranging your schedule so you don’t spend an entire day somewhere without easy access to a toilet, climbing or walking maybe… I often wonder how those WW2 female Russian tank crews managed. Anaemia is sneaky too, it manifests as being easily tired, not losing weight on a diet, being depressed, all things that are part of everyday experience.

I love it on the rare occasions novelists do mention periods without having some mystical reason to (Gillian Bradshaw, for example, who had to explain how her hero got away with being disguised as a man for years). It makes me think, here’s someone who’s actually thought through the consequences of their plot properly.

Yep, I was wondering about the three tablespoons. Before I had an IUD my period had changed to about 4 very light days. After the IUD it’s maybe 7 with a few heavy days where I have to use a large tampon at the same time as a pad and replace the tampon every few hours. birth control really sucks. Once I experimented with diva cups but the amount of liquid involved made that an extremely messy experiment. It is kind of cool to be able to get a seat of the pants estimate for how much liquid is leaving one’s body. I don’t think I’m feeling experimental enough to collect all that to figure out how to measure the amount of red blood cells. my inner mad scientist is tempted. maybe there would be a centrifuge involved? or the check people do before you donate blood where they get RBCs to precipitate out?

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In my experience, heavy exercise–heavy!–is actually a cramp-killer. But I mean like “Ten straight minutes fighting Sensei” heavy, not like push-ups or a bit of running (both of which are about enough to make me throw up, that four or five days a month).

I’m also ravenously, ridiculously lusty for pretty much the entire time.

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, how to write an a+ argumentative essay.

Miscellaneous

You'll no doubt have to write a number of argumentative essays in both high school and college, but what, exactly, is an argumentative essay and how do you write the best one possible? Let's take a look.

A great argumentative essay always combines the same basic elements: approaching an argument from a rational perspective, researching sources, supporting your claims using facts rather than opinion, and articulating your reasoning into the most cogent and reasoned points. Argumentative essays are great building blocks for all sorts of research and rhetoric, so your teachers will expect you to master the technique before long.

But if this sounds daunting, never fear! We'll show how an argumentative essay differs from other kinds of papers, how to research and write them, how to pick an argumentative essay topic, and where to find example essays. So let's get started.

What Is an Argumentative Essay? How Is it Different from Other Kinds of Essays?

There are two basic requirements for any and all essays: to state a claim (a thesis statement) and to support that claim with evidence.

Though every essay is founded on these two ideas, there are several different types of essays, differentiated by the style of the writing, how the writer presents the thesis, and the types of evidence used to support the thesis statement.

Essays can be roughly divided into four different types:

#1: Argumentative #2: Persuasive #3: Expository #4: Analytical

So let's look at each type and what the differences are between them before we focus the rest of our time to argumentative essays.

Argumentative Essay

Argumentative essays are what this article is all about, so let's talk about them first.

An argumentative essay attempts to convince a reader to agree with a particular argument (the writer's thesis statement). The writer takes a firm stand one way or another on a topic and then uses hard evidence to support that stance.

An argumentative essay seeks to prove to the reader that one argument —the writer's argument— is the factually and logically correct one. This means that an argumentative essay must use only evidence-based support to back up a claim , rather than emotional or philosophical reasoning (which is often allowed in other types of essays). Thus, an argumentative essay has a burden of substantiated proof and sources , whereas some other types of essays (namely persuasive essays) do not.

You can write an argumentative essay on any topic, so long as there's room for argument. Generally, you can use the same topics for both a persuasive essay or an argumentative one, so long as you support the argumentative essay with hard evidence.

Example topics of an argumentative essay:

• "Should farmers be allowed to shoot wolves if those wolves injure or kill farm animals?"
• "Should the drinking age be lowered in the United States?"
• "Are alternatives to democracy effective and/or feasible to implement?"

The next three types of essays are not argumentative essays, but you may have written them in school. We're going to cover them so you know what not to do for your argumentative essay.

Persuasive Essay

Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative essays, so it can be easy to get them confused. But knowing what makes an argumentative essay different than a persuasive essay can often mean the difference between an excellent grade and an average one.

Persuasive essays seek to persuade a reader to agree with the point of view of the writer, whether that point of view is based on factual evidence or not. The writer has much more flexibility in the evidence they can use, with the ability to use moral, cultural, or opinion-based reasoning as well as factual reasoning to persuade the reader to agree the writer's side of a given issue.

Instead of being forced to use "pure" reason as one would in an argumentative essay, the writer of a persuasive essay can manipulate or appeal to the reader's emotions. So long as the writer attempts to steer the readers into agreeing with the thesis statement, the writer doesn't necessarily need hard evidence in favor of the argument.

Often, you can use the same topics for both a persuasive essay or an argumentative one—the difference is all in the approach and the evidence you present.

Example topics of a persuasive essay:

• "Should children be responsible for their parents' debts?"
• "Should cheating on a test be automatic grounds for expulsion?"
• "How much should sports leagues be held accountable for player injuries and the long-term consequences of those injuries?"

Expository Essay

An expository essay is typically a short essay in which the writer explains an idea, issue, or theme , or discusses the history of a person, place, or idea.

This is typically a fact-forward essay with little argument or opinion one way or the other.

Example topics of an expository essay:

• "The History of the Philadelphia Liberty Bell"
• "The Reasons I Always Wanted to be a Doctor"
• "The Meaning Behind the Colloquialism ‘People in Glass Houses Shouldn't Throw Stones'"

Analytical Essay

An analytical essay seeks to delve into the deeper meaning of a text or work of art, or unpack a complicated idea . These kinds of essays closely interpret a source and look into its meaning by analyzing it at both a macro and micro level.

This type of analysis can be augmented by historical context or other expert or widely-regarded opinions on the subject, but is mainly supported directly through the original source (the piece or art or text being analyzed) .

Example topics of an analytical essay:

• "Victory Gin in Place of Water: The Symbolism Behind Gin as the Only Potable Substance in George Orwell's 1984"
• "Amarna Period Art: The Meaning Behind the Shift from Rigid to Fluid Poses"
• "Adultery During WWII, as Told Through a Series of Letters to and from Soldiers"

There are many different types of essay and, over time, you'll be able to master them all.

A Typical Argumentative Essay Assignment

The average argumentative essay is between three to five pages, and will require at least three or four separate sources with which to back your claims . As for the essay topic , you'll most often be asked to write an argumentative essay in an English class on a "general" topic of your choice, ranging the gamut from science, to history, to literature.

But while the topics of an argumentative essay can span several different fields, the structure of an argumentative essay is always the same: you must support a claim—a claim that can reasonably have multiple sides—using multiple sources and using a standard essay format (which we'll talk about later on).

This is why many argumentative essay topics begin with the word "should," as in:

• "Should all students be required to learn chemistry in high school?"
• "Should children be required to learn a second language?"
• "Should schools or governments be allowed to ban books?"

These topics all have at least two sides of the argument: Yes or no. And you must support the side you choose with evidence as to why your side is the correct one.

But there are also plenty of other ways to frame an argumentative essay as well:

• "Does using social media do more to benefit or harm people?"
• "Does the legal status of artwork or its creators—graffiti and vandalism, pirated media, a creator who's in jail—have an impact on the art itself?"
• "Is or should anyone ever be ‘above the law?'"

Though these are worded differently than the first three, you're still essentially forced to pick between two sides of an issue: yes or no, for or against, benefit or detriment. Though your argument might not fall entirely into one side of the divide or another—for instance, you could claim that social media has positively impacted some aspects of modern life while being a detriment to others—your essay should still support one side of the argument above all. Your final stance would be that overall , social media is beneficial or overall , social media is harmful.

If your argument is one that is mostly text-based or backed by a single source (e.g., "How does Salinger show that Holden Caulfield is an unreliable narrator?" or "Does Gatsby personify the American Dream?"), then it's an analytical essay, rather than an argumentative essay. An argumentative essay will always be focused on more general topics so that you can use multiple sources to back up your claims.

Good Argumentative Essay Topics

So you know the basic idea behind an argumentative essay, but what topic should you write about?

Again, almost always, you'll be asked to write an argumentative essay on a free topic of your choice, or you'll be asked to select between a few given topics . If you're given complete free reign of topics, then it'll be up to you to find an essay topic that no only appeals to you, but that you can turn into an A+ argumentative essay.

What makes a "good" argumentative essay topic depends on both the subject matter and your personal interest —it can be hard to give your best effort on something that bores you to tears! But it can also be near impossible to write an argumentative essay on a topic that has no room for debate.

As we said earlier, a good argumentative essay topic will be one that has the potential to reasonably go in at least two directions—for or against, yes or no, and why . For example, it's pretty hard to write an argumentative essay on whether or not people should be allowed to murder one another—not a whole lot of debate there for most people!—but writing an essay for or against the death penalty has a lot more wiggle room for evidence and argument.

A good topic is also one that can be substantiated through hard evidence and relevant sources . So be sure to pick a topic that other people have studied (or at least studied elements of) so that you can use their data in your argument. For example, if you're arguing that it should be mandatory for all middle school children to play a sport, you might have to apply smaller scientific data points to the larger picture you're trying to justify. There are probably several studies you could cite on the benefits of physical activity and the positive effect structure and teamwork has on young minds, but there's probably no study you could use where a group of scientists put all middle-schoolers in one jurisdiction into a mandatory sports program (since that's probably never happened). So long as your evidence is relevant to your point and you can extrapolate from it to form a larger whole, you can use it as a part of your resource material.

And if you need ideas on where to get started, or just want to see sample argumentative essay topics, then check out these links for hundreds of potential argumentative essay topics.

101 Persuasive (or Argumentative) Essay and Speech Topics

301 Prompts for Argumentative Writing

Top 50 Ideas for Argumentative/Persuasive Essay Writing

[Note: some of these say "persuasive essay topics," but just remember that the same topic can often be used for both a persuasive essay and an argumentative essay; the difference is in your writing style and the evidence you use to support your claims.]

KO! Find that one argumentative essay topic you can absolutely conquer.

Argumentative Essay Format

Argumentative Essays are composed of four main elements:

• A position (your argument)
• Your reasons
• Supporting evidence for those reasons (from reliable sources)
• Counterargument(s) (possible opposing arguments and reasons why those arguments are incorrect)

If you're familiar with essay writing in general, then you're also probably familiar with the five paragraph essay structure . This structure is a simple tool to show how one outlines an essay and breaks it down into its component parts, although it can be expanded into as many paragraphs as you want beyond the core five.

The standard argumentative essay is often 3-5 pages, which will usually mean a lot more than five paragraphs, but your overall structure will look the same as a much shorter essay.

An argumentative essay at its simplest structure will look like:

Paragraph 1: Intro

• Set up the story/problem/issue
• Thesis/claim

Paragraph 2: Support

• Reason #1 claim is correct
• Supporting evidence with sources

Paragraph 3: Support

• Reason #2 claim is correct

Paragraph 4: Counterargument

• Explanation of argument for the other side
• Refutation of opposing argument with supporting evidence

Paragraph 5: Conclusion

• Re-state claim
• Sum up reasons and support of claim from the essay to prove claim is correct

Now let's unpack each of these paragraph types to see how they work (with examples!), what goes into them, and why.

Paragraph 1—Set Up and Claim

Your first task is to introduce the reader to the topic at hand so they'll be prepared for your claim. Give a little background information, set the scene, and give the reader some stakes so that they care about the issue you're going to discuss.

Next, you absolutely must have a position on an argument and make that position clear to the readers. It's not an argumentative essay unless you're arguing for a specific claim, and this claim will be your thesis statement.

Your thesis CANNOT be a mere statement of fact (e.g., "Washington DC is the capital of the United States"). Your thesis must instead be an opinion which can be backed up with evidence and has the potential to be argued against (e.g., "New York should be the capital of the United States").

Paragraphs 2 and 3—Your Evidence

These are your body paragraphs in which you give the reasons why your argument is the best one and back up this reasoning with concrete evidence .

The argument supporting the thesis of an argumentative essay should be one that can be supported by facts and evidence, rather than personal opinion or cultural or religious mores.

For example, if you're arguing that New York should be the new capital of the US, you would have to back up that fact by discussing the factual contrasts between New York and DC in terms of location, population, revenue, and laws. You would then have to talk about the precedents for what makes for a good capital city and why New York fits the bill more than DC does.

Your argument can't simply be that a lot of people think New York is the best city ever and that you agree.

In addition to using concrete evidence, you always want to keep the tone of your essay passionate, but impersonal . Even though you're writing your argument from a single opinion, don't use first person language—"I think," "I feel," "I believe,"—to present your claims. Doing so is repetitive, since by writing the essay you're already telling the audience what you feel, and using first person language weakens your writing voice.

For example,

"I think that Washington DC is no longer suited to be the capital city of the United States."

"Washington DC is no longer suited to be the capital city of the United States."

The second statement sounds far stronger and more analytical.

Paragraph 4—Argument for the Other Side and Refutation

Even without a counter argument, you can make a pretty persuasive claim, but a counterargument will round out your essay into one that is much more persuasive and substantial.

By anticipating an argument against your claim and taking the initiative to counter it, you're allowing yourself to get ahead of the game. This way, you show that you've given great thought to all sides of the issue before choosing your position, and you demonstrate in multiple ways how yours is the more reasoned and supported side.

Paragraph 5—Conclusion

This paragraph is where you re-state your argument and summarize why it's the best claim.

Briefly touch on your supporting evidence and voila! A finished argumentative essay.

Your essay should have just as awesome a skeleton as this plesiosaur does. (In other words: a ridiculously awesome skeleton)

Argumentative Essay Example: 5-Paragraph Style

It always helps to have an example to learn from. I've written a full 5-paragraph argumentative essay here. Look at how I state my thesis in paragraph 1, give supporting evidence in paragraphs 2 and 3, address a counterargument in paragraph 4, and conclude in paragraph 5.

Topic: Is it possible to maintain conflicting loyalties?

Paragraph 1

It is almost impossible to go through life without encountering a situation where your loyalties to different people or causes come into conflict with each other. Maybe you have a loving relationship with your sister, but she disagrees with your decision to join the army, or you find yourself torn between your cultural beliefs and your scientific ones. These conflicting loyalties can often be maintained for a time, but as examples from both history and psychological theory illustrate, sooner or later, people have to make a choice between competing loyalties, as no one can maintain a conflicting loyalty or belief system forever.

The first two sentences set the scene and give some hypothetical examples and stakes for the reader to care about.

The third sentence finishes off the intro with the thesis statement, making very clear how the author stands on the issue ("people have to make a choice between competing loyalties, as no one can maintain a conflicting loyalty or belief system forever." )

Paragraphs 2 and 3

Psychological theory states that human beings are not equipped to maintain conflicting loyalties indefinitely and that attempting to do so leads to a state called "cognitive dissonance." Cognitive dissonance theory is the psychological idea that people undergo tremendous mental stress or anxiety when holding contradictory beliefs, values, or loyalties (Festinger, 1957). Even if human beings initially hold a conflicting loyalty, they will do their best to find a mental equilibrium by making a choice between those loyalties—stay stalwart to a belief system or change their beliefs. One of the earliest formal examples of cognitive dissonance theory comes from Leon Festinger's When Prophesy Fails . Members of an apocalyptic cult are told that the end of the world will occur on a specific date and that they alone will be spared the Earth's destruction. When that day comes and goes with no apocalypse, the cult members face a cognitive dissonance between what they see and what they've been led to believe (Festinger, 1956). Some choose to believe that the cult's beliefs are still correct, but that the Earth was simply spared from destruction by mercy, while others choose to believe that they were lied to and that the cult was fraudulent all along. Both beliefs cannot be correct at the same time, and so the cult members are forced to make their choice.

But even when conflicting loyalties can lead to potentially physical, rather than just mental, consequences, people will always make a choice to fall on one side or other of a dividing line. Take, for instance, Nicolaus Copernicus, a man born and raised in Catholic Poland (and educated in Catholic Italy). Though the Catholic church dictated specific scientific teachings, Copernicus' loyalty to his own observations and scientific evidence won out over his loyalty to his country's government and belief system. When he published his heliocentric model of the solar system--in opposition to the geocentric model that had been widely accepted for hundreds of years (Hannam, 2011)-- Copernicus was making a choice between his loyalties. In an attempt t o maintain his fealty both to the established system and to what he believed, h e sat on his findings for a number of years (Fantoli, 1994). But, ultimately, Copernicus made the choice to side with his beliefs and observations above all and published his work for the world to see (even though, in doing so, he risked both his reputation and personal freedoms).

These two paragraphs provide the reasons why the author supports the main argument and uses substantiated sources to back those reasons.

The paragraph on cognitive dissonance theory gives both broad supporting evidence and more narrow, detailed supporting evidence to show why the thesis statement is correct not just anecdotally but also scientifically and psychologically. First, we see why people in general have a difficult time accepting conflicting loyalties and desires and then how this applies to individuals through the example of the cult members from the Dr. Festinger's research.

The next paragraph continues to use more detailed examples from history to provide further evidence of why the thesis that people cannot indefinitely maintain conflicting loyalties is true.

Paragraph 4

Some will claim that it is possible to maintain conflicting beliefs or loyalties permanently, but this is often more a matter of people deluding themselves and still making a choice for one side or the other, rather than truly maintaining loyalty to both sides equally. For example, Lancelot du Lac typifies a person who claims to maintain a balanced loyalty between to two parties, but his attempt to do so fails (as all attempts to permanently maintain conflicting loyalties must). Lancelot tells himself and others that he is equally devoted to both King Arthur and his court and to being Queen Guinevere's knight (Malory, 2008). But he can neither be in two places at once to protect both the king and queen, nor can he help but let his romantic feelings for the queen to interfere with his duties to the king and the kingdom. Ultimately, he and Queen Guinevere give into their feelings for one another and Lancelot—though he denies it—chooses his loyalty to her over his loyalty to Arthur. This decision plunges the kingdom into a civil war, ages Lancelot prematurely, and ultimately leads to Camelot's ruin (Raabe, 1987). Though Lancelot claimed to have been loyal to both the king and the queen, this loyalty was ultimately in conflict, and he could not maintain it.

Here we have the acknowledgement of a potential counter-argument and the evidence as to why it isn't true.

The argument is that some people (or literary characters) have asserted that they give equal weight to their conflicting loyalties. The refutation is that, though some may claim to be able to maintain conflicting loyalties, they're either lying to others or deceiving themselves. The paragraph shows why this is true by providing an example of this in action.

Paragraph 5

Whether it be through literature or history, time and time again, people demonstrate the challenges of trying to manage conflicting loyalties and the inevitable consequences of doing so. Though belief systems are malleable and will often change over time, it is not possible to maintain two mutually exclusive loyalties or beliefs at once. In the end, people always make a choice, and loyalty for one party or one side of an issue will always trump loyalty to the other.

The concluding paragraph summarizes the essay, touches on the evidence presented, and re-states the thesis statement.

How to Write an Argumentative Essay: 8 Steps

Writing the best argumentative essay is all about the preparation, so let's talk steps:

#1: Preliminary Research

If you have the option to pick your own argumentative essay topic (which you most likely will), then choose one or two topics you find the most intriguing or that you have a vested interest in and do some preliminary research on both sides of the debate.

Do an open internet search just to see what the general chatter is on the topic and what the research trends are.

Did your preliminary reading influence you to pick a side or change your side? Without diving into all the scholarly articles at length, do you believe there's enough evidence to support your claim? Have there been scientific studies? Experiments? Does a noted scholar in the field agree with you? If not, you may need to pick another topic or side of the argument to support.

#2: Pick Your Side and Form Your Thesis

Now's the time to pick the side of the argument you feel you can support the best and summarize your main point into your thesis statement.

Your thesis will be the basis of your entire essay, so make sure you know which side you're on, that you've stated it clearly, and that you stick by your argument throughout the entire essay .

#3: Heavy-Duty Research Time

You've taken a gander at what the internet at large has to say on your argument, but now's the time to actually read those sources and take notes.

Check scholarly journals online at Google Scholar , the Directory of Open Access Journals , or JStor . You can also search individual university or school libraries and websites to see what kinds of academic articles you can access for free. Keep track of your important quotes and page numbers and put them somewhere that's easy to find later.

And don't forget to check your school or local libraries as well!

#4: Outline

Follow the five-paragraph outline structure from the previous section.

Fill in your topic, your reasons, and your supporting evidence into each of the categories.

Before you begin to flesh out the essay, take a look at what you've got. Is your thesis statement in the first paragraph? Is it clear? Is your argument logical? Does your supporting evidence support your reasoning?

By outlining your essay, you streamline your process and take care of any logic gaps before you dive headfirst into the writing. This will save you a lot of grief later on if you need to change your sources or your structure, so don't get too trigger-happy and skip this step.

Now that you've laid out exactly what you'll need for your essay and where, it's time to fill in all the gaps by writing it out.

Take it one step at a time and expand your ideas into complete sentences and substantiated claims. It may feel daunting to turn an outline into a complete draft, but just remember that you've already laid out all the groundwork; now you're just filling in the gaps.

If you have the time before deadline, give yourself a day or two (or even just an hour!) away from your essay . Looking it over with fresh eyes will allow you to see errors, both minor and major, that you likely would have missed had you tried to edit when it was still raw.

Take a first pass over the entire essay and try your best to ignore any minor spelling or grammar mistakes—you're just looking at the big picture right now. Does it make sense as a whole? Did the essay succeed in making an argument and backing that argument up logically? (Do you feel persuaded?)

If not, go back and make notes so that you can fix it for your final draft.

Once you've made your revisions to the overall structure, mark all your small errors and grammar problems so you can fix them in the next draft.

#7: Final Draft

Use the notes you made on the rough draft and go in and hack and smooth away until you're satisfied with the final result.

A checklist for your final draft:

• Formatting is correct according to your teacher's standards
• No errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation
• Essay is the right length and size for the assignment
• The argument is present, consistent, and concise
• Each reason is supported by relevant evidence
• The essay makes sense overall

#8: Celebrate!

Once you've brought that final draft to a perfect polish and turned in your assignment, you're done! Go you!

Be prepared and ♪ you'll never go hungry again ♪, *cough*, or struggle with your argumentative essay-writing again. (Walt Disney Studios)

Good Examples of Argumentative Essays Online

Theory is all well and good, but examples are key. Just to get you started on what a fully-fleshed out argumentative essay looks like, let's see some examples in action.

Check out these two argumentative essay examples on the use of landmines and freons (and note the excellent use of concrete sources to back up their arguments!).

The Use of Landmines

A Shattered Sky

The Take-Aways: Keys to Writing an Argumentative Essay

At first, writing an argumentative essay may seem like a monstrous hurdle to overcome, but with the proper preparation and understanding, you'll be able to knock yours out of the park.

Remember the differences between a persuasive essay and an argumentative one, make sure your thesis is clear, and double-check that your supporting evidence is both relevant to your point and well-sourced . Pick your topic, do your research, make your outline, and fill in the gaps. Before you know it, you'll have yourself an A+ argumentative essay there, my friend.

What's Next?

Now you know the ins and outs of an argumentative essay, but how comfortable are you writing in other styles? Learn more about the four writing styles and when it makes sense to use each .

Understand how to make an argument, but still having trouble organizing your thoughts? Check out our guide to three popular essay formats and choose which one is right for you.

Ready to make your case, but not sure what to write about? We've created a list of 50 potential argumentative essay topics to spark your imagination.

Courtney scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT in high school and went on to graduate from Stanford University with a degree in Cultural and Social Anthropology. She is passionate about bringing education and the tools to succeed to students from all backgrounds and walks of life, as she believes open education is one of the great societal equalizers. She has years of tutoring experience and writes creative works in her free time.

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What is an Essay?

10 May, 2020

11 minutes read

Author:  Tomas White

Well, beyond a jumble of words usually around 2,000 words or so - what is an essay, exactly? Whether you’re taking English, sociology, history, biology, art, or a speech class, it’s likely you’ll have to write an essay or two. So how is an essay different than a research paper or a review? Let’s find out!

Defining the Term – What is an Essay?

The essay is a written piece that is designed to present an idea, propose an argument, express the emotion or initiate debate. It is a tool that is used to present writer’s ideas in a non-fictional way. Multiple applications of this type of writing go way beyond, providing political manifestos and art criticism as well as personal observations and reflections of the author.

An essay can be as short as 500 words, it can also be 5000 words or more.  However, most essays fall somewhere around 1000 to 3000 words ; this word range provides the writer enough space to thoroughly develop an argument and work to convince the reader of the author’s perspective regarding a particular issue.  The topics of essays are boundless: they can range from the best form of government to the benefits of eating peppermint leaves daily. As a professional provider of custom writing, our service has helped thousands of customers to turn in essays in various forms and disciplines.

Origins of the Essay

Over the course of more than six centuries essays were used to question assumptions, argue trivial opinions and to initiate global discussions. Let’s have a closer look into historical progress and various applications of this literary phenomenon to find out exactly what it is.

Today’s modern word “essay” can trace its roots back to the French “essayer” which translates closely to mean “to attempt” .  This is an apt name for this writing form because the essay’s ultimate purpose is to attempt to convince the audience of something.  An essay’s topic can range broadly and include everything from the best of Shakespeare’s plays to the joys of April.

The essay comes in many shapes and sizes; it can focus on a personal experience or a purely academic exploration of a topic.  Essays are classified as a subjective writing form because while they include expository elements, they can rely on personal narratives to support the writer’s viewpoint.  The essay genre includes a diverse array of academic writings ranging from literary criticism to meditations on the natural world.  Most typically, the essay exists as a shorter writing form; essays are rarely the length of a novel.  However, several historic examples, such as John Locke’s seminal work “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” just shows that a well-organized essay can be as long as a novel.

The Essay in Literature

The essay enjoys a long and renowned history in literature.  They first began gaining in popularity in the early 16 th century, and their popularity has continued today both with original writers and ghost writers.  Many readers prefer this short form in which the writer seems to speak directly to the reader, presenting a particular claim and working to defend it through a variety of means.  Not sure if you’ve ever read a great essay? You wouldn’t believe how many pieces of literature are actually nothing less than essays, or evolved into more complex structures from the essay. Check out this list of literary favorites:

• The Book of My Lives by Aleksandar Hemon
• Notes of a Native Son by James Baldwin
• Against Interpretation by Susan Sontag
• High-Tide in Tucson: Essays from Now and Never by Barbara Kingsolver
• Slouching Toward Bethlehem by Joan Didion
• Naked by David Sedaris
• Walden; or, Life in the Woods by Henry David Thoreau

Pretty much as long as writers have had something to say, they’ve created essays to communicate their viewpoint on pretty much any topic you can think of!

The Essay in Academics

Not only are students required to read a variety of essays during their academic education, but they will likely be required to write several different kinds of essays throughout their scholastic career.  Don’t love to write?  Then consider working with a ghost essay writer !  While all essays require an introduction, body paragraphs in support of the argumentative thesis statement, and a conclusion, academic essays can take several different formats in the way they approach a topic.  Common essays required in high school, college, and post-graduate classes include:

Five paragraph essay

This is the most common type of a formal essay. The type of paper that students are usually exposed to when they first hear about the concept of the essay itself. It follows easy outline structure – an opening introduction paragraph; three body paragraphs to expand the thesis; and conclusion to sum it up.

Argumentative essay

These essays are commonly assigned to explore a controversial issue.  The goal is to identify the major positions on either side and work to support the side the writer agrees with while refuting the opposing side’s potential arguments.

Compare and Contrast essay

This essay compares two items, such as two poems, and works to identify similarities and differences, discussing the strength and weaknesses of each.  This essay can focus on more than just two items, however.  The point of this essay is to reveal new connections the reader may not have considered previously.

Definition essay

This essay has a sole purpose – defining a term or a concept in as much detail as possible. Sounds pretty simple, right? Well, not quite. The most important part of the process is picking up the word. Before zooming it up under the microscope, make sure to choose something roomy so you can define it under multiple angles. The definition essay outline will reflect those angles and scopes.

Descriptive essay

Perhaps the most fun to write, this essay focuses on describing its subject using all five of the senses.  The writer aims to fully describe the topic; for example, a descriptive essay could aim to describe the ocean to someone who’s never seen it or the job of a teacher.  Descriptive essays rely heavily on detail and the paragraphs can be organized by sense.

Illustration essay

The purpose of this essay is to describe an idea, occasion or a concept with the help of clear and vocal examples. “Illustration” itself is handled in the body paragraphs section. Each of the statements, presented in the essay needs to be supported with several examples. Illustration essay helps the author to connect with his audience by breaking the barriers with real-life examples – clear and indisputable.

Informative Essay

Being one the basic essay types, the informative essay is as easy as it sounds from a technical standpoint. High school is where students usually encounter with informative essay first time. The purpose of this paper is to describe an idea, concept or any other abstract subject with the help of proper research and a generous amount of storytelling.

Narrative essay

This type of essay focuses on describing a certain event or experience, most often chronologically.  It could be a historic event or an ordinary day or month in a regular person’s life. Narrative essay proclaims a free approach to writing it, therefore it does not always require conventional attributes, like the outline. The narrative itself typically unfolds through a personal lens, and is thus considered to be a subjective form of writing.

Persuasive essay

The purpose of the persuasive essay is to provide the audience with a 360-view on the concept idea or certain topic – to persuade the reader to adopt a certain viewpoint. The viewpoints can range widely from why visiting the dentist is important to why dogs make the best pets to why blue is the best color.  Strong, persuasive language is a defining characteristic of this essay type.

The Essay in Art

Several other artistic mediums have adopted the essay as a means of communicating with their audience.  In the visual arts, such as painting or sculpting, the rough sketches of the final product are sometimes deemed essays.  Likewise, directors may opt to create a film essay which is similar to a documentary in that it offers a personal reflection on a relevant issue.  Finally, photographers often create photographic essays in which they use a series of photographs to tell a story, similar to a narrative or a descriptive essay.

Drawing the line – question answered

“What is an Essay?” is quite a polarizing question. On one hand, it can easily be answered in a couple of words. On the other, it is surely the most profound and self-established type of content there ever was. Going back through the history of the last five-six centuries helps us understand where did it come from and how it is being applied ever since.

If you must write an essay, follow these five important steps to works towards earning the “A” you want:

• Understand and review the kind of essay you must write
• Brainstorm your argument
• Find research from reliable sources to support your perspective
• Cite all sources parenthetically within the paper and on the Works Cited page
• Follow all grammatical rules

Generally speaking, when you must write any type of essay, start sooner rather than later!  Don’t procrastinate – give yourself time to develop your perspective and work on crafting a unique and original approach to the topic.  Remember: it’s always a good idea to have another set of eyes (or three) look over your essay before handing in the final draft to your teacher or professor.  Don’t trust your fellow classmates?  Consider hiring an editor or a ghostwriter to help out!

If you are still unsure on whether you can cope with your task – you are in the right place to get help. HandMadeWriting is the perfect answer to the question “Who can write my essay?”

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Writing a research paper on ethics is not an easy task, especially if you do not possess excellent writing skills and do not like to contemplate controversial questions. But an ethics course is obligatory in all higher education institutions, and students have to look for a way out and be creative. When you find an […]

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Students obtaining degrees in fine art and art & design programs most commonly need to write a paper on art topics. However, this subject is becoming more popular in educational institutions for expanding students’ horizons. Thus, both groups of receivers of education: those who are into arts and those who only get acquainted with art […]

29 Proofreading Marks and Symbols—The Key to Error-Free Writing

| Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond

Candace Osmond studied Advanced Writing & Editing Essentials at MHC. She’s been an International and USA TODAY Bestselling Author for over a decade. And she’s worked as an Editor for several mid-sized publications. Candace has a keen eye for content editing and a high degree of expertise in Fiction.

Proofreading marks and symbols, also known as editing marks, are the strange red pen scratches that an editor or proofreader applies to a written piece of work to let the writer know what needs to be fixed. From missing periods to misplaced commas, paragraph breaks, and parts to omit, these marks act like a secret code between the editor and writer.

If you’re a writer looking to work with a professional editor or proofreader or to start offering these services to writers, you need to understand what these symbols mean.

When I initially started collaborating with an editor and using a proofreading service, I had no idea what any of the symbols were when I got my draft back full of weird marks. It took a while to learn them all, and now I’m putting them together with a breakdown of each.

My guide lists each proofreading mark and symbol and defines them with quick explanations and a handy image as a visual reminder. I’ll even include some tips on how to use proofreading symbols.

Ready to master the 29 most common proofreading marks and symbols? Let’s get started!

What Are Common Proofreading Marks and Symbols?

Are you ready? Like, really ready? This list is long but includes every main proofreading mark and symbol you might need to know.

The delete symbol is commonly used in proofreading to indicate the removal of a word or letter. It helps identify over-repeated words, unnecessary adverbs and adjectives, and overused terms within the text.

The caret symbol indicates where a word or element should be added to the text. It suggests inserting a word or element to improve the sentence’s clarity or completeness.

Proofreaders use this symbol to indicate the correction of unequally wide or double spaces in writing. Remove or close the extra space between words if you see this symbol.

New Paragraph

This symbol signals the need to start a new paragraph. It’s commonly used in dialogue exchanges in stories or when the writer introduces a new idea in their essay.

The number or pound sign indicates that you should add space between the two words. It’s commonly used to correct missing spaces, especially in compound words.

It is used to indicate that two characters, words, or sections should be swapped in position.

Use this proofreading symbol if a word should start with a capital letter instead of lowercase letters. You can also use the sign for multiple capital letters in the word.

This symbol indicates that a word should start with a lowercase letter instead of a capital one.

This mark signals that a word should be styled in italics.

This mark indicates that a specific word should be formatted in bold typeface.

It’s a Latin term that means “let it stand.” Proofreaders use stet to warn the writer to disregard a previous correction or deletion.

This mark indicates that the beginning of a paragraph should be indented. One square represents a one-space indent, while two squares side by side indicate a two-space indent.

Align Horizontally

This proofreading symbol is used to let the author know that the text is not horizontally aligned and may need adjustment to ensure proper alignment.

Align Vertically

This symbol indicates that the text within those lines should be adjusted or aligned vertically with nearby text or elements on the page for better visual consistency and readability.

Center Text

It indicates that the text should be centered on the page. It is typically used for titles, headings, or any text that requires center alignment for aesthetic or formatting purposes.

This mark lets the writer know that numbers or abbreviations should be fully written in words, especially if they follow certain style guides.

Move Left/Right/Up/Down

• The move left symbol suggests that the text should be shifted to the left for proper alignment.
• The move right symbol indicates a need to shift the text to the right.
• The move up symbol signifies that the text should be moved upward.
• The move down symbol denotes a need to move the text downward.

Reduce Space

Editors and proofreaders use this to tell the writer that the spaces between words or letters should be reduced.

Delete and Close Up

This mark is used to indicate that a letter should be deleted and that no space should be left behind.

Insert a Hyphen

It is used to indicate that a hyphen should be added where one is missing between words or in compound modifiers.

Insert a Period

It indicates that a period should be added where one is missing at the end of a sentence.

Insert a Comma

It shows where a comma should be added to improve sentence clarity or grammatical correctness.

Insert Quotation Marks

This symbol is used to add missing quotation marks at the beginning and end of direct speech or quotations.

Insert Apostrophe

Editors use this one to show where an apostrophe is needed, like in contractions, or to indicate possession.

No Paragraph

It’s a symbol used when a new paragraph has been incorrectly placed, and the text should continue without a break.

Push to the Next Page/Line

Editors will use this mark when the text or paragraph should be moved to the beginning of the next line or page to improve layout or readability.

Pull to Previous Page/Line

This symbol suggests pulling text back to the end of the previous line or page for better formatting or coherence.

Circled Number

When you see numbers in circles, these indicate multiple instances of the same correction.

How to Use Proofreading Marks

Whether you’re old-school with pen and paper or tech-savvy on the latest digital platform (or a combo of both, like me!), mastering these symbols is your rite of passage into the editing community. Here are some basic tips to help you become more familiar with using them.

Guidelines for Applying Proofreading Marks on Physical Manuscripts

• Grab a pen: Red is best, but any color will do as long as it’s not black or blue. Tradition dictates red, but any color that screams “Look at me!” and is legible will do just fine.
• Be consistent: Choose your symbols and stick with them. Changing halfway through is like switching languages mid-conversation.
• Clarity is key: Your squiggles, lines, and loops should be unmistakable. If it looks like ancient hieroglyphs, you’re doing it wrong. These marks are meant to make the editing process easier and quicker, but if the editor scribbles too much, the writer won’t understand what they mean.
• Margin notes are a reliable friend: Sometimes, a symbol just won’t cut it. Feel free to jot down a note in the margin for extra clarity.
• Double-check your work: Once you’ve marked it all up, go back and ensure you got everything, or mark something you didn’t mean to.

Tips for Using Proofreading Symbols in Digital Editing

• The Track Changes feature is your bestie: Most word processors have it, and it’s a game-changer for digital editing. When turned on, Track Changes will literally track and mark everything you change.
• Comments gold: Unsure about something? Leave a comment in the document attached to the text in question. It’s like margin notes but without the risk of smudging.
• Highlight like it’s going out of style: Use different color choices to highlight text and show various types of edits or to prioritize changes.
• Shortcuts and macros save lives: It may not be as dramatic as that, but they definitely save time. Learn the shortcuts for common editing commands in your word processor so that you never have to stop and search.
• Embrace editing software: Tools like Grammarly and ProWritingAid are designed to make digital editing a breeze. Find your match and learn its ins and outs. Psst! I highly recommend Grammarly.

Another option is to use a proofreading mark plugin. This allows editors to proofread on word processors without having to memorize every single one of these symbols.

To insert the plugin, open your browser and go to the Greg Maxey website. Select “Resources,” then click “Proofreader Marks Add-in.” You’ll find it at the end of the page.

Then, it will open a dialog box with some prompts you need to follow. Open MS Word and you will see a new “Proofreading Marks: section on the “Add-Ins” tab. Now, you can apply proofreading marks on your document like a professional proofreader.

When proofreading, you must drag the cursor over the text that needs a mark. Then, select the drop-down menu under the ribbon and choose the correct mark. Remember to save your changes.

Transitioning from Traditional to Digital Proofreading

Gone are the days when editing meant paper cuts, White-Out, and red ink-stained fingers. Welcome to the digital age, my friends, where proofreading has gone electronic! But don’t worry; the basics of proofreading remain the same, even if the tools have evolved.

Traditional marks now have their digital counterparts: strikeouts, insertions, comments, etc. Software and digital platforms have embraced these age-old practices, ensuring that even in a world of screens, the heart of editing beats on.

Everything You Need to Know about Proofreading Marks

I hope my guide on proofreading and editing symbols with examples will empower you to spot errors in writing more effectively. We covered a pretty comprehensive list, didn’t we? We even touched on a few tips for using proofreading marks and symbols and adapting to digital tools.

Keep practicing until you’re ready to start a proofreading career. And let us know if you have questions about proofreading mark making. We always have a ton of helpful advice and tips right on our site, so don’t be shy!

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Periodization

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Periodization–the process of dividing and categorizing the past into distinct blocks of time–can be an extremely useful, even necessary, analytical rubric, as it provides a way of distinguishing a period of time and the literature produced during that period from those both before and after. However, periodization is never a neutral process, something that is especially true when considering how (and if) women’s writing fits into traditional period divides (such as “Renaissance” or “Restoration”). Putting critical pressure on the connections and disconnections between women’s writing and the traditional frameworks of historical temporality that tend to govern much literary scholarship and the institutional structures within which it is studied and taught can open up new understandings about the place of women’s textual production within literary history writ large.

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Dowd, M.M. (2022). Periodization. In: The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Early Modern Women's Writing. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01537-4_438-1

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Definition of essay

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of essay  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

• composition

attempt , try , endeavor , essay , strive mean to make an effort to accomplish an end.

attempt stresses the initiation or beginning of an effort.

try is often close to attempt but may stress effort or experiment made in the hope of testing or proving something.

endeavor heightens the implications of exertion and difficulty.

essay implies difficulty but also suggests tentative trying or experimenting.

strive implies great exertion against great difficulty and specifically suggests persistent effort.

Examples of essay in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'essay.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French essai , ultimately from Late Latin exagium act of weighing, from Latin ex- + agere to drive — more at agent

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 4

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 2

Phrases Containing essay

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• photo - essay

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To 'Essay' or 'Assay'?

You'll know the difference if you give it the old college essay

Dictionary Entries Near essay

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“Essay.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/essay. Accessed 15 May. 2024.

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Kids definition of essay.

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I Guess I Can Do It With a Literal Broken Heart

As the Eras Tour resumes today, one ELLE editor shares how a song from Taylor Swift’s The Tortured Poets Department had an unexpected connection to his health.

The other week, I felt like Taylor Swift.

No, I haven’t been in the recording studio writing an album, touring the globe, or raking in dough. I wasn’t shimmering in a body suit or performing to millions of fans. I didn’t break Spotify records with The Tortured Poets Department. Instead, I filled the holes in my busy week by listening and dancing to “I Can Do It With a Broken Heart” over and over again, claiming the track as my own.

Whenever I’m in a rotten head space, I lose myself to the music. Whether there are people around or not, I dream of flouncing around a dance floor on my wedding day or performing in front of a stadium to thousands of fans. It’s therapy, the light at the end of my day, and often, what I look forward to the most: a 10 P.M. dance break.

This past December, when I was in Los Angeles for our annual Women in Hollywood event, I ended one particularly stressful day with a tango. I strutted through my hotel room in my black, tiny underwear and took a few minutes to perform my greatest living room hits, culminating with “Breathless,” by the Corrs.

I started dancing, hitting each body roll and ass shake, giving the performance of a lifetime. Then, at the end of the song, I pumped my hand into the sky like I was holding a microphone. A sharp pain shot across my chest and body. Within a matter of seconds, my tour came to an end. I was on my bed, almost immobile and worried about what I had just done. The pain slowly subsided. I drifted off to sleep and hoped the next day would bring healing.

The following morning, I thought all was fixed. I went to a boxing class, hit a punch, and the pain came right back. I convinced myself I was having a heart attack. I looked up the symptoms on WebMD, talked with some coworkers, and then thought it was all over. I tracked down the nearest hospital, called my family, and tried to talk it through with a provider on the phone. After my anxiety came down, and I got some professional advice, I realized it was most likely a pull. I decided to power through. I could still move.

I went through the rest of that week in Los Angeles assisting with our event with a dull pain in my chest. When I got back to New York, my primary care provider confirmed my suspicions: I had pulled a muscle. It would take some time to heal. He still wanted to run an electrocardiogram (EKG) to be safe.

After being hooked up to the machine as if I were a science experiment, my doctor came back. He recommended I see a cardiologist as soon as possible. I had pulled my chest, but something else was, in fact, wrong.

Six doctor’s appointments, two weeks on a heart monitor, and an ultrasound later, I was diagnosed with a congenital heart defect called Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome (WPW). Essentially, I have an extra pathway in my heart where signals sometimes travel. My resting heart rate can skyrocket to 200 beats per minute. When not treated properly, WPW can lead to sudden cardiac arrest and death in children and young adults.

.css-1aear8u:before{margin:0 auto 0.9375rem;width:34px;height:25px;content:'';display:block;background-repeat:no-repeat;}.loaded .css-1aear8u:before{background-image:url(/_assets/design-tokens/elle/static/images/quote.fddce92.svg);} .css-1bvxk2j{font-family:SaolDisplay,SaolDisplay-fallback,SaolDisplay-roboto,SaolDisplay-local,Georgia,Times,serif;font-size:1.625rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.2;margin:0rem;margin-bottom:0.3125rem;}@media(max-width: 48rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.125rem;line-height:1.1;}}@media(min-width: 40.625rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.125rem;line-height:1.2;}}@media(min-width: 64rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1.1;}}@media(min-width: 73.75rem){.css-1bvxk2j{font-size:2.375rem;line-height:1.2;}}.css-1bvxk2j b,.css-1bvxk2j strong{font-family:inherit;font-weight:bold;}.css-1bvxk2j em,.css-1bvxk2j i{font-style:italic;font-family:inherit;}.css-1bvxk2j i,.css-1bvxk2j em{font-style:italic;} I’d feel a heftier heart rate when I had anxiety or was listening to fast-paced music. ... I had convinced myself that was something everyone experienced. They told me it was not.”

Every doctor I saw asked if I felt this high heart rate. I commented that I did, but I thought it was normal. I’d feel a heftier heart rate when I had anxiety or was listening to fast-paced music. I’d quickly lose my breath while running or feel pressure in my chest at my weekly Barry’s classes. I had convinced myself that was something everyone experienced. They told me it was not. Some patients don’t catch this condition until they’re elderly; apparently I was lucky I caught it now. We could fix it with a simple surgery, an ablation, which had a 96 percent success rate. I said yes to the procedure, and we got a date on the calendar.

The night before the surgery, I couldn’t help but play a mental supercut of the moments in my life that had made me pause, moments that made me, in reference to the song that caused me to catch the problem, breathless. I thought about the gorgeous weddings I’d attended. I thought about hearing the overture of Merrily We Roll Along played by a full orchestra for the first time. I thought about kissing a beautiful boy with cherry lips under a disco ball. I thought about the devastating end of The Great Believers by Rebecca Makkai and when Parvati, Cirie, Amanda, and Natalie convinced Erik to give up individual immunity on Survivor . I thought about a recent meet cute and my first bite of the crab rangoon pizza at Fong’s in Des Moines, Iowa. I thought about my night at MetLife Stadium at Taylor Swift’s Eras Tour. I thought about seeing my dad cry when the Chiefs won the Super Bowl. I thought about my mom caucusing in 2016 to support her politically active son and the year I won my family’s annual Christmas board game competition. I thought about the first time seeing my name on the masthead or in a byline in ELLE Magazine. I thought about my roommate Alex, who helped me through every doctor’s appointment and was slated to go with me to the surgery the following day. I thought about my other friends who offered to take care of me, too. I thought about every single person I loved.

And then, I had the surgery. It seemed to go well. I scheduled a follow-up.

Just a few days before The Tortured Poets Department dropped, I went into my doctor for the final A-OK. I had felt better, and I was convinced the surgery worked. He told me it did not. It would take a second surgery to fix. I was in the 4 percent.

I may not be performing in front of millions of fans, but Taylor’s ability to create music that’s relatable while speaking about her extraordinary situations is unmatched. To learn that even the world’s biggest pop star has powered through her own private battles made me feel more connected to her. Many of my colleagues and friends, each carrying on with their own silent struggles, have commented how this song has been their recent anthem, and it’s become a standout topic on social media.

To learn that even the world’s biggest pop star has powered through her own private battles made me feel more connected to her.”

We shuffle along to the beats of many drums. We are sometimes asked for more and we do it, all while haunted by paralyzing thoughts, yearning for a break and sleep. Internally we are miserable, but we peddle forward. It’s a side effect of the human condition. Of course, we need to take time for ourselves too, but I have gotten through my most challenging moments, terrifying times, and biggest heartbreaks by picking myself up and forcing myself to get back out there. And I’m sure I’m not alone.

I have to remind myself often that little Sam would be in awe of me right now. He would be astounded by all I’m accomplishing and the shows I’ve attended. Little Sam would love my unabashed queerness and my recent body confidence. But he wouldn’t be able to handle my very full plate: health complications, boy problems, and a sometimes challenging (but also rewarding) career. I’m sure little Taylor would feel the same way about big Taylor right now too.

So yes, I guess I can really do it with a literal broken heart. Taylor and I have that in common. I have my second surgery in late May. Hopefully, in June, Taylor’s song will remind me of a time when I was stronger than I had ever been before.

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What to Know About COVID FLiRT Variants

Virologists are keeping an eye on several COVID variants that have all picked up the same set of mutations. Here’s what that means.

Aliza Rosen

At the end of March, the KP.2 variant was causing about 4% of infections in the U.S.,  according to the CDC , while its parental strain, JN.1, was causing over 50% of infections at that time. As of early May, KP.2 makes up about 28% of infections, overtaking JN.1 as the dominant variant.

KP.2 is one of several variants being referred to as “FLiRT variants,” named after the technical names for their mutations. The prevalence of these variants comes at a critical time, when experts are deciding how to formulate the fall COVID vaccine.

In this Q&A,  Andy Pekosz , PhD, a professor in  Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , explains what virologists like him are seeing, whether these variants might cause a summer wave of infections, and how people can protect themselves.

What are these “FLiRT variants”?

This is the term being used to describe a whole family of different variants—including KP.2, JN.1.7, and any other variants starting with KP or JN—that appear to have independently picked up the same set of mutations. This is called convergent evolution. They are all descendants of the  JN.1 variant that has been dominant in the U.S. for the past several months.

The particular mutations that people refer to as “FLiRT”s or “FLip”s refer to specific positions in the spike protein—in this case, positions 456, 346, and 572.

Viruses like SARS-CoV-2 mutate frequently, and when they mutate to evade recognition by antibodies, this often weakens their ability to bind to the cells they want to infect. We then see mutations appear that improve that binding ability. This is a cycle we have seen many times with SARS-CoV-2. The fact that these different variants are picking up the same mutations tells virologists that this combination of mutations is helping the virus accomplish these goals most efficiently.

How do these mutations help the virus bind to cells while evading antibodies?

Two of these mutations—456 and 346—eliminate binding sites for antibodies that neutralize SARS-CoV-2. However, those same antibody binding sites are also important for the virus to bind to and enter cells. So in evading antibodies, these FLiRT variants may have also lost some ability to bind to their receptor. At the same time, the 572 mutation appears to allow the virus to more tightly bind to cells and ultimately cause an infection.

Do people who recently had COVID have any protection against infection from FLiRT variants?

A JN.1 infection should provide pretty strong protection against all the FLiRT variants. The difference between JN.1 and these variants is only one or two amino acid changes, so there are still a lot of other places antibodies can bind to. Infection from a variant older than JN.1 is less likely to offer as much protection.

Do we know yet how well the current COVID-19 vaccines work against the FLiRT variants?

Against JN.1, the vaccine designed around XBB.1.5 does generate some cross-reactive antibodies. Studies have not been yet done with some of these newer variants, but those are likely to be a little less cross-reactive. It’s also been several months since many people received their last dose of the vaccine, and that immunity wanes over time.

Back in February, the CDC recommended  an additional dose of the current COVID vaccine for adults 65 and older who received theirs in the fall. There is a question now of what the guidance will be going into the summer. We’ve seen fairly low uptake of these additional boosters when they’re recommended, even in high risk populations, so it’s unclear whether a third dose of the current vaccine will be recommended. If case numbers remain relatively low, it may not be necessary.

Should we anticipate these variants to drive a surge in cases this summer?

It’s certainly possible. The FLiRT variants would be high on my list of viruses that could cause another wave of infections in the U.S. That said, our definition of a wave has changed; while we still see case rates rise and fall throughout the year, we see much lower numbers of cases of hospitalizations or deaths than we saw in the first couple years of the pandemic.

And yet, while these waves are becoming smaller, they are still having the greatest impact on our susceptible populations: the elderly, people who are immunocompromised and those with other secondary medical conditions. Everyone can play a role in protecting those populations that remain the highest-risk when new variants cause an uptick in cases.

How might these variants impact plans for the COVID vaccine formula that gets updated for the fall?

This is the time of year when governing bodies like the WHO and FDA recommend a formulation for updated COVID vaccines that will roll out in early fall. Last year, the  vaccines were based on the XBB.1.5 variant , and only a few months later, the  JN.1 variant became the dominant variant in the U.S.

At the end of April, the  WHO announced that their COVID vaccine advisory group advises using the JN.1 lineage as the antigen for the upcoming formulations of the vaccine. All of these FLiRT variants are within the JN.1 family of variants.

Here in the U.S.,  the FDA has postponed its meeting to determine the fall 2024 COVID vaccine from mid-May to early June. That gives them more time to see which of the FLiRT variants is becoming the dominant one so they can fine-tune the WHO recommendation to what they anticipate will be most prominent in the fall.

New COVID variants are likely to crop up after a decision is made— just as it did last summer —but the goal remains to select a formulation that, come fall, will match the circulating variants as closely as possible.

What are the usual symptoms and transmission timeline for FLiRT variants?

When it comes to symptoms, we’re not seeing anything new or different with these variants. We continue to see more mild disease, but that’s likely not because the virus is milder, but because our immunity is so much stronger now. After years of vaccinations and infections, most of the population is better able to fight off an infection without as much concern for severe disease.

The period of infectiousness for these FLiRT variants remains the same as with JN.1 and previous omicron variants: After exposure, it may take five or more days before you develop symptoms, though symptoms may appear sooner. You are contagious one to two days before you experience symptoms and a few days after symptoms subside. And as with previous variants, some people may have detectable live virus for up to a week after their symptoms begin, and some may experience  rebound symptoms .

At-home testing remains a really important tool for knowing whether you could potentially infect others.

Are antivirals like Paxlovid effective against FLiRT variants? 

Yes, the good news is that  Paxlovid is still recommended for high risk individuals . It still works against variants up to JN.1, and based on the sequencing of the FLiRT variants, they should still be susceptible to Paxlovid, as well as to antiviral drugs like molnupiravir and remdesivir. The companies that produce these drugs are always testing them against new variants to ensure they continue to be effective.

How can people protect themselves and their loved ones as we head into summer?

As with any respiratory virus, even when case rates nationally are low, it’s common to see infections increase in one area of the country but not another. Keep an eye on case rates in your region or anywhere you plan to travel, to know whether you should take additional precautions, like wearing a mask or gathering in well-ventilated areas. Some local health departments report on virus levels in wastewater, which can signal an upcoming rise in cases. This is particularly helpful as people experience more mild illness; those cases may not require hospitalization, but they’ll still be detected in wastewater data.

It’s always a good idea to keep a few COVID tests around the house in case you start to  feel sick. Testing—whether at home or in a health care setting—will make sure you know what you're infected with, which can inform the best treatment plan if you are in a high risk group or your symptoms progress to more severe illness.

If you do feel sick, follow the CDC’s  simplified guidance for respiratory illnesses . This is especially important if you plan to spend time with friends or family who are at higher risk of severe illness.

Aliza Rosen is a digital content strategist at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

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China’s Dead-End Economy Is Bad News for Everyone

By Anne Stevenson-Yang

Ms. Stevenson-Yang is a co-founder of J Capital Research and the author of “Wild Ride: A Short History of the Opening and Closing of the Chinese Economy.”

On separate visits to Beijing last month, Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen bore a common message : Chinese manufacturing overcapacity is flooding global markets with cheap Chinese exports, distorting world trade and leaving American businesses and workers struggling to compete.

Not surprisingly, China’s leaders did not like what they heard, and they didn’t budge. They can’t. Years of erratic and irresponsible policies, excessive Communist Party control and undelivered promises of reform have created a dead-end Chinese economy of weak domestic consumer demand and slowing growth. The only way that China’s leaders can see to pull themselves out of this hole is to fall back on pumping out exports.

That means a number of things are likely to happen, none of them good. The tide of Chinese exports will continue, tensions with the United States and other trading partners will grow, China’s people will become increasingly unhappy with their gloomy economic prospects and anxious Communist Party leaders will respond with more repression.

The root of the problem is the Communist Party’s excessive control of the economy, but that’s not going to change. It is baked into China’s political system and has only worsened during President Xi Jinping’s decade in power. New strategies for fixing the economy always rely on counterproductive mandates set by the government: Create new companies, build more industrial capacity. The strategy that most economists actually recommend to drive growth — freeing up the private sector and empowering Chinese consumers to spend more — would mean overhauling the way the government works, and that is unacceptable.

The party had a golden opportunity to change in 1989, when the Tiananmen Square protests revealed that the economic reforms that had begun a decade earlier had given rise to a growing private sector and a desire for new freedoms. But to liberalize government institutions in response would have undermined the party’s power. Instead, China’s leaders chose to shoot the protesters, further tighten party control and get hooked on government investment to fuel the economy.

For a long time, no one minded. When economic or social threats reared their heads, like global financial crises in 1997 and 2007, Chinese authorities poured money into industry and the real estate sector to pacify the people. The investment-driven growth felt good, but it was much more than the country could digest and left China’s landscape scarred with empty cities and industrial parks, unfinished bridges to nowhere, abandoned highways and amusement parks, and airports with few flights.

The investment in industrial capacity also generated an explosion in exports as China captured industries previously dominated by foreign manufacturers — mobile phones, television sets, solar panels, lithium-ion batteries and electric vehicles. Much of the Chinese economic “miracle” was powered by American, European and Japanese companies that willingly transferred their technical know-how to their Chinese partners in exchange for what they thought would be access to a permanently growing China market. This decimated manufacturing in the West, even as China protected its own markets. But the West let it slide: The cheap products emanating from China kept U.S. inflation at bay for a generation, and the West clung to the hope that China’s economic expansion would eventually lead to a political liberalization that never came.

To raise money for the government investment binge, Beijing allowed local authorities to collateralize land — all of which is ultimately owned or controlled by the state — and borrow money against it. This was like a drug: Local governments borrowed like crazy, but with no real plan for paying the money back. Now many are so deep in debt that they have been forced to cut basic services like heating, health care for senior citizens and bus routes . Teachers aren’t being paid on time, and salaries for civil servants have been lowered in recent years. Millions of people all over China are paying mortgages on apartments that may never be finished . Start-ups are folding , and few people, it seems, can find jobs.

To boost employment, the party over the past couple of years has been telling local governments to push the establishment of new private businesses, with predictable consequences: In one county in northern China, a village secretary eager to comply with Beijing’s wishes reportedly asked relatives and friends to open fake companies. One villager opened three tofu shops in a week; another person applied for 20 new business licenses.

When mandates like that fail to create jobs, the party monkeys with the employment numbers. When monthly government data revealed last year that 21 percent of Chinese youth in urban areas were unemployed, authorities stopped publishing the figures. It resumed early this year, but with a new methodology for defining unemployment . Presto! The number dropped to 15 percent.

But Mr. Xi’s policy options are dwindling.

With the real estate market imploding, the government can no longer risk goosing the property sector. It has begun touting a revival in domestic consumption , but many Chinese are merely hunkering down and hoarding assets such as gold against an uncertain future. So the government is again falling back on manufacturing, pouring money into industrial capacity in hopes of pushing out more products to keep the economy going. With domestic demand anemic, many of those products have to be exported.

But the era when China was able to take over whole industries without foreign pushback is over. Many countries are now taking steps to protect their markets from Chinese-made goods. Under U.S. pressure, Mexico’s government last month reportedly decided it would not award subsidies to Chinese electric vehicle makers seeking to manufacture in Mexico for export to the U.S. market; the European Union is considering action to prevent Chinese electric vehicles from swamping its market; and the Biden administration has moved to encourage semiconductor manufacturing in the United States and limit Chinese access to chip technologies, and has promised more actions to thwart China.

China won’t be able to innovate its way out of this. Its economic model still largely focuses on cheaply replicating existing technologies, not on the long-term research that results in industry-leading commercial breakthroughs. All that leaves is manufacturing in volume.

China’s leaders will face rising economic pressure to lower the value of the renminbi, which will make Chinese-made goods even cheaper in U.S. dollar terms, further boosting export volume and upsetting trading partners even more. But a devaluation will also make imports of foreign products and raw materials more expensive, squeezing Chinese consumers and businesses while encouraging wealthier people to get their money out of China. The government can’t turn to economic stimulus measures to revive growth — pouring more renminbi into the economy would risk crushing the currency’s value.

All of this means that the “reform and opening” era, which has transformed China and captivated the world since it began in the late 1970s, has ended with a whimper.

Mao Zedong once said that in an uncertain world, the Chinese must “Dig tunnels deep, store grain everywhere and never seek hegemony.” That sort of siege mentality is coming back.

Anne Stevenson-Yang ( @doumenzi ) is a co-founder and the research director of J Capital Research, a stock analysis firm. She spent 25 years in China as an entrepreneur, analyst and trade advocate.

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